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S.     U.    PINNEY. 
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University  of  Wisconsin  -  Madison 
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NEW 

AMERICAN    CYCLOPJIDIA. 


VOL.  III.  • 

BEAM-BROWNING. 


THE   NEW 
w 


AMERICAN  CYCLOPilDIA: 


|0jttlar  •^idifsviKxi 


OP 


GENERAL    KNOWLEDGE. 

EDITED  BT 

GEORGE  RIPLEY  and  CHARLES  A.  DANA. 
VOLUME  m. 

BEAM-BKOWNINa. 


NEW  YORK : 
B.      APPLETON      AND      COMPANY. 

846  &  848  BBOABWAT. 

LONDON:    16    LITTLE    BRITAIN. 

K.DCCO.LIZ. 


General  L..  .      .yb.^^m 
University  of  \v  oconsin  -  Madlson 
728  State  Str.3t 
Madison.  Wl  53706-1484 
U.SA 


Ektbbbd,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1858,  bj 

P.  APPLETON  &  COMPANY, 

In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  Dbtrict  Court  of  the  United  States  for  the  Southern  District  of 

New  York. 


3 


747411;! 


THE 


NEW  AMERICAN  CYCLOPEDIA. 


BEAM 


^n 


BEAM  (Sax.  heam.  atree),  ia  architecture,  a 
piece  of  timber,  long  in  proportion  to  its  breadth 
and  thickness,  nsed  either  to  support  a  snperin- 
eambent  weight,  or  to  bind  together  the  parts  of 
a  frame  as  a  tie,  by  resLstanoe  to  extension,  or 
to  hold  them  ^^art,  as  a  strat,  bj  resistance  to 
eompresmon.  The  term  is  applied  particalarly 
to  the  largest  piece  of  timber  in  a  bmlding,  that 
which  lies  across  the  walls  and  supports  the 

Erindpal  rafters.  Important  improvements 
aye  been  introduced  within  the  last  few 
years,  in  yarions  departments  of  practical  oon- 
stracdon,  by  the  use  of  iron  beams,  especial- 
ly in  ^e  bnilding  of  fire-proof  stmctnres  and 
bridges.  Prior  to  their  introduction  the  only 
method  of  securing  safety  from  fire  was  by 
xnasraye  and  cumbersome  constructions  of 
masonry.  This  system  of  groined  arches  in- 
volves great  loss  of  room,  the  most  solid  foun- 
dations and  heavy  walls  and  piers  to  sustain 
tiieir  weight  and  thrust,  and  often  an  inconve- 
nient arrangement  and  division  of  the  interior 
of  the  edifice*  It  is  not  only  not  adapted  to 
the  purposes  of  bustnesB,  but  its  expense  is  such 
as  to  preclude  its  use  for  ordinary  warehouses, 
offices,  and  dwellings.  The  immense  annual 
destruction  of  prop^ty  by  fires  demonstrates 
the  great  importance  of  any  improvements  by 
which  security  can  be  obtamed,  without  ex- 
cessive cost  and  inconvenient  restrictions  on 
the  plan  of  the  building.  By  the  introduction 
of  cast-iron  beams  and  light  segmental  arches, 
these  results  were,  to  some  extent,  obtained ;  but 
experience  has  shown  that  wrought-iron  is  much 
better  ad^ted  to  resist  transverse  strains,  and  the 
testimony  of  eminent  engineers  and  architects  is 
unanimous  in  preferring  it  for  this  purpose,  as 
both  more  to  be  relied  on  and  more  economical. 
The  first  instance  on  record  of  the  construction 
of  a  bmlding  with  cast-iron  beams  is  that  of  a 
fire-proof  cotton  mill  erected  in  Manchester  by 
Boulton  and  Watt,  in  180;L.  It  was  not,  how- 
ever, until  after  the  elaborate  experiments  of 
Mr.  Hodgkinson,  in  1830,  upon  the  strength 
and  properties  of  cast-iron,  that  the  best  form 
of  section  was  determined,  or  that  iron  beams 
were  used  for  spans  exceeding  14  feet  He 
found  the  resistance  of  cast-iron  to  compression 
to  be  about  6  times  as  great  as  its  resistance  to 


extension,  and  that  equal  strength  could  be  ob- 
tained with  half  the  weight  pf  material  former- 
ly used,  by  giving  the  proper  proportions  to  the 
parts  subjected  to  tiiese  respective  strains. 
Much,  however,  was  still  to  be  desired,  on  the 
score  of  security  and  economy,  and  numerous 
accidents  have  -justified  the  general  want  of 
coi^denoe  in  beams  of  cast-iron,  unless  great 
precautions  are  observed  in  casting  them  and 
properly  proportioning  their  parts;  and  even 
when  these  precautions  are  observed,  and  iron 
of  good  quanty  is  selected,  security  can  only  be 
obtained  by  making  the  most  ample  allowanoes 
for  unequal  shrinkage  in  cooling,  and  for  hid- 
den imperfections  not  apparent  on  the  surface, 
or  to  be  detected  only  by  the  most  careful  ex- 
amination. Otiier  oljections  to  cast-iron  beams 
are,  that  they  are  liable  to  fail  without  warning, 
especially  if  subjected  to  concusaon,  and  to  be 
broken  by  the  frequent  application  and  removal 
of  loads,  much  less  than  the  permanent  load 
they  would  sustain  with  safety.  By  a  system 
of  testing,  in  some  cases,  defective  beams  may 
be  detected ;  but  in  others,  the  load  applied  in 
the  test  itself  may  so  weaken  the  beam  that  it 
may  afterward  fail  with  a  load  much  less  than 
that  employed  in  the  test,  especially  if  it  is  to 
be  subjected  to  concussion  or  repeated  deflec- 
tions, even  though  small  in  amount. — ^Wrought- 
iron  b^ams  have  been  used  only  within  the 
last  few  years.  The  successful  construction  of 
the  tubular  bridges,  in  1849,  over  the  Conway 
and  Menai  strait&-4he  most  novel  and  striking 
achievement  of  modem  en^eering — was  one 
of  tiieir  earliest  applications,  and  on  the  most 
gigantic  scale.  The  laws  and  the  amount  of 
the  resistance  of  wrought-iron  to  the  various 
strains  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  its  application 
to  beams,  were  first  determined  by  the  most 
oarefol  and  elaborate  experiments,  and  the 
superiority  of  wrought-iron  for  this  purpose 
clearly  demonstrated.  By  means  of  the  data 
thus  obtained,  Mr.  Stephenson  was  enabled 
successftdly  to  carry  out  his  conc^tion  of  using 
for  the  bridges  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  rail- 
way, tubular  beams  of  sufficient  strength  and 
rigidity  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  heaviest 
railway  trains  at  the  highest  speeds.  These  ap- 
plications of  wrought-iron  beams  on  the  grand- 


6 


BEAM 


est  scale  have  been  followed  by  their  more 
modest,  but  even  more  nsefnl  application  to 
fire-proof  buildings,  whereby,  at  the  same  time, 
4>erfect  secnrity  and  a  material  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  fire-proof  constructions  have  been  atr 
tained.  Wrought-iron  is  an  elastic  material  of 
fibrous  structure.  Its  ultimate  strength  of  re- 
sistance to  extension  is  greater  than  to  com- 
pression, but  when  these  strains  do  not  exceed 
about  one-half  its  ultimate  strengtii,  it  offers 
equal  resistance  to  either  strain.  Within  these 
limits  the  amount  of  the  extension  or  compres- 
sion which  it  undergoes  is  about  half  that  of 
cast-iron  for  equal  loSads;  but  the  amount  of  its 
extension  or  compression,  before  rupture,  is 
much  greater  than  that  of  cast-iron.  A  wrought- 
iron  beam  will  thus  be  more  ri^d  than  one  of 
oast-iron,  with  any  load  that  will  in  practice  be 
permanently  applied  to  it ;  but,  unlike  the  lat- 
ter, by  its  excessive  deflection  when  overloaded, 
wiU  give  warning  of  danger  before  rupture  can 
take  place.  This  characteristic  is  of  great  im- 
portance in  beams  which  may  be  subjected  to 
impact,  as  the  falling  of  a  heavy  weight,  the  re- 
sistance of  the  beam  being  in  proportion  not 
onlv  to  its  strength,  but  also  to  the  amount  of 
deflection  that  it  will  undergo  before  rupture. 
The  various  processes  of  forging,  rolling,  &c., 
to  which  wrought-iron  beams  are  subjected  in 
their  manufacture,  will  cause  any  serious  defect 
to  be  detected.  They  can  be  used  for  much 
greater  spans  than  beams  of  cast-iron,  and  it  is 
often  an  important  consideration  to  dispense 
with  columns  or  division-walls,  when  large 
rooms  are  required.  Their  strength  being 
about  8  times  that  of  cast-iron  beams  of  equfS 
weight,  while  the  comparative  cost  is  in  a  much 
less  ratio,  they  are  not  only  more  safe,  but 
also  more  economical,  for  wrought-iron 
beams  the  most  advantageous  forms  are  the 
double  flanched  or  Z  beam,  and  the  box  or 
tubular  beam.  Unlike  those  of  cast-iron,  the 
flanches  or  horizontal  sides  are  usually  of  equal 
area.  When  lateral  deflection  cannot  take 
place,  there  is  little  difference  in  respect  to 
strength  between  these  forms,  the  single  verti- 
cal web  and  the  horizontal  flanches  projecting 
from  it,  of  the  one,  being  respectively  the 
equivalents  of  the  2  vertical  and  of  the  2  hori- 
zontal sides  of  the  other.  For  floor  beams  the 
Z  form  is  ordinarily  emploved.  It  is  not  only 
more  economical,  but  has  the  great  advantage 
of  allowing  the  material  of  which  the  flooring 
between  the  beams  is  formed  to  rest  upon  its 
lower  flandies,  thus  saving  space,  and  sur- 
rounding and  protecting  the  beams  from  the 
effects  of  fire.  In  the  tubular  beam  not 
only  do  its  upper  and  lower  sides  contribute 
to  Its  lateral  stiffness,  but  the  vertical  sides 
resist  lateral  fiexure  in  proportion  to  the  wid& 
of  the  tube,  exactly  as  the  horizontal  sides  re- 
sist vertical  flexure  in  proportion  to  its  depth, 
while  in  the  Z  beam  lateral  stiffness  is  due  prin- 
cipally to  the  flanches.  A  vertical  load  upon  a 
beam  is  sustained  by  the  resistance  of  its  fibres 
to  the  forces  of  compression  and  extension.    A 


body  sublected  to  oompres^on,  as  a  column,  if 
its  length  be  great  in  comparison  wiUi  its  lat- 
eral dimensions,  will  fidl  by  bending,  under  a 
load  much  less  than  would  be  required  to  crush 
the  material  if  the  colnniti  were  maintained  in 
the  direct  line  of  strain.  The  tendency  of  a 
body  subject  to  compression  to  yield  by  flexure 
being  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  its  length, 
while  the  vertical  strength  of  a  beam  is  in  inverse 
proportion  to  its  length  simply,  it  may  often  hap- 
pen that  the  limit  of  strength  of  a  h&am  will  be 
not  its  vertical  but  its  lateral  stiffiiesa,  and  hence 
in  some  cases,  as  for  girders  without  lateral  sup- 
ports, it  may  be  advisable  to  use  the  tubular  form, 
while  for  fioor  beams  which  are  secured  firom  lat- 
eral defiexion  by  the  Ailing  in  between  them,  the 
Z  form  is  preferable.  Wrought-iron  beams  of 
either  form  may  be  made  by  riveting  together 
plates,  angle  bars,  T  bars,  or  other  shapes ;  the 
rivets  should  always  be  fastened  while  hot  in 
order  that  their  contraction  in  cooling  may 
draw  the  parts  closely  together.  The  manu&o- 
ture  of  solid  rolled  beams  has  effected  a  further 
important  reduction  in  the  cost  of  fire-proof  con- 
struction. This  manufacture  has  been  introduced 
in  this  country  by  the  Trenton  Iron  company,  at 
their  works  at  Trenton,  N.  J.  These  beiuns  have 
been  adopted  by  the  various  departments  of  the 
government  of  the  United  States  in  the  oon- 
struction  of  the  many  custom  houses,  marine 
hospitals,  and  other  public  buildings  erected 
since  their  introduction,  to  the  entire  exclusion 
of  the  system  of  groined  arches  and  also  of  riv- 
eted beams,  except  in  cases  where  solid  rolled 
beams  of  suffident  size  could  not  be  obtuned. 
This  reduction  in  the  cost  of  construction  has 
also  led  to  the  erection  of  many  fire-proof  bank- 
ing houses,  warehouses,  manufactories,  &c., 
within  the  last  8  years,  and  the  system  is 
rapidly  coming  into  general  use.  For  filling  in 
between  the  beams  for  fire-proof  fioors  various 
systems  have  been  adopted.  In  France,  where 
fire-proof  construction  with  iron  beams  is  exten- 
sively used,  the  filling  in  is  generally  a  concrete 
of  refuse  materials  and  plaster  of  Paris.  Beams 
of  the  Z  form  are  placed  2^  or  8  feet  apart ; 
their  ends  are  built  m  the  wcdls  and  secured  by 
anchors ;  no  beams  are  placed  iounediately  at 
the  walls  parallel  with  the  beams.  The  beam 
next  each  wall  is  connected  to  it,  and  each 
beam  connected  with  the  one  next  aqjoining,  by 
inter-ties  of  round  or  square  iron  of  about  half  a 
square  inch  in  sectional  area,  and  placed 
2^  or  3  feet  apart ;  the  inter-ties  pass  tm*ough 
holes  near  the  centre  line  of  the  beams,  and  are 
provided  with  a  head  kt  one  end  and  riveted 
up  at  the  other  after  they  are  put  in;  the  ends 
that  are  built  into  the  walls  are  bent  to  form 
anchors.  Smaller  ro^s  parallel  with  the  beams 
and  7  or  8  inches  apart,  are  suspended  from 
the  inter-ties,  the  ends  of  the  rods  being  bent  up 
so  as  to  hook  over  the  inter-ties,  while  the  rods 
themselves  are  on  a  level  but  little  above  that 
of  the  bottom  of  the  beams ;  or  the  inter-ties 
may  be  supported  upon  the  lower  fianches  of 
the  beams  and  be  bent  up  at  the  ends  so  as  to 


BEAM 


liook  OTer  the  upper  flanohefl,  and  the  Bmaller 
TodB  parallel  with  the  hesms  be  laid  upon  the 
inter-ties.  A  flat  centaring  is  placed  aff^nst  the 
hottoma  of  the  heiuns,  and  broken  bricks  or 
other  refhse  materiala  amiable  for  concrete  are 
put  upon  the  centring,  and  plaster  of  Paris 
bdng  ponred  in,  the  whole  mass  soon  becomes 
sufficiently  set  to  allow  the  centring  to  be  re* 
moved,  and  the  concrete  to  be  sustained  by  the 
iron  framework  between  the  beams.  In  some 
oases  iSbie  plaster  concrete  fills  up  the  whole 
space  betvreen  the  beams,  and  flooring  tiles  are 
laid  directly  upon  it ;  in  others  the  depth  of 
ti^e  concrete  is  less  than  that  of  the  beams,  and 
wooden  strips  are  laid  across  the  beams  perpen- 
dicular to  their  length,  to  which  ordinary  floor- 
ing boards  are  naUed.  A  finishing  coat  of  plas- 
ter put  directly  on  the  concrete  forms  the  ceil- 
ing below.  Hollow  potteries  placed  upon  the 
Iron  lattice  work,  with  the  mterstioes  filled 
with  plaster,  are  freqnentiy  used  instead  of  con- 
crete. A  very  light  and  superior  floor  is  thus 
made,  and  the  rigidity  of  the  whole  system 
considerably  increased.  The  load  to  be  sustain- 
ed by  the  floors  for  dwellinga,  offices,  and 
buildings  other  than  manufliictoriee  and  ware- 
houses for  the  storage  of  heavy  goods,  is  as- 
sumed at  150  pounds  per  square  foot.  In  a 
crowded  room  each  person  will  occupy  not  less 
than  2i  square  feet,  and  will  have  an  average 
weight  of  160  poundB^  and  adding  15  pounds 
for  the  weight  of  the  floor  itself;  the  total  load 
will  be  75  pounds  per  square  foot  The  esti- 
mated load  of  150  pounds  per  square  foot  is  ob- 
tained by  taking  double  the  actual  load  to 
allow  for  vibration  from  walking,  dancing,  and 
accidental  shocks.  The  following  table  gives 
the  spans,  weights,  and  depths  of  &e  joists  used 
in  the  floor  of  the  Louvre,  the  load  being  taken 
at  150  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  the  con- 
dition maintained  that  the  deflection  at  the 
middle  of  any  beam  i^all  not  exceed  1  of  an 
inch.  A  chamber  la  given  to  the  beams  suf- 
ficient to  prevent  any  deflection  below  a  hori- 
zontal line. 


rt' 

Wel^tofbflttDsper 

j«d. 

Depth  of  betms. 
4    inches. 

••  10" 

»   « 

4f      " 

IS'   S " 

40    •* 

5}      « 

ir  5" 

60    « 

9k      « 

18*   l* 

04    " 

T^      " 

81'   5" 

eo  • 

n   - 

»' 

T«    » 

8f      « 

On  testing  these  floors  it  was  found  that  amuch 
greater  load  than  150  pounds  ^er  square  foot 
could  be  applied  without  straining  the  beams 
beyond  the  elastic  limit  of  the  iron,  and  that 
consequently  any  additional  deflection  they 
might  take  nnder  such  load  would  disappear 
npon  its  removal.  For  spans  of  greater  length 
than  25  feet,  riveted  beams  are  made  with 
two  T  bars,  to  form  the  flanches,  and  two  plates 
of  boiler  iron  of  the  requisite  width  riveted 
one  on  each  side  of  the  stems  of  the  bars. 
Plane  plates  of  iron  have  also  been  used  for 
beams  with  the  system  of  inter-ties,  and  concrete, 
or  potteries,  above  described.  A  much  greater 
w^ht  of  iron  is  required  to  obtain  the  same 


strength  than  when  I  bars  of  equal  depth  are 
employed,  and  the  system  has  been  abandoned 
on  account  of  its  ffreater  cost  and  inferior  effi- 
ciency.— ^The  use  of  plaster  for  the  fllling  in  be- 
tween the  beams  has  not  been  adopted  m  Eng- 
land or  America,  because  of  the  greater  cost 
and  inferior  quality  of  the  plaster  that  can  be 
obtained.  The  system  known  as  that  of  Fox 
and  Barrett  has  been  used  extensively  in  Eng- 
land, light  strips  of  wood  with  narrow  spaces 
betvreen  them  are  supported  on  the  bottom 
flanches  of  the  beams,  and  reach  from  beam  to 
beam.  On  these  stnps  is  spread  a  layer  of 
coarse  mortar  which  is  pressed  down  betvreen 
them.  Ooncrete,  made  with  cement,  is  fllled 
in  between  the  beams,  and  a  tile  or  wooden 
floor  is  laid  immediately  upon  it  A  rough  and 
a  finishing  coat  of  plaster  are  put  directiy  on  the 
cement  to  form  the  ceiling  below.  Floors  have 
also  been  made  by  the  use  of  arched  plates 
of  wrought-iron  or  of  corrugated  sheet-iron 
supported  upon  the  lower  flanches  of  the  beams, 
with  a  filling  of  ooncrete  above  the  archea 
plates  or  corrugated  iron  on  which  the  floor  is 
laid.  The  system  of  light  segmental  brick 
arches  springing  from  the  lower  flanches  of  the 
beams  and  levelled  up  with  concrete  is  that 
most  generally  employed  in  this  country  and  in 
England.  It  is  more  strictly  flre-proof  than 
any  other,  and  much  more  economical  than  the 
use  of  arched  plates  or  corrugated  sheet-iron, 
and,  except  in  ti^imce,  where  plaster  is  cheap, 
than  the  French  ^stems.  The  weight  of  the 
floors  themselves  with  a  fllling  of  solid  concrete 
or  brick  arches  forms  a  much  greater  part  than 
in  the  lighter  French  systems,  of  the  total  load 
to  be  carried  by  ti^e  beams ;  but  on  the  other 
hand  the  arches  and  concrete  add  materially  to 
the  strength  and  rigidity  of  the  beams,  not  only 
by  preventing  lateral  deflection,  but  by  adding 
to  some  extent  the  resistance  to  compression  of 
so  much  of  the  arches  or  concrete  as  is  above 
the  neutral  line  to  that  of  the  upper  parts  of 
the  beams,  whereby  they  become  in  fact  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  beams  themselves.  The  neutral 
axis  is  thus  brought  nearer  the  upper  side  of 
the  floor,  and  the  fower  parts  of  the  beams  act 
with  greater  leverage  to  resist  extension.  Only 
80  much  of  the  fllling  in  as  is  above  the  neutral 
line  thus  adds  to  ^e  strength  of  the  beams,  and 
in  order  that  this  additional  strength  may  be 
obtained,  the  filling  must  not  slide  along  the 
beam,  as  it  suffers  deflection  under  the  load. 
The  weiffht  of  the  floor  is  not  only  less  with 
arches  than  with  solid  concrete,  but  the  filling 
also  contributes  more  effectually  to  the  strength 
of  the  system.  Long  beams  should  be  sup- 
ported in  the  middle  of  their  length  by  wooden 
scantiings  imtU  the  cement  of  the  arches  or 
concrete  is  set,  in  order  to  get  the  ftdl  advan- 
tage of  this  additional  resistance,  which  in 
many  cases  amounts  to  25  per  cent  of  that  of 
the  beams.  The  ardies  should  have  a  rise  of 
not  less  than  one  inch  to  the  foot  of  span,  and 
are  generally  tiie  width  of  a  brick  in  thickness, 
unless  the  spans  exceed  0  or  8  feet,  when  they 


8 


BEAN 


B£AB 


should  be  8  inches  at  the  soffitjmd  4}  inches  at 
the  crown.  If  a  wooden  flooring  is  to  be  used, 
wooden  strips  parallel  with  the  beams  are  laid 
in  the  concrete  filling  above  the  arches,  to  which 
the  flooring  can  be  nailed.  To  form  the  ceiling 
below  tlie  beams  wooden  strips  may  be  secured 
to  the  lower  flanches  of  the  beams,  to  which 
ordinary  furring,  lathing,  and  plastering  can  be 
nailed ;  or  tiie  plaster  may  be  put  directly  upon 
the  arches,  so  as  to  show  the  system  of  construc- 
tion, and  thus  with  suitable  mouldings  a  good 
architectural  effect  can  be  obtained.  The  thrust 
of  ^e  arches  on  one  side  of  the  beams  is  coun- 
teracted by  the  thrust  on  the  other  side,  except 
for  beams  next  the  walls  or  openings.  It  is 
usual  in  order  to  counteract  the  thrust  on  these 
beams  to  connect  together  several  of  the  beams 
next  a  wdl  or  opening,  by  tie  rods  perpendicu- 
lar to  their  length.  In  some  cases  also  the 
ceiling  and  floor  have  been  formed  by  blocks  of 
st(me  resting  upon  the  lower  flanches  of  the 
beams  with  ornamental  designs  cut  upon  the 
lower  fiEtoe. — The  strength  of  various  forms  and 
dimensions  of  beams  may  be  determined  by  the 
ordinary  formulsa  of  resistance.  For  spans  of 
less  than  25  feet  solid  rolled  beams  9  inches 
deep  are  usually  employed,  or  often  for  small 
spans  beams  7  inches  deep.  The  beams  are 
placed  at  such  distances  apart  as  may  be  neces^ 
sary  to  give  the  requisite  strength  for  the  load 
and  span  required.  For  beams  of  greater  span 
than  25  feet  solid  rolled  beams  of  sufficient 
depth  cannot  yet  be  obtained,  but  the  increasing 
demand  will  probably  soon  lead  to  their  manu- 
facture. For  larger  spans,  riveted  beams  are 
used,  and  floors  with  wrought-iron  beams  and 
brick  arches  have  been  constructed  for  clear 
spans  of  60  feet.  Where  the  width  of  the 
building  is  great,  it  is  more  economical  to  di- 
vide the  width  into  two  or  more  spans  by  the 
introduction  of  columns  and  girders.  I  beams 
may  be  used  for  girders,  but  in  most  cases  hol- 
low box  girders  are  to  be  preferred. 

BEAN,  an  annual  plant  of  the  natural  order 
of  leguminoscB,  and  sab-order  of  papilionacecB^ 
of  which  the  principal  species  is  the  Jb^a  vul- 
gariSy  the  bean  commonly  cultivated  in  Eng- 
land, America,  and  also  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  French  haricot,  or  kidney  bean, 
is  the  only  other  kind  cultivated,  though  there 
are  wild  species  in  India  and  South  America, 
which  are  important  articles  of  diet  to  the  na- 
tives. The  generic  characteristics  of  the  com- 
mon bean  are  a  straight  simple  stock  from  1  to 
2  feet  in  height,  leaves  formed  of  4  thick,  en- 
tire, ovate-oblong  leaflets,  white  flowers  with  a 
dark  silky  spot  in  the  middle  of  the  2  lateral 
petals,  pods  divided  into  partitions  and  con- 
taining 6  or  more  seeds  or  kernels,  whose  size, 
shape,  and  color  differ  considerably  in  tiie  dif- 
ferent varieties  of  the  species.  Of  these  varie- 
ties, the  mazagan  is  the  earliest  and  has  the 
smallest  seeds,  the  Windsor  has  the  largest  and 
almost  oEbicular  seeds.  There  is  also  the  high- 
ly esteemed  dwarf  bean,  with  a  very  simdl 
seed,  and  the  horse-bean,  with  a  long  and  cy- 


lindrical seed,  designed  chiefly  for  the  food  of 
cattle.  Beans  love  a  rich  strong  loam,  but  they 
do  not  exhaust  the  soil,  and  are  often  planted 
advantageously  in  company  with  other  seeds, 
particularly  with  maize.  They  make  a  very  nu- 
tritious food,  containing  84  per  cent,  of  nutri- 
tive matter,  and  are  healthful  to  those  whose 
stomachs  are  strong  and  able  to  digest  them. 
Baked  beans  are  a  favorite  dish  throughout  New 
England.  There  is  said  to  be  no  other  food  on 
which  men  can  do  so  hard  work.  Hence  they 
are  especially  esteemed  by  farmers,  daring  the  la- 
borious haying  season,  and  are  the  most  popular 
article  of  cQet  among  the  lumberers  of  M£une  and 
Wisconsin. — ^The  bean  is  a  native  of  Persia,  and 
of  the  borders  of  the  Caspian  sea.  According 
to  Diodorns  Sioulns,  the  Egyptians  were  the 
first  to  cultivate  it,  and  to  make  it  a  common 
article  of  diet^  yet  they  conceived  religious  no- 
tions concerning  it  which  made  them  at  length 
refrain  from  eating  it.  Their  miests  dared  not 
either  touch  it  or  look  at  it.  Fythagoras,  who 
was  educated  among  the  Egyptians,  derived 
from  them  their  veneration  for  tlie  oean,  and 
forbade  his  disciples  to  eat  it.  He  taught  that 
it  was  created  at  the  same  time  and  of  the 
same  elements  as  man,  that  it  was  animated 
and  had  a  soul,  which,  like  the  human  soul, 
suffered  the  vicissitudes  of  transmigration. 
Aristotle  explains  the  prohibition  of  Pvtha- 
goras  symbolically;  he  says  that  beans  being 
the  ordinary  means  of  voting  on  public  mat- 
ters, the  white  bean  meaning  an  affirmative, 
and  the  black  a  negative,  therefore  Pythagoras 
meant  to  forbid  his  disciples  to  meddle  with 
political  government  The  Boman  priests  af- 
firmed that  the  bean  blossom  contained  infernal 
letters,  referring  to  the  dark  stains  on  the 
wings,  and  it  is  probable  that  all  the  supersti- 
tions on  the  subject  sprang  fix>m  the  blossom 
and  not  from  the  fruit 

BEAN  GOOSE  (anaa  segetum)^  a  variety, 
of  the  common  European  wild  goose,  neither' 
of  the  species  being  known  to  America.  Some 
persons  have  believed  the  bean  goose  to  be 
the  origm  of  the  common  domestic  goose;  but 
that  distinction  is  generally  assigned  to  the 
gray  lag  goose,  or  common  wild  goose,  which 
closely  resembles  the  ordinary  domestic  fowl, 
except  that  the  ganders  are  plain  gray,  like  the 
geese,  which,  in  the  wild  birds,  are  never  pied; 
&e  white  mottling  being  the  efiect  of  domestica- 
tion. 

BEAR  (urrni),  "The  family  of  bears  are 
classed,"  says  an  agreeable  writer,  Bobert  Mu- 
die,  in  his  "  Gleanings  from  Nature,"  "  by  the 
late  truly  illustrious  Baron  Cuvier,  among  those 
carnivorous  animals  which  are  plantigrade,  or 
walk  upon  the  soles  of  their  feet  They  differ 
from  the  more  typical  carttivora  in  many  re- 
spects. In  the  first  place,  they  do  not  confine 
themselves  to  animal  ibod,  but  eat  succulent 
vegetables,  honey,  and  other  substances  which 
are  not  animal;  in  the  second  place,  they  do 
not  kill  the  animals  which  they  eat  in  what 
jQi^  be  called  a  business-like  manner,  by  attadc- 


BEAB 


ing  Ihem  in  soine  vital  part,  but,  on  the  con- 
trarTj  hug  or  tear  them  to  death ;  and,  in  the 
thiii  place,  those  of  them  that  inhabit  the  cold 
dunatee,  which  are  their  appropriate  places  of 
reaalence,  often  hibernate  during  the  winter,  or 
sone  part  of  it,  whidi  is  never  done  by  the 
characteristic  carnivora.  There  are  bears  in  al- 
most all  latitudes,  from  the  eqnator  to  the  pole ; 
but  those  which  inhabit  the  warmer  latitndes 
are  tame  and  feeble  as  compared  with  the  na- 
tives of  the  cooler  ones;  and,  therefore,  we 
muit  regard  them  as  being,  in  their  proper 
lione  and  locality,  animals  of  the  colder  regions 
of  ;be  globe.  The  whole  genus  has,  in  fact,  a 
pokr  r^er  than  an  equatorial  character,  and 
maf  thus  be  considered  as  geographically  the 
reverse  of  the  more  formidable  of  the  strictly 
caniivorous  animals — ^the  lion  and  tiger  in  the 
eastern,  and  the  Jaguar  in  the  western  hemi- 
^here.  These  are  all  tropical  in  their  homes, 
habitually  ardent  in  their  temperaments,  and, 
thoiigh  they  can  endare  hunger  for  considerable 
periods,  they  feed  all  the  year  round,  and  thus 
have  no  season  of  repose.  The  bears,  again,  are 
seascnal  animals,  retiring  during  the  winter,  and 
comiag  abroad  in  the  spring.  But  it  is  not  from 
the  ^rm  that  the  bears  retire ;  it  is  from  the 
cold  serenity — ^the  almost  total  cessation  of 
atmoq>heric,  as  well  as  of  living  action-^which 
reigni  during  the  polar  winter;  the  storm  is 
both  seed-time  and  harvest  to  the  bears.  Dur- 
ing its  utmost  furj^  they  range  the  wilds  and 
forest^  accompanied  by  the  more  powerful  owls 
and  hiwks,  which,  like  the  bears,  are  equally 
remarlable  for  their  strength  and  their  impene- 
trable covering.  At  those  times,  many  of  the 
smallei  animals  are  dashed  lifeless  to  the  earth 
by  the  ttorm,  or  shrouded  in  the  snow,  and  upon 
these  tke  bears  make  an  abundant  supper — a 
sapper  of  days,  and  even  of  weeks— before  they 
retire  U.  their  long  rest.  So  also,  when  the 
fttonn  berins  to  break,  they  find  a  plentiful  col- 
lection of  the  carcasses  of  such  animals  as  have 
perished  ii  the  snow,  and  been  concealed  from 
flight  and  ireserved  from  putrefaction  under  it." 
— The  poLr  bear  (IT,  maritimus),  is  the  largest, 
strongest^  nost  powerful,  and,  with  a  single  ex- 
ception, the  most  ferocious  of  the  five  species  of 
the  bear  whch  have  been  distinguished  by  nat- 
uralists. Its  distinguishing  characteristics  are 
the  great  leq^h  of  its  body,  as  compared  with 
its  height;  tie  length  of  the  neck;  the  small- 
ness  of  the  e:temal  ears ;  the  large  size  of  the 
soles  of  the  feev;  the  fineness  and  length  of  the 
hair ;  the  straigitness  of  the  line  of  the  forehead 
and  the  nose ;  tie  narrowness  of  its  head,  and 
the  expansion  ofits  muzzle.  It  is  invariably  of 
a  dingy  white  h\e.  The  size  varies  consider- 
ably. Some  are  mentioned  as  long  as  18  feet; 
but  this  is  probabV  an  exaggeration.  Oaptdn 
Lyon  mentions  om  of  8  feet  7  inches  long, 
weighing  1,500  poinds.  The  domestic  habits 
of  £hese  powerfm  aiUnals  are  not  much  under- 
stood ;  and  the  fact  d  their  hibernating  or  not 
is  not  very  well  asceituned,  althongh  it  is  be- 
lieved that  the  male,  at\east,  is  not  dormant  so 


long  as  the  land  bears  of  the  north.  The  ad- 
mirable work  of  the  late  excellent  Kane  seems 
to  place  it  in  doubt  whether  either  sex  abso- 
lutely hibernates,  as  we  find  she-bears  witii 
their  cubs  vimting  his  winter  quarters  dmring 
the  midnight  darkness.  The  pairing  season  is 
understood  to  be  in  July  and  August ;  and  the 
attachment  of  the  pair  is  such,  that  if  one  is 
killed,  the  other  remains  fondling  the  dead 
body,  and  will  suffer  itself  to  be  killed  rather 
than  leave  it.  The  same  wonderful  affection 
of  the  female  to  her  cubs  has  been  noticed, 
f^om  which  neither  wounds  nor  death  will 
divide  her ;  and  all  the  arctic  navigators,  firom 
Dr.  Scoresby  to  Dr.  Kane,  have  recorded  their 
sympathy  with,  and  regret  for  the  poor  sav- 
age mothers,  vainly  endeavoring  to  persuade 
their  dead  cubs  to  arise  and  accompany  them, 
or  to  eat  the  food  which  they  will  not  them- 
selves touch,  although  starving — even  when 
compelled  to  slaughter  them  in  order  to  supply 
their  own  necessities.  The  habits  of  the  polar  near 
are  purel v  maritime ;  and,  altbough  their  ^stem 
of  dentition  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  other 
bears,  their  food,  from  necessity,  is  wholly  animal. 
The  polar  bear  is  comparatively  rare  in  mena- 
geries, as  it  suffers  so  much  firom  the  heat,  even 
of  our  winters,  and  from  the  want  of  water, 
that  it  is  not  easily  preserved  in  confinement 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  of  England,  how- 
ever, it  is  curious  to  record  that  a  white  bear 
was  among  the  collection  of  wild  beasts  in  the 
tower  of  LondoD,  for  which  the  sheriffs  of  the 
city  were  ordered  to  provide  a  muzzle  and  an 
iron  chain,  to  secure  hun  when  out  of  the  water, 
and  a  long  and  stout  cord  to  hold  him  when 
fishing  in  the  Thamei.  The  words  italidzed 
seem  to  identify  the  species  beyond  the  possi- 
bility of  error;  but  one  would  like  to  know 
whence  the  polar  bear  was  brought,  at  that 
early  day,  so  long  previous  to  the  commence- 
ment of  arctic  exploration, — The  next  bear,  in 
all  respects,  to  the  polar  species,  and  saperior  to 
him  in  ferocity  and  tenacity  of  life,  is  the 
grisly  bear  {U.  horrHnlU)  of  America.  This 
terrible  and  powerful  animal,  which  is  to  the 
American  fauna  what  the  Bengal  tiger  is  to  that 
of  Hindostan,  and  the  lion  to  that  of  central 
Africa,  is  of  comparatively  late  discovenr,  hav- 
ing been  first  distinffuished  by  Lewis  and  Clark 
in  their  western  explorations.  Its  geographical 
range  is  from  the  great  plains  west  of  the  Mis- 
souri, at  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  through 
Upper  California,  to  the  Pacific  ooean.  its 
characteristics  are  strongly  marked  and  dear. 
'*  The  line  of  its  forehead  and  muzzle  is  straighter 
than  in  any  other  species ;  and  its  daws,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  fore-feet,  are  much  more 
produced,  and  far  more  crooked,  though  its 
general  habit  is  not  that  of  a  climber.  The 
snout  is  black  and  movable,  the  central  furrow 
being  distinct;  the  lips  are  partially  extensile; 
the  eyes  very  small,  having  no  third  eyelid, 
and  the  irides  being  of  a  reddisb  brown.  The 
ears  are  ^ort  and  rounded,  and  the  line  of  the 
forehead  thence  to  the  eyes  is  a  little  convex; 


J 


10 


BEAR 


but  it  continues  straight  to  the  point  of  the 
snout  The  hair  on  the  face  is  very  short ;  hnt 
on  the  bodj,  generalljr,  it  is  long  and  very 
thickly  set  The  hair,  in  the  adnlt,  is  a  mix- 
ture of  brown,  white  and  black.  The  tail 
is  shorty  and.  in  the  living  animal,  completely 
hidden  by  the  hair.  On  the  fore  paws,  the 
claws  are  rather  slender,  bnt  long,  as  well  as 
crooked  and  sharp  at  the  tips,  though  the 
sharpness  is  rather  that  of  a  chisel,  by  beiug  nar- 
rowed at  the  edges,  than  a  point.  This  structure 
gives  the  tips  of  them  great  additional  strength, 
and  accounts  for  the  severe  gashing  wounds 
which  are  inflicted  by  their  stroke.  The  soles  of 
the  hind  feet  are  in  great  part  naked,  and  the 
daws  on  them  are  considerably  smaQer  than 
those  on^  the  fore-paws,  though  much  more 
crooked ;  and  their  trenchant  points  form  veiy 
terrible  lacerating  instruments,  when  the  ani- 
mal closes  with  its  enemy  in  hugging.  They 
are  sufficient  to  tear  the  abdomen,  even  of  a 
large  animal,  to  shreds,  while  the  fore-paws  are 
at  the  same  time  compressing  the  thorax  to 
suffocation.''  The  grisly  bear  is  the  most  sav- 
age of  all  his  race.  If  it  be  not  certain  that  he 
mil  voluntarily  attack  a  human  being,  it  is 
certain  that  he  will  not  turn  out  of  his  way  to 
avoid  him,  and  that  if  attacked  he  will  pursue 
the  assailant  to  the  last,  nor  quit  the  conflict 
while  life  remains.  He  is,  also,  the  most  tena- 
cious of  life  of  all  animals.  One  shot  by  Gov. 
CSark's  party,  after  receiving  10  balls  in  his 
body,  4  of  which  passed  through  his  lungs  and 
2  tlurough  his  heail;,  survived  above  20  minutes, 
and  swam  half  a  mile,  before  succumbing  to  his 
wounds. — ^Beside  these  species,  we  must  also 
mention  the  European  brown  bear  (JT»  a/retosX 
and  the  American  black  bear  (U.  Americamu). 
These  2  species  are  closely  allied  and  are  very 
similar  in  habits,  although  the  European  brown 
bear  is  fiercer  and  more  sanguinary,  especially  as 
he  grows  old,  when  he  will,  though  rarely,  attack 
men :  particularly  if  he  have  once  tasted  human 
blood,  when,  like  the  man-eating  tigers  and  lions, 
he  acquires  a  taste  for  it,  and  makes  man  his  es- 
pecial prey.  They  are  both  excellent  climbers ; 
passionately  fond  of  honev ;  great  devourers  of 
roots,  green  wheat,  and,  in  America,  green 
maize ;  and  especial  enemies  to  hogs  and  young 
calves;  which  amiable  propensities  draw  on 
them  the  marked  vengeance  of  the  backwoods- 
man. The  brown  bear  is  distinguished  by  the 
prominence  of  his  brow,  above  the  eyes,  which 
IS  abruptly  convex,  with  a  depression  below 
them — ^the  black  bear,  by  the  regular  convexity 
of  its  whole  &cial  outline,  from  the  ears  to  the 
muzzle.  It  never  attacks  man,  except  in  self- 
defence,  and  then  only  when  hard  pressed  and 
cornered.  The  flesh  of  the  black  bear  is  very 
good,  resembling  pork  with  a  peculiar  wild  or 
perftuned  flavor. — ^The  Asiatic  bear  (IT.  labi- 
aPiu),  so  called  from  its  long  lips,  is  a  timid,  in- 
offensive creature,  ordinarily — ^though  it,  too, 
will  fight  fiercely,  when  wounded,  or  in  defence 
of  its  younff.  It  inhabits  the  high  and  moun- 
tainous r^ons  of  India,  burrows  in  the  earth, 


feeds  on  ants,  rice,  and  honey,  and  lives  in  pairs,  / 
together  with  its  young,  winch,  when  alarmed,' 
mounts  the  back  of  the  parents  for  safstj. 
The  habits  of  this  bear  are  well  described  in  me 
"  Old  Forest  RauTOr,"  by  Maj.  Walter  Camp- 
bell, an  English  officer ;  although  the  ferocky 
of  the  animal  appears  to  be  somewhat  exagge- 
rated in  his  accounts,  notwithstanding  that  it  is 
reOTesented  as  fightiug  in  defence  of  its  yonqg. 
—Three  or  four  other  species  of  bears,  prin- 
cipally AsiaticL  have  recently  been  distin- 
guished, but  all  of  very  inferior  interest  to 
those  above  specified,  and  one,  at  least,  of  ex- 
tremely doubtful  authenticity  as  a  distinct 
species.  This  is  the  Siberian  bear  (IT.  eel- 
laris)y  which  is  so  nearly  identical  with  the 
common  black  bear  ( U.  aretos\  as  to  be  dis- 
tinguished from  it,  only,  by  a  white  or  gi4zzly 
collar  encirchng  its  shoulders  and  breast— 
which  may  be,  and  probably  is,  a  mere  casual 
variety.  It  is  said  to  be  peculiar  to  Siberia.- 
The  spectacled  bear  (V,  omatus)^  a  native  of 
the  Cordilleras  of  the  Andes,  in  Chili.  Its  for 
is  smooth,  shining,  and  black,  with  the  exception 
of  a  pair  of  semicircular  marks  over  the  eyes^ 
whence  its  name,  and  the  fhr  on  its  muzzle 
and  its  breast,  which  is  of  a  dirty  white  color; 
little  or  nothing  is  known  of  its  habits.— The 
Thibetian  bear  or  Isabel  bear  (ZTl  ThibeUmtis). 
Its  characteristics  are  the  shortoess  of  its  neck 
and  the  straightness  of  its  facial  outline.  Its  color 
is  black,  with  a  white  xmder  lip,  and  a  white 
mark  in  the  shape  of  a  letter  T,  the  stem  lying 
on  the  middle  of  the  breast,  the  arms  diverjg^ng 
npward  on  the  shoulders.  It  is  a  small-sized, 
harmless,  and  purely  vegetable-eating  animal. — 
The  Malay  bear  (hetaretos  Malayanu^,  A  small 
bear,  jet  black,  with  a  lunar  white  mark  on  its 
breast,  and  a  yellowi^  muzzle.  It  has  a  long, 
slender,  protrusive  tongue,  unlike  thai  of  the 
bears.  It  is  perfectly  inoffensive,  fedding  on 
honey  and  the  young  shoots  of  the  oocoanut 
trees,  of  which  it  makes  extreme  hav^.  When 
domesticated  it  becomes  exceeding^  tame,  is 
sagacious,  intelligent,  and  affectionate,  and  will 
not  touch  anixnal  food. — The  Bomean  bear 
(J?,  euryspilus).  It  differs  from  the  above^ 
by  having  a  large  orange-colored  patch  on  the 
chest.  It  does  not  exceed  4  feet  h  length,  and 
has  the  same  long,  slender,  protrndve  tongue  of 
the  species  last  described,  fitting  t  especially  to 
feed  on  honey,  which,  with  fruias  and  vegeta- 
bles, is  its  sole  food. — There  has  always  existed 
a  doubt  as  to  the  existence  of  any  species  of 
bear  in  Africa.  Pliny  mentbns  that,  in  the 
consulship  of  M.  Piso  and  M.  Kessala,  62  B  C, 
Domitius  (Enobarbus  exhibitsd  100  Numidian 
bears,  and  as  many  Ethiopian  hunters,  in  the 
circus^  but  at  the  same  time  asserts  that  there 
are  no  bears  in  Africa.  Herodotus,  Yiiigil, 
Juvenal,  and  Martial  all  spjak  of  Libyan  beurs, 
as  a  well-known  animal.  Yet  Bruce  distinctly 
insists  that  there  is  no  heir  in  any  part  of  Afri- 
ca. Ehrenberg  and  For^  both,  recently,  speak 
of  a  black,  plantigrade  aaimal  called  by  the  na- 
tives haum  or  karraef  mth  alengthened  muole) 


BEAR 


BEAR  RIVER 


11 


wbioh  they  boih  saw  and  hnnted,  bat  in  vain. 
It  ia,  however,  a  good  rule  in  natural  history  to 
adopt  no  animal  on  hearsay,  or  nntil  a  speoimen 
is  produced.  On  this  view  it  must  be  held  that 
there  is  no  African  bear — although  there  is  no 
reason  why  there  should  not  be — ^until  one 
shall  be  produced  and  described. — Bear-bait- 
ing with  mastiff  was  formerly  a  favorite 
and  even  royal  amusement  in  England ;  and 
the  readers  of  Eenilworth  will  remember  the 
characteristic  scene,  in  which  Essex  is  repre- 
sented as  pleading,  before  Elizabeth,  the  cause 
of  the  bear-warden  against  the  stage  players, 
Raleigh  defending  the  latter,  and  quoting  the 
passage  of  Shakespeare,  personifying  the  queen 
as  '*  a  fair  vestal  throned  in  the  west,'*  on  which 
she  suffers  the  bearward's  petition  to  drop  un- 
heeded into  the  Thames — although,  in  truth,  it 
may  be  doubted  whether  the  royal  virago  would 
not  have  in  her  heart  preferred  a  tough  match 
of  "  pull  dog  I  pull  bear  I "  to  all  the  ^^  wood 
notes  wild"  that  Shakespeare  ever  warbled. 
In  the  north  of  Europe  the  brown  bear  is  hunt- 
ed in  the  winter,  with  snow  shoes^  and  shot 
vrithout  the  aid  of  dogs.  In  the  west  and 
south-west  of  the  United  States,  he  is  systemati- 
cally chased  with  packs  of  hounds  bred  for  the 
purpose — a  cross  generally  of  the  large  slow 
foxhound  with  the  mastiff— and  the  sport  is  de- 
scribed as  highly  exciting,  and  by  no  means 
devoid  of  danger,  when  Bruin  turns  to  bay,  and 
it  becomes  necessary  to  go  in  with  the  knife, 
to  dose  quarters^  in  order  to  save  the  lives  of 
the  bear-hounds. 

BEAR,  Gbeat  (urm  major\  a  brilliant  con- 
stellation of  th*e  northern  hemisphere  of  the 
heavens.  It  must  have  been,  from  its  noticea- 
ble character,  one  of  those  clusters  which  early 
attracted  ^e  attention  of  star-gazers.  It  is  a 
constellation  which,  in  the  latitude  of  45°  N., 
never  passes  below  the  horizon.  The  most  re- 
markable stars  in  it  are  7  (marked  by  astrono- 
mers with  the  first  7  letters  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet), which,  from  their  peculiar  arrangement^ 
have  long  been  designated  collectively  by  some 
name.  They  have  been  called  the  ^' wagon," 
"Charles's  wain,"  and  the  "dipper."  I'our 
of  them  are  arranged  in  an  irregular  square, 
constituting  the  body  of  the  "  dipper,"  while 
the  other  8  are  nearly  in  a  straight  Hue,  and 
form  the  handle.  Two  of  the  stars  in  the 
body  of  the  dipper  range  nearly  with  the  north 
star,  and  are  therefore  called  the  ^'  pointers." 
Mizar,  in  the  handle,  is  a  double  star.  Ben- 
etnasch  is  a  brilliant  star  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude, according  to  some  maps;  in  others 
it  is  set  down  at  14. — ^The  Lksseb  Bsab  {utm 
miner)  is  a  constellation  of  the  northern  hcmi- 
q>here,  having  in  it  a  cluster  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  dipper  in  Ursa  Major.  In  Ursa  Minor 
there  are  no  stars  larger  thim  the  third  magni- 
tude. 

BEAR  (Bbbb)  island,  an  island  about  6 
miles  long  by  4  broad,  in  Bantry  bay,  on  the  S. 
W.  coast  of  Ireland.  It  is  separated  from  the 
msinlflnd,  on  the  N.,  by  asUarrow  frith,  over 


against  which  stands  a  spur  of  the  Caho  moun- 
tains.   The  surface  of  the  island  is  rough. 

BEAR  LAKE.  This  body  of  water  (called 
Great  Bear  lake)  is  so  named  on  account  of  its 
situation  directly  under  the  arctic  circle,  and 
therefore  under  the  constellation  Ursa  M%jor. 
It  is  of  very  irregular  shape,  having  5  arms  pro- 
jecting out  of  the  main  body.  Its  greatest  diam- 
eter is  150  miles.  Its  depth  is  not  ascertained. 
Two  hundred  and  seventy  feet  of  line  gave  no 
bottom  near  the  eastern  shore  in  MTa^h  bay. 
The  principal  supply  of  the  lake  is  Dease  river, 
which  enters  it  from  the  K  E.  Its  outlet  is, 
on  its  south-western  extremity,  at  the  bottom 
of  Keith  bay,  through  Bear  Lake  river,  which  . 
empties  into  Mackenzie  river.  The  surface  of  ' 
Bear  lake  is  not  more  than  200  feet  above  the 
Arctic  ocean ;  consequently,  its  bottom  must, 
like  many  of  the  north-western  li^es,  lie  con- 
siderably below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Great 
Bear  lake  abounds  in  fish  of  many  varieties, 
among  which  the  herring-salmon  is  noted.  The 
2d  land  expe4ition,  under  Franklin,  in  1826,  win- 
tered on  the  western  shore  of  this  lake,  near  its 
outlet,  where  they  built  Fort  Franklin.  Dr.  Rich- 
ardson, a  member  of  the  expedition,  mentiona  a 
curious  circumstance  concerning  the  singing 
birds  of  this  lake,  that  when  they  first  appeared 
after  the  long  arctic  winter  they  serenaded  their 
mates  at  midnight,  and  were  silent  during  the 
day.  The  waters  of  the  lake  are  so  clear  that 
a  white  substance  can  be  distinctly  discerned  at 
the  depth  of  00  feet.  This  lake  is  situated  about 
250  miles  E.  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  about 
the  same  distance  S.  of  the  Arctic  sea,  and  400 
miles  N.  W.  of  Slave  lake.  It  is  in  lat.  66°  N. 
and  long.  120°  W.  (Gr.),  and  4°  S.  and  28°  W. 
from  the  magnetic  pole,  as  determined  by  Ross, 
in  1881.  It  is  the  basin  of  a  water-died  of 
about  400  miles  diameter. 

BEAR  MOUNTADT,  a  mountain  in  the  N.  E. 
corner  of  Dauphin  co.,  Penn.  at  the  foot  of  which 
runs  the  creek  and  valley  of  the  same  name. 
This  valley  is  one  of  the  famous  localities  of  the 
anthracite  coal,  and  belongs  to  what  writers  on 
this  subject  designate  as  uie  first  or  southern 
coal  district  of  Pennsylvania. 

BEAR  RIVER.  Two  rivers  bear  this  name, 
deserving  of  mention.  I.  A  river  in  Utah  ter- 
ritory, about  400  mUes  long,  which  rises  in  a 
spur  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  about  76  miles  E. 
of  Great  Salt  lake,  takes  first  a  north-westerly 
and  t^en  a  south-easterlv  direction,  forming 
nearly  a  letter  V^  of  which  more  than  half  the 
entire  length  is  in  Oregon  territory,  and  finally 
empties  into  the  Great  Salt  lake.  Its  valley  is 
about  6,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  At  the 
bend  of  the  river  in  Oregon,  and  about  46  miles 
from  Lewis  river,  are  found  the  famous  Beer 
and  Steamboat  brings,  which  Col.  Fremont  de- 
scribes in  his  expedition  to  Oregon  and  Califor- 
nia (1842-^8),  and  near  which  he  encamped. 
These  springs  are  highly  impregnated  with  mag- 
nesia, and  other  minersl  substances.  The  valley 
of  Bear  river  is  narrow  through  most  of  its  ex- 
tent, but  18  described  by  OoL  Fremont  as  ex- 


12 


BEARD 


tremely  picturesque  in  many  parts.  Steam- 
boat spring  is  thus  desoribea :  ^'  A  white 
column  of  scattered  water  is  thrown  np  to 
a  yariable  height  of  abont  8  feet  ...  ac- 
companied by  a  subterranean  noise.  ...  It 
is  a  hot-spring,  and  the  water  has  a  pun- 
gent and  disagreeable  metallic  taste,  leaving 
a  burning  effect  on  the  tongue."  II.  A  river 
in  California.  It  rises  on  the  western  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  runs  W.  and  S.,  forming 
the  boundary,  for  some  distance,  between  Tuba 
and  Placer  counties,  and  finally  discharging  its 
waters  into  Feather  river,  below  Marysville. 

BEABD,  the  hair  which  grows  on  the  chin 
.  and  lower  parts  of  the  human  face.  That  por- 
tion, however,  which  is  found  on  the  upper  Hp 
is  generally  distinguished  as  the  mustache, 
while  tiiat  upon  the  sides  of  the  face  is  known 
by  tiie  name  of  whisker.  Although  the  beard 
IS  ordinarily  only  seen  on  the  male  adult,  it  ap- 
pears occasionaUy  in  certain  exceptional  cases 
on  the  faces  of  women  and  children.  Bearded 
infants  and  *^  bearded  ladies,"  whp  are  genuine 
hitua  natures,  havebeennot  unfrequently  exhib- 
ited at  our  public  museums  and  show  places. 
Historians  mention  a  Swedish  woman  who  con- 
cealed her  sex  and  was  enrolled  among  the 
grenadiers  of  Charles  XIL,  and  Margaret,  duch- 
ess of  Parma,  regent  of  the  Netherlands  under 
Philip  IL,  wore  a  long  mustache  on  her  upper 
lip.  The  utility  of  the  beard  has  been  discussed 
in  all  ages,  and  though  its  functions  are  not  yet 
understood  fully,  it  seems  to  have  been  phioed 
as  a  vigilant  sentinel  around  the  mouth,  like  the 
eyelashes  around  the  eyes.  The  Orientals,  it 
has  been  remarked,  shave  the  cranium  and  wear 
the  beard,  and  ophthalmia  is  more  common 
among  them  than  loss  of  teeth.  The  Europeans 
retain  their  hair  but  shave  their  beard,  and  loss 
of  teeth  is  more  frequent  among  them  than 
ophthalmia.  '^  Thou  shalt  not  mar  the  comers 
of  thy  beard,"  the  command  of  Moses  to  l^e 
Jews,  which  is  to  be  found  in  Leviticus  xix. 
27,  is  the  first  mention  that  learned  men 
have  been  able  to  find  in  regard  to  the  growth 
of  the  beard.  This  command  indicates  the  early 
cultivation  of  the  beard  among  eastern  nations, 
by  whom  it  has  been  always,  and  continues  to 
be,  held  in  great  respect  We  read  in  the 
Chronicles  that  the  ambassadors  of  David  hav- 
ing been  shaved  by  order  of  the  king  of  the 
Ammonites,  the  royal  prophet  sent  them  to 
Jericho  to  conceal  their  disaster,  and  to  wait 
for  their  beard  to  reappear.  The  fact  that 
the  ancient  Egyptian  pictures  frequently  repre- 
sent the  human  male  figure,  especially  when  of 
a  king  or  dignitary,  without  the  beard,  would 
seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  a  mark  of  rank  to 
be  devoid  of  that  appendage.  In  ancient  India, 
Persia,  and  Assyria,  however,  the  beard  was 
auowed  to  grow  long,  and  was  always  esteemed 
a^bol  of  dignity  and  wisdom.  The  sculptures 
taken  to  Enrfand  from  Nineveh,  and  also  the 
rehefe  from  Persepolis,  prove  that  the  races  in- 
Jiabitinff  those  citieswore  their  beards.  Among 
the  modem  natives  of  the  East,  the  same  prac- 


tice obtains,  although  with  variations  in  differ- 
ent countries.  The  Turks,  for  example,  let  die 
beard  grow  in  full  luxuriance,  while  the  Per- 
sians give  only  free  scope  to  that  upon  the  upper 
lip,  and  cut  and  trim  that  upon  the  chin  and  the 
sides  of  the  face,  according  to  fashion  or  caprice. 
In  Turkey  the  slaves  of  the  seraglio  are  shaved, 
to  indicate  their  servile  inferiority  to  their  full- 
bearded  masters.  In  fact  it  is  considered  an 
infamy,  by  the  Turks,  to  have  the  beard  cut  ofi^ 
and  such  is  the  affection  cherished  for  it,  that 
wives  in  kissing  their  husbands,  and  chil- 
dren their  fathers,  put  their  lips  to  the  beards. 
The  Chinese  even,  who  are  almost  destitate  by 
nature  of  beard,  are  said  to  hold  this  portion  of 
the  hair  in  such  esteem  that  they  occasionally 
make  up  for  the  natural  deficiency  by  an  arti- 
ficial substitute.  All  the  oriental  people  are 
accustomed  to  swear  by  tiieir  beard,  and  are 
unable  to  conceive  of  a  great  man  without  this 
magnificent  attribute.  The  greatest  astonish- 
ment of  the  Egyptians  in  seeing  Napoleon  was 
to  find  him  beardless.  Among  the  classical 
nations  of  antiquity,  the  wearing  and  shaving 
of  the  beard  seemed,  as  in  more  modem  times, 
to  have  fluctuated  with  the  caprices  of 
£Bshion.  Previous  to  the  reign  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  the  Greeks  wore  beards,  but 
during  the  wars  of  that  bellicose  monarch 
they  commenced  shaving,  the  practice  having 
been  suggested,  it  is  said,  by  Alexander  for  the 
military  purpose  of  depriving  their  enemies  of 
an  opportunity  of  catching  the  soldiers  by  the 
beard,  in  the  course  of  the  tag  of  war.  The 
fashion  thus  begun  continued  until  the  rei^ 
of  Justinian,  when  long  b^irdd  became  agam 
&8hionable.  The  wise  men  of  Greece  were 
particularly  tenacious  of  this  appendage,  and 
*^  bearded  master  "  became  almost  a  synonyme 
of  philosopher.  Diogenes  was  accustomed  to 
ask  the  shaved  Greeks  whether  they  repented 
of  their  manhood. — ^The  year  454  B.  C.  is  given 
as  the  period  when  the  Romans  first  commenced 
the  practice  of  shaving,  and  we  have  the  au- 
thority of  Pliny  for  the  statement,  that  Scipio 
Africanus  was  the  first  of  the  Romans  who 
submitted  to  the  daily  razor.  The  antique 
busts  and  coins  prove  that  the  Roman  emperors 
shaved  until  the  time  of  Hadrian,  who  is  said 
to  have  let  hia  beard  grow,  for  the  same  reason 
that  George  IV.  wore  a  high  stock,  to  conceal 
an  ugly  scar.  The  philosophers,  though,  from 
the  earliest  periods  seem  to  have  affected  the 
full-grown  beard,  by  whom  it  was  esteemed,  as 
amonff  the  Greeks,  a  i^mbol  of  wisdom ;  and 
even  during  the  prevailing  imperial  fashion  of 
shaving,  the  emperors  would  occasionally  let 
theur  beards  grow  as  a  mark  of  grief.  Both  the 
orators  and  Roman  poets  do  honor  to  the 
beard,  as  for  example,  Homer  to  the  white  one 
of  old  Nestor,  and  Virgil  to  that  of  Mezentius. 
— ^Allthe  ancient  inhabitants  of  Europe  wore 
beards,  at  the  earliest  period  of  which  any 
record  exists.  The  fashion,  however,  seems  to 
have  varied  with  them  subsequently  at  differ- 
ent timea.    The  Lombards  or  Longobords  de- 


BEARD 


18 


lived  their  name  from  the  practice  of  going 
imafamTed.  We  learn,  on  the  anthoritj  of  Ta- 
oitns»  that  the  ancient  Qermans  cultivated  the 
hevd  from  its  fint  growth  until  thej  had  killed 
an  eoeraj  ia  battle,  and  on  the  aathority  of 
Julias  Gaaaar  that  tiie  Britons  merely  allowed 
tlie  mustache  to  grow.  Until  the  introduo- 
tim  of  Ghriatianity  the  Andlo-Saxons  all  wore 
beards  wlthoat  distinction,  oat  then  the  clergy 
were  compelled  hj  law  to  shave.  A  writer  of 
tike  7th  oentnry  complains  that  the  manners  of 
the  'English  clergy  were  so  had  that  they  could 
not  be  distinguished  from  the  laity  by  their 
actions,  but  only  by  their  want  of  beards. 
The  English  princes,  till  the  conquest  of  William 
L,  were  in  the  habit  of  wearing  mustaches, 
and  tiiey  felt  it  to  be  a  very  great  indignity 
Then  the  Conqueror  oompellea  them  to  cut 
them  ofi^  in  accordance  with  the  Norman  fash- 
ion. The  practice  and  precepts  of  the  Chris- 
tian Others,  who  denounced  shaving  as  a  viola- 
tion of  the  law  of  God,  made  the  wearing  of 
the  beard,  during  the  early  mediteval  centuries, 
a  dktinguishing  mshion  of  the  continental  kings, 
noUe^  and  dignitaries.  Boyal  personages  were 
in  the  habit  of  weaving  gdd  with  the  beard,  or 
ornamenting  it  with  tags  of  that  precious 
metaL  King  Bobert  of  IVanoe  was  remarkable 
Ibr  the  poaseesion  of  one  of  the  whitest  and 
longeBt  beards  of  his  day.  Cf  long  beards, 
however,  one  of  the  most  wonderful  was  that 
of  a  German  artist  of  the  name  of  John  Kayo^ 
who  was  oalled  John  the  Bearded  in  conse- 
qnenoe.  It  reached  the  ground  when  he  stood 
op,  and  he  was  consequently  obliged  to  tuck  it 
into  his  girdle.  The  letters  proceeding  from 
kings  often  received  an  additional  sanction  bv 
containing  in  the  seal  8  hairs  of  the  sovereign^ 
beard. — The  separation  of  the  Greek  from  the 
Latin  church,  which  began  in  the  8th  century, 
waa  the  signal  for  great  perturbations  in  the 
toilet  of  tiie&ce.  Till  then,  the  popes,  emperors. 
nobles,  and,  except  in  England,  the  priests,  had 
aempuloasly  abstained  fix>m  the  use  of  the  razor. 
Leo  in.,  to  distinguish  himself  from  the  patri- 
ardi  of  Constantinople,  removed  his  beiuxT,  and 
fresented  to  astoniwed  Christendom  the  speo- 
tade  of  a  ahaved  pope.  Thirty  years  later, 
Gregory  lY.,  pursmng  the  same  system,  ftilmi- 
nated  a  bull  ezgoining  penalties  upon  every 
bearded  priest.  In  the  12th  century  the  pre- 
aeiqition  which  had  laid  bare  the  chins  of  all 
the  clergy  was  extended  also  to  the  laity,  and 
even  to  nxmarchs.  Godefroi,  bishop  of  Amiens, 
refoaed  the  offerings  of  any  one  who  wore  a 
beard.  A  preacher  directed  his  eloquence 
against  the  hirsute  £ing  Henry  I.  of  Ei^bmd, 
and  the  obedient  monarch  gave  himself  into 
the  bands  of  a  barber.  The  proud  Frederic  I., 
eaOed  Barbaiossa,  offered  a  similar  example  of 
reagnation.  The  reluctant  longs  of  SVance 
were  at  first  shaved  by  biBhops,  and  the  con- 
ftaaor  of  Louis  the  Toungrerased  him  absolu- 
tion till  he  submitted  to  lose  his  beard.  Tlds 
reign  of  terror  was  not  of  long  duration.  Li 
Ihe  Idth  century  Pope  Honorius  ILL  in  order 


to  conceal  a  disfigured  lip  allowed  his  beard  to 
grow,  and  inaugurated  anew  the  fashion  which 
became  prevalent  in  Europe  in  the  age  of  Fran- 
cis I.  The  right  of  the  clergy  to  wear  their 
beards  was  then  again  disputed.  Francis  im- 
posed a  heavy  tax  upon  every  bearded  bishop, 
and  in  1561  the  coUege  of  the  Sorbonne  decided, 
after  mature  deliberation,  that  a  beard  was  con- 
trary to  sacerdotal  modesty.  It  is  related  that 
GuiUaume  Duprat,  returning  from  the  council 
of  Trent  to  his  bishopric  of  Germont  with  a 
beard  that  would  have  done  honor  to  venerable 
Priam,  reaching  down  even  to  his  girdle,  was 
met  at  the  door  of  his  church  by  the  dean  of 
the  chapter,  well  supported,  and  brandishing  a 
large  pair  of  scissors.  There  was  but  one 
alternative,  and  Duprat  threw  off  his  sur- 
plice and  departed,  declaring  that  he  would  save 
his  beard  thon^  he  lost  his  bishopric.  The 
golden  age  of  the  beard  in  France  was  the  reign 
of  Heniy  IV.,  when  its  various  styles  were  dis- 
tinguished as  the  pointed  beard,  the  square 
beard,  the  round  beard,  the  aureole  beard,  the 
fui-shapod  beard,  the  swallow-tail  beard,  and 
the  artichoke-leai  beard. — The  dignity  of  the 
beard  in  England  at  this  period  may  be  inferred 
from  this  incident  just  previous  to  the  execu- 
tion of  Sir  Thomas  More.  As  that  great  man 
was  about  being  beheaded,  perceiving  that  his 
beard  was  so  placed  that  it  would  not  foil  to 
be  iiyured  by  the  axe  of  the  executioner,  he 
drew  it  aside  saying:  "My  beard  has  not  been 
guilty  of  treason ;  it  would  be  an  ii^'ustice  to 
punish  it^'  During  the  reign  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth the  beard  was  worn  generally  by  those  of 
higher  rank,  and  was  trimmed  in  a  style  distinc- 
tive, more  or  leas,  of  each  class.  The  bishop 
had  his  beard  cut  in  a  peculiar  way,  and  we 
find  its  form  still  preserved  in  the  bands  of  lawn 
now  worn  by  the  modem  ecclesiastic.  The 
soldier  and  the  judge,  too,  each  had  his  particu- 
lar fashion  of  wearing  the  beard.  Taylor,  the 
water  poet,  quaintly  alludes  to  these  variations 
in  the  following  distich : 

The  bsrben  thus  (Uke  teilon)  still  mast  be 
Acquainted  with  each  eaV*  yarietj. 

The  fSushion  of  wearing  the  beard  began  to  de- 
cline subsequentiy  to  iLe  reign  of  Queen  Mary, 
and  at  the  time  of  the  restoration  of  Charles 
n.,  there  was  no  hair  worn  upon  the  &ce  but 
the  mustache,  which,  however,  was  laxnriantiy 
cultivated  by  the  courtiers  and  gallants  of  those 
days.  The  dedine  of  the  beard  in  France 
dates  from  Louis  AllL.,  and  in  Spain  from  the 
accession  of  Philip  Y.  The  Bussians  dung  te- 
naciously to  their  beards,  until  Peter  the  Great, 
returning  from  his  Enroi>ean  tour,  came  home 
with  his  determined  passion  for  reform.  One 
of  his  first  edicts  toward  the  compulsory  civil- 
ization of  his  people,  had  reference  to  the  beard. 
He  taxed  this  appendage,  and  moreover,  as  his 
subjects  seemea  disposed  to  keep  their  beards 
at  any  expense  of  money,  he  made  a  more  di- 
rect appeal  to  their  feelings,  and  ordered  all 
those  he  found  bearded  to  have  the  hair  plucked 
out  with  pincers  or  shaven  with  a  blunt  raaor. 


14 


BEARD 


BEASLEY 


This  resolnte  monarob  finally  snooeeded  in 
smoothing  the  face  of  every  subject  in  his  do- 
minions. Thns  the  practice  of  shaving  became 
almost  universal  in  £urope  until  within  a  few 
years.  France  was  the  first  to  retdrn  to  the 
oldfashion  of  weaiing  the  beard,  and  for  a  while 
it  was  the  distinctive  mark  of  the  Frenchman. 
The  Briton,  with  his  usual  tenacity  of  habit, 
was  the  last  to  move,  and  it  was  only  when  the 
utility  of  the  beard  was  made  manifest,  that  he 
was  wilUng  to  assume  it.  In  the  United  States 
the  dbange  occurred  about  the  same  time  as  in 
Great  Britain,  and  now  the  practice  is  becom- 
ing very  general  in  both  countries, — ^While  in 
every  age  the  beard  has  been  subject  to  the 
caprices  of  &shion,  it  may  be  remarked  that 
in  art  it  has  been  uniformly  ascribed  to  Jupiter, 
Brama,  and  other  representations  of  divin- 
ity, while  among  men  it  has  been  very 
generally  a  characteristic  of  the  sage  and  philos- 
opher. Apart  from  good  taste,  which  would 
seem  to  inculcate  the  preservation  of  what  is  an 
essential  characteristic  of  the  manly  form,  there 
are  certdn  practical  advantages  to  be  urged  in 
fkvor  of  the  beard.  In  some  employments, 
as  in  that  of  the  steel  grinders,  where  an  irri- 
tating dust  and  small  particles  of  hard  material 
are  in  danger  of  being  inhaled,  and  thus  pro- 
ducing infiammation  of  the  lungs,  the  wearing  of 
the  beard  is  found  to  be  animportant  safeguard. 
Accordingly,  steel  grinders,  railroad  engineers 
and  firemen,  stone  cutters,  and  all  those  thus 
exposed,  have  almost  unanimously  given  up 
shaving.  A  change  which  has  thus  been  inau- 
gurated among  practical  working  people  for 
puiposes  of  healm  and  convenience,  is  likely  to 
be  lasting,  and  it  is  probable  that  before  Ions 
we  shall  return  to  our  primitive  and  national 
character  as  a  bearded  people. 

BEAKD,  John,  a  celebrated  English  singer 
and  actor,  bom  in  1716  or  1717,  and  died  in 
1791.  He  first  acquired  dislinction  by  the  man- 
ner in  which  he  sang  Galliard's  hunting  song, 
"  With  early  horn."  He  afterward  appeared  as 
anaotorat  Oovent  Garden  and  Brury  Lane.  In 
1758  he  performed  Macheath  for  52  successive 
nights,  with  Miss  Brent  as  Polly.  Beard  mar- 
ried the  only  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Walde- 
grave,  in  1789.  His  voice  was  a  beautiful  ten- 
or, and  he  was  especially  distinguished  as  a  sing- 
•  er  of  HandePs  compositions. 

BEAKING,  in  navigation  and  surveying, 
signifies  the  angle  made  by  anv  given  hue  with 
a  north  and  south  line.  The  bearing  of  an  ob- 
ject is  the  direction  of  a  line  firom  the  observer 
to  that  object. 

B£ABN,  formerly  a  county  and  duchy  in 
southern  France,  now  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  department  of  Basses-Pyr^n^es,  stretching 
firom  the  snow-covered  peaks  of  the  mountains, 
and  rapidly  descending  into  a  hilly  landscape,  is 
weD  watered,  and  ezceUently  adapted  for  rais- 
ing cattle  and  horses.  The  population  is  com- 
paratively very  large,  of  Basque  descent,  speak- 
ing the  Basque  tongue  to  this  day,  and  under- 
standing little  French;  energetic^  industrious, 


and  fireedom-loving.  They  produce  iron  and 
iron  fabrics,  fiaz  and  linen  goods,  cattle,  horses, 
wine,  and  grain,  for  export  as  well  as  home  con- 
sumption, and  have  withal  spare  hands  enough 
to  send  annually  hundreds  of  vigorous  you&s 
to  work  in  the  northern  provinces  of  Spain 
as  manufacturers,  or  further  south  as  water- 
carriers,  who  return  with  their  earnings  to  spend 
them  at  home.  The  capital  is  Pan.  The  first 
feudal  possessor  of  the  whole  of  B6arn,  called 
OentuUus,  is  mentioned  in  the  9Ui  century, 
whose  descendants,  in  the  male  line,  with  short 
interruptions,  swayed  it  up  to  1800,  when  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  neighboring  counts  of 
Foix,  by  marriage,  and  by  the  female  une  of  this 
house  into  the  hands  of  the  kings  of  Navaire, 
by  the  last  of  whom,  Henry  lY.,  it  was  united 
with  France,  though  the  act  of  annexation 
was  not  finally  accomplished  till  1620.  Pop. 
about  190,800. 

BEARS  AND  BXTLLS,  terms  first  applied  in 
the  London  exchange  to  speculators  in  stocks. 
Two  parties  having  contracted,  the  one  to  de- 
liver and  the  other  to  take  stocks  at  a  future 
time  at  a  specified  price,  it  is  the  interest  of  tiie 
delivering  party,  in  the  intervening  time,  to 
depress  stocks,  and  of  the  receiving  party  to 
raise  them.  The  former  is  called  a  bear,  in  al- 
lusion to  the  habit  of  that  animal  to  pull  down 
with  his  paws,  and  the  latter  a  bull,  from  the 
custom  of  that  beast  to  throw  up  with  his 
horns.  There  is  ordinarily  no  exchange  of 
stocks,  but  when  the  time  of  delivery  arrives 
the  losing  party  pays  the  difference  between 
the  price  of  stocks  then  and  at  the  time  the 
contract  was  made.  The  terms  are  now  recog- 
nized in  the  exchanges  of  the  largest  cities  of 
England  and  America.  The  corresponding 
terms  in  French  are  haisaier  and  Juxumery  or 
speculators  on  a  fall  and  on  a  rise. 

BEAS,  or  BsTFASHA,  anciently  called  Hypha- 
sis,  a  river  of  the  Punjaub,  in  western  India. 
It  rises  in  the  Himalaya  mountains,  18,200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  empties  into  the 
Sutl^  at  Endreesa.  Its  leuffth  is  estimated  at 
from  210  to  220  miles,  m  the  winter  it  is 
fordable  in  most  places,  but  in  summer  has 
been  known  to  be  740  yards  wide  at  a  distance 
of  20  miles  from  its  confluence  with  the  Sutl^. 

BEASLET,  Fbbdxrio,  an  American  divine, 
and  professor  of  mental  philosophy  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  bom  nearEdenton,  N. 
0.,  in  1777,  died  at  Elizabethtown,  N.  J.,  Nov. 
2,1846.  He  graduated  at  Nassau  hall  in  1797, 
and  afber  being  for  2  years  tutor  in  that  insti- 
tution, was  in  1801  orduned  deacon  in  the 
Episcopal  churoh,  and  was  successively  engaged 
as  rector  in  Albany,  N.  Y.,  and  in  Baltimore, 
Hd.  He  was  from  1818  to  1828,  professor  of 
mental  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  became  favorably  known  by  his 
metaphysical  work  in  defence  of  the  philosophy 
of  Locke,  which  he  published  in  1822,  entitled 
a  "Search  of  Truth  in  the  Science  of  the  Hur 
manMind.^'  After  retiring  from  the  univer- 
sity he  took  charge  of  a  church  in  Trenton, 


BEATIFIOATIOH 


BEATBIOE 


15 


wbere  lie  wrote  an  answer  to  the  doctrinal  views 
wbich  Dr.  Ohanning  was  at  that  time  propound- 
ing. From  the  year  1886  he  lived  in  retire- 
ment at  £Iizabethtown,  pnrsaing  literary  and 
theological  studies.  He  pablished  an  ^^  Exam- 
ination of  the  Oxford  Divinity,''  daring  the 
tractarian  controversy,  which  was  highly  es- 
teemed at  home  and  aoroad  both  for  its  style 
and  erudition. 

BEATIFIOATION'.   The  decree  of  beatifica- 
tion precedes  the  solemn  canonizing  of  a  saint, 
in  the  Boman  Catholic  church,  and  is  pro- 
nounced by  the  pope  and  cardinals.    In  order 
that  the  process  may   be  commenced,  it   is 
neoesBsry  that  the  candidate  should  have  died 
with   a  general  reputation   for  sanctity  and 
supernatural   jpfts,    or   should   have   suffered 
martyrdom;  and  that  the  commencement  of 
the    process    should    be   requested   by  some 
person  of  consideration.     A   very  long  and 
careful  examination    into    the    grounds    for 
this  popular  reputation  of  sanctity,  conducted 
in  a  strictly  judicial  manner,  is  entered  into, 
which,  according  to  the  ordinary  rule,  cannot 
be  completed  until  50  years  after  the  death  of 
the  individual.    The  points  to  be  examined,  on 
which  the  ultunate  decision  rests,  are,  whether 
the  person  practised  virtue  in  a  heroic  degree, 
and  performed  miracles.    It  is  necessary  that 
8  miracles  be  wrought,  after  the  process  has 
commenced,  and  before  the  beatification  takes 
place.    These  ostensible  miracles  must  be  ex- 
amined by  men  of  science,  and  particularly,  in 
case  of  miraculous  cures,  by  the  phvsicians  of 
the  parties.    The  promoter  of  the  faith  raises 
all  possible  difiiculties  and  objections  against  the 
beatification,  and   is  therefore  usuaUy  called 
"  the  devil's  advocate."    By  the  decree  of  be- 
atification it  is  declared  that  the  servant  of  God 
possessed  heroic  virtue  and  miraculous  gifts^ 
that  he  is  actoally  among  the  blessed  in  heaven, 
and  entitled  to  special  honor.    The  public  ven- 
eration, which  is  allowed  to  be  siven  to  one 
who  is  beatafied  only,  is  restricted  to  certain 
places,  communities^  or  persons^  and  also  to 
certain  sfwoified  acts  of  respect    The  right  of 
pronouncing  the  decree  of  beatification,  for- 
merly conceded  to  bishops,  was  reserved  to  the 
heir  see,  by  Alexander  III..  A.  D.  1170. 

BEATITUDE,  the  Ohristian  term  correspond- 
ing to  the  tvdaifwna  of  the  Greeks,  and  the 
gummum  honum  of  the  Romans,  meaning  the 
highest  degree  of  happiness  of  wmch  our  nature 
is  susceptible,  and  applied  particularly  to  the 
state  of  the  elect  in  heaven.  It  was  a  favorite 
topic  of  discussion  among  the  scholastic  theo- 
logians, who  divided  it  into  suUective  and  ob- 
jective, perfect  and  imperfect,  and  made  our  eter- 
nal hi^piness  consist  in  the  exaltation  of  the 
Deity,  in  singing  with  choirs  of  angels  praises  to 
the  Most  High.  Recent  theologians  have  gener- 
ally made  beatitude  oonost  in  honoring  God 
and  sharing  his  perfections,  a  sublime  uongh 
hd^nite  conception.  Though  the  state  of  be- 
atitude be  inoomprehensible  to  us,  yet  the  belief 
in  it  isa  motive  in  the  present  life  which  begets 


heroism  In  the  midst  of  misfortune,  and  an  ad- 
herence to  virtue  in  the  midst  of  evUs.— The 
Bratitudss  is  the  name  given  particularly  to 
the  8  maxims  which  are  the  exordium  to  Christ's 
sermon  on  the  mount 

BEATON,  David,  or  Bsthunb,  as  his  name 
is  more  correctiy  spelled,  cardinal  archbishop 
of  St.  Andrew's  in  Scotland,  bom  in  1494,  died 
in  1546,  was  descended  from  an  illustrious  Scot- 
tish fiimily.  He  was  first  made  abbot  of  Arb- 
roath, then  bishop  of  Mirepoix  in  France,  after^ 
ward  archbishop  of  St.  Andrew's  and  primate  of 
Scotland.  Paul  m.  created  him  a  cardind,  at 
the  request  of  James  Y.,  and  afterward  made 
him  papal  legate  in  Scotland.  Cardinal  Beaton 
was  nighlv  esteemed  as  a  statesman,  by  James 
Y.  of  Scotiand  and  Fhmcis  I.  of  France.  He  was 
most  zealous  and  active  in  his  efforts  to  resist 
the  proflress  of  Protestantism  in  Scotiand,  and 
caused  George  Wishart,  a  young  preacher,  be- 
longing to  a  powerful  Protestant  family,  to  be 
burnt  at  the  stak^  on  the  charge  of  heresy  and 
treason.  After  the  death  of  James,  Beaton 
was  imprisoned  for  a  short  time  by  the  earl  of 
Arran,  the  temporary  regent,  but  soon  released. 
In  1544, 2  years  before  the  execution  of  young 
Wishart,  the  chief  of  the  THahart  fiunily  with 
some  others  had  conspired  to  lull  the  cardinal, 
while  travelling  through  Fife.  On  Mav  28, 
1546,  the  same  persons,  or  relatives  of  theirs, 
havinff  the  same  names,  ^*  stirred  up  by  the 
Lord,''  as  Fox  says,  in  his  Marj^n^logy,  at- 
tacked the  cardinal  in  the  castie  of  St  An^w's, 
while  he  was  still  in  bed,  killed  him.  and  hung 
his  corpse  out  of  the  window,  vested  in  the  in- 
signia of  his  rank.  Knox,  on  hearing  of  this 
'^  godly  fact,"  as  he  terms  it,  led  150  men  to  the 
d^ence  of  the  murderers,  who  were  also  pro- 
tected by  the  English  government  to  the  extent 
of  its  power. 

BEATRICE,  PoBTOTASi,  the  woman  whose 
name  has  been  immortalized  by  Dante's  poems. 
She  belonged  to  a  Florentine  fiunily,  and  was 
quite  a  child  when  Dante,  then  9  years  old,  saw 
her  for  the  first  time ;  she  had  on  a  dark-red 
dress  with  ornaments  suited  to  her  age,  and  her 
appearance  made  a  deep  and  lasting  impression 
upon  tiie  susceptible  mind  of  the  boy.  Nine 
years  later,  he  met  her  again  dressed  all  in 
white,  in  company  with  two  elderly  ladies ;  she 
cast  a  glance  toward  the  poet,  who,  trembling 
and  amazed,  stood  aade :  she  courteously  bowed 
tohun ;  and  from  that  time,  she  became  his  in- 
spiring muse.  But  such  a  lovely  being  could 
not  stav  long  on  tiiis  earth;  God  seemed  to  have 
created  her  n>r  one  of  his  angels  and  was  soon  to 
recall  her  to  heaven.  Such  was  the  surmise  of 
her  lover,  which  was  early  realized.  She  was 
only  24  when  death  overtook  her  beautiftd  form 
in  1290 ;  but  she  had  left  her  earthly  existence 
to  assume  the  immortal  one  given  to  her  bv  ge- 
nius. Beatrice's  soul  always  glides  around  her 
poet,  whose  pure  ideal  love  is  a  perpetual  wor- 
ship. His  poems  everywhere  afford  evidence 
of  the  depth  of  this  feeling ;  but  the  most  strik- 
ing mstanoes  are  perhape  to  be  fbund  in  the 


16 


BEATTIE 


BEAUFORT 


80tli  and  Slst  cantos  of  the  *^  Pnrgatory." 
There  Beatrice  appears  in  a  clond,  with  a  white 
yeU  and  an  olive  crown,  clad  in  a  sauiet  rohe 
and  a  green  mantle ;  she  is  the  emhlematic  per- 
sonification  of  divine  wisdom. 

BEATTIE,  James,  a  Scotch  poet,  son  of  a 
respectable  farmer,  bom  in  Emcardineshire, 
Oct  25, 1786,  died  at  Aberdeen,  Ang.  18, 1803. 
He  obtained  a  scholarship  at  Aberdeen,  and 
subsequently  became  assistant  in  the  Aberdeen 
grammar  school,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
ttie  head  schoolmaster.  After  this  event  he 
b^n  to  be  distinguished  as  a  writer,  and  in 
1771  commenced  the  publication  of  his  work 
called  the  ^^Minstrel.^'  This  obtained  for  him 
the  patronage  of  Lord  Errol,  and  caused  him 
to  be  appointed  professor  of  moral  philosophy 
and  logic  in  Marisphal  college.  In  1765,  he 
published  a  poem,  the  "Judgment  of  Paris," 
which  foiled  of  any  celebrity.  The  work  which 
gained  him  the  greatest  fame  was  an  ^*  Essay  on 
the  Nature  and  Immutability  of  Truth,"  in  op- 
position to  sophistry  and  skepticism.  It  was 
designed  as  a  reply  to  Hume,  and  was  so  much 
in  demand  that  in  4  years  5  large  editions  were 
sold;  and  it  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages. It  procured  for  its  author  the  degree 
of  LL.  D.  from  the  university  of  Oxford,  and 
a  private  conference  with  G^rge  HI.,  who 
granted  him  a  pension  of  £200.  He  was 
urged  by  the  archbishop  of  York  and  the 
bishop  of  London  to  take  orders  in  the  church 
of  England,  a  proposal  which  he  declined. 
While  in  London  he  became  intimate  with  Dr. 
Johnson,  Dr.  Porteus,  and  other  distinguished 
literary  characters.  In  1788,  he  published  *^  Dis- 
sertations, Moral  and  Critical,'' and  the  "Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Beligion,"  written  at  the 
request  of  the  bishop  of  I^ndon.  In  1790  he 
published  the  1st  volume,  and  in  1798  the  2d2 
of  his  "  Elements  of  Moral  Science ;"  subjoined 
to  the  latter  was  a  dissertation  against  the 
slave  trade.  His  last  publication  was  an  ac- 
count of  the  life,  writings,  and  character  of 
his  eldest  son,  James  Hay  Beattie.  Two  par- 
alytic strokes,  which  followed  the  loss  of 
reason  by  his  wife,  caused  his  death,  at  the  age 
of  68.  

BEATTIE,  Sir  Whuam,  M.  D.,  bom  1770, 
died  1843.  He  was  physician  to  the  fleet,  in 
England,  and  also  to  Greenwich  hospital.  He 
was  present  at  the  battle  of  Trafalgar,  Oct.  21, 
1805,  attended  on  Lord  Kelson's  last  moments^ 
and,  on  his  return  to  England,  published  an 
"  Authentic  Narrative"  of  his  death.  In  1881, 
William  IV.  knighted  him. 

BE  AIJC AIRE,  a  commercial  town  of  France, 
department  of  Gard,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone.  It  is  connected  by  a  suspension  bridge 
with  Tarascon,  opposite,  at  the  head  of  the 
canal  de  Beaucaire ;  and  is  contiguous  to  the 
junction  of  railways  to  Avignon,  Marseilles. 
Cette,  and  Alais,  by  Ktmes.  1 1  h£fl  an  annual 
fair,  established  in  1217,  by  Raymond,  count  of 
Toulouse,  which  was  formerly  the  largest  in 
Europe.    Population  in  1866, 12,718. 


BEATTOHIEF  ABBEY,  a  chapehy  of  Eng- 
land,  county  of  Derby.  Iltz-Ranulph.  lord  of 
Alfreton,  built  an  abbey  here  in  expiation  of 
the  murder  of  Thomas  k  Becket.  A  portion 
of  this  abbey  still  remains,  and  forms  the 
tower  of  the  m^esent  chapeL 

BEAUOUKK,  ToPHAM,  one  of  Dr.  John- 
son's favorite  friends,  bom  1789,  died  March 
11, 1780.  He  was  the  only  son  of  Lord  Sidney 
Beauderk,  8d  son  of  the  1st  duke  of  St.  Al- 
bans, and  in  general  appearance  much  resem- 
bled his  great-grand&ther.  Charles  H.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  and  Ids  conversational 
talents  so  much  charmed  Johnsoa  that  when 
*^The  Club"  was  founded,  in  1768,  he  was  one 
of  the  nine  members  who  originally  formed  it 
When  he  went  to  Italy,  in  1762,  Johnson  wrote 
to  his  friend  Baretti,  wBHolj  commendiog 
Beauclerk  to  his  kindness.  In  1766  he  ac- 
companied Johnson  on  a  visit  to  Cambridge. 
In  1768,  when  he  seduced  Lady  Diana  Spen- 
cer, wife  of  Yisoount  Bolingbroke  (he  married 
her  immediatelv  after  she  was  divorced),  John- 
son would  not  hear  him  attacked.  A  short  time 
hefore  his  death,  Johnson  said  of  him :  **  He 
is  always  ready  to  talk,  and  i^  never  exhaust- 
ed;" and  when  communicating  his  death  to 
Boswell,  he  said  :  "His  wit  and  his  folly,  his 
acuteness  and  maliciousness,  his  merriment  and 
reasoning,  are  now  over.  Such  another  will 
not  often  be  found  among  mankind." 

BEAUFORT.  L  Aneastemcounty  of  North 
Carolina,  bordering  on  Pamlico  sound.  It  has 
a  level  surface,  and  a  sandy  or  marshy  soiL  The 
productions  in  1850  amounted  to  198,542  bush- 
els of  Indian  com,  121,941  of  sweet  potatoes, 
28,409  lbs.  of  butter,  and  large  quantities  of  tar 
and  turpentine.  There  were  26  saw  and  shingle 
mills,  47  tar  and  turpentine  manufactories,  2 
turpentine  distilleries,  14  churches,  and  1  news- 
paper office.  The  Pamlico  rivei»,  which  inter- 
sects the  county,  is  navigable  by  vessels  draw- 
ing 8  feet  of  water.  Formed  in  1741,  and  named 
in  honor  of  the  duke  of  Beaufort  Capital, 
"Washington;  pop.  in  1850,  14,811,  of  whom 
6,244  were  slaves.  II.  A  southern  district  of 
South  Carolina,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  sep- 
arated from  Georgia  by  the  Savannah  river,  and 
having  an  area  of  1 ,540  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  N.  E.  by  the  Combahee  river,  and  inter- 
sected by  the  Coosawhatchie.  All  of  these  rivers 
are  navigable  by  small  vessels,  and  the  places 
on  the  Sivannah  are  accessible  by  steamboats. 
The  surface  is  low  and  level,  the  soil  sandy  and 
alluvial,  producing  cotton,  rice,  Indian  com,  and 
potatoes  in  great  abundance.  In  1850  it  yielded 
47,280,082  lbs.  of  rice.  12,672  bales  of  cotton, 
492,671  bushels  of  Ijudian  com,  485,077  of 
sweet  potatoes,  and  29,267  of  oats.  There 
were  65  churches^  1  newspaper  office,  and  598 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  Beaufort  is 
one  of  the  most  thickly  settled  districts  of  the 
state.  Capital,  Coosawhatchie;  pop.  in  1850, 
8828O5,  of  whom  82.279  were  slaves. 

jBEAUFORT.  L  a  port  of  entry,  and  the  ci»- 
ital  of  Carteret  county,  North  Carolina.   It 


BEAUFORT 


BEAUFORT 


17 


stands  at  the  montii  of  Newport  rirer,  a  few 
miles  from  the  sea^  is  accessible  by  steamboat 
from  Albemarle  sonncL  and  has  a  commodious 
and  well-sheltered  harbor,  considered  the  best 
in  the  state.  On  Bogae  point,  at  its  entrance, 
is  Fort  Macon.  Beamort  contains  a  courthouse, 
a  jail,  1  or  2  churches,  and  several  seminaries. 
It  is  a  place  of  extensive  trade,  chiefly  in  tur- 
pentine and  resins.  The  shipping  of  the  dis- 
trict, June  80,  1862,  amounted  to  776  tons  reg- 
istered, and  1,851  tons  enrolled  and  licensed. 
During  the  preceding  year,  4  schooners  with  a 
burden  of  460  tons  had  been  built  here.  Pop. 
in  1858,  about  2,000.  II.  A  town  and  port  of 
entry  on  Port  Koyal  river,  Beaufort  district, 
South  Carolina.  It  is  about  16  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  has  a  spacious  harbor,  at  the  mouth  of 
whicJi,  however,  is  a  bar  which  prevents  the 
entrance  of  vessels  drawing  more  than  11  feet 
of  water.  The  town  has  uttle  commerce,  and 
is  unhealthy  in  the  autumn.  White  pop.  in 
1850,  879 ;  slave  pop.  not  given. 

BEAUFORT,  a  large  inland  district  of  Gape 
Oolony,  South  Africa,  lying  south  of  the  Bos- 
jesmans'  territory,  and  having  an  area  of  about 
20,000  sq.  miles.  Pop.  in  1888, 5,904.  Beaufort 
is  its  capital  town. 

BEAUFORT,  FnANgois  db  YxNDdHB,  duke 
of;  a  grandson  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  bom  in 
Paris,  January,  1616,  died  June  25, 1669.  He  is 
peculiarly  known  by  the  conspicuous  part  he 
took  in  the  civil  war  of  the  Fronde.  He  had 
served  with  some  distinction  during  the  80 
yeara^  war,  and  meddled  in  the  conspiracy  of 
Cinq-Mars  against  Cardinal  Richelieu.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  last  affair,  he  was  obliged  to 
seek  a  refuge  in  England.  On  the  accession  of 
Louis  Xiy.,  the  queen-regent  treated  him  very 
favorably,  but  was  soon  dissatisfied  with  his  im- 
pertinent manners.  Her  displeasure  threw  him 
on  the  nde  of  the  malcontents,  and  he  became 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Frondeurs.'  He 
-was  extremely  popular  with  the  Parisians,  on 
account  of  his  descent,  his  familiarity  with  the 
citizens,  and  the  pleasure  he  took  in  using  their 
language,  or  even  their  slang.  He  was  conse- 
quently called  le  rai  de$  holla,  and  he  exercised 
a  i>owerful  influence  on  the  common  people 
against  Cardinal  Mazarin,  who  was  twice  driven 
out  of  France.  But  becoming  tired  of  civil 
war,  he  made  his  peace  with  the  court;  and 
Louis  XIY.  having  taken  into  his  hands  the  reins 
of  government,  Seaufort  was  appointed  to  the 
oommand  of  the  navy.  In  1664  and  1665  ho 
successfully  led  attacks  against  the  corsairs  of 
Africa ;  in  1666  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  fleet 
which  was  to  join  the  Dutch  to  make  war 
against  England ;  lastly,  in  1669  he  went  to  the 
aadstanoe  of  the  Venetians,  then  besieged  by 
tlie  Turks  in  the  island  of  Candia ;  he  fought 
bravely  and  was  killed  in  a  sally. 

BEAUFORT,  Hsnbt,  cardinal^  and  bishop  of 
Winchester,  born  at  the  castle  of  Beaufort,  in 
France,  about  1370,  died  at  Winchester,  April 
11,  1447.  He  was  the  2d  son  to  John  of 
Gaonty  duke  of  Lancaster,  by  Catherine  Swyn- 
vol*  ra. — 2 


ford,  and  was  thus  the  brother  of  Henry  IV., 
the  uncle  of  Henry  V.,  and  the  great  uncle  of 
Henry  VI.,  kings  of  England.  iSlucated  at  the 
2  English  universities  and  in  Qermany,  he  was 
early  promoted  from  the  bishopric  of  linooln 
to  the  wealthy  see  of  Winchester,  and  when 
after  the  deaui  of  Henry  V.  he  became  the 
powerful  rival  of  the  duke  of  Gloucester  in  the 
council  of  regency,  he  had  8  times  borne  the 
high  office  of  chancellor,  had  assisted  at  the 
council  of  Constance,  and  had  made  a  pilgrim- 
age  to  Jerusalem.  The  rivalry  and  strifes  of 
the  duke  and  cardinal  are  the  most  prominent 
feature  in  the  history  of  England  for  many 
years.    In  1429  the  latter  was  appointed  by  the 

S>pe  captain-general  of  the  crusade  against  the 
ussites  of  Bohemia,  and  having  raised  a  force 
for  this  purpose  in  England,  he  betrayed  the 
cause  of  the  pope  by  acting  only  against  the 
French.  This  conduct  however,  added  to  his 
popularity  in  England,  out  in  his  absence,  whUe 
attending  the  young  king  Heniy  VI.  in  France, 
where  in  the  churoh  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris, 
he  placed  the  crown  upon  his  head,  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  was  made  by  the  duke  of  Glou* 
cester  to  deprive  him  of  his  bishopric,  and  to 
destroy  his  power  by  brin^^g  a^^dnst  hlra  a 
series  of  charges  in  a  meeting  of  peers.  Taking 
part  in  the  affairs  of  France,  the  cardinal  exert- 
ed himself  in  vm  to  reconcile  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy  and  Bedford.  Of  the  2  competitora 
by  whose  struggle  for  the  supremacy  the  afOdrs 
of  Engluid  were  vexed,  Gloucester  was  m  1447 
arrest^  at  Bury  St.  Edmund's,  where  he  soon 
after  died  suddenly  and  mysteriously,  not  with- 
out suspicion  of  poison,  and  within  6  weeks  he 
was  followed  to  his  grave  by  Beaufort,  who  died 
with  a  linaering  sickness.  The  drama  of  Shake- 
speare reflects  the  public  sentiment  of  the  time^ 
whioh  was  unfavorable  to  the  cardinal.  The 
hospital  of  St.  Cross  at  Winchester,  which  still 
remains,  was  liberally  founded  by  the  provisions 
of  his  will. 

BEAUFORT,  Hbnw  Ebnxbt  Grout,  cheva- 
lier de,  a  French  traveller,  born  Feb.  25, 1798,  at 
Aubevoye,  department  of  Eure,  died  Sept.  8, 
1825.  He  attempted  to  continue  the  explora* 
tion  so  boldly  commenced  in  Africa  by  Mungo 
Park,  and  prosecuted  under  the  auspices  of  the 
African  association.  In  1824  he  visited  the 
Gambia,  Bakel,  Bondoo,  and  Eaarta ;  in  1825 
he  went  as  fiir  as  the  Easso,  the  cataracts  of 
Felon  and  Gavina,  and  the  Bambook,  gathering 
important  information,  and  drawing  sagacious 
conclusions  from  facts  he  had  observed.  Unfor- 
tunatelv  death  overtook  him  before  he  had 
readied  Timbuctoo. 

BEAUFORT,  MAsaARBT,  countess  of  Rich- 
mond and  of  Derby,  a  patroness  of  leaminff  in 
England,  born  at  Bletshoe,  in  1441,  died  in 
1509.  She  was  of  royal  descent  and  was  mar- 
ried to  the  earl  of  Richmond,  half-brother  to 
Henry  VL,  by  whom  at  the  age  of  18  years  she 
had  one  son,  who  was  afterward  king  of  Eng- 
land, under  the  title  of  Henry  VII.  After  the 
death  of  the  earl  of  Richmond,  she  married 


18 


BEAUGENOY 


BEAUHABNAIS 


gaccessively  Sir  Henry  Stafford,  and  Thomas 
Lord  Stanley,  but  )iad  issue  by  neither  of  these 
marriages.  She  was  celebrated  for  her  devo- 
tion and  charity.  By  her  bounty,  2  coUeges, 
Ohrist's  and  St.  John's,  were  endowed  at  Gam- 
bridge,  and  a  professorship  of  diyinity  estab- 
lish^ in  each.  She  often  declared  that  if  the 
princes  of  Christendom  should  undertake  a  new 
crusade  against  the  Turks,  she  herself  would 
follow  the  army.  She  was  the  author  of  the 
"Mirroure  of  Golde  to  the  Sinful!  Soul," 
translated  from  a  French  translation  of  the 
Speculum  Aureum  Peceatorumy  and  of  a  trans- 
lation of  the  4th  book  of  the  *^  Imitation  of 
Christ." 

BEAUGENCY,  an  old  town  of  Prance,  de- 
partment of  Loire,  16  miles  S.  W.  of  Orleans, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  nop.  in  1856, 
5,072.  In  1152  a  council  was  hela  here  which 
divorced  King  Louis  VII.  from  Eleanor  of  Aqui- 
taine,  who  was  soon  to  become  the  wife  of 
Henry  Pkntogenet,  then  heir  apparent  of  the 
crown  of  England.  Beangency  was  formerly 
surrounded  by  walls,  flanked -with  towers  and 
bastions,  and  protected  by  a  powerful  castle. 
Of  all  this  little  now  remains.        * 

BE AIJH ARNAIS,  Albzandsb,  vicomte  de,  a 
French  general,  born  in  1760,  in  the  island  of 
Martinique,  died  June  23,  1794,  on  the  scaffold. 
He  was  m^or  in  a  regiment  of  infantry  when 
he  married  Josephine  Tasoher  dela  Pagerie, 
who  was  to  become  after  his  death  the  wife  of 
Bonaparte.  He  distinguished  himself  in  the 
American  war,  under  the  command  of  Count 
Bochambeau.  In  1780  he  was  elected  deputy 
to  <^e  states-general  by  the  nobles  of  Blois,  and 
was  among  the  first  of  his  order  who  Joined  the 
tieri-itat  He  was  twice  president  of  the  na- 
tional assembly.  He  occupied  the  chair  when 
the  flight  of  Louis  XVI.  was  made  known : 
^  Gentlemen,''  he  said,  in  a  dignified  and  quiet 
manner,  "the  king  left  Paris  last  night;  let  us 
take  up  the  order  of  the  day."  A  little  later 
he  joined,  as  a  division-ffeneral,  the  army  of 
CusUne,  on  the  Rhine.  Mentz  was  bedeged  by 
the  allies,  and  might  have  been  delivered  by 
a  bold  movement ;  but  Beauhamais  remained 
inactive  for  15  days,  and  the  city  surrendered. 
Being  arraigned  beiore  the  revolutionary  tri- 
buntS,  he  was  sentenced  to  death  and  be- 
headed when  only  84  years  of  age. 

BEAUHARNAIS,Enad;NEDB,  dukeofLeuch- 
tenberg,  viceroy  of  Italy,  bom  in  Paris,  Sept. 
8, 1781,  died  in  Munich,  Feb.  21, 1824.  He  was 
the  son  of  Viscount  Alexandre  Beauhamais  by 
Josephine  Tascher  de  la  Pagerie,  afterward 
empress  of  France.  When  his  father  was  exe- 
cuted for  having  failed  to  rescue  Mentz,  he  was 
not  yet  13  years  old ;  and  nevertheless  went  to 
Brittany  in  order  to  serve  there  under  Gen. 
Hoche,  who  had  been  his  father's  friend.  In 
1795  he  went  back  to  Paris,  and  called  on 
G^n.  Bonaparte,  then  the  commander  of  the 
metropolis,  to  obtain  from  him  the  return  of 
his  father's  sword,  which  had  been  taken  away 
<«n  the  disarming  of  the  sections  subsequent  to 


the  18th  Vendemiaire.  Bonaparte  at  onco 
granted  his  request,  and  soon  received  the  visit 
of  Madame  Beauharnais,  who  was  desirous  to 
give  her  thanks  to  the  general.  At  this  inter- 
view the  lady  made  a  deep  impression  upon  the 
heart  of  the  general,  and  a  few  months  later, 
March  8, 1796,  was  piarried  to  him,  on  the  eve 
of  his  taking  his  departure  for  Italy,  where  he 
was  to  assume  the  command  of  the  French  army. 
Toung  Eugtoe  remained  at  Paris  to  pursue  his 
education ;  but  toward  the  end  of  1797,  being 
appointed  second  lieutenant,  he  started  for 
Italy.  On  tiie  peace  of  Campo  Formio,  he 
was  commissioned  to  receive  the  submissioa 
of  the  Ionian  ia|^ds.  On  his  way  back  to 
the  army  he  passed  through  Rome,  and  was  ia 
that  city  when  a  sedition  broke  out  against  the 
French,  during  which  Gen.  Duphot  was  kiUed. 
Eugene  displayed  great  courage  in  quelling  the 
hjmLUy  and  rescuing  the  body  of  the  unfortu- 
nate commander.  In  1798  he  followed  hia 
father-in-law  to  Egypt,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  in  several  encounters ;  he  was  severely 
wounded  under  the  walls  of  Acre.  He  return- 
ed to  France  witJi  Bonaparte,  was  appointed  to 
a  captiuncy  in  the  consular  guards,  and  after 
the  battle  of  Marengo  promoted  to  the  rank  of 
mf^or.  On  the  establishment  of  the  empire,  he 
became  a  prince  and  colonel-general  of  the 
chasseurs ;  in  1805  state  arch-chancellor,  grand 
ofiioer  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  viceroy  of 
Italy,  wluch  government  he  kept  until  1814. 
After  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  he  married  Au- 
gusta Amelia,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Bavaria, 
on  which  occasion  Napoleon  invested  him  with 
the  title  of  prince  of  Venice,  proclaimed  him 
"his  adopted  son,  and  heir-apparent  to  the 
crown  of  Italy.'*  On  his  taking  the  reins  of 
government,  Eugdne  was  only  24,  but  showed 
at  once  great  prudence  and  discretion,  taking 
advice  from  the  most  experienced,  and  select- 
ing tiie  most  competent  for  the  various  offices. 
Improvements  were  introduced  in  all  branches  of 
the  administration.  The  Italum  army  was  rein- 
forced, and  soon  ranked  among  the  best  troops 
of  tiie  great  empire;  the  fortresses  and  the 
coasts  were  put  m  a  state  of  defence;  uniform 
laws  promulgated ;  &cilities  for  public  educa- 
tion mcreas^ ;  beggary  suppressed  by  the  es- 
tablishment of  asylums  for  the  poor ;  and  the 
cathedral  of  lOlan  completed.  All  this  was 
accomplished  without  any  addition  to  the 
taxes;  never  were  the  fiscal  charges  so  mode- 
rate, and  vet,  in  1818,  the  public  treasury  had  a 
surplus  of  92,000,000  livres,  Italian.  Italy  had 
enjoyed  8  years  of  tranquillity  and  prosperi^ 
under  the  wise  administration  of  the  viceroy, 
when  the  fourth  Austrian  war  broke  out,  and 
Eugene  with  scarcely  60,000  soldiers  had  to  op- 
pose an  army  of  100,000  under  Archduke  John. 
Being  constrained  at  first  to  concentrate  hia 
troops  behind  the  Tagliamento,  he  was  de* 
feated  in  the  battle  of  Sacile,  April  16,  1809 ; 
but  soon  took  his  revenge  on  the  banks  of  the 
Piave,  where  he  infficted  on  the  Austrians  a 
loss  of  10,000  soldiers  and  15  pieces  of  canaon. 


BEAUHABKAIS 


BEAUHARNAIS 


1ft 


Engine  pnrsned  them  into  Oarintl&iA,  defeated 
them  in  sevenil  encoantera,  and  loined  the  great 
French  armj  in  the  plains  of  Austria.  Then, 
hj  order  of  the  emperor,  he  invaded  Hungary, 
and  gnned,  Jnne  14^  near  Raab,  a  bloody  vio- 
tory  over  Archdnke  John,  whose  army  was  by 
one-third  stronger  than  his  own.  Three  weelu 
later,  he  took  an  important  part  in  the  gigantio 
battle  of  Wagram.  The  glory  he  had  ac^quired, 
and  the  partiality  of  Napoleon  toward  him,  had 
esdted  jealousy  among  some  members  of  the 
imperial  family ;  and  intrigues  produced  some 
coldness  between  the  adopted  son  and  the 
father-in-law.  It  was  the  time,  moreover,  when, 
yielding  to  political  motivea,  Napoleon  began 
to  tbini  of  divorcing' Josephine.  This  was  one 
of  the  saddest  periods  in  the  life  of  Eugene, 
who  adored  his  mother  as  much  as  he  respected 
Napoleon.  Notwithstanding  all  his  entreaties, 
the  divorce  took  place ;  and  to  make  the  cup 
more  bitter  to  the  ups  of  Engine,  he  was  obliged, 
as  state  arch-chancellor,  to  announce  the  event 
to  the  senate.  In  1812  he  commanded  the  4th 
corps  of  the  tremendous  army  which  invaded 
Bussia,  greatly  contributed  to  the  victory  on 
the  Beresina,  by  holding  possession  of  the  re- 
doubt of  Borodino,  whicn  he  had  stormed 
twice,  by  superhuman  efforts.  During  the 
awful  retreat,  in  which  more  than  200,000 
French  soldiers  perished,  no  one  among  the 
generals  of  Napoleon  displayed  so  much  self- 
possession,  firmness,  and  intrepidity  as  Prince 
Eugene;  when  aU  were  despairing  he  main- 
tained an  invincible  constancy ;  and  what  little 
could  be  preserved  from  the  ruins  of  the  army, 
was  saved  by  his  unwearied  exertions.  Napo- 
leon had  intrusted  Murat^  king  of  Naples,  with 
the  command  of  the  retreating  forces ;  but  he 
abandoned  the  forlorn  undertaking,  and  Eu- 
gene alone  was  bold  enough  to  continue  and 
bring  back  the  miserable  remnants  of  the 
grand  army.  The  retreat  he  conducted  from 
Poznan  to  Leipsic  has  been  considered  by  com- 
petent Judges  as  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
war  operations  on  record.  When  speaking  of 
that  disastrous  campaign,  Napoleon  more  Uian 
once  said ;  ''Every  one  of  us  committed  faults 
and  blunders ;  Eugdne  alone  committed  none." 
He  had  at  last  gi£hered  the  remaining  forces 
behind  the  Elbe ;  thus  giving  time  to  Napoleon 
for  preparing  his  last  resources.  Before  leav« 
ing  the  army  he  contributed  much  to  the  victory 
of  Lutzen.  Then  he  repaired  to  Italy,  where 
his  presence  was  called  for.  In  less  than  8 
months  a  new  army,  amounting  to  50,000  sol- 
diers, was  organized ;  all  the  fortresses  were 
prepared  for  defence.  He  took  such  advan- 
tageous positions  in  the  mountains  of  Oarinthia 
and  Caniiola.  that  he  would  have  preserved 
Italy,  if  it  had  not  been  for  the  defection  of  Ba- 
varia. The  Austrians  were  permitted  to  enter 
by  the  Tyrolese  passes,  and  £ugdne  had  to  fall 
back  on  the  Adige.  There  he  held  his  ground 
fi>r  B  months  against  the  Austrians ;  but  mean- 
while the  king  of  Naples  had  sided  with  the 
enemiee  of  bia  brother-in-law  and  benefactor. 


In  January,  1B14,  80,000  Neapolitans,  aided  by 
10,000  English  and  Austrians,  invaded  upper 
Italy.  Eug^e  fell  back  on  the  Mincio,  and  tri- 
umphed once  more  over  the  Austrians  on  Feb.  8 ; 
but  all  his  exertions  were  of  no  avail,  the  great 
empire  was  crumbling.  When  all  hope  was 
gone,  Eugene  at  last  left  Italy,  and  retired  to 
&e  court  of  his  fftther- in-law.  There  he  re- 
ceived, with  the  principality  of  Eichstadt,  the 
titles  of  duke  of  Leuchtenberg  and  first  peer 
of  the  kingdom.  He  thenceforth  devoted 
himself  to  the  task  of  bringing  up  his  children, 
and  was  9  years  later  suddenly  carried  away  bv 
an  apoplectic  &t,  Prince  Engine  left  by  hu 
wife,  the  princess  of  Bavaria,  2  sons,  and  4 
daughters.  The  eldest  among  the  latter,  Jose- 
phine, is  the  queen  of  Oscar  of  Sweden;  the 
next  Eugenie  Hortense,  married  to  the  prince 
of  HohenzoUem-Hechingen ;  and  l^e  third, 
Amalia  Augusta,  widow  of  Don  Pedro  L,  is 
now  empre^-dowager  of  Brazil  and  duchess  of 
Braganza.  Of  the  2  sons,  the  elder,  Augusta 
Charles,  the  husband  of  queen  Donna  Maria,  of 
Portugal,  died  March  28, 1885 ;  and  the  younger, 
Maximilian  Joseph,  who  had,  in  1842,  married 
the  grand  duchess  Maria,  daughter  of  Ciar 
Nicholas  I.,  died  Dec.  6, 1862. 

BEAUHABNAIS,  FsANgoia,  marquis  de, 
born  Aug.  12,  1766,  at  La  Rochelle,  died  in 
1828.  He  was  the  brother  of  Alexandre,  and 
was  also  sent  to  the  states-general.  He  was 
an  unfiinching  royalist,  and  in  1792,  he  fhuned 
a  plan  for  the  flight  of  the  royal  family ;  but 
having  &iled  in  his  attempt,  he  left  France  and 
joined  the  army  under  the  prince  of  Gond^  in 
which  he  was  appointed  mi^or-^neraL  After 
the  18th  Brumaire,  he  sent  to  his  eister-in-law, 
Josephine,  a  missive,  to  be  delivered  into  the 
hands  of  Bonaparte,  in  which  he  requested  him, 
"  in  the  name  of  the  only  glory  he  had  yet  to 
fl^in,  to  restore  the  crown  of  France  to  the 
Bourbons.^'  He  was,  however,  recalled  to 
France  on  the  occamon  of  his  daughter's  mar- 
riage with  M.  de  Lavalette,  and  appointed  di- 
rector-general of  the  post-office,  then  ambassa- 
dor to  Etruria  and  to  Spain;  bnt  Napoleon 
being  soon  dissatisfied  with  his  services  in  that 
capacity,  he  was  recalled. 

BEAUHARNAIS,  Hobtbxtbb  Euobnis,  wifb 
of  Louis  Bonaparte,  and  queen  of  Holland,  bom 
at  Paris,  Apru  10,  1788,  died  at  Arenenberg, 
Switzerhmd,  Oct  8, 1887.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  Alexandre  loeauhanuus  and  Josephine, 
afterward  wife  of  Napoleon.  She  was  to  have 
married  Desaix ;  but  on  Jan.  7, 1802.  in  compli- 
ance with  the  wish  of  Napoleon,  she  oeoame  the 
wife  of  Louis,  who  also  gave  up  a  former  at- 
tachment for  the  marriage.  The  union  was  not 
a  happy  one;  and  Hortense  returned  to  Paris, 
and  lived  a  dissolute  life  there  apart  from  her 
husband.  Prominent  among  her  lovers  was 
the  comte  de  Flahaut,  for  whom  she  composed 
her  popular  air,  Fartant  p&ur  la  Syrie^  as  he 
was  leaving  Paris  for  Grermany,  and  Admiral 
Yeruel,  a  Dutch  naval  officer.  The  former  is 
bdieved  to  have  been  the  father  of  K  de  Mor^ 


BEAUHABNAIS 


BEAUHANOIB 


ny,  unirersfillx  recognized  as  tiie  illegitimate 
hfiif-brother  of  Napoleon  UL,  whom  he  greatly 
aided  in  becoming  emperor;  and  to  the  lat- 
ter is  attributed  tne  paternity  of  Napoleon  III. 
himself.  It  is  known  that  Louis  Bonaparte  had 
a  warm  dispute  with  his  brother,  the  emperor, 
touching  this  child,  which  he  averred  to  be 
none  of  his,  and  that  his  unwilliDgness  to  recog- 
nize it  as  such  was  only  overcome  by  the  most 
decided  measures  on  the  part  of  N^oleon.  Af- 
ter the  separation  of  Napoleon  and  Josephine, 
Hortense  remained  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
former.  When  the  Bourbons  came  back  in 
1814,  she  alone  of  fdl  the  Bonaparte  family  re- 
mained in  Paris.  After  the  Hundred  Days,  she 
Uved  in  Augsburg,  in  Italy,  and  in  Switzerland, 
devoted  to  her  sons,  and  greatly  beloved  by 
the  people  with  whom  she  came  in  contact, 
who  found  her  a  kind  and  gentle  benefactress. 
When  her  sons  had  to  flee,  after  participating 
in  an  unsuccessful  attempt  at  revolution,  in 
Italy,  in  1881,  she  went  for  a  time  to  Paris,  and 
was  kindly  received  by  Louis  Philippe.  She 
possessed  mudi  literary,  as  well  as  social  talent. 
Of  her  4  acknowledged  children,  only  Napoleon 
III.  and  M.  de  Momy  now  survive. 

BEAUHABNAIS,  Karis  Aitnb  EsiiNgoiss 
MouoHABD,  better  known  as  Fanny,  comtesse 
de,  a  literary  woman,  bom  at  Paris,  in  1788, 
died  July  2, 1818.  She  married,  when  still  very 
youngs  the  Count  Beauhamais,  uncle  to  Alex- 
andre and  FranQois,  but  soon  separated  from  her 
husband,  and  retired  into  a  nunnery,  whence 
she  emerged,  after  the  revolution,  to  lead  a  very 
free  life  at  Paris,  where,  after  the  divorce  of  her 
relative,  ihe  empress  Josephine,  she  fell  into 
obscurity.  She  wrote  some  miscellaneous  poems, 
a  novel,  and  several  comedies,  which  are  now 
forgotten.  Notwithstanding  her  kindness  and 
benevolence,  stie  was  sometimes  bitterly  criti- 
cized ;  and  it  was  to  her  Lebrun  alluded,  in  his 
pungent  epigram: 

itd^  belle  et  poMe,  a  deax  petite  traTen : 
£Ue  lUt  aon  vuoge,  et  ne  Cut  point  sea  Yen. 

She  was,  indeed,  charged  with  signing  her  name 
to  poems  which  were  written  by  her  lovers. 

BEAUHARNOIS,  a  county  in  the  S.  W.  ex- 
tremity of  Oanada  East,  extending  to  the  St. 
Lawrence  on  the  N.  W.,  and  ftom  New  York 
state  on  the  south.  It  has  an  area  of  717  sq. 
miles.  This  surface  is  drained  by  the  Chateau- 
gay  river  and  several  minor  streams,  and  pro- 
duces oats  and  abundant  pasturage  for  sheep 
and  cows.  Butter  is  the  principal  product. 
Pop.  40,218.  The  chief  towns  are  Huntingdon 
ana  Beauhamois.  The  latter  is  a  post  viUage 
situated  on  lake  St.  Louis,  formed  by  the  St. 
Lawrence,  88  miles  S.  W.  of  MontreiEil ;  pop. 
in  1861,  800. 

BEAUJOLAIS,  a  district  of  France,  in  the 
ancient  province  of  Lyonnais,  forming  now  the 
northern  part  of  the  department  of  Bhone,  and 
a  small  part  of  ^at  of  Loire.  It  belonged  for  a 
long  while  to  the  ducal  house  of  Bourbon,  was 
oonfisoated  in  1522  from  the  great  constable  of 
Bourbon,  and  united  to  the  crown  by  Francis  I. ; 


it  was  afterward  given  back,  in  1560,  to  & 
nephew  of  the  constable,  and  in  1628  came,  by 
marriage,  to  the  house  of  Orleans,  where  it  re- 
mained until  the  revolution.  Its  name  is  pre- 
served now  by  an  excellent  wine  which  is  pro- 
duced on  its  hills,  Vin  de  Beaujolais. 

BEAULIEIJ,  or  Exs,  a  parish  of  Hants,  Eng- 
land, at  the  mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same 
name.  It  contains  the  ruins  of  an  abbey  founded 
by  King  John,  and  memorable  for  having  af- 
forded refuge  to  Hargaret  of  Anjou  and  to 
Perkin  Warbeck.  Within  the  limits  of  the 
manor  of  Beaulieu,  exemption  from  arrest  for 
debt  is  still  enioyed. 

BEAULIEU,  Camits  de  Vebnet,  a  favorite 
of  King  Charles  VH.,  of  France,  died  in  1427. 
When  M.  de  Giac,  a  former  fkvorite  of  the  king, 
was  murdered  by  order  of  the  constable,  Artus 
of  Bichemont,  Beaulieu  was  put  in  the  place  of 
the  murdered  man,  appointed  at  once  com- 
mander of  the  castle  of  Poitiers,  where  the 
king  resided,  first  equerry  and  grand  master  of 
the  horse,  with  fall  control  over  the  finances. 
But  Bichemont,  dissatisfied  with  his  conduct| 
sent  four  or  five  soldiers,  who  summarily  de- 
spatched him  while  he  was  emoying  a  ride 
around  the  castle.  Charles  YU.,  very  little 
moved  by  this  not  unusual  accident,  received 
another  favorite  from  the  constable. 

BEAULIEU,  Jban  Pierbe,  baron,  an  Austrian 
general,  born  in  1725,  at  Namur,  Belgium,  died 
in  1819,  at  Lintz.  He  first  served  during  the  7 
years*  war;  being  afterward  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  major-general,  he  was  put  in  oommand 
of  the  troops  sent  against  the  rebellious  Braban- 
tlna,  whom  he  soon  conquered  by  his  humanity 
no  less  than  his  courage  and  skilfhl  measures. 
In  1792  he  fought  against  the  French  troops, 
who  had  invaded  Belgium,  and  defeated  them 
in  several  encounters,  especially  at  Arlon.  In 
1796  he  was  sent  to  Italy,  against  Bonaparte ; 
the  veteran  was  mercilessly  routed  by  his  young 
rival  at  Montenotte,  Fombio,  and  Lodi ;  then  re- 
pulsed, with  the  fragments  of  his  army,  6ver 
the  Oglio,  the  Mincio,  and  the  Adige  into  Tyrol, 
where,  June  25, 1796,  he  resigned  his  command, 
which  was  given  to  Wurmser,  and  retired  to 
private  life. 

BEAUMANOIB,  Jean,  sire  de,  a  celebrated 
French  knight,  bom  in  iBrittany,  lived  about 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  He  was  tho 
countryman  and  companion-at-arms  of  the  illus- 
trious Du  Guesclin,  and  like  his  friend,  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  civil  wars  of  Brittany, 
when  John,  count  of  Montforl^  supported  b^ 
the  English,  and  Charles  of  Blois,  aided  by  tho 
king  of  France,  contended  for  the  possession  of 
that  dachy.  But  he  owes  all  his  celebrity  to 
that  terrible  encounter  known  as  the  combat 
de8  trente.  He  then  had  the  command  of  the 
castle  of  Josselin ;  and  being  enraged  at  the  dep- 
redations committed  by  Bemborough,  the  Eng- 
Ibh  commander  at  Ploermel,  he  ch^enged  him 
to  fi^ht.  It  was,  therefore,  agreed  that  thirty- 
knights  of  each  party  should  meet,^  March  27, 
1851,  at  a  place  between  the  two  casUea  known 


BEAmCANOm 


BEAUMABCHAIS 


21 


u  llidwfty  Oak.  On  the  annooncement  of  the 
coming  battle,  crowds  of  people  flocked  toge- 
ther from  all  the  surronnding  country.  The  two 
chiefs  preeented  themselYee  at  the  head  of  their 
best  soldiers,  and  the  fight  commenced  in  earnest. 
On  the  first  onset  the  English  excelled  their  adver- 
saries ;  bat  BemboroDgh  having  been  killed,  the 
French  renewed  the  struggle  with  redoabled 
comrade,  and  finaUy  won  the  victory.  This  was 
one  of  the  most  heroic  exploits  of  the  time,  and 
gained  snch  a  popularity  that,  more  than  a  han- 
dled years  later,  when  spealdng  of  a  hard  con- 
tested batde,  it  was  nsaal  to  sav:  *^  There  was 
never  sach  hard  fightinff  since  the  battle  of  the 
thirty!**  At  the  battle  of  Aaray,  in  1864, 
Beaamanoir  was  taken  prisoner  as  well  as  Da 
Qnesdin. 

BEAUKANOIR,  Phiuppe  db,  an  eminent 
French  jurist,  bom  in  Picardy,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  18th  centmy,  died  in  1295.  He  be- 
longed to  the  middle  class,  which  was  then 
ndning  ground  by  its  alliance  with  royalty,  and 
filled  some  minor  oiBces  in*  the  adminiBtration 
of  law.  In  1280  he  was  bailifif  of  Clermont,  in 
Beaovaisis,  which  town  was  in  the  hands  of 
Robert,  the  fifth  son  of  Louis  IX.  and  the  head 
of  the  Bourbon  family.  It  was  according  to 
directions  from  this  prince  that  he  digested  and 
committed  to  writing  the  traditional  law  regu- 
lations of  the  country.  This  book.  La  Coutume 
de  Beawxnsit^  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  monu- 
ments of  French  law  during  the  middle  ages. 
It  greatly  contributed  to  reforming  the  excesses 
of  the  feudal  system,  and  enforcmg  the  para- 
mount power  of  the  monarch.  It  is  hurhly 
esteemed,  and  frequently  referred  to  by  modem 
historians,  jurists,  and  archieologists.  It  has  re- 
cently been  republished  by  order  of  the  minister 
of  public  instraction  in  France. 

BEAUMAROH  AIS,  Pixrbb  Auoustin  Caron 
DB,  a  French  dramatic  writer  of  great  originali- 
ty, still  more  remarkable  for  his  eccentricities 
of  life,  changes  of  fortune,  and  elasticity  of 
mind,  bora  Jan.  24, 1732,  at  Paris,  died  May 
19, 1799.  He  was  the  son  of  a  watchmaker,  and 
after  receiving  a  slight  education  at  a  private 
Bchool,  he  was  brought  up  to  the  trade  of  his 
fhther ;  but,  being  very  fond  of  music  and  so- 
cial pleasure,  he  paid  little  attention  to  it,  so 
that  his  fftther,  a  very  kind-hearted  man, 
thought  it  necessary  to  expel  him  from  his 
bouse,  though  meanwhile  affording  him  assist- 
ance secretly.  They  were  soon  reconciled,  and 
young  Caron,  ambitaous  to  make  amends  for  his 
previous  conduct,  took  to  the  trade  with  such 
earnestness  that  he  made  conaderable  progress, 
and  even  invented  a  valuable  improvement  in 
the  making  of  watches.  This  bemg  contested 
by  Lepante,  then  a  very  celebrated  watchmaker, 
the  litigation  was  submitted  for  decision  to  the 
academy  of  science,  who  rendered  a  verdict  in 
fikvor  of  the  young  competitor,  which  success 
caused  him  to  be  appointed  watchmaker  to  the 
king.  In  this  capacity  he  had  access  to  court, 
where  he  was  remarked  for  his  handsome  figure 
and  livdy  oountenanoe.    To  these  he  was  soon 


indebted  for  an  ofiloe  in  the  royal  household, 
and  then  for  his  marriage  with  a  widow  in  good 
circumstances.  His  wife  died,  and  B^wnmar- 
chais  would  have  been  reduced  to  poverty  if  it 
had  not  been  for  his  talent  as  a  musician.  Be- 
ing a  skilfrd  player  on  the  harp  and  the  guitar, 
he  was  asked  to  play  before  the  daughters  of 
Louis  XV.,  and  was  soon  admitted  to  Sieir  con- 
certs and  parties,  the  direction  of  which  was  in- 
trusted to  his  care.  Such  favor,  althou^  bring- 
ing no  pecuniary  profit,  excited  envy,  but  event- 
ually became  the  cause  of  his  fortune.  Through 
his  influence  with  the  princesses  he  was  enabled 
to  be  of  some  service  to  the  great  financier, 
Paris  Duverney,  who,  by  way  of  reward,  took 
him  as  his  partner  in  some  transactions,  by 
which  the  younff  man  gained  large  sums  of  mo- 
ney. Part  of  his  profits  were  applied  to  buying 
an  oflice  in  the  royal  hunting  establishment 
which  he  held  for  22  years.  But  this  did  not 
interfere  with  his  commercial  or  financial  spec- 
nlations.  In  1764  we  find  him  at  Madrid  tnr- 
ing  to  enter  into  some  contracts  with  the 
Spanish  government,  but  above  all  engaged  in 
protecting  his  younger  sister,  who  had  b^n  ill- 
treated  by  a  Spanish  gentleman  named  01av\jo. 
Bv  his  firmness,  self-possession,  industry,  and 
aaroit  management,  he  fully  vindicated  his  sis- 
ter^s  honor,  causing  Glav\]o  to  be  shamefrdly 
dismissed  from  the  office  he  held  at  the  Spanish 
court.  Some  2  years  after  his  return  to  France, 
Beaumarchais  produced  a  drama  entitled  EugS- 
nie^  the  plot  of  which  was  founded  on  that  ad- 
venture. It  had  a  successAil  run,  and  was,  under 
the  title  of  the ''  School  for  Rakes,*'  adapted  for 
the  stage  at  Drary  Lane,  then  under  the  man- 
agement of  Oarrick.  In  1770  8  misfortunes 
befell  Beaumarchais :  his  2d  drama,  Lei  deux 
amis^  proved  a  complete  failure ;  he  lost  his  2d 
wife,  who  had  brought  him  a  large  fortune, 
and  was,  consequently,  deprived  of  the  larger 
part  of  his  income;  lasUy^his  old  friend  and 
partner,  Duverney,  died.  This  last  event  gave 
rise  to  lawsuits  which  lasted  more  than  7  years, 
and  involved  in  the  issue  not  only  the  fortune 
of  Beaumarchais,  but  his  honor.  The  heir  of 
the  financier,  the  count  de  Lablache,  impelled 
by  hatred,  declared  an  asreement  by  which 
Beaumarchaia  was  the  creditor  of  Duverney  to 
be  fraudulent,  and  sued  him  as  indebted  to  the 
succession  for  a  large  balance.  Beaumarchais 
first  gained  his  cause;  but,  upon  an  appeal,  it 
was  f^udged  against  him,  so  that  he  was,  by 
implication,  pronounced  a  forger.  At  the  same 
time,  from  a  motive  totally  foreign  to  the  trial, 
he  was  unlawfully  detained  in  prison  for  more 
than  2  months.  Any  one  else  would  have  been 
irretrievably  lost,  but,  with  unconquerable  for- 
titude, he  reentered  the  lists,  not  only  against 
his  old  opponent,  the  count  de  Lablache,  but 
against  the  judoe,  Gk)ezman,  who,  by  his  unfii- 
vorable  report,  had  procured  the  reversal  of  the 
first  judgment.  This  last  lawsuit  soon  became 
paramount.  The  parliament,  of  which  Goez- 
man  was  a  member,  being  very  unpopular, 
Beaumarchais  made  use  of  we  occasion,  and  so 


22 


BEAITMAROHAIS 


skilfully  maDiiged  his  defenoe,  that  he  enlisted 
the  puhlic  in  his  interest.  It  seemed,  indeed, 
as  if  he  was  pleading,  not  his  own,  but  every- 
body's caose;  in  fact,  this  individoal  lawsuit 
became  a  struggle  between  the  people^  as  repre- 
sented by  one  of  fhem  assuming,  for  the  first 
time  in  France,  the  title  of  citizen,  and  the 
hated  parliament,  or,  rather,  the  old  order  of 
things,  whicl^  was  assaulted  and  battered  down 
with  all  the  weapons  ingenuity,  boldness,  and 
wit  could  f  umi^.  The  memorises  of  Beaumar- 
ohais  were  indeed  masterpieces  of  pungent  elo- 
quence, and,  although  worsted  bv  his  opponent 
in  the  point  of  law,  he  succeeded  in  coming  off 
▼ictorious  in  the  eyes  of  the  public.  Meanwhile 
he  had  won  one  of  his  brightest  triumphs  as  a 
dramatist.  Le  Barbier  de  SMUe  was  perform- 
ed in  1776,  and  the  liveliness  and  comic  power 
of  the  play  were  in  perfect  contrast  with  the 
sad  dulness  of  his  former  dramas.  Owing  to 
some  secret  serrice  he  had  done  to  the  king,  he 
was  soon  relieved  from  the  incapacity  resulting 
from  the  judgment  rendered  agunst  him ;  his 
great  lawsuit  was  submitted  to  a  supreme  court, 
and,  on  July  SI,  1778,  he  definitively  gained  his 
cause.  He  was  then  the  most  popular  man  in 
France,  and,  at  the  same  time,  on  the  very  best 
terras  with  the  government.  This  he  made  use 
of  to  accomplish  a  great  undertaking  he  had  been 
pursuing  for  the  8  preceding  years.  As  early 
as  1775  ne  had  submitted  to  the  king  a  memo- 
rial in  which  he  insisted  upon  the  necessity  for 
the  French  government  to  come  secretiv  to  the 
assistance  of  the  English  colonies  of  America 
against  England,  giving  as  his  deliberate  opin- 
ion that  they  would  prove  unconquerable. 
Beaumarchais  passed  a  part  of  the  year  1775  in 
England  as  an  Kgent  of  the  French  ministry ; 
haa  interviews  with  Arthur  Lee,  and  was  in 
the  most  intimate  relations  of  correspondence 
with  Vergennes.  His  secrecy,  his  sagacity  in 
interpreting  a  hint  from  a  minister  without 
forcing  him  to  commit  himself  even  verbally, 
his  quickness  of  perception  and  his  social  at- 
tractions, made  him  a  convenient  instrument. 
His  papers  served  to  fix  the  wavering  purpose 
of  the  King,  and  when  Maurepas,  the  chief  min- 
ister, hesitated  about  espousing  the  cause  of  the 
insurgent  Americans,  Bieanmarchais,  by  letters, 
representations,  and  adroit  flattery,  assisted  to 
bring  him  to  the  decision,  which  his  own  love 
of  ease  would  have  shunned.  The  French 
cabinet  ostensibly  professed  to  decline  send- 
ing any  assistance,  but  they  consented  to 
help  Beaumarchais  in  his  plan  to  furnish  the 
colonies  with  arms  and  ammunition.  For  that 
purpose  they  had  secretly  advanced  to  him 
1,000,000  livrea,  an  equal  sum  beingfumished  by 
Spain,  and  delivered  to  him  arms  and  ammunition 
fit>m  the  public  arsenals,  on  the  condition  that 
he  would  pay  for  or  replace  the  same.  Beau- 
marchais, under  the  firm  of  Roderique  Hortalez 
and  Oo.,  as  early  as  the  beginning  of  1777,  for- 
warded 3  of  his  own  ships,  carrying  2Gk)  pieces 
of  ordnance,  26,000  muskets,  200,000  lbs.  of  gun- 
powder, and  other  ammunition.    He  had  also 


engaged  more  than  60  officers^  who  sailed  on 
board  the  Amphitrite,  his  largest  ship ;  and 
among  the  number  were  LaBouerie,  Pulaski,  and 
Steuben,  who  so  powerfully  luded  in  the  success 
of  the  American  troops.  This  first  fleet  safely 
arrived  at  Portsmouth,  and  inspired  the  colo- 
nists with  renewed  hope.  Several  other  ships 
were  sent  during  the  same  year,  and  about  the 
month  of  September  Beaumarohais's  disburse- 
ments amounted  to  more  than  6,000,000  francs. 
Ck>nffress,  being  under  the  impression  that  these 
supplies  were  gratuitously  furnished  by  the 
French  government,  under  a  disguised  form, 
neglected  to  make  remittances  to  Beaumarchais, 
who  found  himself  in  embarrassed  drcum- 
stances,  from  which  he  was  relieved  by  the 
Frendi  government  advancing  him  another 
million  of  francs.  The  forwarding  of  supplies 
was  continued,  and  toward  the  beginning  of 
1779,  no  less  than  10  vessels  sailed  at  once,  but 
few  of  them  reached  their  destination.  At  that 
time  the  United  States  were  indebted  to  Roder- 
ique Hortalez  and  Oo.,  or,  rather,  Beaumarchais, 
to  the  amount  of  more  than  4,000,000  francs.  Al- 
though congress  did  not  hesitate  to  acknowledge 
its  obligations  toward  the  French  firm,  the  settle- 
ment of  so  large  indebtment  met  with  many 
diflaculties,  and  it  was  not  till  1886  that  the 
final  balance  of  about  800,000  francs  was  paid 
to  the  heirs  of  Beaumarchais.  The  transaction, 
far  from  having  been  profitable  to  the  latter,  as  it 
has  been  frequently  asserted,  resulted  in  losses, 
which  he  was  enabled  to  withstand  through 
government  aid  and  some  more  successful  spec- 
ulations of  various  kinds.  One  of  the  largest, 
which,  however,  ended  by  being  disadvan- 
tageous, was  the  first  complete  edition  of  Vol- 
taire's works,  known  as  the  ^^Eehl  edition." 
Amid  all  the  bustle  of  commercial  affain, 
Beaumarchais  did  not  neglect  literature,  and, 
in  1784.  he  came  out  with  the  most  celebrated 
of  his  plays,  Le  Mariage  de  Figaro.  *^  To  write 
this  piece,"  a  biographer  says,  ^*  was  certainly  a 
difficult  task;  but  to  have  it  performed  was 
a  thing  which  would  have  been  impossible  to 
any  one  but  Beaumarchais.^'  Louis  XVI. 
had  emphatically  decided  that  it  should  never 
be  performed  under  his  reign ;  and,  neverthe- 
less, the  performance  took  place  6  months  later. 
It  was  certainly  one  of  the  most  striking  events 
among  the  forerunners  of  the  French  revolution. 
The  eagerness  to  see  the  play  was  unprecedent- 
ed, and  such  was  the  anxiety  to  be  present  at 
the  first  representation  that  tliousan^  of  per- 
sons thronged  to  the  entrance  of  the  tiieatre 
fh>m  the  early  morning.  Ladies  of  the  highest 
rank  passed  the  day  and  dined  in  the  private 
boxes  of  actresses,  to  secure  their  seats,  and  3 
men  were  smothered  in  the  rush  at  the  opening 
of  the  doors.  Words  are  inadequate  to  express 
the  public  rapture,  and  the  piece  had  to  be  per- 
formed for  2  years  in  succession.  The  first  67 
representations  brought  to  the  theatre  846,197 
francs,  which  netted  298,765  fhmcs  clear  profit, 
out  of  which  Beaumarchais  received  41,499. 
This  waa  a  trifle  for  a  man  who  was  engaged  in 


BEAUMABIS 


BEAUMONT 


iiinn«D9e  speeolAtionfli,  Bach  as  the  Mtablishment 
of  a  bftnk  of  discount,  nearly  on  the  plan  of  the 
bank  of  England,  and  the  supply  of  water  to 
the  inhabitants  of  Paris,  for  which  he  wsa  vira- 
lently  abused  by  Mirabean,  who  was  then  a 
aealous  pamphleteer.  In  1787  he  was  again 
entangled  in  a  lawsuit,  when  he  had  as  his  op- 
ponent Bergasse,  a  dashing  youn^  lawyer  from 
Lyons ;  but  his  cause  was  devoid  of  interest, 
and  apparently  not  very  creditable  to  his  moral- 
ity, and  while  he  was  suocessfol  before  the  court 
be  lost  it  before  the  public  In  1792  his  last 
drama,  La  Mire  eoupable^  was  performed. 
During  the  reign  of  terror,  being  anxious  to 
give  evidence  of  his  patriotism,  he  bought  some 
60,000  muskets  in  Holland  for  the  French  re- 
public, but,  through  some  mismanagement, 
they  were  not  delivered  in  time,  and  Beanmar- 
ehajs  was  charged  with  the  intention  of  selling 
them  to  the  emigres.  He  thought  it  prudent 
not  to  wait  for  a  trial,  and  went  to  England, 
from  whence  he  sent  an  apologetical  memoir, 
entitled  J£»  tix  ipoquei.  He,  however,  return- 
ed to  his  native  country,  and  was  committed  to 
prison.  His  life  was  saved  by  Manuel.  He 
continued  in  obscurity  during  the  directory, 
and  died  suddenly  in  the  68th  year  of  his 
age.  His  complete  works  were  published 
(Paris,  1809,  7  vols.  8vo)  by  his  friend,  Gudin 
de  la  Brenellerie,  who  left  interesting  MSS. 
upon  his  life.  Another  edition  was  brought 
out  by  Fevine  (Paris,  1827,  6  vols.  8vo),  with  a 
biographical  notice  by  St.  Marc  Girardin.  A 
very  full  and  able  memoir  of  his  life,  by  M.  de 
Lom^nie,  published  in  1857,  under  the  title  of 
BeavmarAaii  et  ton  tempiy  has  been  translated 
into  En^ish  and  reprinted  in  this  country. 

BEAUMARIS,  a  seaport  town  of  North 
Walea,  island  of  Anglesea,  near  the  northern 
entrance  of  the  Menai  strait,  a  few  miles  from 
the  Meiuu  bridge.  It  has  the  ruins  of  a  castle 
built  by  Edward  I.  in  1298. 

BEAUMELLE,  Laurent  Anguvisl  dx  la, 
a  French  writer,  known  by  the  unrelenting  en- 
mity of  Voltaire  against  him,  bom  Jan.  28. 
1726,  at  Yallerangne,  department  of  Gard,  diea 
at  Paris,  Nov.  17, 1773.  While  at  Berlin,  he  was 
Introduced  to  Voltaire,  whose  pride  he  deeply 
-wounded  by  a  remark  in  one  of  his  boolu 
oaUed  Me$  penUei,  Betnming  to  France,  he 
-was  arrested  at  Voltaire*s  instigation,  and  con- 
fined for  6  months  in  the  Bastile.  Restored  to 
liberty,  he  wrote  a  very  witty  pamphlet  in  an- 
swer to  an  attack  directed  against  him  by  Vol- 
taire during  his  captivity;  and  then  devoted 
all  his  time  to  the  composition  of  his  MhnMret 
j90ur  mmr  d  rhUtoire  ae  Madame  de  Mainterumy 
-which  was  received  with  marked  favor ;  but 
when  he  was  about  availing  himself  of  his  suo- 
cees,  he  was  arrested  a  second  time,  and  con- 
fined again  for  more  than  a  year  in  the  state 
prison.  In  1764  he  married  a  young  lady  who 
was  possessed  of  some  property,  and  he  had 
the  hope  of  onietlv  living  on  her  estate ;  when 
soddeidy  Voltaire's  renewed  hostility  called 
him  again  into  the  literary  arena.    ]>uring  this 


new  contest.  La  Beaumelle  displayed  such  tact, 
energy,  and  wit,  that  he  sometimes  got  the 
better  of  his  powerful  rival.  At  last,  in  1770, 
he  obtained  permission  to  return  to  Paris,  re- 
ceiving, moreover,  an  appointment  as  asnstant 
in  the  royal  library,  and  afterward  a  pension, 
— ^His  son,  Victor  Latjhbkt  Suzanitb  Mofsi, 
bom  in  France  in  1772,  died  at  Rio  Janeiro  in 
1881,  served  as  colonel  of  engineers  in  the 
army  of  the  emperor  Don  Pedro,  and  pub- 
lished an  interesting  pamphlet  on  the  Brazilian 
empire. 

BEAUMETZ,  Bon  Aisxbt  Briois  dx,  a  mem- 
ber of  the  French  constituent  assembly,  bom 
Dec.  24, 1769,  at  Arras,  died  at  Calcutta  about 
1809.  He  greatly  contributed  to  reform  the 
old  laws,  and  insisted  upon  the  establishment 
of  trial  by  iury.  He  was  elected  president  of 
the  nationd  assembly,  May  27, 1790.  On  the 
a^oumment  of  that  body,  he  was  appointed 
member  of  the  departmental  directory  at 
Paris.  In  1792,  being  charged  with  attempting 
to  restore  the  monardiical  government,  he  emi- 
grated, wandering  through  Germany,  England, 
the  United  States^  and  at  last  went  to  the  East 
Indies,  where  he  died.  According  to  another 
report,  he  was  permitted  to  retum  to  France 
after  the  18th  Bramaire,  and  breathed  his  last 
a  few  months  after  arriving  in  his  native  coun- 
try. He  was  the  author  of  a  valuable  boc^ 
entitled.  Code  P^l  dee  juree  de  la  hauU 
eour  nationale.  Paris,  1792. 

BEAUMONT,  a  post  village  on  the  Neches 
river,  and  the  capital  of  Jefferson  oo.,  Texas. 
The  surrounding  prairies  are  filled  with  herds 
of  cattle  and  horses,  the  raising  of  which  is 
the  principal  occupation  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Beaumont  Small  vessels  ply  regularly  be- 
tween this  port  and  Galveston. 

BEAUMONT,  Christopbr  dx,  archbishop  of 
Paris,  bom  July  26,  1708.  in  P^rigord,  died 
Dec.  12, 1781,  at  Paris.  He  is  known  by  his 
severity  toward  the  Jansenists,  whom  he  wished 
to  subject  to  the  famous  bull  Uhigenitue;  but 
especially  by  his  quarrels  with  the  philosopheni 
of  his  time.  J.  J.  Bousseau  addressed  to  him 
a  letter,  which  is  thought  to  be  very  elo- 
quent The  archbishop  was  disowned  by  the 
government,  and  exiled,  while  the  minist^  io- 
BiBted  on  his  resignation,  but  he  reftised.  His 
somewhat  fiery  zeal  for  reliffion  did  not  ezdude 
true  kindness  and  charity ;  he  not  (Aly  forgave 
offences,  but  sometimes  relieved  his  enemies 
from  their  troubles.  He  was  held  in  great  es- 
teem bv  several  sovereigns  of  Europe,  and  ad- 
mired by  Frederic  the  Great  of  Prussia,  who 
offered  him  an  asylum  in  his  kinadom.  He 
was  buried  in  the  church  of  Notre-Uame. 

BEAUMONT,  Ffiux  Bbllatob,  comte  de, 
a  member  of  the  imperial  senate  in  France, 
bom  Dec.  25,  1798,  at  Paris.  He  first  served 
in  the  army,  was  in  the  Russian  campaign, 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Dresden,  and  liberated 
in.  1815.  He  was  present  at  the  disastrous 
battie  of  Waterloo,  served  a  few  years  under 
^e  Bourbons^  and  was  discharged  in  1826. 


24 


BEAUMONT 


BKAUMONT. 


After  leading,  for  9  years,  a  private  life,  em« 
ployed  iQ  agncultnral  pursuits,  he  was  sent  to 
fhe  chamber  of  deputies,  where  he  took  his 
seat  in  the  opposition ;  he  was  reelected  in 
1842  and  1846.  He  was  also  a  member  of  the 
constituent  assembly  in  1848,  and  of  the  legisla- 
ture in  1849.  His  fortune,  standing,  and  ability, 
as  well  as  his  political  sentiments,  commended 
him  to  Napoleon  IH.,  who  appointed  him  sen- 
ator Jan.  26, 1852. 

BEAUMONT,  Franois,  bom  at  Grace  Dieu, 
Leicestershire,  in  1686,  died  in  March,  1616 ; 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  old  English 
dramatists,  connected  for  some  time  in  Mter- 
ary  labor  with  John  Fletcher,  so  that  their 
plays  are  usually  published  nnder  the  joint 
names  of  Beaumont  and  Fletcher.  Of  the 
private  life  of  Beaumont,  very  little  is  known. 
He  was  the  8d  son  of  Francis  Beaumont,  judge 
of  the  court  of  common  pleas  in  the  lime  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  and  was  for  a  short  time  at 
Oxford,  whence  he  went  to  London,  and  studied 
law  at  the  inner  temple.  When  he  was  16, 
he  turned  Ovid's  Satmaeis  and  Eermaphro- 
ditus  into  English  rhyme,  and  before  he  was 
19,  had  become  an  intimate  friend  of  Ben 
Jonson.  His  connection,  a  kind  of  dramatic 
partnership,  with  Fletcher,  appears  to  have 
lasted  about  12  years.  It  is  not  possible  to  de- 
termine with  strict  accuracy  to  how  many 
plays  he  contributed,  but  it  is  supposed  by  the 
best  critics  that  out  of  62  dramas,  several  of 
which  are  now  lost,  and  which  were  published 
under  the  joint  names  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher,  only  17  really  were  written  in  part 
by  him.  Like  those  of  other  dramatists  of 
that  age,  his  plays  contain  much  of  value, 
with  many  passages  of  great  force  and  beauty. 
Except  by  scholars,  they  are  now  rarely  read 
or  referred  to.  He  was  buried  in  Westminster 
abbey. 

BEAUMONT,  Sib  Gsorgb  Howland,  a  mn- 
nificent  patron  of  art  and  an  amateur  of  consid- 
erable merit,  born  at  his  family  seat  in  Leiees- 
tershireiEngland,  Nov.  6, 1753,  and  died  Feb.  7, 
1827.  Me  received  his  education  at  Eton,  and 
subsequently  devoted  himself  with  enthusiasm 
to  the  study  of  paintinff  and  to  the  collection 
of  works  of  art  His  landscapes,  although  de- 
ficient in  practical  skill,  are  frequently  well  im- 
agined, and  the  figures  and  other  accessories 
skilfully  dflposed.  As  a  friend  and  patron  of 
artists,  in  whose  society  he  took  much  delight, 
his  claims  to  consideration  are  numerous.  He 
was  among  the  first  to  discover  and  encourage 
the  genius  of  Wilkie,  some  of  whose  finest 
works  were  painted  for  him,  and  his  gallery 
contained^  beside  many  choice  works  of  the  old 
masters,  fine  spedmens  of  the  best  modern  Eng- 
lish painters.  He  was  also  instrumental  in  es- 
tablishing the  British  national  gallery,  and  as 
an  inducement  to  parliament  to  purchase  the 
celebrated  Angerstein  collection  for  that  pur- 
pose, offered  to  present  16  of  his  best  pictures  to 
the  collection.  The  offer  was  accepted,  and 
this  munificent  gift  is  now  one  of  the  most  at« 


tractive  features  of  the  gallery.  Beaumont  was 
also  an  intimate  friend  of  Wordsworth. 

BEAUMONT.  J.  T.  G.  Lkpe4v6t  db,  bom  in 
Normandy,  lived  during  the  last  part  of  the  18di 
century,  became  known  by  discovering  the  plot 
called  the  pacts  de/amins^  the  object  of  which 
was  a  monopoly  of  bread  during  the  reigns  of 
Louis  XV.  and  Louis  XYL  A  lengtJienM  cap- 
tivity was  the  reward  of  his  efforts  to  unravel 
this  mystery.  Being  made  aware  in  1768  of  a 
compact  by  which  a  private  company  had  re- 
ceived firom  the  government  the  right  of  starving 
the  country,  he  wrote  a  strong  denunciation  to 
be  sent  to  the  parliament  of  Bouen,  which  had 
just  made  complaints  about  monopolies;  but, 
by  some  indiscretion,  the  document  was  made 
known  to  the  minister  of  police,  who  had  Beau- 
mont immediately  arrested  and  incarcerated  in 
the  Bastile,  where  he  was  kept  for  11  months; 
then  he  was  transferred  to  various  prisons,  his 
captivity  lasting  no  less  than  21  years.  He 
was  liberated  Sept.  6,  1789,  2  months  after  the 
taking  of  the  Bastile. 

BEAUMONT,  Sib  Joinr,  English  poet,  bom 
in  1682,  died  in  1628.  He  was  elder  brother  of 
Francis  Beaumont,  the  dramatist,  and  publish- 
ed a  small  volume  of  poems,  remarkable  for  its 
high  moral  tone.  He  also  wrote  a  poem  called 
"  The  Crown  of  Thorns,''  in  8  books,  which  is 
lost  Winstanley,  in  his  ^'  Honor  of  Parnassus," 
describes  Sir  John  Beaumont  as  one  of  "  the 
great  souls  of  numbers.'' 

BEAUMONT,  William,  a  surgeon  ia  the  U. 
S.  army,  born  in  1796,  and  died  at  St  Louis, 
April  25,  1853.  He  is  principallv  noted  for  hiB 
discoveries  regarding  the  laws  of  digestion  and 
for  his  experiments  upon  the  body  of  Alexis  St 
Martin.  In  1822  Beaumont  was  stationed  at 
Michillimackinao,  Michigan.  On  June  6,  St 
Martin,  a  young  man  18  years  of  age,  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  American  fur  company,  was  acci- 
dentally shot,  receiving  the  whole  charge  of  a 
musket  in  his  left  side,  from  a  distance  of  about 
one  yard,  canying  with  it  portions  of  his  cloth- 
ing, and  fracturing  two  ribs,  lacerating  the 
lungs,  and  entering  the  stomach.  Notwith- 
standing the  severity  of  the  wound.  Dr.  Beau- 
mont undertook  his  cure,  and  by  careful  and 
constant  treatment  and  attention,  the  following 
year  found  him  enjoying  good  health  with  his 
former  strength  and  spirits.  In  1825  Dr.  Bean* 
mont  commenced  a  series  of  experiments  npon 
the  stomach  of  St  Martin,  showing  its  opera- 
tions, secretions,  the  action  of  the  gastric 
juices,  &o, ;  these  experiments  he  was  obliged 
to  discontinue  after  a  few  months,  but  renewed 
them  at  various  intervals  until  his  death; 
his  patient  during  so  many  years  presenting  the 
remarkable  spectacle  of  a  man  enjoying  good 
healUi,  appetite,  and  spirits,  with  an  aperture 
opening  into  his  stomach  2^  inches  in  circum- 
ference, through  which  the  whole  action  of  the 
stomach  might  be  observed.  The  result  of  his 
experiments  was  published  by  Dr.  Beaumont 
in  1888,  and  has  been  recognized  throughout 
the  mescal  world  as  a  valuable  addition  to  sci- 


BEAUMONT  DE  LA  BONNEERE 


BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPBB 


25 


«iioe.   Bt  Martin  is  still  living,  having  yiaited 
Earope  in  1857. 

BEAUMONT  DE  LA  BONNIfiKE,  Gustave 
AnousTB  ns,  a  French  advocate  and  writer, 
bom  Feb.  6^  1802,  in  the  department  of  Sarthe. 
In  1881  he  was  commiBsioned,  with  Alexia  de 
Tocqaeviile,  to  visit  the  United  States  in  order 
to  make  inquiry  about  the  penitentiary  system 
established  here ;  and  the  result  of  their  voyage 
was  a  report  which  has  become  a  standard 
work  on  the  snlject,  Du  tysthne  peniterUiaire 
anx  EtaU  Dh4s  et  de  ionapplieoHon  en  France, 
Beside  this  work,  while  De  Toconeville  pablish- 
ed  his  I^emoeroHe  au»  JStai  UniSj  Beaumont 
produced  a  kind  of  novel,  Maries  cu  ds  Vesdor 
vage  ayx  JState  Unu^  which  has  been  translat- 
ed and  reprinted  in  this  country.  In  1889, 
another  book  from  his  pen,  LVrlande  politique^ 
soeiale  et  reUgieuee,  oomnumded  public  atten- 
tion, and  was  rewarded,  as  well  as  the  preceding 
one,  with  the  Monthyon  prize  of  the  French  in- 
stitute. In  1840,  Beaumont  was  elected  to  the 
chamber  of  deputies,  sided  with  those  members 
forrainff  the  so-called  dynastic  opposition,  and 
favored  electoral  reform  in  1847.  Being  sent 
to  the  constituent  assembly  in  1848,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  committee  on  fDreign  affairs. 
Gen.  Gavaignao  appointed  him  ambassador  to 
England.  He  was  reelected  to  the  legislative 
assembly,  where  he  did  not  play  a  conspicuous 
part,  and  since  the  coup  d'etat  of  December, 
1851,  he  has  been  in  retirement  In  1886  he 
married  a  granddaughter  of  Gen.  Lafayette. 

BEAUMONT  DE  LA  BONNItRE,  Mabo 
AivToiNi,  comte  de,  a  French  general,  born 
Sept  28,  1760,  in  the  vicinity  of  Tours,  died 
Feb.  4, 1880.  He  entered  the  service  as  a  cap- 
tain in  1784.  Being  a  colonel  in  1792,  he  op- 
posed the  fury  of  Sie  revolutionists  at  Lyons, 
was  arrested  and  sentenced  to  death ;  but  his 
regiment,  which  had  become  very  much  attached 
to  him,  rescued  him  at  the  moment  he  was 
taken  to  the  scaffold.  He  afterward  served 
with  distinction  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Napo- 
leon I.  made  him  a  senator  in  1807,  and  a  count 
of  the  empire  in  1808.  BtiU  he  was  among  the 
f  rst  to  join  the  Bourbons,  and  was  promoted  to 
the  peerage  by  Louis  XVIIL,  to  whom  he  re- 
mained faithful. 

BEAUNE,  a  town  of  France,  department  of 
Cote  d'Or,  20  miles  S.  8.  W.  of  D^on,  in  a  fine 
country,  at  the  foot  of  a  hill  which  produces  ex- 
cellent wine  ;  pop.  in  1856,  10,458.  Its  most 
remarkable  public  buildings  are  the  church  of 
Notre  Dame  and  the  hospital  founded  in  1444. 
Its  ramparts,  beantifUly  planted,  afford  fine 
promenades.  Previously  to  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes,  Beanne  was  among  the  leading 
mannfactnriDg  cities  of  eastern  France ;  it  stiU 
produces  doth,  cutlery,  leather,  vinegar,  casks, 
oc.,  but  its  actual  importance  is  mostiy  aerived 
ih>m  its  wine  trade,  which  is  quite  considerable. 
The  vineyards  by  which  it  is  surrounded  vield 
a  Itfge  quantity  of  wine,  which  is  considered 
the  best  of  the  second  growths  of  Burgundy, 
The  mathematician  Monge  was  bom  here. 


BEAUNOIR,  whose  real  name  was  Bobi- 
NBAU,  Alezandbb  Louis  Bbrtband,  a  FreAch 
dramatist,  bom  April  4, 1740,  at  Paris,  died 
Aug.  5.  1828.  He  was  a  witty,  graphic,  and 
original  writer,  and  produced  no  less  than  200 
plays,  by  which  he  mode  more  than  800,000 
crowns.    During  the  revolution,  Beaunoir  emi- 

fated  to  Belgium,  then  to  Russia,  where  Paul 
intrusted  him  with  the  direction  of  the  im- 
perial theatre.    In  1801  he  returned  to  France. 

BEAUPRfiAU,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Maine  et  Loire.  26  miles  S.  W.  of 
Angers,  on  the  Erve.  It  has  manufactories  of 
linen,  woollen  mills,  dye  works,  and  tanneries ; 
but  is  particularly  known  by  the  bloody  battle 
which  was  fought  under  its  walls,  April  2, 1798, 
between  the  Vendeans  and  the  republicans,  un- 
der Gen.  Ligonier.  The  latter  were  defeated. 
Pop.  8,790. 

BEAUSOBBE,  IsiiAO  de,  a  French  Calvin- 
ist  divine,  born  March  8,  1659,  at  Niort,  died 
June  6, 1788,  at  Berlin.  He  received  orders  2 
years  previous  to  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nant^  and  was  appointed  pastor  at  Chatillon- 
sur-Indre.  On  tlie  closing  of  his  church,  he 
ran  the  risk  of  being  imprisoned  for  holding 
secret  religious  meetings  at  his  house,  and  was 
compelled  to  leave  France.  He  took  refuge  at 
Rotterdam,  and  afterward  went  to  Anhalt- 
Dessau,  where  he  lived  for  nearly  7  years.  In 
1694  he  returned  to  Berlin,  and  the  elector 
Frederic  William  HI.  appointed  him  pastor  of 
one  of  the  French  churdbiea^  in  that  city.  He 
soon  after  became  chaplain  to  the  queen  of  Prus- 
sia, and  entered,  in  1707,  the  consistory,  where 
he  held  his  seat  for  nearly  80  years.  He  was 
a  scholar  of  uncommon  attainments  and  a  per- 
spicuous writer. 

BEAUSOLEIL,  JbawDu  OnATKLET,  baron  de, 
a  Flemish  mineralogist  and  alchemist,  bom  in 
Brabant,  about  1678,  died  in  the  Bastile,  in  1646. 
He  travelled  over  most  of  the  countries  of  Eu- 
rope, seeking  mines  by  means  of  the  divining- 
rod,  the  great  compass,  the  seven-angles  compass, 
the  mineral  astrolabe,  the  metallic  rake,  &c.  He 
twice  visited  France,  and  was,  on  a  charge  of  sor- 
cery, dispossessed  of  all  his  Jewels  and  instra- 
ments,  and  a  little  later  confined  in  the  BastUe, 
where  he  died.  His  wife  shared  his  labors,  ana 
probably  his  fate. 

BEAUTEMPS-BEAUPRt;  Chakles  Fran- 
cis, an  eminent  French  hydrographer,  born  in 
1766,  near  Ste.  Menehould,  died  in  1854.  His 
whole  life  was  devoted  to  hydrographic  pur^ 
suits  and  to  the  drawing  of  maps  and  charts, 
which  are  highly  esteemed  for  their  accuracy. 
Among  his  works  are  the  Atlas  de  la  tner  JS^U 
Uaue;  Carte  hydrographiqtte  ghierale;  Plan  de 
VEeoaut;  and  especially  th^Atlae  accompanying 
the  account  of  the  voyagp  undertaken  in  1791, 
by  D'Entrecasteauz,  in  search  of  the  unfortunate 
La  P^rouse.  This  last  work  was  only  published 
in  1808;  but  a  copy  of  the  manuscript  maps 
had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  who 
used  them  in  their  explorations  in  the  Pacific 
He  is  called  the  fiither  of  hydrography,  and  was 


26 


BEAUTY 


dhlef  hydrograpber  and  keeper  of  the  rich  col- 
lection  of  maps  and  charts  belongiDg  to  the 
French  navy,  beside  being  member  of  the 
Institnte  and  of  the  Bureau  <2m  Longitudes, 

BEAUTT,  the  qnality  of  objects  which  gives 
delight  to  the  SBsthetic  fiEkcolty.  It  is  found  in 
nature,  in  scenery,  sounds,  and  forma,  and  is 
produced  in  art,  in  poetry,  music,  painting, 
sculpture,  and  architecture.  To  trace  its  devel- 
opment or  manifestations  would  be  to  give  a 
history  of  all  the  arts,  and  we  purpose  here  only 
to  treat  the  subject  abstractly.  From  the  time 
of  Plato,  beauty,  truth,  and  goodness  have  been 
the  categories  which  have  occupied  philosophy. 
Truth  is  the  ideal  or  absolute  in  the  domain  of 
intellect,  goodness  in  that  of  volition  or  action, 
and  after  centuries  of  earnest  speculation,  beauty 
has  at  length  found  its  place  as  the  ideal  in  the 
domain  of  sensibility.  As  sdsthetics  treats  of 
the  works  of  art  which  exhibit  human  passion, 
and  of  the  law  by  which  we  love,  pity,  fear, 
mnpathize,  and  wonder,  so  beauty,  which  is 
the  theme  of  {esthetics,  is  the  ultimate  aim  of 
the  passions  and  sentiments.  The  divine  pur- 
pose revealed  to  the  intellect  is  truth,  revealed 
m  human  life  is  virtue,  and  revealed  to  the 
heart  is  beauty. — ^In  the  philosophy  of  Plato, 
which  contains  the  oldest  important  extant  spe- 
culations on  this  subject,  beauty  is  an  archety- 
pal idea  proceeding  &oin  the  infinite  mind  and 
imaged  in  material  forms.  It  resides  primarily 
in  God  and  in  the  human  soul,  is  a  carainal  spir- 
itual fact,  and  wonld  remain  a  reality  though 
matter  were  annihilated  Plato,  indeed,  affirmed 
the  order  of  the  universe  to  be  a  hcurmonious 
manifestation  of  beauty,  yet  he  preferred  to 
dwell  upon  and  praise  the  idea,  and  proposed 
no  theory  of  objective  beauty,  of  the  laws  by 
which  a  beautiful  idea  becomes  a  beautiful 
obiect  Though  he  inaugurated  the  8  categori- 
cal ideas,  he  yet  did  not  nicely  draw  the  dis- 
tinction between  our  notions  of  the  beautiful 
and  of  the  good.  The  enthusiastic  disciple  of  So- 
crates, he  made  the  moral  element  everywhere 
dominant  in  his  philosophy,  yet  his  mind  was 
sosensitivelyiBstheticthat  he  affirmed  that  only 
the  spectacle  of  eternal  beauty  could  give  worth 
to  this  mortal  life.  Swayed  by  a  twofold  love, 
he  refrained  from  dialectic  severity.  Wishing 
to  make  both  beauty  and  goodness  supreme,  and 
unable  to  set  either  above  the  other,  he  blended 
them  into  one,  and  called  them  by  a  common 
name  which  embraced  both  the  words  beautiful 
and  good.— Aristotle  has  treated  the  subject 
briefly  and  from  an  objective  stand-point,  and 
unlike  Plato,  he  links  beauty  not  with  goodness 
but  with  truth.  According  to  him,  that  object 
is  beautiful  which  is  composed  with  such  order 
and  proportion  that  we  can  see  its  parts  and 
embrace  them  all  together.  The  same  view  was 
adopted  and  strikingly  expressed  by  St.  Augus- 
tme  in  his  remark,  that  unity  is  the  source  of 
beauty,  that  that  thing  is  beautiful  whose  cen- 
tral principle  and  organic  relations  we  can  per- 
ceive. Thus,  as  the  Platonic  theory  made  that 
beautiful  which  satisfies  the  moral  nature,  so  the 


Aristotelian  affirmed  beauty  only  in  that  which 
satisfies  the  intellect. — The  theory  of  Plato  was 
cherished  in  the  school  of  Alexandria,  where 
Plotinus  stated  it  in  an  admirable  treatise.  Ma* 
terial  beauty,  he  says,  is  but  the  reflection  of 
spiritual  beauty.  Mind  alone  is  beautiful,  and 
in  loving  the  beautiful  it  loves  only  the  shadows 
of  itself.  But  the  theory  of  Aristotle,  adopted 
by  St.  Augustine,  and  snbsequentlv  by  Boethins, 
was  received  by  those  of  tbe  schoolmen  who 
speculated  of  beanty.  The  2  greatest  masters 
of  the  scholastic  method  were  the  Dominican 
Thomas  Aquinaa,  and  the  Franciscan  Dun 
Scotus,  and  while  the  former  of  these  and  his 
disciples  made  intellect  supreme,  and  the  latter 
and  nis  disciples  made  will  supreme,  there  was 
found  no  thiM  master  to  assert  the  claims  of 
sentiment  or  beauty.  Thus  beauty,  whose  alli- 
ance, in  ancient  philosophy,  had  been  sought 
by  each  of  the  other  members  of  the  triple  sis- 
terhood, was  now  forsaken  and  an  outcast — ^Nor 
was  the  discussion  renewed  till  long  after  the 
revival  of  letters. — ^In  Italy,  where  the  sternest 
people  of  antiquity  has  been  succeeded  by  the 
most  sensitive  of  modem  nations,  the  modem 
culture  of  the  beautiful  took  its  rise ;  and  its  Ajnafc 
fruits  were  the  poems  of  Dante  and  Petrarch, 
and  many  paintings  as  well  as  poems  before  the 
end  of  the  15th  century.  The  love  of  beauty 
seemed  a  national  instinct,  universal  among  the 
populace,  patronizsed  by  the  wealth  of  princes, 
encouraged  by  the  learning  of  academies.  Yet 
the  criticism  and  speculation  upon  the  subject 
went  far  behind  the  improvement  in  taste  and 
the  delight  in  art.  Reflection  among  the  Italians 
has  never  been  able  to  rival  the  activity  and 
power  of  their  imagination,  and  though  their 
country  is  the  nursery  of  all  that  is  best  vx 
painting,  sculpture,  and  music,  they  have  con- 
tributed little  that  is  important  to  the  philoe- 
ophy  of  the  beautiful. — In  France  the  questions 
which  occupied  Cartesianism  were  foreign  to 
SBBthetics,  and  only  minds  of  a  second  order  in 
that  great  school  gratified  themselves  with  re- 
producing the  traditions  of  antiquity,  and  feebly 
restating  the  theory  of  Aristotie  and  St  Auga»- 
tine.  Thus  Orousaz  made  the  beautiful  to  con- 
sist in  6  elements,  order,  regularity,  proportion, 
unity,  and  variety,  and  Andr6  distingtushed  it 
into  various  degrees  and  sorts  from  the  various 
combinations  of  these  sources.  The  Pdre  Huf- 
fier advanced  the  curious  theory,  which  was 
afterward  adopted  by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  that 
beauty  consists  in  mediocritv,  and  that  things 
are  TOautiful  Just  in  proportion  as  they  are  or- 
dinary and  usuaL  Diderot,  without  the  Pla- 
tonic fSaith  in  the  idea  of  beauty,  and  unable  to 
discover  a  common  quality  in  all  beautifnl 
objects,  could  affirm  the  existence  of  beauty 
neither  in  the  mind  of  man  nor  in  the  mateziai 
universe.  With  a  mind  of  singular  acutenesaii 
which  delighted  in  tiie  discovery  of  relation^ 
he  strangely  imagined  thb  delight  to  be  one^ 
the  pleasures  of  taste,  and  boldly  proposed  the 
theory  that  beauty  consists  in  the  idea  of  rek- 
tion— that  oly'eots  are  beautiful  in  proportion  aa 


BEAUTY 


27 


we  can  peroewe  their  relatioiis  to  manj  other 
objects.    Marmontel  advanced  the  opinion  that 
an  object  is  beautifnl  which  makes  us  experience 
pleasure  as  we  discover  in  it  the  power  of  its 
author,  the  abundance  of  resources  which  he 
had  at  command,  and  the  intelligence  which  has 
presided  over  its  formation.  He  thus  confounded 
beauty  with  sublimity.    Recent  French  philos- 
ophy, in  its  struggle  against  jthe  materialism  of 
the  last  century,  has  attended  principally  to 
questions  of  method  and  psychology,  to  logic, 
ethics,  and  theodicy,  and  has  neglected  or  made 
cmly  the  most  general  observations  upon  ^e 
sdence  of  the  beautiful.    Jouffiroy  and  Oousin 
have,  however,  introduced  some  of  the  results 
of  foreign  specuktion. — In  England,  the  earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  an  accomplished  admirer  of  Plato, 
was  the  first  to  recall  philosophy  to  the  subject 
of  beauty,  and  moralized  elegantly  and  raptur- 
oualjr  over  the  supreme  good  and  the  supreme 
beauty  which  he  regarded  as  the  same.    In  his 
ethical  vievrs  he  considered  man  endowed  with 
adistinct  moral  sense  for  discriminating  between 
virtue  and  vice,  and  a  little  later  Sntcheson 
transferred  this  sense  from  the  department  of 
ethics  to  that  of  sesthetica,  and  suggested  a  pe- 
culiar inward  faculty  for  the  perception  of 
beauty.     In  reference   to   objective   beauty, 
Hntcheson  repeated  the  theory  of  unity  and 
variety.    The  waving  line  by  which  Hogarth 
sought  to  account  for  beauty,eflpecially  for  female 
beauty,  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  this 
view.     The  most  arbitrary  and  unfortunate  of 
all  the  English  theories  on  the  subject  is  that  of 
Burke,  who,  having  adopted  a  materialistic  phi- 
losophy unnatural  to  his  genius,  sought  the  laws 
of  beauty  in  the  laws  of  organism  and  of  the 
nervous  system.     Every  thing  which  produces 
an  extraordinary  tension  of  the  nerves  causes  a 
passion  analogous  to  terror,  and  is  conseauently 
a  source  of  the  sublime ;  every  thing,  on  tne  con- 
trary, which  produces  a  relaxation  in  the  fibres 
is  a  beautiful  object    Other  philosophers  have 
variously  sought  beauty  in  some  quality  of  ex- 
ternal things  or  in  some  faculty  of  the  soul, 
but  Burke  seeks  it  in  the  state  of  the  body, 
making  it  a  matter  of  the  optic  and  auditory 
nerves  and  of  animal  fibre.    The  Scotch  meta- 
physician, Beid,  advanced  what  may  be  termed 
the  symbolical   theory  of  objective   beauty. 
Starting  with  the  Platonic  view  that  objects  are 
beautiful  only  because  they  express  spiritual 
ideas,  he  maintained  that  moral  beauty  has  cer- 
tain material  symbols.    Thus  a  serpentine  line  is 
beautiful,  not  from  any  quality  that  it  has  in 
itself,  but  because  it  has  relation  to  certain 
moral  qualities,  as,  for  instance,  suppleness  and 
gentleness.     Alison  accords  with  this  view  in 
denying  any  inherent  beauty  in  objects,  which, 
he  affirms,  become  beautiful  only  as  they  become 
a  source  of  pleasanif  emotions  to  us  by  associa- 
tion with  our  feelings.    Thus  beauty  would  de- 
pend upon  the  accident  of  what  may  be  interest- 
mg  to  each  one,  and  be  as  various  and  shifting 
as  individual  experience.  Diderot  made  it  intel- 
lectual, a  matter  of  the  relations  it  suggests ; 


Alison  makes  it  passionate,  a  matter  of  the  emo- 
tions it  awakens;  both  make  it  oljectively  un- 
real, and  subjectively  indeterminate.  The  theory 
of  Aliaon  has  been,  with  unimportant  modifica- 
tions, adopted  and  illustrated  by  Duoald  Stewart 
and  Francis  Jeffrey.    The  latest  English  »sthetio 
writer  is  Buskin,  who  raises  beauty  out  of  tiie 
sphere  of  accident,  and  like  Plato  aflSirms  it  to 
be  a  manifestation  of  the  thought  of  Deity.    It 
marks  the  material  universe  whidh  is  a  sem- 
blance of  the  divine  attributes,  and  it  marks 
human  actions  which  are  vital  with  the  presence 
of  God,  being  the  felidtous  performance  of  his 
will.    Every  beautiful  object  reveals  the  infinite, 
and  has  a  unity  within  itself;  it  is  in  repose, 
but  at  the  same  time  suggests  a  magnincent 
eneigy;  it  has  about  it  the  dignity  ^  justice 
and  purity,  and  the  moral  judsment  enters 
larcely  into  the  perception  of  its  beauty.    Not 
finding  beauty  and  goodness  separated  in  obiects, 
Buskin  is  unwilling  to  distinguish  them  as  ideas, 
denies  the  possibility  of  great  success  in  art  to 
wicked  men,  and  makes  ideal  beauty  equally  the 
aim  of  the  religionist,  the  moralist,  and  the  artist 
— The  first  of  the  German  thinkers  upon  the 
beautiful,  and  the  most  important  writer  on  the 
subject  since  Plato,  was  Baqmgarten,  a  disciple  of 
Leibnitz  and  Wolf.  While  for  10  centuries  beauty 
had  been  tossed  to  and  fro  from  matter  to  spirit^ 
and  had  been  variously  assigned  to  almost  every 
quality  in  objects,  and  almost  everv  habit  of  the 
soul,  Baumgarten  first  fixed  it  firmly  as  that 
which  appeals  to  human  sensibility.    The  in- 
tellectual and  the  moral  natures  have  their 
respective  ideals,  but  the  whole  current  of  the 
sentiments  and  passions  sets  toward  beauty.  The 
intellect  perceives  with  logical  clearness,  but 
there  is  another  kind  of  perception,  a  eognitio 
unntiva^  which  grasps  beauty  not  at  all  by  the 
understanding,  not  merely  by  the  sense,  but  by 
the  whole  human  sensitivity.    The  philosopher 
of  ^gina,who,  according  to  his  own  expression, 
heard  the  harmony  of  the  celestial  bodies,  though 
only  the  sense  of  sight  was  addressed,  is  an  illus- 
tration of  the  Baumgartenian  perception  of 
beauty.    It  is  the  unity,  the  combined  result, 
of  the  variety  furnished  by  the  senses.    The 
theory  of  Baumgarten  became  the  foundation 
of  tiie  science  of  sesthetics,  and  was  more  fully 
developed  by  subsequent  philosophers.    Kant 
accurately  defined  the  beautiful  as  that  which 
is  an  object  of  pure  disinterested  satisfaction; 
he  thus  distinffuished  it  from  the  agreeable  and 
the  good,  in  both  of  which  we  are  interested, 
since  we  desire  to  possess  the  former  and  to  re- 
alize the  latter.    He  did  not  in  his  speculations 
on  this  subject  pass  the  chasm  whicn  separates 
the  suljective  from  the  objective  side  of  his 
philosophy,  and  did  not  enter  on  the  question 
of  ol^ective  beauty.  .This  task  was  left  for  the 
philosophical  genius  of  his  enthusiastic  disciple, 
the  poet  Schiller,  who  found  beauty  in  natural- 
ness and  simplicity,  that  is,  in  the  easy  and  har- 
monious blending  of  idea  and  form.  The  philos- 
ophy of  Fichte,  which  was  a  concentration  of 
le  universe  in  the  Ego,  and  almost  amoral 


op] 
the 


28 


BEAUTY 


BEAUVAIS 


fanaticism,  was  tmfavorable  to  speculation  on 
this  subject;  since  where  morality  monopolized 
all  the  passions,  and  life  was  bat  a  struggle  of 
the  free  power  of  the  Ego  against  the  resistance 
of  nature,  the  sphere  of  art  was  contracted,  and 
beantj  could  be  at  most  *but  a  spectacle  of 
Fichtean  virtue.  The  theory  of  the  beautiful 
approached  to  completeness  in  the  philosophy 
ofSchelling.  The  principle  of  this  philosophy 
is  the  higher  unity  or  identity  of  the  two  points 
of  view  which  Kant  had  separated,  namely,  sub- 
ject and  object— of  nature  which  is  yisible 
mind,  and  of  mind  which  is  invisible  nature. 
This  unity  pervades  the  physical  universe,  but 
is  especially  manifest  to  us  in  the  realm  of  art 
Beauty  is  the  fusion  of  the  infinite  with  the 
finite,  of  free  snirit  with  fated  matter,  of  life 
with  nature,  of  idea  with  form.  Thus  art, 
which  reveals  beauty,  combines  the  two  terms 
of  existence,  whose  union  constitutes  not  only 
the  beautiful,  but  also  the  true,  the  absolute, 
the  divine.  Art  is  therefore  the  highest  mani- 
festation of  spirit,  and  is  essentially  religious. 
Schelling  doubtless  passed  the  goal  in  this 
apotheosis  of  art  The  artistic  form  being  the 
most  perfect  expression  of  truth,  philosophical 
truth  should  reassume  this  form  and  return  to 
ancient  poesy  and  myth.  He  confounded  truth, 
beauty,  and  goodness,  philosophy,  art,  and  re- 
ligion, and  the  forms  that  were  prooer  to  each ; 
religion  became  a  kind  of  poetry,  and  sentiment- 
alism,  mysticisni,  and  symbolism  everywhere 
made  an  irruption  into  science  and  history. 
Schelling  was  influential  in  quickenlug  the 
study  of  the  monuments  of  art,  and  in  reviving 
Christian  art,  and  among  his  most  enthusiastic 
disciples  were  the  writers  of  the  romantic 
school,  Tieck,  the  Bchlegels,  and  Solger.  The 
last  of  these  accounted  for  beauty  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  irony,  and  made  it  the  end  of  art  to 
reveal  to  the  human  consciousness  the  nothing- 
ness of  finite  things  and  of  the  events  of  the 
real  world.  The  perception  of  beauty  consists 
in  assuming  the  stand-point  of  divine  irony, 
playing  with  created  things,  laughing  at  the 
interests,  passions,  struggles,  and  collisions  of 
men,  at  their  sufferings  as  well  as  tiieir  joys, 
and  in  discerning  above  this  tragic  comedy  of 
human  life  the  immutable  power  of  the  abso- 
lute. To  rectify  and  develop  the  conception 
of  Schelling  was  the  task  of  Hegel.  To  Hegel 
beauty  is  the  idea  in  the  form  of  its  finite  mani- 
festation. It  first  appears  in  nature  and  in  his- 
tory, but  is  there  defective  because  unconscious. 
It  exists  consciously  in  human  thought,  but 
being  there  only  subjective  seeks  to  realize 
itselt  outwardly.  This  realization  of  thought 
is  beauty,  whose  realm  is  art  Works  of  art  are 
the  objective  fbrms  of  the  ideal,  like  the  works 
of  nature,  but  without  the  defect  of  nature.  In 
the  ancient  erjrmbolic  form  of  art  matter  pre- 
ponderated, the  ideal  shining  through  but  im- 
perfectly ;  in  the  classic  form  of  art  the  ideal 
was  in  harmony  witli,  and  adequately  expressed 
by  the  form ;  and  in  romantic  or  Ohristian  art 
mind  preponderates,  and  breaks  through  matter 


at  every  point  With  Hegel  the  history  of  the 
philosophy  of  the  beautiful  terminates,  his  suc- 
cessors having  made  but  incon»derable  modifi- 
cations of  his  views.  The  result  of  the  briUiant 
series  of  speculations  on  the  subject  in  Ge^ 
many  has  been  to  establish  philosophically  art 
as  the  province  of  beauty,  and  senthnent  as  the 
faculty  which  perceives  it  Schelling  and  He- 
gel, however,  almost  borrow  the  words  of  Plato 
in  afitoiing  that  matter  is  beautiftd  only  as  it 
is  inspired  with  an  idea  and  made  to  express  the 
things  of  the  spuitual  world.  Among  the  most 
valuable  treatises  upon  beanty  are  the  ^  Greater 
Hippias,"  "Phadrus,"  "Banquet,"  and  "Re- 
public''  of  Plato;  Plotinus,  in  the  6th  book  of 
nis  first  Ennead ;  Spaletti,  Saggio  topra  la  hd- 
leteOy  Rome,  1765;  Baumgarten,  JSttheUeOf 
Frankfort,  1750;  and  the  more  recent  sstheti- 
cal  works  of  Jean  Paul  Richter,  Bouterweck,  . 
Hegel,  Vogel,  and  Jon£Eh>y.    (See  .^thbtics.) 

BEAUVAIS,  an  ancient  city  of  France,  cap* 
ital  of  the  department  of  Oise,  on  the  Th6run, 
42  miles  K  by  W.  of  Paris;  pop.  in  1856 
14,086.  When  the  Romans  imvaded  Gaol,  it 
was  the  chief  town  of  the  Bello vaci ;  it  became 
early  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  the  holder  (^ 
which  was,  under  the  Oapetian  kings,  one  of 
the  12  ^rs  of  France.  During  the  14th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  it  was  held 
by  the  English ;  and  it  was  Pierre  Gauchon, 
bishop  of  Beauvais,  who  presided  over  tiie  court 
by  wnich  Jeanne  d'Aro  was  sentenced  to  be 
burnt  In  1472  the  city,  being  besieged  by 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  cour- 
ageously defended  by  its  inhabitants,  among 
whom  a  woman,  Jeanne  Lain6,  celebrated  under 
the  name  of  Jeanne  la  Hachette,  distinguished 
herself  by  her  intrepidity.  Beauvais  is  also 
the  birthplace  of  Villiers  de  nie-Adam,  grand 
master  of  the  Hospitallers,  who  in  vain  defend- 
ed the  island  of  Rhodes  ««ainst  Solyman.  The 
city  was  once  surrounded  by  ramparts,  which 
have  been  partly  levelled  and  converted  into 
promenades;  it  contained  also  a  great  number 
of  convents  and  churches,  only  2  of  the  latter 
now  extant ;  the  cathedral,  one  of  the  largest  in 
France,  the  choir  of  which  is  a  masterpiece  of 
Gothic  architecture;  the  church  of  St  Stephen, 
much  older,  in  which  the  ming^g  of  the 
ogive  and  the  semi-circular  arch  may  be  per- 
ceived. The  hStel  ds  la  fr^eeture  is  also  a 
curious  monument  of  Grothic  style.  The  impe- 
rial manufactory  of  tapestry,  founded  here  in 
1664  by  Colbert,  is  next  in  excellenoe  to  that 
of  Gobelins. 

BEAIJVAia  I.  Camillb.  silk  mann&otnror 
of  Lyons,  born  in  1781,  died  in  1852.  At  the 
age  of  18  he  was  already  at  the  head  of  a  large 
establishment,  and  at  20  employed  2,000  men. 
He  was  presented  to  the  empress  Josephine  by 
Napoleon  as  an  instance  of  youthful  abilities. 
He  was  the  first  to  introduce  home-manufiio- 
tured  China  crape  into  the  French  market,  his 
first  experiments  for  which  were  made  after 
the  pattern  of  a  sraaU  piece  cut  by  stealth  from 
the  empress's  dress.    In  the  latter  yean  of  his 


BEAHVAIB 

life  the  breeding  of  silk  worms  ooonpied  his  at- 
tention. II.  Ghables  Th£odors,  a  French  gen- 
eral^ bom  Nor.  8, 1772,  at  Orleans,  died  at  Paris, 
in  the  beginning  of  1880.  He  first  served  as  a 
private,  but  rose  rapidly  to  the  rank  of  ac^a- 
tant-generaL  He  went  to  Egypt  with  Bonaparte, 
bnt  resigned  on  account  of  some  disagreement 
with  his  chief.  While  returning  to  France,  he 
was  taken  prisoner  bj  a  corsair  and  brought 
to  Constantinople,  where  he  was  detained 
fi>r  18  months.  The  first  consul  did  not 
permit  him  to  reenter  the  armj  until  1809, 
when  he  served  in  Spain  and  was  after- 
ward sent  to  the  Rhine.  In  1815  he  com- 
manded at  Bavonne,  and  was  dismissed  on  the 
return  of  the  Bourbons.  Then  he  returned  to 
literary  pursuits,  and  was  the  compiler  of  the 
Tftrypopular publication,  Victoireiet  eonquitsi 
dea  Iranfttity  the  28  vols,  of  which  appeared  in 
1817  and  the  following  years.  He  was  also  the 
editor  of  the  Oorretj^mdance  offieielle  et  wr^ 
JidenUelle  ds  NapoUon  Bonaparte  omo  le» 
eaun  Hrang^rei  (Paris,  1819,  1820,  7  vols. 
8vo).  ni.  Jbak  Baptibte  Ohablbs  Mabib, 
an  eloquent  French  preacher,  bom  at  Oher- 
bourg  in  1731,  died  April  4,  1790,  at  Paris. 
He  entered  sacred  orders,  with  the  intention  of 
attending  especially  to  preaching,  and  soon  be- 
came a  favorite  among  those  who  could  appre- 
ciate his  elegance  of  style  and  attractive  deliv- 
ery. The  characteristics  of  his  eloquence  were 
snavity  and  tenderness,  but  he  sometimes 
showed  freedom,  and  even  boldness  of  speech 
in  his  sermons  at  court.  In  person  and  talent 
he  bore  some  likeness  to  F6n61on.  He  had  been 
promoted  to  the  bishopric  of  Senez,  which  he 
resigned  in  1788.  Six  years  later  he  was  one 
of  the  deputies  of  Paris  to  the  states-general. 

B£AUVAU,  the  name  of  a  princely  French 
family,  several  members  of  which  deserve  to  be 
noticed.— BsNi,  one  of  the  most  valiant  knights 
of  the  18th  century,  accompanied  Charles, 
duke  of  Ai^ou,  in  his  conquest  of  Naples,  con- 
tributed to  the  victory  of  Benevento,  was  ap- 
pointed constable  of  the  new  kingdom,  and 
died  from  hia  wounds  in  1266. — Louis,  lord 
high  seneschal  of  Provence,  chamberlain  to 
Ben^  d'Anjou,  king  of  Sicily,  with  whom  he 
ttved  in  great  fiuniliarity,  served  in  various  war 
expeditions;  and  being  sent  by  Ren6  as  his  ara- 
bessador  to  Pius  II.,  died  at  Rome  in  1462.— 
Bkbiband,  died  in  1474,  was  employed  as  a 
diplomatist  by  Charles  VH.  of  France ;  he  ne- 
gotiated truces  with  England,  and  a  little  later 
took  an  active  part  in  the  conquest  of  Nor- 
mandy. He  was  also  in  great  credit  with  Louis 
XI. — HsNBi,  general  and  diplomatist,  lived  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  and  during 
the  first  of  the  17th.  He  served  in  Hungary 
imder  Emperor  Rudolph  II.,  and  distinguished 
himself  against  the  Turks.— Mabo,  prince  of 
Orson,  di^  in  1754^  was  governor  of  the  young 
Duke  Francis  of  Lorraine,  who  afterward  mar- 
ried Maria  Theresa  and  became  emperor  of 
C^rmany.  Maro,  rewarded  with  the  viceroy- 
BiJtj  of  Tuscany,  lived  in  Florence  snrroonded 


BEAUYOIS 


29 


by  all  the  eminent  literary  characters  of  Italy, 
and  acquired  the  renown  of  being  not  only  one 
of  the  most  learned,  but  perhaps  the  most 
amiable  man  of  his  tune.^RBNiE  Fbancois,  an 
illustrious  prelate,  the  worthy  colleague  of 
F16chier  and  F^n^lon,  born  in  1664,  died  in 
1789.  Being  bishop  of  Toumay  when  the  town 
was  besieged  by  Prince  Eugene,  he  showed  the 
utmost  generosity  and  devotion  to  his  flock, 
converting  his  episcopal  palace  into  a  hospital, 
selling  all  his  valuables  and  borrowing  over 
a  million  of  francs  to  relieve  the  needs  and 
sufferings  of  both  tbe  soldiers  and  the  in- 
habitants. On  the  taking  of  the  town,  he 
was  ordered  to  perform  a  Te  Deum  in  honor 
of  the  conquerors,  but  courageously  ref^ised 
to  obey  the  summons.— Chables  Justs,  mar- 
shal of  France,  born  at  Luneville,  in  1T20, 
died  in  1798,  distinguished  himself  during  the 
siege  of  Prague  and  the  glorious  retreat  which 
followed.  1742.  He  fought  bravely  at  the  storm- 
ing of  Mahon,  1756,  where  he  conomanded  the 
prmcipal  attack,  and  contributed  in  1760  to 
the  victory  won  at  Corback  by  Marsha]  Bro- 
glie.  On  Aug.  4,  1789,  when  the  revolution 
had  already  commenced,  he  became  a  member 
of  the  cabinet  of  Louis  XVI.,  but  his  advice 
was  of  little  avail,  ai^d  he  was  dismissed  at  the 
end  of  5  months.  He  lived  long  enough  to  see 
the  king  die  on  the  scaffold.— Chablbs  Jvstb 
Fbancois  Vioturnikk,  bom  March  29,  1798, 
served  during  the  Russian  war  under  Napoleon 
I.,  and  was  appointed  senator  in  1862,  by  l^apo- 
leon  III. 

BEAUYOIR-SUR-MER,  a  town  of  France, 
department  of  Vendue,  opposite  the  island  of 
Koir  Montier,  about  8  miles  from  the  sea,  wiUi 
which  it  is  united  by  the  Cahouette  canal.  It 
was  formerly  fortified.  In  1688,  Henry  of 
Navarre,  who  was  soon  to  become  Henry  IV., 
came  near  losing  his  life  in  an  ambuscade,  while 
besieging  its  custle,  It  is  now  a  small  trading 
port  desiing  in  com  and  salt,  produced  in  the 
neignboring  salt  marshes.    Pop.  in  1866,  2,746. 

BEAUVOIS,  Ambboisb  Mabib  FnANgois  Jo- 
SBFH  Pausot  db,  b  Celebrated  French  natural- 
ist and  traveller,  bom  July  27, 1762,  at  Arras, 
died  in  Paris,  Jan.  21, 1820.  He  studied  law,  and 
became  receiver  of  the  crown  rents.  This  office 
being  suppressed  in  1777,  Beauvois  resolved  to 
devote  himself  to  science,  and  became  in  1781  a 
corresponding  member  of  the  academy  of  scien- 
ces. In  1786  he  joined  an  expedition  sent  by  the 
iVench  government  to  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  and  explored  Owara  and  Benin.  Within 
a  period  of  18  months  he  gathered  a  consider- 
able number  of  plants  and  insects,  which  he 
forwarded  to  France.  He  next  repaired  to 
St  Domingo,  where  he  wss  admitted  to  the 
high  council  of  the  ishmd.  The  colony  was 
then  in  a  very  precarious  situation,  and  it  be- 
came from  day  to  day  more  difficult  to  keep 
the  blacks  in  subjection.  A  pro-slavery  man 
and  an  opponent  of  the  abolition  of  the  slave- 
trade,  which,  according  to  his  opinion,  would 
have  infficted  a  deadly  Uow  on  the  coloniesi 


30 


BEAUZJEIE 


BEAVER 


Beanvois  went  to  solicit  asostanoe  from  the 
United  States ;  but  his  efforts  were  of  no  avail. 
Upon  his  return  in  1798.  be  found  the  island  in 
an  awful  state  of  confusion ;  he  lost  his  collec- 
tions in  the  conflagration  of  Gape  Fran^ais,  and 
was  himself  put  in  prison  by  the  negroes,  who 
naturally  looked  on  iiim  as  an  enemy.  A  mu- 
latto woman  to  whom  he  had  previously  granted 
her  freedom,  effected  his  liberation  and  fur- 
nished him  with  the  means  of  reaching  the 
United  States.  On  his  arrival  at  Philadelphia, 
he  heard  that  he  had  been  proscribed  in  his 
own  country ;  and  being  penniless  and  friend- 
less, he  undertook  to  teach  music  and  the  lan- 
guages to  support  himself.  He  gained  the  ac- 
quaintance 01  several  persons  of  distinction. 
His  proscription  having  been  annulled,  he  re- 
turned to  France  and  busied  himself  in  putting 
his  collections  in  order.  In  1806  he  was  called 
to  the  institute  as  the  successor  of  Adanson. 
During  the  Hundred  Days,  he  was  appointed 
oouncillor  of  the  university  of  France. 

B£AUZ£E,  KiooLAS,  a  French  grammariui, 
bom  at  Verdun,  May  9,  1717,  died  in  Paris, 
Jan.  23, 1789.  Most  of  the  grammatical  notices 
in  the  great  Bncylcpedie  du  18tf  siiele  are  from 
his  pen,  and  have  been  published  in  a  separate 
form,  under  the  title  of  Dictionnaire  de  gramr 
maire  et  de  UtUrature,  in  connection  with  Mar- 
montePs  literary  notices  (Li^ge,  1789,  8  vols., 
4to).  His  Grammaire  ghiercue^  ou  exposition 
raiionnie  des  ilementi  tUcessaires  pour  iervir  d 
rstude  de  tautee  lee  languee  (Pans,  1767),  was 
highly  praised  by  the  learned  Barth61emy,  and 
rewarded  by  a  gold  medal  from  the  empress 
Maria  Theresa  of  Austria.  This  work  was  re- 
printed in  1819,  and  is  frequently  referred  to. 

BEAVER  (eastar,  Cuv.),  a  fur-bearing  amphib- 
ious animal,  of  the  order  rodentiOj  or  gnawers. 
They  are  common  to  the  northern  and  north 
temperate  latitudes  botli  of  Europe  and  Ameri- 
ca; but  are  very  rare  in  thq  middle  latitudes, 
and  are  unknown  in  the  south,  even  of  Europe. 
They  formerly  abounded  in  England,  so  far 
south  as  Berkshire,  and  some  persons  suppose 
that  oral  tradition  still  survives  relating  to 
their  existence  in  that  island.  Whether  this  be 
the  case  or  not,  which  is  open  to  doubt,  it  is 
certain  that  their  bones  are  found  in  great 
numbers,  in  some  districts,  in  the  accumula- 
tions of  peat  in  the  fens,  and  on  marshy  river 
borders.  Within  a  very  recent  period,  beavers 
were  abundant  in  all  that  country  which  con- 
stitutes the  northern,  middle,  and  western 
states  of  the  United  States ;  as  the  large  num- 
ber of  their  dams,  and  of  the  beautiM  level 
beaver  meadows,  caused  by  the  accumulation  of 
soil  and  filling  up  of  their  ponds  by  alluvial 
matter,  sufficiently  indicates.  In  New  York, 
especially  in  the  western  portion  of  the  state, 
these  relics  of  the  industrious  and  intelligent 
roderUia  are  particularly  numerous;  and  in  the 
map  of  that  region  in  Pinkerton's  Atlas,  pub- 
lished in  1816,  the  country  between  Lake  Os- 
wegatchie  and  Lake  Oneida  is  laid  down  as  *^  a 
manhy  tract  fiiU  of  beavers  and  otters;"  nor 


is  it,  indeed,  very  certain,  that  some  few  scat- 
tered families  of  these  interesting  amphibia  mav 
not  be  yet  found  in  that  singular  re^^on,  which 
is  still  almost  as  wild  as  the  northern  shores  of 
Lake  Superior,  among  theAdirondac  moun- 
tains, and  tlie  sources  of  the  Hudson  river. 
Becent  scientific  observers  have  also  seen  what 
they  believed  to  be  fresh  beaver  signs  on  the 
Mushannon,  in  Centre  county.  Pa.,  and  assert 
the  present  existence  of  the  animal  in  Ten- 
nessee and  Georgia.  The  gradual  clearing  up 
and  cultivation  of  the  country  has.  however, 
banished  them,  mile  after  mile,  and  day  after 
day,  fix>m  the  haunts  of  intrusive  and  en- 
croaching man,  until  they  are  now  scarcely 
to  be  found,  at  all,  on  this  side  of  the  streams 
which  have  their  sprinm  among  the  roots  of 
the  Bocky  mountains.  Even  there,  also,  such 
unwearied  war  do  the  wild  trappers  of  the  va- 
rious fur  companies  wage  against  them,  and  so 
largely  tempting  to  white  cupicUty  have  been 
the  sums  paid  for  their  spoils,  that  they  are 
rapidly  decreasing,  and  will,  it  is  probable,  ere 
long  become  extmct  It  has  been  said,  how- 
ever, that  the  application  of  nlk  to  the  manu- 
facture of  hats,  and  the  large  use  which  has 
been  made  in  late  years  of  plain  felt,  of  dif- 
ferent qualities,  by  causing  a  very  material  fall 
in  the  price  of  beaver,  has  procured  them  such 
a  respite — ^the  trappers  no  longer  caring  to 
labor  so  assiduously  for  the  decreasing  compen- 
sation— that  they  are  again  becoming  numerous 
in  places  where  they  were  a  few  years  smce  al- 
most extinct  ^^  The  beaver  is  low  and  squat 
in  its  body,  about  2  feet  in  length.  Its  body 
is  thick  and  heavy.  The  head  is  compressed; 
the  line  of  its  profile  from  the  occiput  to  the 
muzzle  is  unbroken.  The  muzzle  is  oblique 
and  blunt,  and  the  upper  lip  deft  as  in  the 
hare.  The  eyes  are  smaU,  oollque,  and  wide 
apart  from  each  other.  The  ears  are  also 
small.  The  fur  is  remarkably  close  and  soft, 
but  interspersed  with  longer  bristly  hair, 
which  gets  more  abundant  as  the  animal 
grows  older.  Both  the  hind  and  fore  feet  seem 
short  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  animal, 
when  it  walks  upon  the  ground ;  but,  as  is  the 
case  with  all  animals  of  this  order,  the  habit 
of  which  is  generally  to  leap,  to  stand  up,  or 
to  support  themselves  on  their  hind  legs, 
these  are  much  longer  than  the  fore  ones.  In 
the  use  of  its  feet  in  walking,  it  combines  2 
distinct  habits.  On  the  fore  feet  it  is  digitir 
OTodey  or  walks  on  the  toes  only,  and  on  the 
hind  feet  it  is  plantigrade^  or  walks  on  the  en- 
tire length  of  the  sole.  This  again  gives  the 
fore  feet  more  apparent  stability  than  the  hind 
ones,  in  walking;  but  it  gives  the  whole  animal 
a  wriggling  gait,  and  the  beaver  is,  in  conse- 
quence, rather  a  slow  animal  upon  land.  The 
tail  is  the  most  peculiar  part  of  the  structure. 
It  is  very  large,  nearly  half  as  long  as  the  body, 
measuring  from  10)^  to  11^  inches,  oval  in 
shape,  and  flattened  on  the  upper  and  under 
sides.  It  is,  also,  with  the  exception  of  a  small 
portion  at  the  base,  not  ooverea  with  ftir,  like 


BEAVER 


81 


the  rest  of  the  animal,  but  with  a  sort  of  horny 
scales,  which  are  produced  by  a  thick  dusky 
skin.  The  tail  is  not,  however,  used  as  a  trow- 
el, spade,  hammer,  or  any  other  tool,  as  is 
stated  in  the  books ;  but  it  sometimes  answers 
as  a  prop,  when  the  animal  stands  erect  and 
uses  its  fore  paws  in  working.  As  is  usually 
the  esse  when  tuuxnal  instincts  are  to  be  lauded, 
the  intelligenoeof  the  beaver  has  been  absurdly 
exaggerated  by  fimciful  writers,  composing  in 
their  studies;  as  when  they  describe  some  of 
the  beavers  as  lying  on  their  backs,  and  receiv- 
ing loads  of  wood  and  day  on  their  supine 
bdlies,  and  then  suffering  themselves  to  be 
draped  alon^  the  ground  by  their  companions, 
thus  discharging  the  functions  of  carts,  or  sledg- 
es. The  works  of  nature  are  sufficiently  won- 
derful and  grand  without  that  man,  in  attempt- 
ing ignorantly  to  magnify  them,  should  render 
them  ridiculous  by  his  conceits.'*  80,  in  like 
manner,  all  the  grand  works  of  the  beaver 
being  carried  on  by  night,  little  is  actually 
known  of  their  manner  of  working,  except 
from  the  examination  of  what  they  effect  All 
that  they  do  in  general  concert  is  to  build 
dams,  when  they  have  chosen  the  site  of  their 
settlements  on  running  streams,  which  do  not 
afford  a  sufficient  deptn  of  water  to  be  secure 
against  freezing  in  winter;  and  this  they  do  by 
cutting  down  trees,  invariably  up  stream  of  the 
place  selected  for  their  wear,  so  that  the  cur- 
rent may  bear  them  down  toward  the  site. 
The  trees  which  they  thus  cut  down  with 
their  keen  fore-teeUi,  are  often  6  or  6  inches 
in  diameter.  Where  the  current  is  gentle,  the 
dam  is  carried  horizontally  across,  but  where  ' 
the  water  runs  swiftly,  it  is  built  with  an 
angle  or  convex  curve  up  stream.  These  ma- 
terials rest  on  the  bottom,  where  they  are 
mixed  with  mud  and  stones  by  the  beavers, 
and  still  more  solidly  secured  by  the  deposit  of 
soil  carried  down  by  l^e  stream,  and  Ifv  the 
occasional  rooting  of  the  small  willow,  birch, 
and  poplar  trees,  which  they  prefer  for  their 
work,  in  the  soil  at  the  bottom.  Their  houses 
or  lodges,  seldom  made  to  contain  more  than 
4  dd  and  6  or  8  young  beavers,  are  very  rude- 
ly built,  sticks,  stones,  mud,  and  all  the  ma- 
teriab  used  in  constructing  the  dam,  being 
piled  horizontally,  with  no  method  beyond  that 
of  leaving  a  cavity  in  the  centre.  There  is  no 
driving  in  of  piles,  wattling  of  fences,  and  mud 
plastering,  as  described;  and  when  leaves  or 
grass  are  interwoven,  it  is  done  casually,  not  to 
bind  the  mortar,  as  men  apply  hair  for  that 
purpose.  The  beaver  conveys  the  materials 
between  his  fore  paws  and  chin,  arranges  them 
with  his  fore  feet,  and  when  a  portion  i^  placed 
as  he  wishes  it,  he  turns  about  and  fetches  it  a 
dap  with  his  tail,  dmUar  to  that  which  he  gives 
on  the  snr&ce  of  the  water  preparatory  to 
diving.  In  the  breeding  season,  and  in  early 
summer,  the  beavers  do  not  live  in  thdr  houses, 
nor  in  commnnities,  but  only  become  gregi^ 
rious  in  the  winter,  and  when  preparing  for  it 
They  begin  to  build,  ordinarily,  in  the  latter 


part  of  August,  although  they  sometimes  fell 
their  timber  earlier  in  the  summer;  but  their 
houses  are  not  finished  and  plastered,  whether 
owing  to  accident  or  design,  until  late  in  tlie 
season ;  when  the  mud  and  water  freezing,  as 
the  materid  is  laid  on,  add  much  to  the  se- 
curity of  the  beavers  against  the  wolverine,  or 
glutton,  who,  with  the  exception  of  roan,  is 
their  worst  enemy.  The  food  of  the  beaver 
consists  of  the  bark  of  the  aspen,  willow,  birch, 
poplar,  and  dder,  of  which  it  lays  up  a  stock 
for  the  winter,  during  the  summer  time,  on  the 
bank  opposite  to  its  lodges ;  but  unless  com- 
pelled by  necessity,  it  avoids  the  resinous  ever- 
greens, such  as  the  pine  and  hemlocks.  As  it 
always  performs  its  evacuations  in  the  water, 
it  is  naturdly,  not  instinctively,  or  by  reason, 
a  cleanly  animd;  and  hence  no  filth  is  ever 
accumulated  about  its  dwellings.  The  beaver 
produces  from  2  to  6  young  at  a  litter,  and 
owing  to  its  breeding  away  mm  its  villages, 
in  dispersed  and  solitary  places,  as  well  as  to 
the  fact  that  its  fur  is  valueless  at  the  breeding 
season,  its  extinction  has  been  delayed  longer 
than  could  be  hoped.  The  beaver  is  easily  domes- 
ticated, and  becomes  very  tame.  When  in  con- 
fin  ement,  so  soon  as  the  building  season  arrives, 
the  constructive  instinct  seizes  him ;  just  as  the 
ardor  for  nidification  and  migration  seizes  un- 
coupled and  caged  birds,  showing  that  nature, 
not  reason,  is  at  work,  and  that  now,  as  of  old, 
*'  the  ostrich, '^  and  not  the  ostrich  only,  but  aU 
flesh,  fish,  and  fowl  in  its  kind,  ^^  knoweth  its 
time." 

BEAVER,  a  piece  of  armor;  the  lower 
part  of  the  f]*ont  piece  in  the  complete  helmet 
of  the  knight  of  the  middle  ages,  which,  wiUi 
the  avantaille,  completed  the  vizor.  When  the 
latter  was  rdsed  and  the  beaver  lowered,  the 
whole  face  was  uncovered;  vice  tenoy  it  was 
completely  guarded.  The  avantaille  covered 
the  face  from  the  brows  downward  to  the  nose, 
the  beaver  from  the  chin  upward  till  it  met  the 
avantdlle.  Either  could  be  opened  independ- 
ently of  the  other.  When  it  was  desirable  to 
obtain  a  freer  circulation  of  air,  or  to  eat  or 
drink,  while  preserving  the  incognito,  the 
beaver  was  lowered;  as  Blr  Wdter  Scott  acca- 
rately  describes,  when  Ivanhoe,  in  his  romance 
of  that  name,  after  overthrowing  Sir  Brian  de 
Bois  Guilbert  in  the  tournament,  cdb  for  a 
bowl  of  wine  and  <maffs  it  to  the  confusion  of 
all  foreign  tyrants.  W  hen  a  knight,  on  the  con- 
trary, wished  to  reved  himself,  he  raised  his 
avantaille,  and  so  disclosed  his  features. 

BEAVER,  a  county  of  Pennsylvania,  border- 
ing on  the  Ohio  and  intersected  by  Beaver 
river  and  by  the  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  rail- 
road. It  is  well  watered,  and  the  soil  near  the 
streams  is  remarkably  fertile.  The  sur&ce  is 
undulating,  and  in  some  places  covered  with 
extensive  forests.  Bituminous  cod  and  lime- 
stone are  abundant  In  1850  this  county  yidd- 
ed  17,916  tons  of  hay,  498,772  lbs.  of  butter, 
244,112  bushels  of  wheat,  226,258  of  Indian 
com,    829,481    of  oats,   beside    considerable 


BEAVER 


BEAZLET 


quantities  of  wool,  pork,  &c.  It  contained,  at 
tne  same  date,  25  fiour  and  grist  mills,  18  saw 
mills,  3  paper  mills,  5  woollen  factories,  4  man- 
nfactories  of  agricoltural  implements,  5  brew- 
eries, 18  tanneries,  4  iron  founderies,  and 
several  other  mills  and  factories  of  various 
articles.  Area,  650  sq.  m. ;  pop.  26,689.  Capi- 
tal Beaver. 

BEAVER,  Philip,  an  English  navi^tor, 
born  Feb.  28,  1760,  died  AprU  5,  1818.  When 
17  years  of  age,  he  entered  the  royal  navy,  in 
which  he  served  dnring  the  war  of  the  Ameri- 
can revelation.  Alter  the  peace,  finding  him- 
self out  of  employment,  and  impatient  of  repose, 
he  conceived  various  projects,  and  settled  at  last 
upon  founding  a  colony  m  Africa,  the  object  of 
which  should  be  not  commerce,  but  to  cultivate 
the  land  by  free  labor,  to  civilize  the  negroes, 
and  to  introduce  among  them  the  European  re- 
ligion, arts,  and  manners.  He  had  read  in  a 
French  author  a  oescription  of  the  isle  of  Bon- 
lama,  in  the  archipelago  of  Bisagos,  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Africa,  and  he  judged  this  island 
the  most  suitable  place  for  the  execution  of  his 
scheme.  He  communicated  with  numerous 
nersons,  particularly  with  naval  officers,  and 
found  a  general  sympathv  for  his  project;  an 
act  of  association  was  therefore  rormed,  the 
subscribers  met,  and  a  plan  was  submitted  to 
the  minister  Pitt,  who  gave  to  it  his  approba- 
tion. On  the  13th  of  April,  1792,  8  ships, 
bearing  275  white  colonists  under  the  guidance 
of  Beaver,  set  sail  from  the  Isle  of  Wight  The 
expedition  proved,  however,  a  failure.  Within 
4  months  more  than  a  third  of  the  colonists  had 
died  by  fever  upon  the  African  coast,  and  more 
than  half  the  survivors  hastened  to  abandon  the 
project  and  return  to  their  country.  Those  who 
remained,  and  escaped  the  fever,  suffered  in- 
cessant embarrassments  and  discouragements. 
Beaver  himself,  several  times  prostrated  by  the 
scourge  which  threatened  to  annihilate  his  col- 
ony, still  maintained  his  courage,  struggled 
hopefully,  though  with  failing  strength,  against 
all  depressing  influences,  and  had  no  thought 
either  of  giving  up  the  enterprise,  or  leaving  the 
fatal  island.  He  hoped  for  new  supplies  of  men 
and  money  from  England,  trusted  to  the  ener- 
gy of  his  character  to  achieve  the  prosperity  of 
his  colony,  and  the  elevation  of  the  African 
race.  He  planted  numerous  fruit  trees  and 
vegetables,  some  of  which  were  flourishing; 
and  numerous  constructions  necessary  to  the 
safety  and  well-being  of  the  colonists  were 
nearly  completed.  Not  content  with  regulating 
and  watching  over  every  thing,  he  himself  gave 
the  example  in  all  kinds  of  labor,  and  selected 
for  his  own  hands  whatever  was  most  difficult 
and  painful  As  he  saw  the  spirits  of  the  colo- 
nists still  continue  to  droop,  he  called  them  to- 
gether, pointed  out  to  them  the  difficulties  over 
which  they  had  triumphed,  and  strove  to  revive 
their  courage  by  portraying  the  hopes  which 
they  could  reasonably  cherish  for  the  future. 
Yet  his  efforts  were  in  viun,  and  he  saw  that  he 
must  renounce  his  enterprise.    He  embarked. 


Nov.  29,  1798,  with  his  surviving  comiumioiM, 
from  the  ieje  of  Boulama,  and  arriving  at  Sierra 
Leone,  was  attacked  anew  by  the  fever  and  de- 
tained 2  months.  When  he  again  embarked  for 
England,  he  had  with  him  but  one  of  all  tbe 
colonists  who  had  sailed  for  Africa  under  his 
direction.  He  arrived  at  Plymouth  in  May, 
1794;  and  in  June,  a  meeting  of  the  share- 
holders of  the  association  was  held  in  LoDdon, 
and  in  spite  of  the  losses  which  resulted  from 
the  ill  success  of  the  expedition,  such  ^waa  the 
admiration  which  the  disinterested,  retolnte,  and 
noble  conduct  of  Beaver  had  inspired,  thai 
the  assembly  unanimously  voted  him  a  ^old 
medal  in  testimony  of  thdr  gratitude.  The 
events  of  this  expedition  were  described  by 
Beaver  In  a  publication  entitled  '*  African  Me- 
moranda,^' a  work  oontainizur  much  curioos 
and  <ndginal  infOTmation.  He  subsequently 
went  again  into  the  service,  distinguished 
himself  in  the  descent  of  Gen.  Aberorombie 
upon  Egypt  in  1801,  and  in  the  capture  of  the 
Isle  of  France  in  1810.  In  1818  he  crnised  in 
the  Indian  ocean,  in  command  ci  the  frigate 
Kisus,  and  died  at  the  Gape  of  Good  Hope  firom 
too  severe  exposure  and  labor  in  exploring  the 
coast  of  Quiloa.  Beaver  was  not  only  most 
efficient  in  action,  but  was  also  a  man  of  taste, 
and  possessed  a  large  fund  of  knowledge. 
It  was  said  that  he  read  throngh  the  entire 
'^Encyclopaedia  Britannioa^'  during  one  of  his 
long  cruises. 

BEAVER  ISLANDS,  a  group  in  Lake  Michi- 
gan, near  its  northern  extremity,  and  having 
one  island  of  considerable  extent  (40  sq.  m.)9 
called  Big  Beaver.  After  their  expakion  from 
Nauvoo,  a  dissenting  branch  of  theMormona  e»- 
tablbhed  themselves  there  under  Joseph  Strang. 

BEAVEB  LAKE,  the  largest  lake  in  Indiana. 
It  has  an  area  of  25  square  miles^  and  is  sitoated 
in  Jssper  coun^  south  of  the  Kankakee  river. 

BEAVEB  MEADOW,  a  village  in  Carbon 
county,  Pennsylvania,  and  about  100  miles 
north-west  of  Philadelphia.  It  is  connected 
with  the  Lehigh  river  by  a  railroad,  over  which 
much  coal  is  sent  from  Beaver  Meadow. 

BEAZLEY,  Samuel,  English  architect  and  an- 
ther, born  in  Westminster,  in  1786,  died  at  Tun- 
bridge  castle,  Kent,  Oct.  12, 1861.  He  erected  a 
great  many  theatres  in  England,  viz. :  8  in  Lon- 
don, 2  in  Dublin,  and  8  in  the  provinces,  beside 
remodelling  several,  adding  the  colonnade  to 
Drury  Lane,  and  the  Strand  facade  to  the  Adel- 
phi,  and  supplying  drawings  for  2  in  India,  2  in 
Belgium,  and  1  in  BraziL  The  merit  of  dl  his 
theatrical  constructions  is  that  people  can  see 
and  hear  in  them.  Mr.  Beazley  also  erected 
many  raHway  stations,  including  the  handsome 
terminus  of  the  south-eastern  rulway  over  Lon- 
don bridge.  He  wrote  over  a  hundred  dramaa^ 
many  of  them  successful  in  their  day.  The  Eng- 
lish libretto  of  the  ^'Sonnambula^' and  of  some 
of  the  other  operas  were  from  his  pen.  He  also 
wrote  two  novels,  "Tbe  Rou6"  and  "The  Ox- 
onians ;"  the  first  of  these  has  been  erroneonalx 
attributed  to  Bulwer. 


BEBAYH-ET^HAGAB 


BEOOAFUMI 


83 


BEBAYH-EL-HAGAB,  or  Bbbek-el-Had- 
jAic,  a  ruined  town  of  i^ypt,  in  the  delta  of  the 
Kile.  It  embraces  more  extensive  remains  of 
antiquity  than  any  other  town  in  that  part  of 

BEBIAN,  AuouFTB,  an  instructor  of  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  bom  at  Guadeloupe,  W.  I.,  about 
1782,  died  about  1828.  His  father  was  an 
eminent  French  merchant  residing  on  that 
island.  At  the  age  of  14  or  15,  he  was  sent  to 
Pans  for  his  education,  and  placed  tmder  the 
abb^  Sicard.  He  was  sent  first  to  a  private 
boarding  school,  and  afterward  to  the  imperial 
lyoeum,  where  he  graduated  Boarding  in  the 
family  of  the  abb^  Sicard,  he  became  interested 
in  the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and  after 
a  time  determined  to  devote  himself  to  their 
instmotion.  He  accordingly  prepared  himself 
ibr  the  work  by  taking  lessons  of  the  abb6  and 
of  M.  Laurent  Clerc,  and  when  M.  Glero  came  to 
this  country  with  Dr.  Gallaudet,  Bebian  suc- 
ceeded him  as  teacher.  Subsequently,  he  was 
appointed  censor  of  studies.  This  office  he  filled 
with  great  ability  from  1817  to  1825,  when  he 
resigned  it  and  devoted  himself  to  literature. 
In  1819  he  had  received  the  prize  offered  by 
the  royal  academy  of  sciences  for  the  best  eulo- 
gy on  the  abb6  de  TEp^.  Subsequently  he 
wrote  several  other  biographies,  among  the 
rest  one  of  the  abb6  Sicard.  In  1827  he  pub- 
lished a  **  Manual  for  the  Practical  Instruc- 
tion of  Deaf  Mates.'*  After  his  resignation,  he 
▼lAted  the  institutions  for  deaf  mutes  in  other 
countries. 

BEBUTOFF,  Wassiui  Ossifowitoh.  prince, 
a  Busaian  general,  born  in  1792,  the  elaest  of  4 
brothers,  who  have  been  more  or  less  connected 
with  the  Caucasian  war.  Their  father  held  the 
office  of  treasurer  under  the  administration  of 
Prince  Julon,  in  Georgia;  the  grandfather  was 
governor  of  Tiflis,  and  accompanied  Nadir  Shah 
in  his  expedition  to  India.  For  some  centuries 
past  we  find  the  family,  which  originally  came 
fh>m  Armenia,  occupying  a  high  position  among 
the  princely  houses  of  (^rgia.  Wassi^i,  after 
having  completed  his  education  at  the  military 
academy  of  St  Petersburg,  joined  in  1809  the 
army  in  the  Caucasus,  and  in  1812  accompanied 
the  Caucasian  governor-general,  Paulucci,  to 
LiYonia,  where  be  took  a  part  in  the  operations 
against  the  French.  In  1817  he  acted  as  a^ju* 
tant  of  the  Bussian  plenipotentiary.  Gen.  Jer- 
mdo^  on  his  mission  to  Persia,  on  which  occa- 
sion his  familiarity  with  the  Persian  language 
apd  customs  proved  invalnabla  The  subjuga- 
tion of  the  territory  Akoosha,  in  Xhe  province 
of  Daghestan,  and  of  neighboring  places,  was 
due,  in  a  great  measure,  to  his  exertions;  and 
after  having  been  raised,  in  1821,  to  the  rank 
of  commandant  of  a  Mingrelian  regiment,  he 
was  appointed  governor  of  the  province  of  Lme- 
ritia,  in  Transcaucasia,  which  office  he  held  from 
1825  to  1827.  In  1828  he  distinguished  him- 
self by  the  active  part  which  he  took  in  the 
storming  of  Akhalzikh,  in  Georgia ;  and  on  be- 
ifig  appointed  commandant  of  this  fortress,  he 
toIm  nx. — 8 


exhibited  great  bravery  in  holding  out,  in 
March,  1829,  with  a  small  number  of  soldiers,  for 
10  days,  against  the  superior  forces  of  the  Turk- 
ish army  under  Achmet  Pasha.  Subsequently, 
he  presided  over  the  newly  organized  Trans- 
caucasian  Bussian  government  of  Armenia,  and 
concluded,  in  1885,  a  boundary  treaty  with 
Persia.  From  1888  to  1840  he  officiated  at 
Tiflis  as  member  of  the  Transcaucasian  adminis- 
tration, and  after  acting  for  some  time  as  com- 
mandant of  the  fortress  of  Zamosz,  in  Poland, 
he  returned  in  1844  to  the  Caucasus,  and 
achieved,  in  Oct.  1846,  a  victory  over  ShamyL 
In  Nov.  1847,  he  became  president  of  the  civil 
government  and  of  the  administrative  council 
of  Transcaucasia.  In  1858,  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  war  with  Turkey,  he  was  called  upon,  by 
the  old  Gen.  Woronzoff^  to  take  part  in  it.  On 
Dec.  1  of  the  same  year,  he  prevented  the 
Turks  from  invading  Armenia  by  defeating  the 
forces  under  Abdi  Pasha;  and  on  Aug.  6, 1854, 
he  achieved  a  much  more  important  victory 
over  Zarif  Pasha,  at  Edruk-dere,  although  the 
Tnrkish  army  was  over  40,000  strong,  and  hii 
own  only  about  20,000.  However,  he  incurred 
censure  for  not  following  up  this  victory  by 
marching  on  Ears,  and  in  1855  he  was  relieved 
from  his  command  by  Mouraviefi^,  and  returned 
to  Tiflis,  to  resume  his  duties  as  president  of  the 
administration.  Subsequently,  he  baffled  Omar 
Pasha^s  attempt  to  penetrate  into  Mingrelia, 
and  for  a  short  time  he  again  replaced  Mou- 
ravieff  in  the  command  of  the  Caucasian  army, 
until  the  arrival  of  the  commander-in-chiefi 
F^ince  Bariatinski.  He  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-general  in  1848,  and  of  gen« 
eral  of  infantrv  in  1857. 

BECCAFIOO,  the  whia  horteMts,  or  fig^ 
pecker,  a  singing  bird  which  feeds  upon  insects, 
figs,  currants,  and  other  fruits,  and  belongs  to 
the  order  of  tylviada  (warblers),  and  is  found 
in  some  English  and  even  Scotch  counties,  but 
chiefly  in  southern  Europe.  It  has  a  voice  like 
a  nightingale,  lurks  shyly  in  the  thickest  foliage, 
flies  with  singular  grace,  was  eaten  with  much 
delight  by  the  ancient  Bomans,  and  still  is  one 
of  the  most  delectable  morceaux  on  Italian, 
Grecian,  and  French  tables,  especially  in  Venice. 
Tbeir  usual  market  price  is  about  $1  apiece,  but 
they  frequently  seU  as  high  as  $8  and  $5.  An 
annual  feast  made  on  becoificos  is  called  Becca- 
ficata.  The  term  beccafico  is  applied  in  conti- 
nental Europe,  rather  indiscriminately,  to  difiTer- 
ent  kinds  or  sylvan  warblers,  when  they  are  ftt 
and  In  condition  for  the  table. 

BECCAFUMI,  DoMENioo,  an  Italian  artist, 
bom  at  Sienna,  in  1484,  died  at  Genoa,  March  18, 
1549,  whose  real  name  was  Mecherino,  adopted 
the  name  of  his  benefactor,  Beccafumi.  who, 
struck  with  the  talent  which  he  displayea  while 

Sursuing  the  humble  calling  of  a  shepherd  in 
rawing  the  figures  of  the  sheep  upon  the  sand, 
placed  nim  in  the  studio  of  a  Venetian.  He 
studied  at  Bome  the  works  of  Michel  Angelo 
and  Baphael,  and  on  his  return  to  Sienna,  exe- 
cuted a  number  of  bronce  statoee  and  bass-re- 


84 


BEOOABIA 


BEOERRA 


liefa^  and  the  mosaic  of  the  pavement  of  the 
cathedral. 

BEOGARIA,  Obsasb  Bonbsaka,  marqnls  of; 
an  Italian  economist,  born  at  Milan^  March  16, 
1738,  died  Nov.  28,  1794.  His  education  com- 
menced in  the  Jesait  college  at  Parma,  which  he 
left  at  the  age  of  17.  He  at  once  devoted  him- 
self to  the  stady  of  Gondillac,  Helvetios,  and 
the  lYench  encydopflddists,  but  soon  foand  his 
master  in  Montesquieu,  whose  LetUrea  Fvrmmn 
are  said  to  have  revealed  to  him  his  vocation. 
His  first  work,  ^  Of  the  Abuses  of  the  Oomage 
in  the  State  of  MHan,  and  their  Remedies,*'  was 
called  forth  in  1762  by  a  commercial  crisis. 
Boon  afterward,  he  formed  a  literary  club,  from 
which  issued  in  1764  and  1765  the  Cafft^  a 
periodical  on  the  plan  of  the  "Spectator.'' 
Among  the  papers  contributed  by  Beccaria, 
was  one  upon  style,  wherein  he  attempts  to 
prove  tliat  all  men  may,  with  equal  culture,  be- 
come eqnally  successful  in  literature.  The  first 
portion  of  a  more  elaborate  work  in  support  of 
these  views  was  published  in  1770,  but  never 
completed.  The  essay  upon  crimes  and  punish- 
ments, printed  in  1764,  made  Beccaria's  reputa- 
tion. ''Never  did  so  small  a  book,"  says  the 
Biographie  UhiverteUe^  "produce  so  great  an 
efiTecL''  It  went  through  numerous  editions, 
and  T^as  translated  into  ^dmost  all  the  languages 
of  Europe,  indudinff  modern  Greek.  Diderot 
wrote  notes,  and  Voltaire  a  commentary  upon 
it.  Baron  Grimm  called  its  author  "  one  of  the 
best  heads  in  Europe,"  and  spoke  of  his,  as 
**  one  of  the  few  books  that  make  men  tliink." 
The  academy  of  Bern  struck  a  medal  in  honor 
of  the  marquis,  and  Catharine  II.  of  Russia 
offered  him  an  honorable  station  at  her  court. 
The  essay  npon  crimes  and  punishments  merits 
notice  as  the  first  work  of  its  kind  in  modern 
times.  It  is  more  valuable  as  a  criticism  npon 
existing  systems  of  penal  law,  and  a  statement 
of  the  principles  which  should  guide  in  their 
reformation,  than  as  an  attempt  to  construct  a 
syBtem.  Important  problems  in  the  ethics  of 
crime  are,  however,  touched  npon,  principles 
of  evidence  are  laid  down,  and  the  spheres  of 
Judges  and  leg^lators  respectively  are  discrim- 
inated.  Among  the  most  remarkable  chapters 
in  the  book  is  that  upon  torture,  wherein  the 
practice,  then  in  vogue,  is  severely  ridiculed. 
"  The  problem  may  l^  better  resolved,"  he  says, 
"  by  a  mathematician  than  by  a  judge,  and  may 
be  thus  stated :  The  force  of  the  muscles,  and 
the  sen«bility  of  the«  nerves  of  an  innocent 
person  being  given,  it  is  required  to  find  the  de- 
gree of  pun  necessary  to  make  him  confess 
himself  guilty  of  a  given  crime."  Jn  another 
chi^ter,  Beccaria  declares  himself  opposed  to 
capital  punishment,  and  argues  the  point  at 
length.  He  sums  up  his  book  with  the  follow- 
ing raieral  theorem :  "  That  a  punishment  may 
not  be  an  act  of  violence  of  one  or  of  many 
against  a  private  member  of  society,  it  should 
be  public,  immediate,  and  necessary ;  the  least 
possible  in  the  case  given ;  proportioned  to  the 
<orime  and  determined  by  the  laws."    The  opin* 


ions  broached  in  this  book  became  the  property 
of  Europe,  and  produced  a  marked  impression 
npon  its  criminal  jurisprudence,  reforms  greater 
or  less  in  scope  being  soon  afterward  made  in 
the  penal  codes  of  Russia,  Austria,  Tuscany,  and 
Denmark.  In  1768,  the  marquis  was  appointed 
to  a  professorship  of  public  law  and  economics 
at  Milan,  specially  created  and  endowed  for  that 
purpose  by  Count  Firmiani,  then  governor  of 
that  part  of  the  Austrian  dominions.  His  lec- 
tures, which  attracted  much  notice  at  the  time, 
were  published  after  his  death  in  a  com^Nlation 
of  Italian  writings  on  political  economy.  He  is 
an  advocate  of  the  laiiseB/aire  system^  and  some 
striking  coincidences  have  been  remarked  be- 
tween these  lectures,  both  in  stylo  and  doctrine, 
and  Adam  Smith's  ''  Wealth  of  Nations."  In 
1771,  Beccaria  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
supreme  eooncMuic  council,  whence  he  was 
transferred  to  the  magistracy  of  state,  and  sub- 
sequently  to  the  board  for  r^orm  of  the  judicial 
code.  Such  of  his  state  papers  as  are  preserve 
ed,  are  characterized  by  the  clearness  and  pre- 
cision which  mark  all  their  author's  writings. 
In  one  of  them  it  is  for  the  first  time  proposed 
to  use  the  decimal  system  in  the  iq)plication  of 
that  base  for  exact  measurement  which  is  de» 
rivaUe  from  the  celestial  bodies.  Beccaria, 
though  so  bold  as  a  writer,  was  exceedingly 
timid  as  a  man.  He  wrote  to  his  friends  that^ 
^^  although  he  was  the  apostle  of  liberty,  he 
preferred  not  to  be  its  martyr."  He  was  twice 
married  and  died  of  apoplexy.  His  grave  re- 
mains, it  is  said,  without  a  name  or  an  epitaph. 

BECCARIA,  GiovAimi  Battzsta,  an  Italian 
mathematician  and  chemist,  born  at  Mondovi, 
Oct.  8, 1716,  died  at  Turin,  May  27,  1781.  He 
taught  successively  in  the  universities  of  Rome, 
Palermo,  and  Turin.  The  experiments  of 
Franklin  had  at  this  time  called  the  attention 
of  the  learned  to  the  phenomena  of  electricity, 
and  in  1758,  Beccaria  published  a  treatise  on 
natural  and  artificial  electricity,  which  was 
highly  praised  by  Priestley.  His  subsequent 
and  most  important  work,  DeW  slettridgmo 
artifinaU.  was  translated  into  Englii^  by 
Franklin  himself.  In  1769  he  was  appointed 
by  the  Sardinian  government  to  measure  a  de- 
gree of  tibe  meridian  in  Piedmont,  and  publish- 
ed the  result  of  his  labors  in  his  Oradus  Tauri' 
nemis.  He  also  wrote  many  small  treatises  on 
electricity. 

BECCLES,  a  market  town  of  England, 
fonnded  in  1869.  It  is  richly  ornamented  with 
sculpture,  and  contains  several  public  buildings. 
The  inhabitants  maintain  a  good  carrying  tn^e 
in  coals  and  com,  and  are  extensively  engaged 
in  the  making  of  malt. 

BECERRA,  Gabpab;  a  Spanish  sculptor  and 
fresco-punter,  bom  at  Badza,  in  Andalusia,  in 
1520,  cued  1670,  studied  under  Michel  Angelo 
at  Rome,  and  executed,  on  his  return  to  Mai&id, 
several  works  in  fresco  for  the  palace,  and 
adorned  many  churches.  His  master-work  is  a 
statue  of  the  Virgin,  made  by  order  of  Isa« 
beUadeValois. 


BEOHEB 

BECSHER,  ALnoBD  Juuna,  one  of  the  prfai- 
clpai  leaden  in  the  Vienna  revolntion  of  Oc- 
tober, 1848»  born  at  ICanchester,  in  England, 
in  ICiOSf  and  ahot  by  order  of  the  Anstrian 
government,  Kov.  S8,  1848,  at  Vienna.  His 
fkther,  a  wealthy  Eni^ish  merchant,  toolc  him 
in  early  life  to  Germany,  where  he  studied  law 
at  Heidelbeig^  GOttingen,  and  Berlin.  From 
politioal  causes,  he  became  obnozions  to  the 
rmsrian  goTemment,  and  was  for  some  time  sub- 
jected to  imprisonment  On  recoYering  his  lib- 
era, be  practised  law  for  some  time  at  Eiber- 
fold,  and  edited  a  mercantile  paper  in  Oologne, 
bnt  his  love  of  art  drew  him  to  DOsseldorf, 
wh»«  he  remained  until  he  received  an  ap- 
pointment as  professor  of  music  at  the  Hague. 
His  services  in  that  capacity  obtained  for  him  a 
call  to  his  native  country,  and  in  1840  he  en- 
tered npon  his  duties  as  professor  of  a  mumcal 
academy  in  London.  In  1845,  a  lawsuit  made 
it  necessary  for  him  to  visit  Vienna.  In  the 
artistic  and  literary  circles  there,  Becher  was 
in  his  element  He  wrote  musical  and  artistic 
critieisroa  for  the  papers.  When  the  revolution 
of  1848  broke  oat,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
democratic  central  committee,  and  in  codpera- 
tion  with  the  leaders  of  the  other  democratic 
committees^  be  edited  the  **  Radical,"  a  paper 
which  existed  from  June  16, 1848,  until  the 
storming  of  Vienna.  After  Windischgratz  got 
posseasion  of  the  city,  Becher  was  arrested, 
sentenced  to  death  on  Nov.  23,  chiefly  upon 
the  evidence  of  his  participation  in  the  publica- 
tion of  the  '^  Radical,"  and  shot  on  the  morning 
of  Nov.  28,  in  the  Stadtgraben,  before  the  Neu- 
thor  in  Vienna. 

BECHER,  JoHAHV  JoAOimf,  a  German  chem- 
ist, bom  at  Spire,  in  Rhenish  Bavaria,  in  1625, 
died  at  London  in  1682.  Although  he  had  to 
struggle  with  many  adverse  circumstances,  he 
acquired  an  extensive  knowledge  of  medidne, 
phyncs,  and  chemistry,  became  professor  at 
jientz,  and,  in  1660,  imperial  councillor  at  Vi- 
enna, and  first  physician  to  the  elector  of  Ba- 
varia. His  attention  being  also  directed  to 
politico-economical  subjects  and  particularly 
to  the  means  of  increasing  tne  revennes  of  the 
state,  he  contributed,  whue  at  Vienna,  greatly 
to  the  establishment  of  several  manufactories,  a 
chamber  of  commerce,  and  an  Indian  company. 
But  the  jealousy  of  some  members  of  the  Aus- 
trian government  frustrated  all  his  efforts.  This 
jealousy  he  also  experienced  at  Mentz,  Munich, 
and  in  Wftrzbnrg,  and  he  betook  himself  to 
Haariem ;  but  new  misfortunes  forced  him  to 
seek  refuge  in  London,  where  he  died.  He 
was  a  man  of  original,  but  irr^nlar,  genius. 

BECHER,  SiBOFRiSD,  an  Austrian  political 
economist,  bom  Feb.  28, 1806,  at  Plan,  in  Bohe- 
mia. He  studied  law,  entered  the  public  service, 
and  in  1885  became  professor  of  history  and  geog- 
raphv  at  Vienna.  His ''  ICannal  for  the  Study 
of  £(]8tory,"  which  appeared  in  1888,  and  his 
''General  Geography,"  for  the  use  of  schools, 
wMch  appear^  in  1842,  and  kindred  publica- 
tiooi^  oofl^tribnted  to  increase  his  reputation, 


BEGHUANA 


86 


which  was  still  more  strengthened  by  the  pub- 
lication of  a  comprehensive  historv  of  the 
Austrian  mint  and  currency.  On  the  formation 
of  a  new  cabinet  in  May,  1848,  he  became 
chief  secretary  of  Doblhofl^  the  minister  of 
commerce.  In  September  of  the  same  year  he 
was  appointed  member  of  the  states  council, 
and  when  Doblhoff  withdrew  from  office,  in 
October,  he  officiated  as  minister  until  Dec 
1848. 

BEOHSTEIN,  Johann  Matthias,  a  German 
omithok)gist  and  forester,  bom  at  Waltershau- 
sen,  in  the  duchy  of  Saxe-Gotha,  in  1757,  died 
in  1822.  He  studied  theology  at  the  university 
of  Jena,  but  his  tastes  led  him  to  the  pursuits 
of  the  chase,  and  to  the  study  of  animals  and 

Elants.  Having  visited  the  most  celebrated 
lunting-grounds  of  Germany  to  observe  the 
methocb  practised  in  them,  he  opened  at  Kem- 
note  a  school  of  forestry,  and  published  a  jour- 
nal, entitled  the  ^  Diana,"  devoted  to  hunting 
intelligence  and  kindred  matters.  In  1800,  the 
duke  of  Saze-Meiningen  appointed  him  director 
of  his  academy  of  forester,  and  placed  at  his 
disposal  his  forests,  a  menagerie,  and  a  pheas- 
antry.  Bechstein  left  many  works  upon  the 
subjects  to  whidi  he  devoted  his  life,  among 
which  is  a  "Natural  History  of  Germaqy,^ 
especially  valuable  in  the  department  of  orni- 
thology. 

BECnUANA  (in  the  singular  Moehitana^ 
from  ehuanoy  fVee,  with  a  personal  prefix),  a 
widely  extended  people  in  southern  Africa,  occu- 
pying the  southern  and  south-eastern  portion  of 
the  interior,  divided  into  numerous  trioes  which 
closely  resemble  each  otber  in  physical  features. 
in  manners,  customs,  and  superstitions,  ana 
which  in  these  respects  are  distingnished, 
though  not  stron^y,  from  their  eastern  neigh- 
bors, the  Oafires.  Their  complexion  is  for  the 
most  part  a  coffee-colored  brown,  that  of  the 
Barolong  tribe  being  the  lightest  They  are  of 
medium  sise,  svmmetrically  built,  and  have  the 
crisped  woolly  nair  which  so  generally  marks  the 
negro.  They  are  of  a  gentle  and  nnwarlike 
character,  and  their  numerous  fends  rarely  have 
a  bloody  issue.  Their  weapons  are  only  a  light 
spear  and  a  short  shield,  and  they  are  often  sub- 
jected, without  offering  much  resistance,  bv 
their  warlike  neighbors,  the  Eoranas  and  Oaf- 
fr-es.  Tet  they  are  intelligent,  manifest  a  love 
of  independence,  and  surpass  the  Cafflres  in 
diligence  and  skill  in  manual  labor.  Slavery 
haidly  exists  among  them.  They  are  rich  in 
sheep  and  goats,  but  possess  fewer  homed  cattle, 
which,  however,  especially  cows,  they  prixe  very 

a:hly.  Where  the  eoil  permits  it  is  diligently 
tivated,  and  some  of  the  tribes  have  con- 
siderable industry.  They  have  some  notion  of 
deity,  but  temples,  idols,  priests,  and  consecra- 
ted objects  are  almost  wholly  wanting^  though 
monkeys,  snakes,  and  crocodiles  are  sometimes 
worshipped.  They  affirm  that  they  originally 
i^rang  from  a  cave,  which  is  still  pointed  out 
in  the  Bakoni  country,  and  where  the  foot- 
marks of  the  first  man  may  be  still  seen  in  the 


BEOHUANA 


BEOK 


rocks.  Their  fkith  in  the  sapematoral  power 
of  a  cIass  of  wizards,  termed  raia-makers,  one 
of  whom  at  least  is  fonnd  in  every  tribe,  they 
share  with  the  other  peoples  of  son&em  Africa. 
Polygamy  exists  to  an  unlimited  extent,  and 
dronmciMon  is  a  general  nsage.  Christian  mis- 
sionaries have  obtained  access  to  several  of  the 
most  western  tribes,  and  by  their  influence  the 
women,  who  formerly  performed  all  the  agricul- 
tural work,  have  been  relieved  from  the  heavier 
tasks,  only  the  labor  of  hoeing,  driving  away 
birds,  reaping,  and  winnowing  now  falling  to 
them.  The  government  of  the  Bechnana  is  both 
monarchical  and  patriarchal,  and  of  a  mild 
character.  Every  tribe  has  its  chief  or  king, 
who  resides  in  the  largest  town,  and  is  held 
sacred  by  reason  of  his  hereditary  right  to  that 
office.  Under  these  chiefs  are  the  heads 
of  particular  districts  and  villages,  and  again 
nnaer  these  are  the  eon^  or  wealthy  men, 
who  form  the  aristocracy  of  the  nation. 
The  power  of  the  princes  is  very  great 
but  is  limited  by  the  general  assembly,  called 
the  pichOj  of  the  subordinate  chie&.  The 
Bechuana  formerly  extended  south  as  far  as 
the  Orange  river,  but  were  there  met  and 
driven  back  by  the  Hottentot  races.  At  a 
recent  period  the  Caffres  made  an  incursion 
from  the  east  deep  into  the  Bechuana  territory, 
devastated  the  country,  destroyed  cities,  many 
of  which  had  a  population  of  20,000,  and  effect- 
ed for  the  time  a  complete  political  and  social 
transformation.  Some  of  the  tribes  were  total- 
ly annihilated.  More  recently  the  Boers,  or 
Dutch  settlers,  have  founded  establishmente, 
one  of  which  is  known  as  the  Orange  River 
republic,  within  tlie  boundaries  of  the  Bechu- 
anas.  Among  the  most  important  and  best 
known  of  the  Bechuana  tribes  are  the  Basnto, 
which  is  the  most  easterly  of  them,  occupying  a 
table-land  to  the  west  of  the  Drakenberg  moun- 
tains, partially  civilized  and  Ohristiani^,  and 
whose  capital,  Thaba-Bossiu,  has  a  population 
of  18,000;  theBaUapi,  among  whom  mission- 
aries have  had  the  greatest  success,  dwelling  in 
a  parched  region,  almost  destitute  both  of  wood 
and  water,  on  the  borders  of  the  Kalahari  de- 
sert,, with  Mamusa  for  their  capital,  their  for- 
mer principal  city,  Lithoco,  being  now  depopu- 
lated ;  the  Barolong,  dwelling  to  the  north  of 
the  preceding,  formerly  powerful,  but  now 
scattered  and  almost  extirpated  by  the  Caffres ; 
the  Bangwaketse,  dwelling  still  further  to  the 
north,  in  a  beautiful,  fruitful,  and  well-culti- 
vated valley,  who  were  formerly  wealthy,  but 
have  suffered  severely  from  the  incursions  of 
the  Caffres ;  the  Bahurntse,  dwelling  westward 
from  the  preceding,  in  one  of  the  finest  dis- 
tricts of  southern  Africa,  who  had  considerable 
industry  in  agriculture  and  raising  cattle,  till 
they  were  driven  by  the  Caffres  from  their 
country,  which,  in  1887,  was  taken  possession 
of  by  the  Boers ;  the  Batoana,  dwelling  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Lake  Ngami,  the  remnant  of 
the  fonner  powerful  tribe  of  Bamangwato ;  the 
Bakwains,  who  occnpy  the  fine  hflly  regions 


along  the  rivers  Notnani  and  Mariqna,  and  who 
have  suffered  from  the  Boers ;  and  the  Balaka, 
who  are  not  of  Bechuana  stock,  but,  like  the 
bushmen  of  the  Hottentot  race,  live  scattered 
among  various  tribes,  and  are  generally  de- 
spised. Under  the  name  of  Bakalahari,  the 
Balaka  dwell  in  great  numbers  in  the  Kalahari 
forest.  The  Bayeye,  who  dwell  upon  the  bor- 
ders of  Lake  N^uni,  are  also  to  be  distinguished 
from  the  Bechuana.  The  latest  and  fullest  in- 
formation concerning  the  tribes  of  southern 
Africa  is  contained  in  the  **  Travels  and  Re- 
searches" of  Livingstone. 

BECK,  Datib,  also  Bebk,  a  Dutch  portrait 
painter,  one  of  the  ablest  scholars  of  Vandyke, 
bom  at  Amheim  in  1621,  died  at  the  Hague  in 
1666.  He  painted  with  so  much  rapidity,  that 
Charles  I.  of  England,  who  employed  him,  ex- 
claimed :  ^  Faith,  Beck,  I  believe  you  could 
Saint  riding  post."  Queen  Christina  of  Swe-> 
en  employed  him  in  painting  the  portraits  of 
the  European  sovereigns  for  her  gallery,  but 
chiefly  her  own  portraits,  which  were  then  cir- 
culated all  over  Europe.  He  travelled  extensive- 
ly, and  while  once  in  Germany  he  was  taken 
so  ill  that  his  servants  thought  he  was  dead, 
and  prepared  him  for  the  grave,  while  thejr 
cheered  themselves  up  in  this  melancholy  labor 
by  resorting  to  the  bottle.  One  of  the  party 
poured,  in  a  frolic,  a  few  drops  of  wine  into  the 
month  of  what  he  considered  to  be  the  corpse 
of  his  master,  when,  to  his  surprise,  the  corpse 
began  to  revive  under  the  effect  of-  the  wine, 
and  was  gradually  restored  to  life.  When  he 
subsequently  died  at  the  Hague,  his  death  was 
ascribed  to  poison. 

BECK,  Geobob,  a  painter  and  ingenious 
writer,  born  in  England  in  1749,  came  to 
America  in  1795,  died  at  Lexington,  Ey.,  Dec. 
24,  1812.  He  was  appointed  professor  of 
mathematics  in  the  royal  academy  at  Woolwich 
in  1776,  on  account  of  his  reputation  for  ability 
in  that  department,  but  lost  the  office  for  not 
discharging  its  duties.  After  coming  to  Amer- 
ica, he  was  employed  in  painting,  by  Mr.  Ham- 
ilton, of  the  Woodlands,  near  Philadelphia.  He 
was  also  a  poet,  and,  beside  his  original  pieces, 
translated  Anacreon  and  large  portions  of  Ho- 
mer, Virgil  and  Horace. 

BECK,  John  Bbodhbad,  an  American  phy- 
sician, bom  in  1794,  died  at  Rhinebeok,  N.  Y., 
April  9,  1851.  He  graduated  at  Columbia 
college  in  1818,  at  the  head  of  his  class,  com- 
ment practice  in  1817,  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  soon  rose  to  distinction.  In  1826, 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  materia  medica 
and  botany  in  the  college  of  physicans  and  sur- 
geons, but  exchanged  it  for  that  of  medical  m- 
risprudenoe,  which  he  held  at  the  time  of  his 
death.  He  published  essays  on  medical  subjects, 
and  was  associated  with  his  brother,  T.  Bomeyn 
Beck,  in  the  publication  of  the  great  work  oa 
^^  Medical  Jurisprudence." 

BECK,  Lbwis  C,  a  distinguished  American 
naturalist,  born  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  1800, 
died  at  Albany,  April  21,  1858.    He  graduated 


BEGE 


BEOEER 


87 


Bt  XJniaiL  college,  in  1817.  In  1880  he  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  his- 
tory in  Rntgers  college,  New  Branswick,  N.  J., 
and  at  the  time  of  his  death  was  professor  of 
chemistry  in  the  Albany  medical  college.  His 
attainments  in  natural  history  were  remarkable, 
and  be  published  works  on  chemistry,  botany, 
the  "  Report  on  the  lOneralogy  of  New  York," 
and  an  account  of  the  salt  springs  at  Salina, 
which  appeared  in  1826. 

BECK,  Thw)dkio  Rometn,  K  D.,  LL.  D., 
bom  at  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  11,  1791, 
died  Nov.  1855.  He  graduated  at  Union  col- 
lege in  1807,  studied  medicine,  and,  in  1811, 
opened  an  office  at  Albany.  In  1816  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  institutes  of  medicine 
and  lecturer  on  medical  jurisprudence  in  the 
college  of  physicians  and  surgeons  of  the  west- 
ern district  of  New  York.  In  1817,  finding  his 
health  fiulinc,  he  relinquished  general  practice, 
and  accepted  the  appointment  of  principal  of 
the  Albany  academy,  over  which  ne  presided 
for  more  liian  a  quarter  of  a  century.  He  still 
retained  his  medical  professorship,  and  was  for 
several  years  president  of  the  state  medical 
society,  but  exchanged  it  for  that  of  medical 
jorisprudence.    Dr.  Beck  was  earnest  in  the 

Sromotion  of  all  philanthropic  enterprises ;  the 
eaf  and  dumb,  the  blind,  the  insane,  the  idiotia 
owe  much  to  his  zealous  labors  in  their  behalL 
His  paper  on  the  statistics  of  the  deaf  and  dumb, 
exerted  a  powerful  effect  in  influencing  the  ac- 
tion of  the  state  legislature,  to  liberal  measures 
for  their  education.  He  was  one  of  the  man- 
agers of  the  New  York  state  lunatic  asylum,  from 
its  organization,  and  for  the  last  year  of  his 
life  the  president  of  the  board.  In  1849,  on 
the  death  of  Dr.  Brigfaam,  he  became  the  edi- 
tor of  the  ^  American  Journal  of  Insanity,"  and 
continued  in  charge  of  it  for  4  years.  Although 
Dr.  Beck  wrote  much,  the  greater  part  of  his 
published  writings  were  in  the  form  of  address- 
es, reports,  and  oontributions  to  scientific  Jour- 
nals, and  he  will  be  chiefly  known  to  posterity 
by  his  great  work  on  the  "  Elements  of  Medical 
Jurisprudence,"  the  ablest  contribution  to  this 
difficult  subject  yet  given  to  the  world  in  the 
English  tongue. 

Becker,  Chbistiaks  Ahaub  Luisb,  a 
Weimar  actress,  bom  1777,  died  about  1796, 
admired  by  Wieland,  extolled  by  Iffland,  im- 
mortaMzed  through  Goethe^s  ^^Euphrosyne." 
*  She  created  such  an  enthusiasm  among  the 
hahUuei  of  the  Weimar  theatre,  that  many 
of  the  audience  drew  portraits  of  her  during 
the  performance,  and  her  life  and  genius  are 
invested  with  peculiar  romantic  interest  from 
the  remarkable  brevity  of  her  career,  since 
she  died  before  she  was  20.  Her  development 
was  singularly  precocious ;  the  duchess  Amelia, 
herself  painted  her  in  oil  before  she  was  10, 
She  made  her  debut  as  the  *'  Niece,"  in  Goethe's 
Grosikophta  (her  most  successful  r61e),  before 
she  was  15,  and  was  married  soon  afterward. 
She  left  one  daughter,  who  is  the  present  Mad- 
ame Werner,  the  prima  donna  of  the  Leipaio 


opera.  Ohristiane  won  brilliant  laurels  as 
Ophelia,  as  Luise,  and  Amdia,  in  SchiUer's 
'*  Intrigue  and  Love,"  and  **  Robbers,"  and  in 
Lessing's  Minna  inm  Barnhehn, 

BECKER,  Fbbdinakd,  a  German  pastor, 
bom  about  1740  in  the  little  Westphalian  town 
of  Grevenstein,  died  at  Baxter,  in  1810,  wrote, 
while  canon  at  Paderbom,  various  educational 
books  for  young  people,  which,  in  the  opinion 
of  his  ecclesiastical  superiors,  contained  thoughts 
savoring  of  infidelity.  As,  at  the  same  time,  he 
made  himself  obnoxious  to  them  by  bis  advo- 
cacy of  reform  in  the  church,  he  was,  in  1796, 
convicted  of  heresy,  imprisoned  in  the  Francis- 
can convent  of  Paderbom,  and  after  having 
effected  his  escape  from  prison  through  the  as- 
sistance of  the  numerous  friends  which  the 
treatment  to  which  he  was  subjected  had  made 
for  him  throughout  Germany,  he  remained 
under  the  ban  of  excommunication  until  1800, 
when  he  was  restored  to  his  previous  position. 

BEOKER,  GormaBD  Wilheuc,  a  Leipsio 

Shysician  and  writer,  bom  Feb.  22, 1778,  died 
an.  17,  1854.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
practice  of  his  profession  and  to  the  publication 
of  medical  writings,  until  1888,  when  he  turned 
to  belles-lettres  literature,  to  the  study  of  his- 
tory, and  modern  languages,  in  which  he  had  al- 
readv  acquired  some  reputation.  He  trans- 
lated into  German  some  of  Oooper's  novels,  and 
Silvio  PeUico^s  Le  mie  prigioni.  By  his  literary 
hibors  he  accumnUted  |(40,000,  to  which  his 
son.  Earl  Ferdinand,  the  organist,  added  a  house 
of  the  value  of  $7,000,  appropriating  the  whole 
amount  to  the  establishment  of  an  education- 
al and  charitable  institution  for  the  blind  at 
Leipsic. 

BECKER,  Johakk  Philipp,  a  German  demo- 
crat, born  at  Frankenthal,  in  the  Rhenish  pala- 
tinate, March  19,  1809.  His  father  was  a  car- 
penter, and  he  himself  a  brash-maker.  He 
received,  however,  a  respectable  education,  and 
after  the  outbreak  of  the  French  revolution  of 
1880,  he  became  a  contributor  to  SiebenpfeiflTer^s 
radical  paper,  Weatboten.  He  became  involved 
in  troubles  with  the  government ;  he  was  ar- 
rested, and  even  after  he  had  recovered  his 
liberty,  he  was  obliged  to  withdraw  to  Bern,  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  entered  into  business, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  continued  to  write 
for  the  local  radical  joumals.  In  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  services,  during  1846,  the  authori- 
ties of  Bern  conferred  upon  him  the  rights  of 
citizenship.  In  the  autumn  of  1847,  when  the 
Sonderbund  war  broke  out,  he  officiated  as  field- 
secretary,  and  subsequently  as  adjutant  of  the 
Swiss  general,  Ochsenbein.  In  1848  he  formed 
a  volunteer  corps,  and  took  part  in  the  Baden 
revolution ;  the  defeat  of  Hecker  compelled  him, 
however,  to  return  to  Switzerland.  At  Hanin- 
gen  he  organized  a  defensive  league.  He  col- 
lected a  body  of  Germans  and  Swiss  to  assist 
Mazzini  and  the  other  Italian  liberal  leaders, 
but  this  plan  was  frustrated  by  the  French 
government,  which  stopped  the  progress  of  his 
force  after  its  arrival  at  Marseilles.    He  was  on 


88 


BSOEEB 


HEOEET 


the  point  of  prooeeding  faimeelf  to  Italy,  witli 
0ome  fellowHSTrnpathizera.  when  the  fr^  out- 
break in  Baden  preyailed  upon  him  to  go  to 
Oarlsrnhe,  where  he  arrived  May  17,  1849- 
He  took  the  oammand  in  a  skirmish  on  Jane 
25,  near  Durlaoh,  and  fought  bravely  there  and 
elsewhere.  When  the  foroes  of  the  united 
German  governments  crushed  the  movement, 
Becker  returned  to  Switzerland.  Subsequently 
he  settled  at  G«iev%  devoting  himself  again  to 
industrial  and  commercial  pursuits.  In  con- 
junction with  Easelen,  he  published  at  Geneva, 
m  1849,  a  history  of  the  revolution  in  which 
he  had  taken  part. 

BEOKEB,  jLlbl  Fbibdbioh,  a  German  his- 
torian, bom  in  Berlin,  in  1777,  died  March  15, 
1806.  He  wrote  a  universal  history,  intended 
more  particularly  for  young  people  and  for 
teachers,  but  as  he  completed  only  the  first  9 
volumes,  a  different  tendency  was  ingrafted 
upon  the  work  by  Woltmann,  who  wrote  the 
10th,  and  by  Menzel,  who  added  the  11th 
and  12th  volumes.  In  1845,  the  history  was 
brought  out  in  a  still  more  complete  form,  in 
14  volumes,  by  Loebell,  of  Berlin.  Although 
the  work  presoits,  in  its  present  shape,  a  more 
scientific  and  eb&borate  character,  yet  Becker's 
original  edition  is  still  the  most  popular  in 
schools  and  among  teachers. 

BEGEEB,  NiKOLAua,  a  German,  bom  in 
Prussia,  in  1816,  died  Aug.  28, 1845,  celebrated 
by  a  national  song,  written  in  1840,  8ie  $oUen 
ihn  nicht  haben^  den  freien  deuUehen  Ehein — 
'^They  shall  not  have  it,  the  free  German 
Rhine  1 ''  This  song  became  very  nopular,  and 
the  king  of  Prussia  gave  Becker  tiie  means  to 
complete  his  studies  at  the  imiverrity  of  Bonn, 
and  his  success  made  him  believe  that  he  was 
a  poet,  which,  however,  he  was  not. 

BECKER,  RuDOur  Zachabias,  a  popular 
writer,  who  exercised  a  great  influence  on  the 
German  people,  bom  at  Erfurt,  April  9, 1752, 
died  March  28,  1822.  He  first  became  known 
by  an  essay  on  the  theme,  ^^  Is  it  useful  to  de- 
ceive the  people  9 "  which  gained  a  prize  from 
the  Berlin  academy  of  sciences,  in  1799.  ^s 
theonr  was,  that  *^  happiness  depended  on  the 
gratification  of  an  innate  desire  for  improve- 
ment." In  1782  he  took  charge  of  a  school  at 
Dessau,  and  published  a  journal  for  youth.  A 
work  in  2  vols.,  entitled  ^  A  little  book  of  need- 
ful Help,  or  Instractive  Tales  of  Joy  and  Sor- 
row in  the  village  of  Mildheim,"  became  such  a 
fivorite  with  the  public  that  over  500,000  copies 
were  soon  disposed  o£  He  also  produced  other 
works  and  Journals,  and  l^e  extensive  transact 
tions  in  them  led  him,  in  1797,  to  set  up  a  pub- 
lishing and  bookselling  establishment  at  Gotha, 
which  is  still  continu^  by  his  son.  On  Nov. 
80,  1811,  he  was  arrested  by  Davoust,  on  sus- 
picion of  conspiring  against  Napoleon,  and  im- 
prisoned at  Magdeburg,  till  April,  1818.  On 
this  imprisonment  he  wrote  a  book,  whidi  still 
has  a  historical  value. 

BECEERATH,  HasiEAim  von,  a  German 
•tatesman  of  the  liberal  conservative  school, 


bom  at  Grefeld  in  Dec.  1801 ;  served  in  tiM 
Prussian  diet ;  in  1848  became  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament,  and  minister  of 
finance  of  the  so-called  German  empire  under 
the  archduke  John;  was  invited  to  become 
prime  minister  of  Prussia,  but  dedined;  re<^ 
signed  his  seat  at  Frankfort  in  May,  1849, 
owing  to  unwillingness  to  participate  In  any 
extreme  measures;  served  afterward  in  the 
parliament  at  Erfurt,  and  in  the  2d  Prussiaii 
chamber,  and  withdrew  to  private  life  wheni 
ManteuffePs  administration  reestablished  the 
dd  order  of  things. 

BEOKET,  Thomab  1,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, the  Saxon  hero,  priest,  tmd  martyr  of 
England  in  the  reign  of  Henry  H.,  bom  in  Lon- 
don in  1119,  or,  according  to  some  writers^ 
Dec.  21, 1117,  assassinated  at  Oanterbury,  Dec 
29, 1170.  He  was  the  son  of  a  Saxon  and  a 
Syrian  lady,  whose  union  was  brought  about  ia 
the  foUowing  extraordinary  manner:  Gilbert^ 
the  father  of  Thomas,  having  gone  to  the  Holy 
Land,  in  the  second  crusade,  was  made  a  prison* 
er ;  but  while  in  durance,  a  Syrian  damsel,  be* 
coming  enamored  of  him,  and  being  converted 
by  him  to  Christianity,  contrived  to  e£fect  his 
liberation,  after  which,  with  little  chivalry  or 
gratitude,  the  Saxon  crasader  returned  home 
as  best  he  might,  leaving  the  lady  by  the  sea- 
banks  of  Tyre.  But,  with  a  love  and  faith 
stronger  than  that  of  the  deserted  Carthaginiaa 
queen,  the  fur  Saracen  fc^owed  her  recreant 
lover,  and,  although — so  runs  the  legend— she 
knew  but  two  words  of  any  European  language, 
the  names  of  her  lover  and  of  the  city  where 
he  dwelt,  by  the  repetition  of  those  two  words, 
'^London''  and  *^ Gilbert,"  and  by  the  display 
of  her  tears,  her  beauty,  her  jewels,  and  her 
gold,  she  at  length  made  her  way  to  the  id* 
ready  famous  metropolis,  and  there,  with  well- 
deserved  good  fortune,  found  her  Gilbert,  both 
ftee  and  willing  to  reward  her  undoubting  trust 
by  taking  her  to  his  home  and  to  his  heart. — 
Of  so  strange  a  union  Thomas  was  the  of&pring ; 
but,  if  possible,  his  own  fortunes  were  stranger 
yet  He  was  at  first  educated  by  the  canons 
of  Merton,  and  continued  his  studies  in  the 
schools  of  Oxford,  London,  and  Paris.  On  the 
death  of  his  father,  he  was  admitted  into  the 
fiamily  of  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
and,  with  his  permission,  went  to  the  continent 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  civil  and  canon 
law.  He  attended  the  lectures  of  Gratian  at 
Bologna,  and  of  another  celebrated  professor  at 
Auxerre.  Oonceming  his  early  life  little  more 
is  known ;  but  it  is  recorded  that  his  first  ap- 
pearance at  the  court  of  Henry  was  made  ia 
the  humblest  guise,  bearing  hia  fortunes  on  his 
back,  in  the  shape  of  not  too  sumptuous  a  garb, 
riding  a  spavined  Jade  with  galled  withers  and 
bare  ribs,  which  moved  the  insolent  mirth  of 
the  Norman  courtiera  He  soon,  however,  ob- 
tained high  favor  with  the  king,  who,  it  was 
alleged,  was  in  some  sort  under  obligation  to 
him,  as  if  he,  acting  as  agent  for  Theobald,  had 
obtained  from  the  pope  letters  prohibitory  of 


BEOEET 


n 


tibe  ooronation  of  EobUmm,  th«  son  of  Stephen 
of  Bloia,  which  prohibition  ultimately  led  to 
the  sneoesBion  of  Henry  himself  to  the  throne. 
However  this  may  be^  in  1158  he  was  appoint- 
ed high  chancelior  and  preceptor  of  Prince 
Henrj—- afterward  King  Henry  III., — ^being  the 
first  Englishman  called  to  any  high  office  after 
the  conquest.  From  tins  time,  he  became  the 
hitimate  associate,  boon  companion,  and  familiar 
friend  <tf  the  king,  whose  private  hours,  as  well 
aa  \aa  most  secret  counsels,  he  shared,  and  of 
whom  he  was  no  leas  the  master  of  the  revels 
than  the  keeper  of  the  conscience  and  the  purse. 
In  116S,  on  the  death  of  Theobald,  he  was  or- 
dained priest,  having  been  before  only  in  dea- 
oon^s  orders,  and  the  next  day  consecrated 
ardibisfaop  of  Oanterbury.  So  soon  as  he  ob- 
tained wnat  had  evidently  been,  from  the 
beginning^  the  object  of  his  aim,  the  primacy 
of  England,  he  at  once  threw  aside  the  robes  of 
the  courtier,  and  assumed  the  hair-doth  shirt 
of  the  austere  -prelate.  The  very  year  after 
his  consecration,  he  repaired  to  the  general 
oouncil,  which  was  held  by  Pope  Alexander 
in.,  at  Tours^  and  complained  to  him  of  the 
infringement  of  the  rights  of  the  clergy  by  the 
laity  of  England,  which  he  professed  himself 
resolute  to  restore.  Tlien  commenced  that 
struggle  for  supremacy  between  the  primatee, 
iMicked  by  the  ultramontane  power  of  the  pope, 
and  the  kings  of  England,  supported  by  the 
swords  of  the  barons,  and  generally  by  the 
national  feeling  of  the  English,  which  continued 
more  or  less  powerfully  to  disturb  the  king^ 
dom,  during  tlie  reigns  of  all  the  Norman  mon- 
arcl»,  until  the  church  of  Rome  in  England  was 
finally  abandoned  by  Henry  VUI.,  in  the  16th 
oentury. — ^But  ambitious  and  able  as  Becket 
was,  he  was  met  by  one  almost  as  politic  and 
able  as  ever  sat  on  the  throne  of  England,  and 
aa  resolute  to  maintain,  as  was  the  other  to 
asBidl,  his  prerogatives,  and  the  laws  of  his 
realm.  The  first  point  at  issue  was  the  lia- 
bility of  the  clergy  to  be  tried  by  the  ordinary 
courts,  and  held  amenable  to  the  ordinary  laws, 
of  the  land ;  and  this  point  was  decided  by  the 
celebrated  ^  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,"  passed 
in  1164,  which  have,  since  that  time,  been  the 
law  of  the  land.  These  constitutions,  at  first) 
Becket  avowed  that  he  would  never  accept,  or 
aooept  only  with  some  such  clause  of  reservation 
— intended  to  neutralize  Uie  acceptance — as 
mho  ordine  mto^  or  mho  konore  Dei.  But  at 
length,  after  much  hesitation,  he  swore  to  ob- 
aerve  them,  although,  immediately  afterward, 
oonftssing  that  he  had  committed  a  crime  in 
doing  so,  he  declared  himself  in  a  state  of 
penance,  and  suspended  himself  from  the  per- 
formance of  his  ecclesiastical  functions,  until 
he  should  be  absolved  by  the  pope.  Shortly 
after  receiving  this  absolution,  Becket  again  re- 
ceded from  his  admission  of  obedience,  and, 
being  threatened  with  sundry  legal  proceedings 
in  the  king's  oourta,  attempted  to  escape  over 
seas^  but  was  driven  back  by  stress  of  weather. 
Frcm  tbm  time  the  struggle  became  more  hitler 


and  acrimonious  on  both  sides ;  Judgments  were 
obtained,  and  fines  and  imprisonments  decreed 
against  Becket;  but,  treating  them  all  with 
contempt,  he  held  laws,  king,  and  courts  at 
defiance ;  appealing  to  the  pope  against  Henry, 
and  finally  personally  braving  the  monarch, 
face  to  £ftce,  in  his  own  presence  chamber.  At 
length,  however,  all  his  snfiy-agan  bishopa  ex- 
cept Jocelyn  of  Salbbnry,  and  William  of  xTor- 
wich,  appealing  against  him,  in  the  king's  b^ 
hal^  to  Kome.  and  the  barons  of  the  realm 
having  ordered  his  apprehension  and  imprisoU'- 
ment,  he  escaped,  under  a  feigned  name^  to 
Normandy.  Here  he  continued  nearly  7  yeaiii 
in  a  sort  of  honorary  dxile,  the  pope  dedining 
to  insist  on  his  restoration  to  the  see  of  Canter* 
bury,  but,  after  2  years,  appointing  him  to  the 
rich  abbey  of  Senon,  which  exasperated  Henry 
to  such  a  degree  that  he  issued  letters  of  confis- 
cation and  banishment  against  all  the  kindred, 
male  and  female,  of  Becket,  and  caused  them  all 
to  be  transported  and  discharged,  penniless,  only 
with  tiie  clothes  in  which  they  stood,  at  the  gates 
of  bis  episcopal  residence.  In  retaliation  for  thi^ 
Becket  procured  from  the  pope,  firsL  the  ex- 
oommumcation  of  the  bishops  who  had  rebelled 
from  his  authority ;  then  that  of  all  those  who 
had  signed  the  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  or 
submitted  to  them;  and,  lastly,  that  of  the 
kinff  himself  and  the  whole  kingdom'7>f  Eng^ 
land,  in  case  he  ahould  refuse  to  reinstitute  him 
in  his  dignities.  While  the  interdict  was  yet 
in  suspense,  Henry  II.,  who  was  resident  in  his 
Norman  dominions,  determined  to  have  his 
son  crowned  Henry  HI.  of  England,  duringhis 
own  lifetime,  and  issued  orders  to  this  effect 
to  the  ard^bishop  of  York,  who,  during  the 
suspension  of  the  primate,  performed  his  offices 
as  the  first  English  ecclesiastic  Letters  pro- 
hibitorv  were  immediately  issued  ftom  Bome^ 
forbidmng  the  consecration  of  the  prince ;  but 
whether,  as  it  has  been  alleged,  they  arrived 
too  kte,  or  whether  the  English  bishops  coin- 
cided with  the  nation  against  foreign  ecclesias- 
tical control,  they  were  of  no  avnl,  as  Henry 
ni.  was  duly  crowned,  with  or  without  the 
consent  of  the  pope,  at  Westminster.  Heniy 
II.  found,  however,  that  Louis  of  France  was 
intermeddling  in  the  matter,  and  that,  in  case 
of  the  promcugation  of  the  interdict,  he  would, 
not  improbably,  follow  it  up  by  a  dedaratioa 
of  war ;  wherefore  he  considered  it  the  better 
policy  to  make  up  the  difference,  and,  Becket 
condescending  to  go  through  some  form  of  sub- 
mission, to  reinstate  him  in  his  primacy,  and 
restore  to  him  his  ^^pristinate  state  and  digni- 
ty," as  the  old  chromcle  has  it.  At  the  first 
meeting  of  conciliation,  at  Freitville,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  Touraine,  in  1170,  when  Becket  tendered 
the  kiss  of  peace  to  the  king,  *^  I  give  it  to  you,*' 
he  said,  '*  who  honore  DH7^  The  rage  of  Henry 
can  be  imagined,  as  this  very  phrase  of  reser- 
vation had  been  the  bottom  of  the  original  dif- 
ference ;  but  he  dissembled  his  indignation,  and 
despatched  him  home  with  letters  to  his  son, 
ordering  his  reinstatement  in  peace  to  all  his 


40 


BEGEET 


dignities  and  properties,  and  commanding,  also, 
the  restoration  to  all  his  clerks  and  others,  who 
left  England  on  his  behalf,  of  all  their  confis- 
cated properties.  Scarcely,  however,  had  he 
entered  the  realm^  before  he  proceeded  at  once, 
in  virtue  of  his  office,  to  suspend  the  archbishop 
of  York,  and  all  the  other  prelates  who  had 
assisted  in  the  coronation,  fi*om  every  office  of 
tiieir  episcopal  dignities,  having  provided  him- 
self with  a  papS  rescript  fully  empowering 
him  to  do  so.  The  suspended  prelates  were 
the  archbishop  of  York,  and  the  bishops  of 
London,  Salisbury,  Exeter,  Chester,  Rochester, 
St.  Asi^h,  and  Uandaff,  beside  the  others  who 
had  assisted  at  the  coronation.  Thereupon  the 
officers  of  Henry  IIL  commanding  him  in  the 
king's  name  to  absolve  the  excommunicated 
bishops,  he  consented  to  do  so,  on  their  making 
submission,  and  swearing  to  abide  by  all  the 
eommands  of  the  pope.  The  bishops,  how- 
ever, refbsing  to  take  any  oath  of  the  kind, 
without  the  king's  consent,  he  remained  obdu- 
rate, and  the  prelates,  crossing  the  sea,  carried 
their  grievances  direct  to  the  foot  of  Henry's 
throne.  In  the  mean  time,  Beoket  set  out  *^  to 
visit  the  young  king  at  Woodstock,  but  was 
met  by  messengers,  who,  in  the  king's  name, 
commanded  him  to  proceed  no  further,  but  to 
return  to  his  church.  He  accordingly  returned 
to  Kent,  and  there  made  preparation  to  cele- 
brate the  season  of  Ohristmas,  which  was  ap- 
E reaching." — ^The  old  king,  Henry  II.,  was 
olding  high  festival  and  banquet  in  the  haUs 
of  Rouen,  when  the  excommunicated  prelates 
arrived,  bearing  tiie  tidings  of  their  own  dis- 
grace, and  of  the  action  of  Becket ;  adding  that 
the  primate  was  marching  to  and  fro  through- 
out the  kingdom,  at  the  head  of  armed  bands 
of  foot  and  horsemen,  and  was  stirring  up  the 
Saxon  churls  against  the  gentie  blood  of  Nor- 
mandy. Hennr  swore  his  fiivorite  oath,  "  By 
the  eyes  of  God,"  that  if  all  were  accursed  who 
had  consented  to  his  son's  coronation,  he  was  so 
himself,  and  added  an  exclamation  of  passionato 
wonder  that,  among  all  his  knights  and  nobles, 
he  had  not  one  who  would  rid  him  of  that 
shaveling.  Thereupon,  4  Norman  barons,  hasti- 
ly leaving  the  presence,  swore  to  avenge  the 
kin^,  and,  without  waiting  even* to  diange 
their  banqueting  robes,  took  horse  and  took 
ship,  and  on  the  6th  day  after  the  tidings  reach- 
ed Rouen  rode  into  Canterbury,  themselves  un- 
armed, at  the  head  of  60  mail-dad  men-at-arms. 
Their  names  were  Resinald  Htzurse  J^ichard  le 
Breton,  Hugues  de  Morville,  and  William  de 
Trad.  On  entering  Canterbury  they  summon- 
ed the  sheriff,  and  ordered  him  to  take  measures 
instantiy  to  suppress  any  rising  in  the  town 
which  might  occur,  left  40  men-at-arms  at  the 
market-cross  to  overawe  the  people,  and  then 
rode,  with  12  followers,  straight  to  the  bishop's 
palace.  Becket  was  at  table  when  they  enter- 
ed, and  commanded  him,  sternly  and  rudely,  on 
peril  of  his  life,  to  raise  the  interdict  and  sus- 
pension of  the  bishops,  and  to  submit  himself 
to  the  pleasure  of  his  sovereign  lord,  the  king. 


Argument^  debatdi  refhsaL  high  worda,  and 
fierce  recrimination  followed.  The  archbishop 
was  cool,  haughty,  unbending,  and  insolent  in 
his  very  calmness ;  the  knights,  fiery,  untamed, 
and  as  unused  to  meet  resistance  as  they  were 
impotent  to  control  their  own  fierce  tempers. 
Whether  the  deed  were  premeditated  from  the 
first  or  not,  they  acted  ever  with  the  coolest  de- 
liberation. As  they  rushed  out  to  arm  them- 
sdves,  they  ordered  the  monks  to  keep  him 
forthcoming,  that  he  should  not  flee  away. 
''  What  I"  quoth  the  archbishop,  ''  think  ye  that 
I  will  flee  away?  Nay;  neither  for  the  king 
nor  for  any  man  alive  will  I  stir  one  foot  from 
you."  "  No,"  said  they,  **  thou  shalt  not  avoid 
though  thou  wouldst ;"  and  so  they  departed 
in  high  clamor  of  words.  The  archbishop  fol- 
lowed them  out  of  the  chamber  door,  crying 
after  them,  "  Here,  here,  here  shall  you  find 
me,"  laying  his  hand  upon  his  crown.  Then 
the  4  barons  went  out  and  armed  themselves 
complete  in  mail,  with  their  shields  hung  about 
their  necks,  and  their  two-handed  swords  and 
battle-axes.  It  was  about  evensong  when  they 
returned^  and  the  archbishop  was  in  the  cathe- 
dral, whither  he  had  passed  by  a  back  entrance^ 
not  as  a  fugitive  from  danger,  but  as  a  priest  per- 
forming his  appropriate  duty.  The  palace  gate 
was  shut,  but  they  forced  their  way  m  by  an  or- 
chard, through  an  open  window,  which  gave  them 
access  to  the  cloisters,  and  thence  to  the  chorchf 
where,  when  they  entered,  he  was  engaged  with- 
in the  rails  of  the  altar.  They  were  rductant,  at 
first,  to  slay  him  in  that  holy  place,  and  Fitz- 
urse  struck  him  on  the  back  with  the  flat  of  his 
sword,  crying,  **  Fly,  priest,  fly !"  Then,  turn- 
ing to  his  comrades,  he  cried,  ^'  Have  him  away 
to  the  threshold;  we  may  not  slay  him  here." 
^  Here  or  nowhere,"  cried  the  dauntiess  priest, 
seizing  the  riuls  of  the  altar,  with  a  noble  cour- 
age, which  was  a  part  of  his  nature.  All  the 
monks  had  fied,  with  one  exception,  a  stout 
Saxon,  Edward  Grim,  his  crossbearer.  who 
stayed  to  die  with  his  master  if  he  could  not 
save  him.  As  the  first  blow  of  a  two-hacded 
sword  was  dashed  at  the  prelate's  head,  the 
sturdy  servitor  thrust  out  his  bare  arm  to  pany 
it,  and,  as  might  have  been  expected,  it  was 
lopped  ofi^  like  a  twig  by  a  woodman's  bill- 
hook, and  fell  within  the  chancel.  Then  quick- 
ly the  work  of  blood  went  on.  Hugh  of  Mor- 
ale smote  him  on  the  head  with  a  mace,  and 
brought  him  to  his  knees,  and  the  thirsty  blades 
of  the  others  met  in  the  skull  of  the  unflinching 
martyr  to  his  faith.  The  cry,  ^*  Thus  perish  aS 
the  foes  of  the  gentie  Normans,"  reveals  the 
true  intent  of  the  barons,  and  disdoses  the  se- 
cret of  this  summary  execution.  It  was  not  so 
much  the  bold  priest  defending  the  immunities 
of  his  church,  assailing  the  prerogatives  of 
his  king,  whom  they  struck  down,  as  the 
Saxon  who  dared  endeavor  to  uplift  the  caste 
of  his  degraded  Saxon  countrymen.  His 
death,  as  such  deeds  ever  do,  advanced  his 
cause  more  than  the  longest  life  ever  vouchsaf- 
ed to  man  oould  have  done,  had  it  been  all  de- 


BEOEFOKD 


BEOETORD 


41 


voted  to  that  one  object.  He  was  the  Saxon 
martyr;  canonized,  he  became  the  Saxon  saint 
— ^the  moat  popular  of  all  the  saints  in  England, 
especially  among  the  lower  orders,  to  whom  he 
was  dooblj  endeared  hj  his  -Saxon  origin,  and 
hj  his  croel  and  cowardly  slaughter  at  the 
hand  of  Normans.  His  shrines^  at  which  mir- 
acles were  believed  to  be  wronght,  were  the 
richest  shrines  in  England ;  and  it  was  the  gold 
and  jewels  which  adorned  them — 2  large  coffers 
of  which  were  carried  to  the  royal  treasury,  after 
the  saint's  personal  property  had  been  forfeited 
to  the  crown,  conseqnent  to  the  jadgment  passed 
on  him  by  default,  for  non-appearance  in  court, 
nearly  4  centuries  after  his  burial — ^that  induced 
the  rash  monarch,  Henry  YHI. — ^not,  as  he  al- 
leged, the  desire  to  deter  other  saints  from  fol- 
io wii^  so  bad  an  example — to  proceed  against 
him  for  treason  to  his  ancestor  of  some  14  gen- 
erations before. 

BEGEFORD,  Wiluaic,  an  English  politician, 
l>om  1690,  in  the  West  Indies,  died  at  Font- 
hill,  Wiltshire,  June  21,  1770.  He  possessed 
large  estates  in  Jamaica,  and  greatly  increased 
his  property  by  commercial  pursuits,  in  the  city 
of  London.  In  1746  he  was  returned  to  par- 
liament by  the  borough  of  Shaftesbury,  and 
subsequently  sat  for  London.  He  strongly  sup- 
ported the  liberal  interest,  was  the  friend  and 
adhenent  of  Wilkes,  and  advocated  all  the  pop- 
ular measures  brought  forward  in  his  time. 
Having  introduced  a  bill  to  prevent  bribery  at 
elections,  which  was  vehemently  opposed  by 
Mr.  Thurlow  (afterward  lord  chancellor),  Mr. 
Beckford  briefly  replied,  ^^The  honorable  gen- 
tleman in  his  learned  discourse  first  gave  us  one 
definition  of  corruption,  then  another,  and  I 
thought  at  one  time  he  was  about  to  give  us  a 
third ;  but,  pray,  does  he  imagine  that  there  is  a 
single  member  of  this  house  who  does  not 
know  what  corruption  is?''  He  was  succes- 
sively alderman,  sheriflT,  and  lord  mayor  of 
London.  This  last  dignity  he  held  twice,  and, 
daring  the  second  tune  (in  l769-'70),  the  oc- 
currence took  place  which  has  chiefly  made  his 
name  remembered.  The  city  of  London  has 
the  right,  enjoyed  by  no  other  city  corporation 
in  England,  and  shared  only  with  both  houses 
of  parliament,  and  the  universities  of  Oxford 
and  Cambridge,  of  presenting  addresses  to  the 
king,  to  be  received  by  his  nugesty  in  person 
and  state.  When  Wilkes  was  liberated  from 
prison,  in  1770,  the  city  of  London  presented 
a  series  of  addresses  to  George  III.  First  was 
a  petition  for  the  dissolution  of  parliament, 
and  protesting  against  every  vote  of  the  house 
of  commons  as  invalid,  since  it  had  expelled 
Wilkes ;  then  a  remonstrance  yet  more 
strongly  worded,  to  the  same  effect,  and  es- 
pecially inveighing  against  **  secret  and  malign 
influence"  (that  of  Lord  Bute)  at  court  The 
king  replied  to  this,  as  advised  by  his  ministers, 
in  terms  of  strong  displeasure.  The  house  of 
commons,  in  a  resolution  passed  by  a  large  ma- 
jority, condemned  the  language  of  the  city  to 
the  long.    Lastly,  as  a  climax,  came  a  second 


remonstrance  still  more  vehement^  which,  if 
not  actually  written  by  Lord  Chathiun,  was  en- 
tirely approved  by  him,  affain  calling  for  a  dis- 
solution of  parliament;  stul  compluninff  of  se- 
cret influence,  oalline  for  the  dismissal  of  the 
ministry,  and  stron^y  animadverting  on  the 
tenor  of  the  king's  former  reply.  This  was 
presented  at  St.  James's  in  state,  May  28,  1770, 
by  Lord  Mayor  Beckford,  attended  by  a  depu- 
tation. In  compliance  with  custom,  a  copy  of 
the  intended  address  had  been  previously  sent 
to  court,  BO  that  the  royal  answer  might  be 
prepared.  This  was  brief  and  strong,  repeating 
the  king's  dissatisfaction  with  the  manner  in 
which  he  had  been  addressed,  and  declaring 
his  sentiments  to  be  unchanged.  Instead  of  re- 
tiring, Beckford  stepped  forward,  asked  leave 
to  say  a  few  words,  and,  king  and  courtiers 
being  alike  taken  by  surprise,  proceeded  to 
declare,  boldly  but  respectfully,  that  the  king 
had  no  subjects  more  loyal  or  more  affectionate 
than  the  citizens  of  London,  and  concluded 
thus :  **  Permit  me,  sire,  to  observe  that  whoever 
has  already  dared,  or  shall  hereafter  endeavor, 
by  fiilse  insinuations  and  suggestions,  to  alien- 
ate your  majesty's  affections  from  your  loyal 
subjects  in  general,  and  from  the  city  of  Lon- 
don in  particular,  is  an  enemy  to  your  migesty's 
person  and  family,  a  violator  of  the  public 
peace,  and  a  betrayer  of  our  happy  constitu- 
tion, as  it  was  established  at  the  glorious  revo- 
lution." The  king  made  no  reply  to  this. 
Horace  Walpole,  writing  the  next  day,  spoke 
of  "my  lord  mayor's  volunteer  speech,"  as 
being  ^^  wondrous  loyal  and  respectful."  Mr. 
Gifford  declared  that  Beckford  ^^  never  uttered 
one  syllable  of  the  speech."  But  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  he  did  break  through  etiquette 
and  make  a  sharp  answer  to  the  king,  though, 
as  Lord  Mahon  suggests,  '*  there  is  great  rea- 
son to  think  that  in  the  hurry  of  his  spirits  at 
the  time  he  did  not  really  utter  all  that  he  in- 
tended or  supposed."  He  informed  the  city,  two 
days  after,  that  he  had  spoken  the  words  now 
attributed  to  him,  and  his  conduct  was  ap- 
proved by  a  large  minority  of  the  common 
council.  In  less  than  a  month  from  that  time 
he  died  from  a  violent  fever  into  which,  it  ia 
said,  his  blood  had  been  thrown  by  the  agita- 
tion of  his  mind.  The  city  voted  that  his 
statue  should  be  nhiced  in  their  Guildhall,  with 
his  speech  to  the  king  engraved  on  the  pedestal, 
as  may  be  seen  to  this  day.  It  is  said  that 
Beckford  spoke  "what  was  prepared  for  him 
by  John  Home  Tooke,  as  agreed  on  at  a  dinner 
at  Mr.  G^rge  Bellas's,  in  doctors'  commons.'* 
Tooke  himsdf  ckimed  the  authorship,  and  Mr. 
J.  W.  Groker,  in  a  note  on  Dr.  Johnson's  ques- 
tion, *' Where  did  Beckford  learn  English}" 
suggests:  ** Perhaps  Beckford  said  something 
wMch  was  afterward  put  into  its  present 
shape  by  Home  Tooke."  It  is  pretty  clear  that 
Beckford  could  scarcely  have  made  the  speech 
himself.  Lord  Mahon  says  he  was  ^^  a  man  of 
neglected  education,  noted  in  the  house  of 
oonunona  for  his  loud  voice  and  faulty  Latin." 


42 


BEGEFOBD 


BECEFORD,  Whjjaic,  author  ci  "  Vnthek," 
the  only  legitimate  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in 
17^,  died  May  2, 1844.  He  inherited  from  his 
father  an  income,  said  to  have  exceeded  $600,000 
a  year.  His  talents  were  precocious,  he  read 
deep,  and,  as  he  himself  relates,  was  capable  of 
enduring  great  fatigue  and  prolonged  stndy. 
Before  he  was  20  he  wrote  **  Biographical  Me- 
moirs of  Extraordinary  Painters,"  published  in 
1780.  In  1783  he  married  Lady  Margaret  Gor- 
don, daughter  of  the  earl  of  Aboyne.  In  1784 
he  wrote,  in  the  French  language,  the  most  re- 
markable of  his  works,  **  Vathek,'*  an  eastern 
tale  of  wonder.  He  never  translated  it,  but 
there  subsequently  appeared  in  English  a  ver- 
sion which  he  approved  and  declared  to  be 
faithful  to  the  spirit  of  the  original.  In  1794 
he  went  to  Portugal,  and  buQt  a  magnificent 
manAon  at  Ointra,  in  which  he  lived  for  several 
years,  but  which,  after  he  left  it,  was  suffered 
to  go  to  decay.  His  finther  had  erected  an  enor- 
mous pile  at  Fonthill,  at  a  cost  of  £150,000,  but 
even  its  splendor  did  not  satisfy  the  proaigol 
inheritor  of  his  wealth,  and  this  palace  he  pro- 
ceeded to  pull  down,  leaving  but  a  small  portion 
of  it  remaining,  and  erected  Fonthill  abbey,  on 
which  he  spent  fabulous  sums,  and  which,  for 
many  years,  remained  entirely  closed  to  tlie 
public,  a  monument  of  mystery,  folly,  and  self- 
ishness. In  1822,  having  suffered  great  losses 
in  his  Jamaica  estates,  by  the  prospective  eman- 
cipation of  the  negroes,  he  was  obliged  to  sell 
Fonthill  abbey  to  Mr.  Farquhar,  and,  soon  after, 
the  central  tower,  more  than  260  feet  high,  fell 
and  crushed  a  large  part  of  the  mansion.  At 
Bath  he  built,  on  Lansdowne  hill,  a  more  singu- 
lar creation  than  Fonthill,  and  here  he  spent 
the  remainder  of  his  life.  His  passion  for  tow- 
ers induced  him  to  build  one  at  the  Bath  erec- 
tion, and,  being  gifted  with  extraordinary  pow- 
ers of  vision,  he  saw  from  its  top  that  that  of 
Fonthill  had  disappeared  from  the  landscape, 
although  it  was  40  miles  distant,  and  proclaim- 
ed the  fact,  before  the  news  of  its  destruction 
arrived  from  the  scene  itself.  On  his  death  he 
left  2  daughters,  one  of  whom  is  the  present 
dowager  duchess  of  Hamilton. — Few  characters 
have  ever  been  the  subjects  of  more  speculation, 
either  from  the  force  of  their  talents,  or  the  ad- 
ventitious circumstance  of  boundless  fortune, 
than  Beckford ;  and  that  mystery  which  was 
thrown  around  him  early  in  life,  attached  to 
him,  by  the  popular  estimation,  to  the  last. 
The  powerful  Impression  produced  by  **Va- 
thek,*^  its  pictures  of  gorgeous  magnificence, 
its  supernatural  machinery,  the  gloomy  gran- 
deur of  the  hero  of  the  story,  surrounded  by  all 
earthly  splendor,  yet  consorting  with  powers 
of  darkness,  not  only  established  the  literary 
fame  of  the  author,  but,  in  the  estimation  of 
the  multitude,  who  never  came  in  contact  widi 
him,  and  looked  with  wonder  upon  his  imposing 
piles  of  building,  springing  like  magic  into  ex- 
istence, invested  him  with  weird  attributes 
which  hod  no  sympathy  with  daily  human  life. 
The  credulous^  as  they  saw  the  vast  tower  of 


Fonthill  abbey  rising  over  the  domain  which  no 
stranger  was  permitted  to  enter,  half  believed 
that  its  lord,  who  dwelt  apart  from  mankind, 
as  secluded  as  an  eastern  despot,  kept  compan- 
ionship with  beings  of  unearthlv  mould.  Sndi 
an  idea  was  posdbly  accounted  for  by  the  fact 
of  Beckford^s  having,  at  one  time,  attached  to 
him  a  hideous  and  emasculated  oriental  dwaii; 
such  as  is  frequently  found  in  the  households  of 
Asiatic  princes.  By  his  equals  in  rank  he  was 
regarded  as  a  man  of  uncommon  talents  and 
peculiarities.  On  Fonthill  he  poured  oat  his 
riches  with  imparently  exhausUess  profusion. 
The  estate  and  abbey  cost  him  nearly  |2,000,- 
000.  He  began  the  erection  of  the  huge  fabric 
in  1796,  and  it  was  11  years  befope  he  moved 
into  it.  Many  anecdotes  are  told  of  his  extrav- 
agance in  connection  with  its  progress,  no  ob- 
stacle ever  being  allowed  to  remain  in  his  way 
for  one  moment  that  could  be  removed  by  mo- 
ney. Doable  sets  of  hands  were  employed  to 
work  day  and  night,  in  hours  of  darkness  by 
torchlight,  and  paid  so  high  for  their  labor  that 
the  workmen  were  induced  to  quit  the  repairs 
going  on  at  Windsor  castle.  The  central  tower 
was  267  feet  in  height,  crowned  by  a  lantern, 
enclosed  with  single  sweeps  of  plate  ^asa. 
When  the  tower  was  first  in  progress,  it  had  at- 
tained a  lofty  height,  and,  on  some  gpJiA  day,  a 
large  flag  was  hoisted  upon  the  top  of  it.  The 
work  had  been  constructed  in  such  haste,  that 
the  wind,  acting  with  great  force  upon  the  ban- 
ner, exerted  such  a  leverage  upon  the  staff  that 
the  pile  was  overthrown,  and  fell  to  the  earth 
with  a  mighty  crash.  Merelv  observing  that  it 
must  have  been  a  grand  sight,  and  regretting 
that  he  had  not  been  present,  Beckford  gave  an 
instant  order  for  the  construction  of  another 
tower.  In  his  *^  palace  of  pleasures,''  whidi 
now  might  almost  rival  the  fabled  hall  of  Ya- 
thek,  Beckford,  in  some  strange  freak,  secluded 
himself.  His  immense  wealth  enabled  Inm  to 
gratify  every  whim,  and  he  made  an  unrivalled 
collection  of  works  of  art  and  virtu.  Inunense 
vestibules,  halls,  galleries,  drawing-rooms,  ora- 
tories, suite  upon  suite,  were  filled  with  palatial 
ifurniture,  pictures,  carvings,  gems,  porcelain  of 
the  rarest  fabric,  of  which  a  superb  set  for 
every  day  in  the  year,  and  used  but  once  in  a 
twelvemonth,  literally  crowded  the  gorgeous 
saloons.  None  were  permitted  to  behold  these 
riches  but  at  very  rare  interva]s,and  they  emerged 
from  the  pile  to  speak  of  the  magnificence  with- 
in, equalling  in  daazling  reality  the  wildest  fa- 
bles of  Arabian  romance.  On  one  occasion  the 
most  famous  duchess  of  the  realm  was  admitted, 
entertained  for  a  week  with  princely  generosity, 
the  delights  of  the  place  varying  from  day  to 
day,  but  tlie  inexond)le  Be(M>rd  never  entered 
her  presence.  At  length,  in  1822,  Fonthill 
passed  out  of  his  hands,  and  the  treasures  it 
contained  were  scattered,  in  a  sale  of  41  daya^ 
duration.  Thither  from  every  part  of  the  king* 
dom  fiocked  thousands  to  gratify  their  curi- 
osity by  a  sight  of  the  palace  from  which 
they  had  always  been  so  rigidly  excludedy  and 


BEOEINGTON 


BEOQUEBEL 


4S 


to  secOTe  some  of  the  dazzling  objects  with 
"which  it  was  filled  in  eyerj  part — ^paintings  hy 
&<b  greatest  of  the  old  masters,  the  costliest 
bool»  and  illomiiiated  manascripts,  magnificent 
cabinets  of  bohl,  ebony,  and  mosaic,  porcelain 
stfttnary,  ntedmeiis  of  ivory  earrings  by  il^ 
mingo  and  other  great  artists,  and  numerous 
sonlptoied  vessela,  of  topaz,  sardonyx,  agate, 
and  crystal,  some  of  them  the  most  exquisite 
works  of  Benvennto  Cellini. — ^The  literary  fame 
of  BeckfiMrd  rests  upon  his  early  writings.  His 
travels,  in  a  series  of  letters,  published  more 
than  60  years  after  they  were  written,  contain 
aome  of  the  most  animated  descriptions,  and  es* 
pedally  of  natural  scenery,  in  the  English  lan- 
guage. "  Yathek,''  in  ^ite  of  its  grotesque  hor- 
rors^ is  likely  to  remain  long  a  fiftvorite,  and 
bears  the  impress  of  great  powers.  Byron  says 
of  it :  '*  *  YaUiek'  was  one  of  the  tales  I  bad  an 
early  admiration  of.  For  oorrectness  of  cos- 
tume, beauty  of  description,  and  power  of  im- 
agmation,  it  &r  surpasses  aU  European  imico- 
t^ns,  and  bears  such  marks  of  originality  that 
those  who  have  visited  the  East  will  find  some 
difficulty  in  beUeving  it  to  be  more  than  a  trans- 
hition.  As  an  eastern  tale,  even  Basselas  must 
bow  belore  it ;  his  ^  happy  valley*  will  not  bear 
a  comparison  with  the  *hall  of  Eblis.' " 

BECKINGTON^,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Bath 
and  Wells  in  1443,  on  English  theologian  and 
diplomatist,  bom  in  Somersetshire  in  1885, 
^ied  Jan.  14, 1466.  He  was  educated  at  Kew 
ooQege,  Oxford.  He  drew  up  cases  against 
the  Lollards  and  in  favor  of  his  master, 
Henry  YI.'s  right  to  the  French  crown.  He 
was  one  of  the  plenipotentiaries  appointed  to 
n^otiate  a  peace  with  France,  1482. 

BEGKMANN,  Johanst,  a  writer  on  agri- 
culture and  natural  history,  born  at  Hoya, 
Hanover,  June  4, 1789,  died  atGdttingen,  Feb. 
4, 1811.  He  studied  theology  at  Gdttingen,  but 
soon  applied  himself  to  natural  philosophy  and 
cheml^ry .  For  a  short  time  he  was  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  history  at  a  gymnasium 
in  St.  Petersburg.  He  resigned  this,  and  coming 
"back  thioogh  Sweden,  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Linn9us,  and  was  allowed  to  see  how  the 
Swedish  mines  were  worked.  Having  return- 
ed to  Gottingen,  he  was  made  professor  of 
philosophy  there  in  1766,  and,  in  1770,  ordinary 
professor  of  economy,  which  office  he  held  for 
over  40  years.  He  published  several  scientific 
works,  which  once  were  popular,  but  the  best 
known  d  his  productions  is  called  *^  Oontribn- 
tions  to  the  History  of  Discovery  and  Inven- 
tions,^* of  which  several  translations  have  been 
published  in  England,  where  (with  corrections 
and  additions  extending  it  to  the  present  time) 
it  continues  to  be  a  fav(»ite  work. 

BlIGLABD,  PiXRBB  AnousTor,  a  French  sur- 
geon, bom  at  Angers,  Oct.  16, 1786,  died  at 
Paris,  March  16, 1826.  While  yet  young  he 
became  surgeon-in-ehief  to  the  hopital  ae  la 
tkariUy  at  Paris.  In  1818  he  was  placed  in 
the  anatomical  ebair  at  the  school  of  medicine. 
He  died  suddenly  of  brain  fever. 


BEOQUEBEL,  Amxoins  OfisAS,  a  Ft'ench 
natural  philosopher,  bom  at  Oh4tillon-snr- 
Loing,  March  7,  1788.  At  the  age  of  18,  he 
entered  the  polytechnic  school,  leaving  it  in 
1808,  with  the  grade  of  an  officer,  and  in  the 
corps  of  military  engineers.  He  was  with  the 
French  army  in  Spain  from  1810  until  1812, 
and  distinguished  himself  at  the  siege  of  Tarra- 
gona. In  1818  he  was  attached  to  the  general 
staff.  In  1816,  at  the  down&Il  of  Napoleon, 
he  left  the  army  with  the  grade  of  nu^or.  In 
1810  he  commenced  the  nublication  of  some 
papers  on  minerabgioaJ  ana  geological  research- 
es, with  reference  to  several  hinds  of  calcareous 
carbonates,  but  the  investigation  of  electrical 
phenomena  gradually  claimed  his  whole  atten- 
tion. In  studying  the  physical  properties  of 
amber,  he  was  led  to  make  some  experiments 
on  the  discharges  of  electridty  by  means  of 
pressure ;  and  ttiat  was  the  starting  point  of  all 
his  subsequent  investigationa  He  then  ob- 
served the  evolutions  of  electricity  in  every  kind 
of  chemical  action,  and  discovered  the  laws  of  the 
effects  produced.  These  researches  led  to  the 
refutation  of  the  ^'theory  of  contact,^*  bv  which 
Yolta  explained  the  action  of  his  pile  or  battery, 
and  to  the  constraction  of  the  first  electrical  ap- 
paratus with  a  constant  current  The  discover- 
ies in  electricity  made  by  Becquerel  have  been 
published  in  the  ^nnojtffatf  phynque  et  de  ehimU 
and  in  the  Memoire$  de  VaccMmU  dti  aciencei. 
His  investigaUons  enabled  him  to  discover  a 
very  simple  method  of  determining  the  tem- 
perature of  the  interior  organs  of  men  and  ani- 
mals, without  producing  wounds  of  any  conse- 
quence. He  made  numerous  physiological  ap- 
plications of  this  method,  and  discovered  that 
whenever  a  muscle  is  contracted  a  certain 
amount  of  heat  is  evolved.  Becquerel  is  also 
one  of  the  creators  of  electro-chemistry.  In 
1828  he  made  use  of  this  new  science  in  the 
production  of  mineral  substances,  and  in  treat- 
ing, by  the  humid  process,  the  ores  of  silver, 
lead,  and  copper.  For  these  researches  he  was 
elected  member  of  the  royal  society  of  London : 
and  in  1820  member  of  the  French  academy  of 
sciences.  In  1882  he  was  elected  member  of 
the  institute  of  France;  and  unce  his  admis- 
sion, he  has  read  before  that  learned  body  more 
than  a  hundred  papers  on  important  questions. 
In  1887  the  royal  society  of  London  awarded  him 
the  Coplev  medaJ  for  his  numerous  discoveries  in 
science.  Among  the  list  of  new  substances  which 
Becquerel  obtained  by  the  slow  action  of  elec- 
tricity may  be  mentioned  alnminutn,  silicium. 
glucium,  crystals  of  sulphur  and  of  iodine,  and 
numerous  metallic  sulphurets,  such  as  dodecahc' 
dral  pyrites,  ealena,  solphuret  of  silver,,  iodu- 
rets,  and  double  iodurets,  carbonates,  malachite, 
calcareous  spar,  dolomite,  metallic  and  earthy 
phosphates  and  arseniates,  crystallized  silica,  &c. 
He  also  discovered  a  process  of  electric  coloring 
on  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  which  has  been  ex- 
tensively and  variously  applied  in  practice.  In 
his  electro-chemical  investigations,  BecquerePs 
has  been  to  discover  the  relations  exist* 


44 


BEOSEEREK 


BED  AND  BEDSTEAD 


ing  between  electric  forces  and  tlie  so-called 
chemical  affinities,  and  to  excite  the  latter  into 
action,  by  means  of  the  former.  All  kinds  of 
plating  with  gold  or  silver  by  the  hamid  pro- 
cess, sach  as  electrotyping,  are  only  so  many  va- 
rious applications  of  electro-chemistry.  Among 
the  numerous  and  important  labors  of  Bec- 
qnerel,  we  may  name  his  researches  on  the  elec- 
tric condnctibility  of  metals;  on  galvanome- 
ters; on  the  electric  properties  of  tourmaline;  on 
atmospheric  electricity ;  on  the  effects  produc- 
ed by  vegetation ;  on  the  electro-magnetic  bal- 
ance, capable  of  measuring  with  exactness  the 
intensity  of  electric  currents ;  on  the  use  of  ma- 
rine salt  in  agriculture. — His  second  son,  Alex- 
andre Edmond,  discovered  a  chloride  of  silver 
which  will  receive  and  retain  the  colored  im- 
pressions of  light ;  so  that  the  colors  of  the 
rainbow  may  now  be  fixed  in  the  daguerreotype, 
in  all  varieties  of  hue ;  but  they  can  only  be 
retained  in  obscurity,  as  they  gradually  £sap- 
pear  when  long  exposed  to  light. 

BEGSKEREK.  I.  Kis,  or  Little  Bboskebek, 
a  Hungarian  town,  county  of  Temesvar.  The 
inhabitants  are  Germans  and  Wallachians.  There 
is  a  Roman  Oatholic  church  here  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  former,  and  a  non-united  Greek 
church  for  the  latter.  II.  Naoy,  or  Great 
Bboskerbk,  a  town  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Bega,  and  united  by  the  Bega  canal  with  Tem- 
esvar. It  contains  some  district  offices^  and  2 
churches,  and  enjoys  important  privileges. 
Pop.  about  12,600. 

BED  AND  Bedstead.  By  bed  is  gener- 
ally understood  a  sack  containing  something 
more  or  less  soft  to  sleep  upon,  and  by  bed- 
stead a  framework  of  various  materials  to 
nuse  the  bed  from  the  floor  or  ground.  In 
the  earliest  times  of  all  nations,  the  skins  of 
beasts  were  generally  used  for  beds,  and  to  this 
day,  hides  are  spread  upon  the  ground  or  in 
rude  huts,  by  savages,  for  their  nightly  repose. 
The  ancient  Britons,  when  first  invaded  by  the 
Romans  under  Julius  Osssar,  were  still  using 
dried  skins  or  occasionally  rushes  and  headi, 
but  were  taught  by  their  conquerors  to  substitute 
sacks  of  straw  to  sleep  upon.  The  old  English 
expression  of  a  *^  lady  in  the  straw  '^  comes 
from  the  universal  use  in  old  times  of  straw,  and 
means  nothing  more  than  a  lady  in  bed,  and 
alludes  metaphysically  to  an  ordinary  domestic 
event.  The  Romans,  in  the  progress  of  luxury, 
soon  availed  themselves  of  the  soft  delights  of 
a  feather  bed,  and  its  use  was  urged  as  a  charge 
of  effeminacy  against  the  patricians  of  the  im- 
perial city.  The  classical  nations  of  antiquity, 
as  they  took  their  food  in  a  reclining  position, 
were  in  the  habit  of  using  a  dining  bed  (leettis 
tricliniaris  or  discubitariiu).  This  was  4  or  6 
feet  in  heiglit,  and  was  arranged  in  8  portions, 
along  the  8  sides  of  a  square  table;  the  4th 
side  being  left  open  for  the  easy  access  of  the 
attending  servants.  The  feather  bed,  although 
long  esteemed  a  luxury,  has  now  yielded  gen- 
erally to  the  harder  hair  mattress,  for  which 
we  are  indebted  to  the  French,  from  whom  it 


is  often  called  the  **  French  mattresB."  The 
hair  mattress  with  an  under-layer  of  steel 
springs  is  now  considered  the  perfection  of  a 
luxurious  couch.  Feathers  being  such  bad  con- 
ductors of  caloric,  it  is  found  that  they  do  not 
allow  of  that  free  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
animal  body,  which  is  essential  to  its  due  com- 
fort and  health,  and  accordingly  the  hair  bed  is 
adopted,  as  being  both  more  wholesome  and 
conducive  to  repose.  There  have  been  various 
ingenious  contrivances  for  the  ease  of  the  sick 
and  the  wounded,  and  medical  and  surgical 
beds  of  different  kinds  adapted  to  the  peculiar 
necessities  of  the  sick  are  accordingly  used. 
The  hydrostatic  bed,  made  of  India  rubber 
doth,  and  filled  with  water,  has  been  found  oae 
of  the  most  useful  of  them. — ^The  bedstead  was 
originally  contrived  to  raise  the  bed  from  the 
ground,  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness,  and  protec- 
tion from  vermin  and  other  nuisances  and 
dangers.  It  has  generally  been  constructed 
of  wood,  and  firom  its  early  rude  structure  it 
advanced  with  other  household  furniture  to  an 
imposing  degree  of  dignity.  The  old  ^*  four- 
poster  "  with  its  tall  columns  of  carved  mahog- 
any or  oak,  lifting  to  the  ceiling  a  great  canopy 
of  rich  stufl^  was  the  cherished  pride  of  ancient 
housewives,  but  it  is  becoming  obsolete.  The 
French  bedstead,  without  posts  or  curtains,  is 
now  generally  substituted,  it  being  found,  fh)ni 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  moved  and  the  free 
ventilation  it  allows,  more  healthful  and  con- 
venient It  is  made  generally  of  wood,  bat 
iron  has  been  found  of  more  advantage,  par- 
ticularly in  hospitals  and  hot  climates,  as  a 
security  against  dirt  and  vermin.  Surgical  in- 
genuity has  contrived  various  mechanical 
means  for  adapting  the  bedstead  to  the  re- 
quirements of  the  sick  and  of  the  medical 
attendant,  and  by  which  the  surgical  bed  can 
be  raised  or  inclined  in  parts  as  may  be  neces- 
sary.— We  have  an  illustration  of  the  vidue  and 
importance  of  the  bed  in  olden  times,  in  an  item 
of  Shakespeare's  will :  *^  Item,  I  gyve  vnto  mj 
wief  my  second  best  bed  w*  the  furniture,*' 
These  are  the  very  words,  which  are  found  un- 
derlined in  the  last  testament  of  the  great  drar 
matist.,  as  if  the  bequest  had  been  a  second 
thought. — The  "great  bed  of  Ware,"  which  is 
so  frequently  alluded  to  in  English  literature, 
and  which  is  able  to  accommodate  some  score 
of  sleepers,  is  probably  the  largest  bed,  j>einff 
12  feet  square,  ever  spread.  Though  old  enougn 
to  have  been  mentioned  by  Shakespeare  in  the 
"Twelfth  Night"— 

Big  enoagh  for  tha  bod  of  Ware  in  Engbuid, 
it  is  yet  shown  to  the  curious  in  the  town  from 
whence  it  takes  its  name.  The  most  uncomfort- 
able bed  ever  known,  was  probably  that  of 
Procrustes.  This  ancient  Greek  and  robber, 
was  in  the  habit  of  lying  in  wait  for  travel- 
lers, and  after  having  rob^d  them  he  put  them 
to  bed  on  an  iron  couch,  to  which  he  adapted 
each  one,  cutting  off  the  limbs  of  those  who 
were  too  long,  and  stretching  the  joints  of  those 
who  were  too  short. 


BEDALE 


BSDDOES 


45 


BEDALE,  a  market  town  of  TorkBhire, 
England,  82  miles  N.  N.  W.  of  York.  It  has 
a  dinrch,  built  in  the  time  of  Edward  YI., 
and  a  tower  once  the  scene  of  an  obstinate  en- 
counter  during  an  inroad  of  the  Soots.  The 
inyaders  were  finally  repulsed  by  the  towns- 
people. Bedale  is  noted  for  its  nne  breed  of 
horses,  and  for  the  perfection  with  which  the 
surrounding  country  is  cultivated.    Pop.  2,892. 

BEDCHAMBER,  Lobds  ov  thb,  personal  at- 
tendants of  the  king ;  in  the  case  of  a  queen,  la- 
dies performing  the  duties.  In  the  present  day 
they  are  almost  nominal  appointments,  requiring 
a  weekly  attendance  at  the  palace,  and  accom- 
panied with  good  salaries.  The  ancient  duties 
were  to  sleep  in  the  king's  bedroom,  and  to  be 
always  at  his  command  by  day  or  nignt  These 
duties  were  rigorously  exacted  by  the  great 
Louis  XIV.,  and  it  was  the  pleasure  and  honor 
of  the  highest  nobles  in  .his  reign  to  tender 
thor  personal  services  in  the  minutest  particu- 
lars of  his  daily  existence. 

BEDDOES,  Thomas,  an  English  phy^cian 
and  writer  upon  medical  topics,  bom  at  6hiff- 
nal,  in  Shropshire,  April  18, 1760,  died  at  Clif- 
ton, Nov.  24, 1808.  He  was  of  a  Welsh  family, 
and  was  educated  for  one  of  the  learned  profes- 
sions. At  Oxford  he  devoted  much  time  to  the 
sciences,  particularly  to  chemistry.  He  formed 
a  high  estimate  of  the  splendid  discoveries  of 
Black  and  Priestley  as  applied  to  the  treatment 
of  disease,  and  mastered  the  new  doctrine  of 
pneumatic  medicine,  to  the  application  of  which 
ne  afterward  gave  much  attention.  Having 
taken  his  bachelor's  degree  in  1781,  he  went 
to  London  to  study  anatomy,  became  a  pupil  of 
&eldon,  and  published  a  translation  of  Spallan- 
zani's  "'  Dissertations  on  Natural  History.''  He 
removed,  in  1784,  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Bergman's  "Essays  on 
Elective  Attractions,"  to  which  he  added  many 
original  notes.  He  was  an  active  member  of 
the  scientific  societies  of  Edinburgh,  before  which 
be  read  several  papers.  In  1786  he  visited  France, 
formed  an  intimacy  with  Lavobier  and  other 
distinguished  cheousts,  and  upon  his  return  to 
England,  was  elected  to  the  chemical  lectureship 
at  Oxford.  His  talents  and  position  drew 
around  him  many  men  of  learning,  among 
whom  were  Gilbert  and  Dr.  Darwin;  and  in 
1790  he  published  a  dissertation,  in  which  he 
claimed  for  the  speculative  physician,  Mayow, 
the  discovery  of  the  principal  facts  in  pneumatic 
chemistry.  At  the  commencement  of  tne  French 
revolulaon,  he  adopted  its  principles  with  the 
utmost  entimsiasm,  and  the  freedom  with  which 
he  expressed  his  political  specolations  makins 
lus  position  at  Oxford  uncongenial,  he  resigned 
his  chair  in  1792.  He  retir^  from  Oxford  to 
the  house  of  a  friend,  and  at  this  time  published 
his  observations  on  demonstrative  reasoning, 
with  particular  reference  to  the  study  of  geome- 
tiy,  in  which  be  claimed,  in  opporition  to  ontolog- 
leal  theories,  that  mathematical  reasoning  de- 
pends essentially  upon  experiment,  and  proceeds 
only  by  evidence  of  the  senses.    He  anticipated 


new  improvements  in  medicine,  from  the  science 
of  galvanism,  which  was  now  arising  in  Italy ;  and 
in  his  first  medical  work,  embracing  observations 
on  calculus,  sea-scurvy,  consumption,  catarrk 
and  fever,  and  conjectures  on  other  objects  of 
physiology  and  pathology,  he  showed  his  tenden- 
cy to  found  medical  science  upon  chemistry.  The 
most  popular  of  all  his  works,  and  that  which 
best  reveals  his  ima^ation  and  taste,  as  well 
as  Judgment,  was  his  **  History  of  Isaac  Jen« 
kins,"  a  striking  picture  of  the  reformation  of  a 
drunkard,  of  which  more  than  40,000  copies 
were  rapidly  sold.  Wishing  to  test  his  views  by 
experiment,  he  was  enabled,  in  1798,  to  establish 
a  pneumatic  institution  at  Bristol ;  and  in  m^ing 
his  arrangements,  he  was  much  assisted  by  his 
father-in-law,  the  versatile  Richard  Lovell 
Edgeworth.  His  assistant  was  Sir  Humphry 
Davy,  then  a  young  man;  and  the  first  discov- 
eries of  this  celebrated  chemist  were  made  in 
the  laboratory  of  this  institation.  The  numer^ 
ous  publications  of  Dr.  Beddoes,  at  this  time, 
had  reference  to  his  favorite  theory  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  the  permanently  elastic  fiuids,  and  of  the 
possibility  of  curing  all  diseases  by  breathing 
a  medicated  atmosphere.  He  was  especially 
sanguine  in  his  expectations  from  the  brilliant 
discovery,  by  Davy,  of  the  respirability  and  in- 
toxicating qualities  of  nitrous  oxide;  and  he  is- 
sued treatises  in  rapid  succession  till  near  the 
time  of  his  death.  None  of  his  manifold  efiTorts 
to  found  Uie  art  of  medicine  upon  philosophical 
principles  were  entirely  successful;  yet  his 
imaginative  speculations  had  great  inflaence  in 
promoting  the  more  cautious  inqoiries  of  others. 
BEDDOES,  Thomas  Lovxll,  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, an  English  poet  and  man  of  science, 
bom  at  Clifton,  near  Bristol,  in  1802,  died  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  in  1849.  He  was  near- 
ly rekted  to  the  authoress  Maria  Edgeworth,  and 
his  family  connections  recommended  him  favor- 
ably to  the  world  of  letters.  His  first  work, 
the  ^*  Bride's  Tragedy,"  was  published  at  Lon- 
don when  he  was  but  20  years  of  age.  The 
criticisms  and  sketches  by  Hazlitt  and  Charles 
Lamb  had  somewhat  accustomed  the  English 
public  to  the  strong  and  buoyant  grace  of  the 
old  dramatists,  and  had  thus  prepared  the  way 
for  a  young  author  whose  every  page  showed 
his  alliance  by  sympathy  and  genius  with  Mas- 
ringer,  Decker,  Marlowe,  and  other  writers  of 
the  affluent  Elizabethan  days.  The  '^  Bride's 
Tragedy"  was  received  with  very  general  ad- 
miration, not  unmixed  with  criticisms  of  its 
youthful  exuberance  and  altogether  unartistic 
construction.  Professor  Wilson  uttered  the 
prevdent  judgment  in  saying  that  English  tra- 
gedy might  expect  to  revive  again  in  this  pas- 
sionate, thonghtAil,  and  independent  author. 
But  Mr.  Beddoes  sought  to  possess  the  stage  as 
well  as  the  doset^  and  to  write  dramas  instead  of 
dramatic  poems,  and  was  vexed  that  theatrical 
managers  rejected  his  plays.  He  inherited  from 
his  father  an  intense  fondness  for  scientific  study, 
especially  in  the  direction  of  human  physiolo^, 
and  passing  over  to  the  continent  he  became  a 


46 


BEDS 


B£D£iLU 


flort  of  amatear  snatomiBt  in  German  nnhrer- 
Bitiea.  He  finally  aooepted  a  profesBorship  at 
Znridi,  and  it  was  there,  while  engaged  in  a 
dissection,  that  he  received  a  slight  wound  in 
the  finger,  by  the  consequences  of  which  his 
life  was  prematorely  ended.  After  his  death 
his  poetical  remains,  with  notes  and  a  memoir, 
were  published  at  London  (1861),  in  2  vols., 
12mo.  The  prindpal  of  these  were  2  tragedies, 
entitled  ^'Death's  Jest  Book"  and  the  "" Second 
Brother,"  both  of  which  abound  in  atrial  fancies, 
condensed  and  passionate  eloquence,  and  pro* 
found  thoughts,  and  are  among  the  most  extra- 
ordinary poetical  compositions  of  the  present 
age.  His  minor  poems,  though  peculiariy  sad 
and  sombre,  bear  proofi  of  a  rich  and  ener- 
getic, t}iough  somewhat  fantastic  nature. 

BEDE,  or  Beda,  commonly  called  the  vener- 
able Bede,  was  an  English  monk,  bom  in  Wear- 
mouth,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tyne,  about 
A.  D.  672,  died  in  May,  785.  He  lived  in  that 
most  interesting  period  of  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory of  England,  just  after  the  triumph  of  the 
Roman  over  the  Scottish  church,  and  in  the  in- 
fancy of  the  Anglo-Saxon  church.  He  was  sent 
to  the  monastery  of  St  Peter,  under  the  care  of 
Abbot  Benedict,  at  the  age  of  7  years, where  he 
remained  12  years,  at  the  expiration  of  which 
time  he  was  ordained  a  deacon.  At  80  years  of 
age  he  took  orders  as  a  priest  His  fame  seems 
already  to  have  reached  the  continent,  for  it  is 
related  that  Pope  Sergius  desired  Bede  might  be 
sent  to  him,  for  an  assistant  in  ecclesiasti(^  dis- 
cipline. Bede.  howei^r,  declined,  being  anx- 
ious to  devote  nimself  to  the  compilation  of  the 
ecclesiastical  history  of  the  English  nation — a 
work  which  he  himself  tells  us  he  comnloted 
when  he  was  69  years  old.  He  also  published 
several  other  works,  and  acquired  so  great  ce- 
lebrity that  many  or  the  most  eminent  priests, 
including  the  archbishop  of  York,  came  to  con- 
sult him  in  ecclesiastical  matters.  By  his  de- 
votion to  study  and  seclusion  he  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  consumption,  of  which  he  finally  died. 
It  is  related  of  him  that  he  continued,  even  to 
the  last,  to  perform  the  duties  of  his  station, 
and  also  to  prosecute  his  favorite  task  of  writ- 
ing. Especially  in  the  closing  days  of  his  life  was 
he  anxious  to  complete  two  tasks  which  he  had 
commenced,  viz. :  the  translation  of  the  Gospel 
of  John  into  Anglo-Saxon,  and  the  compilation 
of  some  extracts  from  St  Isidore.  On  the  last 
night  before  his  death  he  continued  dictating  to 
his  amanuensis^  until  his  increasing  weakness 
attracted  the  attention  of  that  person,  who  said 
to  him :  "  There  remans  now  only  one  chapter, 
but  it  seems  difficult  for  you  to  speak."  **  It  is 
easy,"  said  Bede;  "take  your  pen,  dip  it  in  the 
ink,  and  write  as  fast  as  you  can."  At  length, 
when  it  was  nearly  completed,  Wilberch,  the 
amanuensis,  recalled  his  attention  after  an  inter- 
ruption, saying,  ^*  Master,  there  is  now  but  one 
sentence  wanting^'  upon  which  Bede  bade  him 
write  quickly.  When  Wilberch  said,  **  Now  it 
is  finished,"  Bede  replied.  "  Thou  hast  said  the 
truth,  camummatum  eiV*   He  immediately  de- 


Bfa^  to  be  placed  where  he  had  been  acoos* 
tomed  to  pray.  This  being  done,  he  exclaimed. 
"  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and 
to  the  Holy  Ghost,"  and  peacfuUy  expired.  He 
was  interred  in  the  church  of  his  own  monas- 
tery, at  Jarrow.  but  his  remains  were  subse* 
quentiy  removed  to  Durham,  and  placed  in  the 
same  coffin  with  those  of  St  Cuthbert  Bede 
was  a  man  of  extensive  and  profound  erudition 
for  his  time.  His  mind  was  systematic  in  its 
thought,  and  simple  and  perspicuous,  though  not 
elegant,  in  its  modes  of  expression.  '  His  HUtoria 
EedenoMtieck^  as  well  as  all  his  other  works,  was 
written  in  Latin.  The  history  was  printed  in 
1474.  That  edition  is  rare,  there  being  only 
two  copies  known  in  England.  There  have 
been  8  English  translations  of  it  It  con- 
tains littie  of  the  civil  and  political  history  of 
England.  Indeed,  this  neither  came  within  the 
design  nor  the  taste  of  Bede.  His  province 
was  emphatically  religious.  The  term  "  Vener- 
able" was  ffiven  to  him  soon  after  his  death. 

BEDEAU,  Mabib  Alphoksb,  a  French  gen- 
eral, distinguished  in  the  Algerine  wars,  and 
in  tiie  events  attending  and  fdlowing  the  rev- 
olution of  1848,  born  at  Yertou,  near  Nantes, 
Aug.  19,  1804.  The  son  of  a  naval  officer, 
he  was  educated  in  the  military  schools 
of  La  Fl^he  and  St  Oyr,  and  entered  tbe 
army  as  lieutenant  in  1825.  He  made  the 
Belgian  campaigns  of  1881  and  1882  as  aide* 
de-camp  of  Gen.  Gerard,  and  at  the  siege  of 
Antwerp  was  appointed  to  confer  with  the 
Dutch  general  Oitass^  who  was  maintaining 
himself  in  the  citadel.  In  1886  he  was  sent  to 
Algeria  as  commander  of  a  battalion  in  the 
foreign  legion,  and  for  the  valiant  part  which  he 
took  in  storming  Constantino,  he  was  mode 
commandant  of  tiuit  city,  and  was  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  first  lieutenant  In  1838  he  was 
transferred  to  the  supreme  command  of  Bougiah, 
and  after  several  engagements  with  the  Berbers 
or  Kabyles,  was  promoted  to  a  colonelcy  in  the 
17th  regiment  of  Ught  infantry.  He  displayed 
remarkable  energy  in  the  expedition  of  Cher- 
chell,  where  he  sustained  almost  daily  conflic^ 
was  twice  wounded,  and  at  the  pass  of  Mozaia 
maintained  himself  ifbr  4  hours  with  800  men 
ocainst  a  force  of  10,000  regular  troops  and 
f  abyles,  led  by  Abd  el  Kader  hunself.  He  was 
made  brigadier-general  in  1841.  Being  intrust- 
ed by  Marshal  Sugeaud  with  the  direction  of 
military  and  political  affairs  on  the  borders  of 
Morocco,  he  defeated  Abd  el  Eader  ia8  engage- 
ments, and  forced  him  to  evacuate  the  province 
of  Tlemcon,  with  the  civil  organization  of  which 
he  then  occupied  himself.  In  the  war  with 
Morocco,  in  1844,  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
series  of  victories  which  terminated  in  the 
battie  of  Isly.  In  1845  he  received  the  com- 
mand of  the  proTince  of  Oonstantine,  directed 
the  expedition  of  Aures,  defeated  the  rebellious 
tribes,  and  subjected  the  province  of  Oran.  In 
1 847  he  was  made  governor  of  Algeria.  He  was 
in  Par^  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of 
February  in  the  next  year,  and  repaired  to  the 


BSDEHOUBE 


BEDFORD 


47 


Tnileries  to  place  faiDiself  at  the  dispoeal  of  the 
king.  Ue  was  ordered  bj  Bageaud,  who  had 
reoeiyed  the  oomtnand  of  the  army,  to  lead  a 
column  from  the  Tmleries  to  suppress  the  in* 
anrreotioQ  on  the  Boulevards;  bnt  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  [proving  much  stronger  than 
had  been  anticipated,  and  the  national  guard 
itself  hesitating,  it  was  with  difficulty  that  he 
ooold  execute  the  order,  which  he  subsequently 
reoeivedi  to  retreat  to  the  pakce.  After  the  flight 
of  Louis  Philippe,  he  was  appointed  to  the  com- 
mand of  all  the  troops  stationed  around  the 
Tuileries,  and  when  the  chamber  of  deputies 
was  threatened  by  the  insurgents,  he  occupied 
the  passage  way  and  would  have  been  able  to 
bar  it,  but  he  received  from  Bairot,  the  presi- 
dealt  of  the  council  of  ministers,  orders  to  ab* 
atain  from  using  force.  Being  therefore  oblised 
to  let  the  insurgents  pass,  the  chamber  was  dis- 
aolved.  Under  the  provisional  government,  he 
declined  the  appointment  of  minister  of  war, 
and  accepted  the  command  of  the  army  of  Paris. 
During  the  insurrection  of  June,  1848,  he  was 
severuy  wounded  in  one  of  the  first  actions. 
He  was  elected  to  the  naticmal  assembly,  of 
which  body  he  became  vice  pre»dent,  and  after* 
ward  held  the  same  porition  in  the  legislative 
assembly.  He  was  sent  in  1849  to  assist  the 
army  of  Gen.  Oudinot  in  pressing  the  siege 
of  Rome,  bat  learning  at  Marseilles  the  success 
of  the  French  troops,  he  returned  to  Paria 
Though  originally  a  le^timist,  he  adopted  lib- 
eral views,  and  refusing  the  oath  to  Louis  Na« 
poleon,  retired  to  Belgium,  and  has  since  lived 
in  Brussds. 

BEDEHOUSE  (Saxon,  head,  a  prayer),  an 
ancient  term  for  an  almshouse,  so  called  from 
tibe  poor  being  supposed  to  offer  up  prayers  for 
the  good  of  the  founders'  or  benefactors'  souls. 
The  term  is  still  in  local  use  in  Scotland. 

BEDELL,  Greqobt  T.,  D.D.,  an  eloquent 
clergyman  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
formerly  rector  of  St  Andrew's,  Philadelphia. 
He  was  born  on  Staten  Island  in  1798,  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  college  in  1811,  ordained  by 
Bishop  Hobart  in  1814,  stationed  at  Hudson, 
on  the  North  river,  in  1816,  removed  to  Fay- 
etteville,  K.  C,  1818,  and  finally  to  Phila- 
ddphia,  where  he  died  in  1834.  His  sermons 
were  remarkable  for  simplicity  and  point: 
they  were  seldom  written  in  foil.  Thirty  of 
tiiem  have  been  published,  with  a  memoir,  by 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Tyng. 

BEDELL,  WiLUAii,  Anglican  bishop  of  Eil- 
more,  in  Irehmd, bom  at  Black  Kotley^Essex, 
in  1570,  died  at  Eibnore  Feb.  7,  1642.  He  was 
secretary  to  Sur  Henry  Wotton,  on  hie  embassy 
to  Venice,  1604.  Having  acquired  ti^e  Italian 
language,  he  translated  the  *^Book  of  Common 
Prayer,"  and  presented  it  to  the  deigv  who 
were  at  the  time  ap^inted  by  the  r^uolio  of 
Venice  to  preach  against  the  papd  power  and 
I^etensions.  On  his  return  to  I^and,  he  re* 
mained  in  great  retirement  for  some  time,  but 
was  at  lengui  presented  to  a  living  in  Norfolk. 
In  1627  he  was  elected  provost  of  Trinity 


college,  Dublin,  which  he  declined  until  the 
king's  orders  made  his  acceptanoe  imperative. 
He  was  next  made  bishop  of  Kilmore  and  Ar- 
dagh.  Visiting  his  see,  he  found  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal property  in  a  ruinous  condition,  through  the 
malversations  and  neglect  of  the  officials,  and  at 
first  he  was  unable  to  obtain  sufficient  income 
from  the  see  even  for  his  own  support  He  ob- 
tained the  restitution  of  a  smail  part  of  the 
lands  of  the  diocese,  and  finding  the  charge  too 
onerous  for  him,  he  resigned  the  see  of  Ardagh, 
and  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  reforming 
the  clergy,  and  of  introducing  the  Protestant 
worship  into  Ireland.  For  this  latter  purpose, 
he  stumed  Irish,  and  had  tiie  prayer  b<M)k  with 
the  homilies  of  Chrysostom  and  Leo  in  praise  of 
reading  the  Scriptures  translated,  and  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  people.  At  the  breaking  out 
of  the  great  Irish  rebellion  of  that  period, 
Bishop  Bedell  was  at  first  left  in  quiet  posses* 
sion  of  his  see  and  residence;  a  respite  which 
he  used  for  protecting  and  maintaining  the 
distressed  Protestants.  Soon,  however,  his  palace 
was  invaded,  and  himself  his  two  sons,  and 
son-in-law,  were  carried  off  to  a  stronghold  of 
the  rebels,  where  all  except  the  bishop  hims^ 
were  put  in  fetters.  Ihe  exposure  to  the 
weather  during  the  winter,  for  the  place 
of  his  confinement  was  in  a  ruinous  condition, 
brought  on  a  severe  fever,  of  which  soon  after 
his  release  he  died.  At  his  burial  a  concourse  of 
the  opposite  creed  attended  to  pay  respect  to 
his  remains,  and  after  the  ceremony  a  volley 
was  fired  over  his  grave  by  the  rebels 

BEDESMAN  (Saxon,  bead,  a  prayer),  was  a 
common  suffix  to  the  signature  at  the  end  of  Eng- 
lish letters  in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  and 
equivalent  to  petitioner.  The  Pasten  letters, 
1460-1480,  furnish  many  examples.  Sir  Thomas 
More,  writinff  to  Cardinal  Wolsey,  styles  himself 
^  Your  humble  orator  and  most  bounden  bedes- 
man." Margaret  Bryan,  Uie  ^vemess  of  Prin- 
cess Elizabeth,  signs  herself  in  writing  to  a  su» 
perior,  "  Your  dayly  bede- woman." 

BEDFORD.  I.  A  countv  in  the  south  part 
of  Pennsylvania;  area  about  1,000  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  broken  by  numerous 
ridges  of  the  Alleghaniea,  whose  principal  chain 
forms  the  W.  border  of  the  county.  One-half 
of  the  county  is  unfit  for  cultivation,  but  in 
this  portion  iron  ore  is  abundant  In  1850  it 
yielded  248,802  bushels  of  wheat,  206,844  of 
com,  240,803  of  oats,  18,094  tons  of  hay,  and 
846,687  pounds  of  butter.  There  were  63  mills, 
17  factories,  20  tanneries,  62  churches,  8  news- 
paper offices,  and  5,229  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  It  has  abundant  water  power ;  pop. 
23,052.  Oapitsl,  Bedford.  II.  A  county  in  the 
southern  part  of  j^irginia,  at  the  eastern  base 
of  the  Blue  Ridge ;  area,  604  sq.  m.  Its  surface 
is  hilly  and  mountainous,  and  the  soil  fertile. 
Tobacco,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  and  live  stock  are 
its  principal  products.  In  1850  it  yielded 
602,862  bushels  of  com,  178,990  of  wheat, 
294,862  of  oats,  1,966,486  pounds  of  tdbacco, 
and  288,233  of  butter.   There  were  40  churches, 


48 


BEDFORD 


BEDFORD  LEVEL 


and  638  pupils  attending  pnblio  sohools.  Its 
real  estate  was  yalaed  in  1850  at  $3,071,668 ; 
in  1855  at  $4,849,287,  showing  an  increase  of 
67  per  cent.  Capital,  Liberty.  Pop.  in  1860, 
24,080 ;  slaves  10,061.  III.  A  central  conntj  of 
Tennessee ;  area,  660  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  un- 
dulating, and  extensively  cultivated;  the  soil 
is  fertile.  The  county  is  intersected  by  Duck 
river,  and  by  a  turnpike  and  a  railroad  to  Kash- 
ville.  Productions  in  1850,  1,621,867  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  270,182  of  oats,  146,432  pounds 
of  butter,  and  86,872  of  wool.  There  were  40 
churches,  1  newspaper  office,  and  2,066  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  Capital,  Shclbyville. 
Pop.  21,612,  of  whom  16,010  are  free,  and  5,602 
slaves. 

BEDFORD,  a  post  borough,  capital  of  Bed- 
ford CO.,  Pa.,  200  miles  W.  of  Philadelphia,  on 
the  Raystown  branch  of  the  Juniata  river.  It 
is  celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs,  situated  in 
a  beautiful  valley  about  1^  mUe  from  the  town, 
which  are  much  frequented  in  the  summer  sea- 
son by  invalids  and  fashionable  tourists.  Pop. 
1,208. 

BEDFORD,  or  Bedfobdshirb,  an  inland 
county  of  England;  arel^  297,682  acres;  pop. 
124,478.  Bedford,  the  shire  town,  and  a  parlia- 
mentary borough,  is  situated  on  the  river  Ouse, 
46  miles  from  London.  It  has  4  Gothic  parish 
churches,  free  and  blue-coat  schools,  a  hospital 
for  a  master  and  10  poor  brethren,  and  68 
alms-houses.  It  has  also  a  famous  grammar 
school,  founded  in  1666,  with  8  exhibitions  of 
£80  a  year  each,  to  Oxford,  Cambridge,  and 
Dublin,  open  to  the  children  of  all  resident 
householders.  All  these  charities,  with  £800 
distributed  yearly  in  marriage  portions,  and 
£600  for  decayed  householders,  are  main- 
tained by  a  bequest  of  Sir  William  Harpur,  lord 
mayor  of  London  in  1661.  The  income  for 
these  purposes  is  about  £14^000  per  annum.  It 
returns  2  members  to  the  house  of  commons, 
and  furnishes  the  title  of  duke  to  the  Russell 
family.    Pop.  11,698. 

BEDFORD,  DdXB  op  TJoHN  PLilNTAGENBT, 

or,  as  Shakespeare  calls  him.  Prince  John  of 
Lancaster),  third  son  of  King  Henry  lY.,  of 
England,  and  regent  of  France  for  the  English, 
born  in  1389,  died  at  Rouen  in  France,  Sept. 
IS,  1435.  He  was  employed  by  his  father  in 
Scottish  wars,  distinguished  himself  as  a  war- 
rior at  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury,  received  his 
ducal  title  under  Henry  Y.,  and  in  the  war  with 
France  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  forces 
in  England,  while  the  king  himself  fought 
abroad.  Henry  Y.  dying  in  1422,  and  leaving 
an  infant  son  as  his  successor,  desired  Bedford 
to  be  regent  of  France,  and  to  maintain  the 
conquests  in  that  country ;  aad  the  parliament 
immediately  transcended  the  royal  wish  by 
making  Bedford  also  protector  of  the  kingdom 
and  church  of  England,  except  during  his  ab- 
sence beyond  seas.  The  duke  at  once  re- 
newed the  war  agtunst  Charles  YH.,  on  French 
soil,  after  having  by  the  liberation  of  the 
young  king  James  of  Scotland,  made  peace 


with  Scotland,  and  thus  got  rid  for  the  time 
of  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  England.  He  also  con- 
solidated his  alliance  with  the  wealthy  and 
powerftil  principality  of  Burgundy,  and  with 
the  duke  of  Brittany.  Thus  supported,  he  re- 
duced the  king  of  France  to  the  last  extremity 
by  tiie  disastrous  battles  of  Crevant  and  Yer- 
neuil,  and  the  complete  conquest  of  that  coun-- 
try  by  the  English  seemed  impending.  Th^ 
with^wid  of  the  duke  of  Bnrgundy  from  the 
alliance  did  not  check  the  good  fortune  of  Bed- 
ford, and  the  kingdom  of  France  was  saved  only 
by  the  marvellous  career  of  Joan  of  Arc*  The 
appearance  of  this  maiden  at  the  siege  of  Or* 
leans  forced  the  English  to  retreat ;  yet  Bedford 
quickly  gained  new  successes,  broke  the  spell 
which  had  given  confidence  and  enthusiasm  to 
the  French  armies  b^  repulsing  Joan  from  the 
walls  of  Paris,  and,  in  1480,  captured  her  in  a 
sdly  from  Compi^g^e.  In  effecting  the  tragic 
death  of  the  peasant  girl  of  Domremy,  he  was 
a  principal  agent.  He  died  before  the  cause 
which  he  had  so  successfully  maintained  re- 
ceived any  disaster  from  the  opposition  of  the 
duke  of  Bnrgundy.  Like  many  others  of  the 
descendants  of  John  of  Gaunt,  he  was  a  patron 
of  literature  and  the  arts,  and  he  transferred 
from  Paris  to  London  a  library  of  900  volumes. 
A  magnificent  manuscript  missal  which  he 
caused  to  be  executed  for  his  wife,  was  sold  in 
1888  for  £1,100.  The  ducal  dignity  of  Bedford, 
after  having  been  extinguished  for  two  centu- 
ries, was  revived  in  1694,  and  bestowed  npon 
the  house  of  Russell. 

BEDFORD  LEYEL,  a  district  of  En^and, 
consisting  of  an  extensive  tract  of  level  country 
bounded  K.  E.  by  the  German  ocean,  and  on 
all  other  sides  by  highlands  which  encompass 
it  like  a  horse-shoe.  It  embraces  the  isle 
of  Ely,  in  Cambridge,  and  portions  of  Northr 
ampton,  Huntingdon,  Lincoln,  NoKblk,  and 
Suffolk— its  length  being  about  60  miles,  its 
breadth  40  miles,  and  its  area  probably  aboat 
400,000  acres. ,  There  is  good  reason  to  suppose 
that  at  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion  the  sur- 
face of  the  district  was  much  lower  than  it  is 
now,  and  that  it  was  covered  by  one  of  those 
vast  forests  into  which  the  natives  used  to  re- 
treat, and  which  it  was  the  general  policy  of 
the  conquerors  to  destroy.  The  subjugated 
people  were  employed  in  felling  the  trees,  and 
erecting  great  embankments  to  keep  out  the 
sea.  In  Sie  8d  century,  the  emperor  Severos 
built  roads  through  the  marshes,  one  of  which^ 
from  Peterborou^  to  Denver,  was  60  feet  wide 
and  made  of  gravel  8  feet  deep.  It  is  now 
covered  by  from  3  to  6  feet  of  soiL  For  many 
years  the  district  was  fertile  and  well  oultiva* 
ted,  and  Henry  of  Huntingdon,  who  wrote  in 
the  12th  century,  describes  it  as  being  ^'very 
pleasant  and  agreeable  to  the  eye,  watered  by 
many  rivers  which  run  through,  diversified 
with  many  large  and  small  lakes,  and  adorned 
with  many  woods  and  islands."  But  in  1236^ 
during  a  violent  storm,  the  sea  burst  through 
the  embankment  at  Wisbeach  and  other  plaoei^ 


BEDJTA 


BKDOUINS 


doing  immenee  diunage  to  life  and  property,  and 
Tedacing  the  soryiving  inhabitants  to  great  di&- 
treasw  A  seoond  accident  of  the  same  kind  oc- 
corred  in  1263,  and  a  third  a  few  years  later. 
The  evil,  moreover,  was  sometimes  aggravated 
by  improper  measures  taken  for  its  cure,  so 
that  in  the  coarse  of  time  the  greater  part  of 
the  district  became  a  vast  morass,  some  por* 
tions  of  which  were  covered  with  pools  of  stag* 
nant,  putrid  water  from  10  to  20  feet  deep. 
Efforts  to  drain  it  were  set  on  foot  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  YIL,  Elizabeth,  and  James  I.,  but  all 
failed.  In  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  the  earl  of 
Be^rd,  after  whom  the  district  was  named, 
made  a  partially  saccessfol  attempt,  which  was 
renewed  in  1649,  by  his  son,  who  brought  the 
work  to  a  dose  and  received  95,000  acres  of 
the  reclaimed  land  as  a  compensation.  A  rega- 
lar  system  for  preserving  and  improving  the 
drained  lands  was  now  inangurated.  A  corpo- 
ration for  their  management,  consisting  of  a 
governor,  6  baili&,  20  conservators,  and  a  com- 
monalty, was  chartered  and  is  still  kept  up. 
Of  late  years  important  improvements  have 
been  made  in  the  old  [^stem  of  drainage,  which 
in  some  respects  proved  defective.  The  reclaim- 
ed lands  prodace  fine  crops  of  grain,  flax,  and 
oole  seed,  but  the  harvests  have  occasionally 
suffered  by  fresh  inundations,  one  of  which  in 
1641  involved  a  loss  of  over  £150,000. 

BEDJA,  a  district  of  Nubia,  extending  along 
the  W.  shore  of  the  Bed  sea,  from  Suakin  to 
Gape  Camol.  The  Bisharye,  a  tribe  of  Bedouins, 
are  almost  the  only  inhabitants. 

BEDLAM,  a  corruption  of  Bethlehem,  the 
name  of  a  religions  ftundation  which  was  grant- 
ed in  1547  by  Henry  YIII.  to  the  corporation 
of  London,  and  by  them  applied  to  the  purpose 
of  a  hospital  for  Uie  insane.  The  place  was 
originally  within  the  city  boundaries,  but  in 
1B14,  a  new  building  was  erected  in  St  George's 
fields,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Thames,  wliich 
was  called  Hew  Bethlehem,  or,  vulgarly,  Bed- 
lam. The  patients,  who  had  been  discharged 
partially  cured,  and  went  about  begging,  were 
called  Bedlam  beggars,  or  Tom-o'-Bedlams. 

BEDOUINS,  BaDAwsBV,  men  of  the  desert, 
the  aborigines  of  Arabia,  and  descendants  of 
lahmaeL  They  seem  never  to  have  been  con- 
anered.  A  few  expeditions  against  them  in 
different  ages  of  the  world  have  succeeded  in 
chastiaing  them  and  r^ressing  their  too  great 
energy,  but  their  retreat  into  their  native 
deserte  has  effectually  stayed  the  progress  of 
the  invaders*  Mehemet  Aii,  in  his  war  against 
the  Wahabees,  was  perhaps  their  most  success* 
fol  assailant.  On  tneir  part,  they  have  been 
maranders  over  neighboring  territories,  from 
the  earliest  periods  of  history ;  and  in  the  7th 
century,  they  were  stirred  up  by  the  doctrines 
of  Mc^ammed  to  a  great  pitch  of  excitement. 
Their  innate  love  of  war,  and  the  ardor  of  a 
new  £uUi,  made  them  irresistible,  and  carried 
them  through  Asia  and  to  the  westernmost  point 
of  southern  Europe.  They  are  found  through- 
out all  northern  Africa,  oa  the  continental 
VOL.  in. — 4 


shore  of  the  Persian  golf^  and  in  the  plains  of 
Syria  and  Mesopotamia.  Their  essential  char- 
acteristic is  that  they  are  dwellers  in  tenta, 
live  by  their  fiocks  and  herds,  and  that  their 
hand  is  agmnst  every  man.  They  are  ignorant, 
fierce,  and  revengeful,  but  scrupulous  in  honor 
or  honesty,  and  of  depraved  morals.  They  are 
engaged  in  constant  warfiure  with  each  other,  and 
are  enemies  to  the  stranger  and  the  wayftrer. 
Their  greatest  virtue  is  their  hospitality,  and 
even  this  is  very  questionable ;  its  invidabHity 
has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  Instances  cer- 
tainly are  not  rare  (Xf  magnanimous  oonducti 
when  the  sacred  rights  of  asylum  have  be^ 
observed  not  only  in  the  letter  but  in  the  spirit 
Such  cases  are  the  themes  of  ceaseless  praise 
in  the  songs  and  narratives  of  the  Bedouins,  and 
the  very  praise  lavished  on  them  is  rather  a 
proof  of  their  rarity  and  of  their  personal  and 
neroic  character. — ^In  personal  appearance  the 
Bedawi  is  under  the  middle  siae,  spare  and 
wiry,  capable  of  sustaining  great  fatigue  and 
oontinned  exposure  to  the  fiery  sun  of  his  native 
dime.  His  clothing  is  oftentimes  reduced  to  a 
angle  garment,  a  woollen  gown  bound  round 
his  waist  with  a  girdle,  in  which  he  carries  his 
weapons  and  his  pipe.  The  better  class  wear  a 
heaa  covering,  or  Aaik,  either  a  handkerchief 
folded  comer-wise  or  a  woollen  headpiece,  and 
bound  round  the  top  of  the  head  with  a  cord. 
The  under-garments  of  linen  or  cotton  and  a 
fiowing  doak  of  the  finest  and  whitest  wool, 
a  han£ome  belt  and  arms,  complete  the  attire. 
In  complexion  they  are  dark  to  a  brown  black. 
This  depends  on  exposure,  for  the  women  are 
some  shades  fairer.  They  practise  both  polyg- 
amy and  slavery.  Their  amusements  are  story- 
telling, to  which  they  are  passionately  devoted, 
throwing  the  spear,  and  other  mimic  war, 
smoking,  and  coffee-drinking.  The  story-telling 
and  the  pipe  are  an  unfailing  resouroe,  although 
some  of  them,  the  Somaulis  and  Wahabees  tor 
example,  detest  tobacco.  The  general  govern- 
ment of  the  Bedouins  is  patriarchal ;  some  fami- 
lies are  held  in  particular  reverence,  and  the 
heads  of  these  fismiilies  are  sheiks.  The  Mara- 
bouta  or  holy  men,  exercise  great  inflnence^ 
but  this  is  more  of  a  personal  character.  The 
emir,  or  sultan,  is  elective.  If  the  son  inherits 
his  father^s  qualifications,  he  frequently  succeeds 
to  his  title,  and  is  chosen  by  the  sheiks,  who 
are  propitiated  by  ffifts.  They  live  on  the  milk 
of  tneir  fiocks,  cultivating  sometimes  a  small 
crop  of  barley  or  other  grain,  more  firequently 
purchasing  food  and  ammunition  in  exchange- 
for  their  live  stock.  The  Bedouins  of  the 
desert  are  distinct  from  the  Arabs  of  the  towna 
who  carry  on  oommercial  undertakings,  ana 
Uve  in  a  peaceable  manner.  The  most  deddedlj 
nomadic  are  the  inhabitants  of  the  desert  souui 
of  AUas,  the  Arabian  tribes,  and  those  which 
inhabit  the  desert  of  SinaL  The  Bedouins  of 
A»bia  acknowledge  the  nominal  supremacy  of 
the  sultan  of  Turkey,  whose  authority  is  so 
weak,  however,  that  he  is  obliged  to  make  an 
annual  present  to  his  loyal  subjects^  in  order  to* 


50 


BEDRIAOUM 


eeoare  the  free  transit  of  the  oarayan  to  Mecca, 
and  even  this  bridge  of  gold  does  not  always 
make  a  way  for  ^e  caravan,  for  refractory  in- 
dividoals  will  sometimes  levy  black  mail.  Those 
witiiin  the  boands  of  Mehemet  Ali*8  vigoroos 
role^  were  brought  to  a  sense  of  his  saperiority, 
and  their  oount^  was  perfectly  safe  in  his  life- 
time. The  same  can  scarcely  be  said  under  the 
government  of  his  weaker  saccessors. 

BEDRIAOUM,  in  ancient  geography,  a  small 
town  or  village  of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  on  the  high 
road  between  Verona  and  Cremona.  Its  pre- 
cise location  is  uncertain,  but  it  was  probably 
situated  not  far  from  where  the  town  of  Can- 
neto  now  stands.  It  is  famous  for  2  battles 
fought  in  its  neighborhood.  The  1st  was  A.  D. 
69,  when  the  forces  of  the  emperor  Otho  were 
completely  defeated  by  those  of  Y itellius,  under 
CflBoina  and  Fabius  Yalens.  The  2d  was  a  few 
months  afterward,  when  the  army  of  Vitellius 
was  beaten  near  the  same  place,  by  the  troops 
of  Vespasian,  under  Antonius  Primus.  In  both 
instances  the  attacking  army  advanced  from 
Bedriacum,  but  the  battle,  in  each  case,  actually 
took  place  nearer  to  Cremona  than  to  that 
viUage. 

BEDSTEAD.    See  Bed. 

BEE  (apis  mellifica,  Linn.),  a  social  insect 
of  the  order  hymenopUra^  family  arUhcphUa 
and  section  apiaritB  of  LatreiUe ;  this  species  is 
probably  of  Asiatic  origin,  whence  it  has  spread 
over  Europe  and  has  been  imported  to  America, 
where  it  exists  in  a  wild  state  in  great  numbers, 
and  far  from  human  habitations.  The  bee  has 
four  membranaceous  naked  wings,  the  upper 
being  the  larger;  the  mouth  is  furnished  with 
2  strong  man^bles  and  4  palpi,  largest  in  the 
working  bee,  and  used  not  so  much  in  eating  as 
in  breaking  hard  substances  in  their  various 
labors;  the  teeth,  concave  scales  with  sharp 
edges,  are  attached  to  the  ends  of  the  jaws  and 
play  horizontally.  For  taking  up  liquids  it  has 
a  long  flexible  proboscis  or  trunk,  performing 
the  office  of  a  tongue,  though  it  is  formed  by  a 
prolongation  of  the  under  lip ;  it  is  solid,  and 
not  tubular  like  the  trunks  of  other  hymenop- 
terous  insects;  the  trunk  is  supported  on  a  ped- 
icle, and  is  protected  by  a  double  sheath ;  the 
central  ^rtion,  which  appears  like  a  thread  or 
silky  hair,  under  the  microscope  is  seen  to  ter- 
minate in  a  sort  of  button  fringed  with  hairs, 
and  the  whole  organ  to  its  very  base  is  sur* 
rounded  with  similar  fringes,  which  are  admi- 
rably adapted  for  licking  up  honey  or  other  fluid 
aliment.  The  eye  is  lai^  composed  of  a  great 
number  of  6-sided  facets  thickly  studded  with 
hairs;  there  is  1  on  each  side  of  the  head,  and 
also  between  the  antennsB  8  snudl  bright  spots 
considered  by  Swammerdam  and  Reaumur  as 
eyes;  from  the  fact  of  bees  recognizing  their 
hives  from  long  distances,  and  flying  in  a  straight 
line  toward  them  with  the  greatest  rapidity,  it 
would  seem  that  the  sense  of  vision  is  very  acute ; 
at  the  same  time  we  see  them  running  their 
heads  against  the  hive,  and  actually  feeling  their 
vway  to  the  door  with  their  antennie ;  so  that 


their  composite  eyes  are  probably  fitted  only 
for  distant  vision.  Whether  the  spots  described 
by  Swammerdam  are  eyes,  or  not,  it  seems 
that  the  antenna  chiefly  guide  the  bees  at  night 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  near  objects.  The  anten- 
n»  are  composed  of  18  articulations  in  the 
males,  and  of  12  in  the  females ;  from  their  great 
flexibility  and  constant  motion  most  of  their  im- 
pressions from  without  are  doubtless  received 
through  these;  bv  them  every  object  is  ex- 
amin^  many  of  the  operations  of  the  hive  per- 
formed, as  building  the  comb,  storing  the  honey, 
feeding  the  larvsB,  and  ascertaining  the  presence 
and  wants  of  the  queen ;  by  them  also  their 
mutual  impressions  are  conveyed,  as  by  a  mute 
language — tliey  are  exquisite  organs  of  touch, 
and  their  removal  completely  changes  the  in- 
stincts of  both  workers  and  queen.  The  legs 
are  6  in  number ;  in  the  hind  pair  of  the  work- 
ers the  middle  portion  is  hollowed  into  a  trian- 
gular cavity  or  basket,  surrounded  by  a  marf^ 
of  thickly  set  hairs ;  in  this  receptacle  are  carried 
the  pollen,  propolis,  and  other  hive  materials; 
at  the  end  of  the  feet  are  little  hooks  bv  which 
they  adhere  to  the  hive,  and  to  each  other  dur- 
ing the  wax-secreting  process;  the  other  pairs 
of  feet  have  a  pencil  of  hairs  on  the  tarsi  bj 
means  of  which  the  pollen  is  collected,  and 
brushed  off  from  their  bodies  on  arrival  at  the 
hive.  The  bee  has  two  stomachs ;  the  first  is 
a  liuise  membranous  bag,  pointed  in  front,  for 
the  reception  and  retention  of  the  honey ;  no 
digestion  takes  place  in  this,  the  analogue  of  the 
crop  of  birds;  its  walls  are  muscular  and  capa- 
ble of  throwing  back  the  honey  into  the  month 
for  deposition  m  the  cells  or  distribution  to  the 
working  bees;  digestion  is  performed  in  the 
second  stomach,  which  is  of  a  lengthened  cy- 
lindrical shape,  communicating  with  the  first 
stomach,  and  with  the  intestine,  by  a  projecting 
valvular  apparatus,  with  a  very  small  opening, 
preventing  all  regurgitation  of  the  food.  The 
muscular  strength  of  bees  is  very  great,  and  their 

Sht  is  rapid  and  capable  of  being  long  sustained, 
i^otwithstanding  the  cultivation  of  the  hive- 
bee  from  the  earliest  antiquity,  their  history  was 
little  more  than  a  series  of  conjectures  until  the 
invention  of  glass  hives  in  1712,  by  Maraldi,  a 
mathematician  of  Nice,  enabled  naturalists  to 
study  the  indoor  proceedings  of  the  bee;  this 
invention  was  taken  advantage  of  by  Reaumur, 
who  laid  the  foundation  of  the  more  recent  dis- 
coveries of  Hunter,  Scbirach,  and  the  Hubers. 
A  hive  of  bees  consists  of  three  kinds:  females 
males,  and  workers;  the  females  are  called 
queens,  not  more  than  one  of  which  can  live 
in  the  same  hive,  the  presence  of  one  being 
necessary  for  its  establishment  and  maintenance ; 
the  males  are  called  drones,  and  may  exist  in 
hundreds  and  even  thousands  in  a  hive ;  the 
workers,  or  neuters,  as  they  have  been  called 
fh)m  the  supposition  that  they  belonged  to 
neither  sex,  are  by  far  the  most  numerous.  The 
queen  lays  tne  eggs  fit>m  which  the  race  is  per^ 
petuated ;  the  males  do  no  work,  and  are  of  no 
use  except  to  impregnate  the  females^  after 


61 


ivbich  they  soon  die  or  ore  killed ;  the  workers 
collect  the  honey,  secrete  the  wax,  baild  the 
ceUs,  and  feed  and  protect  the  young.  The 
females  and  workers  haye  a  sting  at  the  end  of 
the  abdomen,  which  Is  absent  in  the  males ;  this 
formidable  weapon  consists  of  an  extensile 
sheath,  endoaing  two  needle-shaped  darts  of 
exceeding  fineness,  placed  side  by  side ;  toward 
the  end  Uiey  are  armed  with  minute  teeth,  like 
those  of  a  saw,  whence  it  happens  that  the  ani- 
mal is  frequently  unable  to  withdraw  the  sting 
from  an  enemy  that  it  has  pierced,  causing  its 
own  as  well  as  its  victim's  death ;  the  sting  is 
protruded  by  several  muscles  so  powerful  that 
it  will  penetrate  |^  of  an  inch  into  the  thick  skin 
of  the  human  hand.  When  the  sting  enters  the 
flesh,  the  acrid  poison  is  squeezed  into  the 
wound  from  a  bag  near  its  base;  the  poison 
18  a  transparent  fluid,  with  a  sweetish  and 
afterward  acrid  taste,  and  an  acid  reaction;  it 
is  of  so  active  a  character  that  a  single  sting 
almost  instantly  kills  a  bee ;  animals  have  been 
killed  and  men  nearl  v  so  by  the  stings  of  an  en- 
raged colony  whose  hive  had  been  upset  The 
queens  are  more  peaceable  and  less  disposed  to 
sting  than  the  workers.  These  three  kinds 
of  bees  are  of  a  diflerent  size  and  may  be  easily 
recognized ;  the  males  are  of  the  heaviest  flight 
The  queen  bee  is  the  largest^  being  8^  lines  in 
length,  the  males  being  7,  and  the  workers  6 ; 
her  abdomen  is  longer  in  proportion,  and  has  2 
ovaria  of  considerable  size;  her  wings  are  so 
short  as  hardly  to  reach  beyond  the  &ird  ring, 
and  her  color  is  of  a  deeper  yellow.  She  is 
easily  recognized  by  the  slowness  of  her  march, 
by  her  size,  and  by  the  respect  and  attentions 
paid  to  her;  she  lives  in  the  interior  of  the 
hive,  and  seldom  departs  from  it  unless  for 
the  purpose  of  being  impregnated  or  to  lead  out 
a  new  swarm ;  if  she  be  removed  from  the  hive, 
the  whole  swarm  will  follow  her.  The  queen 
governs  the  whole  colony,  and  is  in  fact  its 
mother,  she  being  the  only  breeder  out  of  20,000 
or  80,000  bees;  on  this  account  she  is  loved,  re- 
spected, and  obeyed,  with  all  the  external  marks 
of  afiection  and  devotion  which  human  subjects 
could  give  to  a  beloved  mraarch.  The  impreg- 
nation oi  the  queen  bee  was  long  a  subject  of 
micertainty ;  it  is  now  known  that  this  never 
takes  place  within  the  hive,  and  that  if  she  be 
confined  she  always  remains  sterile,  even  thouffh 
surrounded  by  males.  To  accomplish  it  the 
queen  leaves  the  hive  and  flies  high  into  the  air ; 
after  an  absence  of  about  half  an  hour  she  rc- 
toms  with  the  most  unecuivocal  evidence  of  sex- 
ual union,  having  robbea  the  male  of  the  organs 
oonoerned  in  the  operation;  the  drone,  thus 
mutilated,  soon  dies— this  has  been  repeatedly 
observed;  from  this  fiict  Huber  infers  the  ne- 
eesBity  of  a  great  number  of  males  beiog  attached 
to  a  hive  in  order  that  the  female  may  be  al- 
most certain  to  meet  one  in  her  fli^t;  the 
warmest  part  of  a  sunny  day  is  usually  selected 
by  Hie  female  for  this  excursion.  When  im- 
pregnation occurs  late  in  the  autumn  the  laying 
of  l2ie  eggB  ^  delayed  by  the  cold  weather  untu 


the  following  sprino^  bo  that  the  ova  are  ready 
to  come  forth  m  March;  but  the  young  queen 
is  oipable  of  laying  eggs  86  hours  after  impreg- 
nation. Before  depositing  an  egg  she  examines 
whether  the  cell  is  prepared  to  receive  it  and 
adapted  for  the  future  condition  of  the  grub,  for 
queens,  males,  and  workers  have  cells  specially 
constructed  for  them ;  the  eggs  producing  work- 
ers are  deposited  in  6-sidednorizontal  cells;  the 
cellsof  the  drones  are  somewhat  irregular  in  their 
form,  and  those  of  the  queens  are  la^e,  circular, 
and  hang  perpendicularly.  When  the  cells  are 
ready,  the  queen  goes  from  one  to  the  other, 
with  scarcely  any  repose,  laying  about  200  eggs 
daily ;  the  eggs  first  laid  are  those  of  workers, 
for  10  or  12  day&  during  which  the  larger  cells 
are  in  process  oi  construction ;  in  these,  after 
acquiring  a  very  large  size,  she  lays  male  eggs 
for  16  to  24  days,  less  numerous  than  those  of 
the  workers  in  the  proportion  of  about  1  to  80. 
The  royal  cells,  if  from  the  productiveness  of  the 
season  and  the  number  in  the  hive  it  is  deter- 
mined to  bring  out  another  queen,  are  now  com- 
menoed ;  these  are  of  large  sLse,  an  inch  deep 
and  i  of  an  inch  wide;  during  their  construc- 
tion the  queen  lays  the  esgs  of  workers,  and, 
when  they  are  finished,  she  deposits  a  single 
egg  in  each  at  1  or  2  days'  interval,  worker  eggs 
being  laid  in  this  interval  When  the  eggs  are 
laid  the  workers  supply  the  cells  with  the  pol- 
len of  flowers  for  the  food  of  the  larvie ;  the 
pollen  is  mixed  with  honey  and  water,  and 
partly  digested  in  the  stomach  of  the  nursing 
bees,  and  distributed  of  different  qualities  ao- 
cordinff  to  Uie  age  of  the  young.  The  egss  are 
of  a  bluish  white  color,  of  a  lengthened  oval 
shape,  slightly  curved;  in  a  proper  temperature 
they  are  hatched  in  8  days ;  the  larve  are  small 
white  worms  without  feet  The  workers  re- 
main 6  days  in  this  state,  the  males  6^,  and  the 
females  5 ;  at  the  end  of  this  time  the  mouth  of 
the  cell  is  dosed  by  a  mixture  of  wax  and 
propolis,  and  the  larv»  begin  to  spin  a  silken 
envelope,  or  cocoon,  which  is  completed  in  86 
hours;  in  8  days  more  the  larva  changes  into 
a  pupa  or  chrysaliB,  and  on  the  20th  day  it 
emerges  from  its  prison  a  perfect  worker;  the 
males  come  forth  on  the  24th  dav.  The  color 
of  the  bee  just  out  of  its  cell  is  a  light  gray ;  it 
requires  2  days  to  acquire  strength  for  flying, 
during  which  it  is  caressed  and  plentifully  fed 
by  the  nurses.  The  same  cell  may  brin{[  sev- 
eral workers  to  maturity;  when  the  msect 
comes  out  the  cell  is  cleaned,  the  web  being  left 
to  strengthen  the  sides;  the  royal  cells  are 
never  used  but  once,  being  destroyed  when  the 
queen  escapes.  The  eggs  and  larvs  of  the  royal 
mmily  do  not  differ  in  appearance  from  those  of 
the  workers ;  but  the  young  are  more  carefblly 
nursed,  and  fed  to  repletion  with  a  more  stimu- 
lating kind  of  food,  which  causes  them  to  grow 
so  rapidly  that  in  5  days  the  larva  is  prepared 
to  spm  its  web,  and  on  the  16th  day  becomes  a 
periect  queen.  But,  as  only  one  queen  can 
reign  in  the  hive,  the  voung  ones  are  kept  dose 
prisoners,  and  oareftilly  guarded  against  the  at- 


62 


BEE 


taoks  of  the  queen-mother,  as  long  as  therd  Ib 
any  prospect  of  her  leading  another  swarm 
from  the  hive ;  if  a  new  swarm  is  not  to  be  sent 
ofE^  the  workers  allow  the  approach  of  the  old 
qneen  to  the  royal  cells,  and  she  immediately 
commences  the  destmction  of  the  royal  brood 
by  stinging  tiiem,  one  after  the  other,  while 
they  remain  in  the  cells.  Hnber  observes  that 
the  cocoons  of  the  royal  larv»  are  open  behind, 
and  he  believes  this  to  be  a  provision  of  nature 
to  enable  the  qneen  to  destroy  the  young, 
which,  in  the  onlinary  cocoon,  would  be  safe 
against  her  sting.  When  the  old  queen  departs 
with  a  swarm,  a  young  one  is  liberated,  who 
immediately  seeks  the  destruction  of  her  sis- 
ters, but  is  prevented  by  the  guards ;  if  she  de- 
parts with  another  swarm,  a  second  queen  is 
liberated,  and  so  on,  until  further  swarming  is 
impossible  from  the  diminution  of  the  numbers 
or  the  coldness  of  the  weather ;  then  the  reign- 
ing queen  is  allowed  to  kill  aU  her  sisters.  If 
two  queens  should  happen  to  come  out  at  the 
same  time,  they  instantly  comm^ice  a  mortal 
combat,  and  the  survivor  is  recognized  as  the 
sovereign;  the  other  bees  favor  the  battle, 
form  a  ring,  and  excite  the  combatants,  exacUy 
as  in  a  human  prize-fight.  The  male  bee,  or 
drone,  may  be  known  by  the  thicker  body,  more 
flattened  shap^  round  head,  more  obtuse  ab- 
domen containing  the  male  generative  organs, 
the  absence  of  the  sting,  and  the  humming  noise 
of  their  flight :  they  produce  neither  wax  nor 
honey,  being  iole  spectators  of  the  labors  of  the 
workers,  who  support  them;  they  comprise 
about  ^  or  ^\  of  the  whole  number  of  a  hive 
in  the  spring,  when  they  are  most  numerous ; 
their  use  is  only  to  impregnate  the  females, 
and,  secondarily,  to  supply  fcK>d  to  the  swallows 
and  carnivorous  insects  which  prey  upon  them 
when  they  take  their  mid-day  flights.  When 
the  queens  are  impregnated,  and  the  swarming 
has  ceased,  the  workers,  in  July  or  August, 
commence  an  indiscriminate  attack  upon  the 
drones,  chasing  them  into  the  bottom  and  cor- 
ners of  the  hive,  killing  them  with  their  stings, 
and  casting  out  the  dead  bodies ;  this  destruc- 
tion extends  even  to  the  eggs  and  larva  of 
males.  If  a  hive  is  without  a  queen,  the  males 
are  allowed  to  survive  the  winter.  The  work- 
ing bees,  or  neuters,  are  the  smallest,  with  a 
lengthened  proboscis,  the  basket  conformation 
of  the  posterior  pair  of  legs,  and  the  apparent 
absence  of  generative  organs;  rudiments  of 
ovaries  have  recently  been  discovered  on  mi- 
nute dissection,  which  explain  some  remarkable 
&ct8  in  the  economy  of  the  hive.  The  workers 
have  been  divided  by  Huber  into  nurses  and 
wax-workers ;  the  former  are  the  smallest  and 
weakest,  ill  adapted  for  carrymg  burdens,  whose 
business  it  is  to  coUect  the  honey,  feed  and 
take  care  of  the  grubs,  complete  the  cells  com- 
menced by  the  others,  and  to  keep  the  hive 
dean ;  the  latter  take  the  charge  of  provision- 
ing the  hive,  collecting  honey,  secreting  and 
preparing  wax,  constructing  the  cells,  defending 
the  hive  from  attack,  attending  to  the  wants  ^ 


the  qneen,  and  carrying  on  all  the  hoatUitioa  of 
the  community.  The  number  of  the  workers  is 
from  6,000  or  10,000  to  60,000,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  hive ;  they  form  about  fj  of  the 
whole ;  they  are  armed  with  a  sting,  and  are  easi- 
ly excited  to  use  it.  They  are  sometimes  called 
neuters,  as  if  they  were  of  neither  sex ;  it  is  now 
establisned  that  the  larv»  of  the  workers  and  of 
the  females  do  not  differ ;  that  the  queens  lay 
only  two  kinds  of  eggs,  one  destined  to  pro- 
duce the  males,  and  the  other  capable  of  being 
converted,  according  to  circumstances,  into 
workers  or  queens;  in  other  words,  that  the 
workers  are  females,  in  which  the  gen^ative 
organs  are  not  developed.  £2q>eriment8  amply 
prove  that  on  the  loss  of  the  queen  the  hive  is 
thrown  into  the  greatest  conmsion ;  the  inqui- 
etude which  commences  in  one  part  is  speedily 
communicated  to  the  whole;  the  bees  rush 
from  the  hive,  and  seek  the  queen  in  aU  du'ec- 
lions ;  after  some  hours  all  becomes  quiet  again, 
and  the  labors  are  resumed.  If  there  be  no 
eggs  nor  brood  in  the  combs,  the  bees  seem  to 
lose  their  £Eioulties;  they  cease  to  labor  and  to 
collect  food,  and  the  whole  community  soon 
dies.  But,  if  there  be  brood  in  the  combs,  the 
labors  continue  as  follows:  having  selected  a 
grub,  not  more  than  8  days  old,  the  workers 
sacrifice  8  contiguous  cells  that  the  cell  of  the 
grub  may  be  made  into  a  royal  cell ;  they  sup- 
ply it  with  the  peculiar  stimulatixig  jeUy  re- 
served for  the  queens,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
usual  16  days  the  larva  of  a  worker  is  meta- 
morphosed into  a  queen.  This  fact,  which  rests 
on  indisputable  authority,  is  certainly  a  most 
remarkable  natural  provision  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  lives  of  the  colony.  While  a  hive 
remains  without  a  qneen  swarming  can  never 
take  place,  however  crowded  it  may  be.  The 
possibility  of  changing  the  worker  into  a  queen 
is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  formation  of  arti- 
ficial swarms,  by  which  the  amount  of  honey 
may  be  indefinitely  increased.  In  a  well-pro- 
portioned hive,  containing  20,000  bees,  there 
would  be  19,499  workers,  600  mides,  and  1 
queen. — ^The  food  of  bees  consists  principally  of 
two  kinds— the  honeyed  fluids  and  the  pollen 
of  flowers;  they  also  eat  honey-dew,  treacle, 
simp,  and  any  saccharine  substance.  They 
lick  up  honey  and  fluid  substances  by  their 
long  proboscis  from  the  blossoms  of  varions 
flowers ;  the  mignonette  and  clover  afford  honey 
of  remarkable  fragrance  and  in  great  abun- 
dance. It  is  inferx^dd  that  bees  have  an  imper- 
fect sense  of  taste  and  smell  from  their  collecting 
honey  indiscriminately  from  sweet-scented  and 
offensive  flowers ;  it  is  well  known  that  in  some 
places  their  honey  acquires  poisonous  qualities ., 
from  the  flowers  of  different  species  of  laurel^ 
thorn-apple,  azalea,  and  poison-ash;  many 
mysterious  cases  of  sickness  have  been  traoed 
to  the  consumption  of  such  poisoned  honey, 
and  even  the  bees  are  sometimes  destroyed  by 
the  vegetable  poisons  which  they  imbibe.  Dur- 
ing the  spring,  and  until  late  in  the  autumn, 
bees  collect  the  pollen  from  the  anthers  of 


BEE 


68 


flowers  by  meanB  of  the  hairs  on  their  legs, 
and,  after  forming  a  ball,  transport  it  in  their 
basket  to  the  hive  for  the  food  of  the  yonng 
brood;  this  pollen  consists  of  small  capsules 
which  oootain  the  fecundating  principle  of 
flowers,  and  is  so  abundant  that  the  bees  of  a 
single  hive  will  often  bring  in  a  pound  daily; 
hence  some  agriculturists  have  supposed  that 
the  bees  diminished  the  fecundity  of  plants,  by 
abstracting  the  pollen,  when,  on  the  contrary, 
they  essentlaily  promote  it,  by  transporting  the 
fecundatingprinciplefrom  plant  to  plant.  Insects 
are  among  nature's  most  efficient  instruments 
for  the  8i»ead  of  yegetation ;  by  them  af  e  pro- 
duced the  greater  part  of  the  hybrid  varieties 
of  flowers.  Honey-dew  is  a  saccharine  fluid 
discharged  fh>m  the  tubes  at  the  extremity  of 
the  body  in  the  aphide$j  or  plant-lice;  tliese 
herd  together  on  plants^  and  become  so  gorged 
with  sap  that  they  are  obliged  to  eject  the 
honeyed  fluid ;  this  fails  on  the  leaves  and  dries, 
forming  honey-dew,  eagerly  sought  after  by 
bees  and  ants;  the  same  name  has  been  given 
to  a  sweet  exudation  of  the  sap  from  the  leaves 
of  plants  in  dry  weather.  Bees  require  consid- 
erable water,  but  they  are  not  particular  about 
its  purity;  indeed,  the  more  stagnant  and  pu- 
trid it  is  the  better  they  seem  to  like  it ;  it  is 
well  known  that  they  are  very  fond  of  congre- 
gating about  public  urinals,  as  if  the  pungent 
ammoniacal  salts  were  grateful  to  them.  The 
food  of  the  queen  bee  has  been  subjected  to 
chemical  analysis  by  Dr.  Wetherill,  of  Philadel- 
phia; that  of  the  royal  grubs  is  a  kind  of  acescent 
jelly,  thick  and  whiti^,  becoming  more  trans- 
parent and  saccharine  as  the  larva  increases  in 
size ;  it  has  been  shown  by  Hnber  to  consist  of 
a  mixture  of  honey  and  pollen,  modified  by  the 
woriEers;  the  former  appears  amorphous  under, 
the  microBoope,  is  heavier  than  water,  of  the* 
consistency  of  wax,  sticky  and  elastic;  it  con- 
sists of  wax,  albumen,  and  protein  compounds, 
and  is  therefore  properly  called  bee-bread;  it 
contains  albuminous  compounds,  which  would 
probably  prove,  on  analysis,  similar  to  the 
ginten  of  wheat.  Honey  alone  is  not  sufficient 
for  the  support  of  bees;  they  reauire  nitro- 
genized  substances,  like  pdlen,  for  the  body^as 
well  as  honey  and  non-nitrogenized  food.  Wax 
18  secreted  in  pouches  or  receptacles,  in  the 
abdomen  of  the  working  bees  only,  lined  with 
a  membrane  arranged  in  folds  like  a  6-8ided 
network;  it  accumulates  in  these  until  it  ap- 
pears extSamally  in  the  form  of  scales  between 
the  abdominal  rings;  these  plates  are  with- 
drawn by  the  bee  itself  or  some  of  its  fellow- 
workers,  and  used  for  building  and  repairing 
the  cells.  The  formation  of  wax  is  the  office 
of  the  wax-workers,  which  may  be  known 
from  the  nurses  by  the  greater  sue  and  more 
c^indrical  shape  of  the  abdomen,  and  lareer 
stomach ;  the  secretion  goes  on  best  when  the 
bees  are  at  rest,  and  accordingly  the  wax- 
workers  saspend  themselves  in  tlie  interior  in 
an  extended  cluster  or  hansing  curtain,  hold- 
ing on  to  each  other  by  the  legs;  they  remain 


motionless  in  this  position  about  16  hours, 
when  a  single  bee  detaches  itself  and  com- 
mences the  construction  of  a  cdl,  and  the 
others  come  to  its  assistance  and  begin  new 
cells.  The  quantity  of  wax  secreted  depends 
not  at  all  on  the  pollen  consumed,  but  on  the 
consumption  of  honey ;  when  bees  are  fed  on 
cane  sugar  they  form  wax  with  more  difficulty 
than  when  they  are  fed  ongrapesugar;  the  former 
is  not  so  readily  decomposed,  but  may  be  changsd 
into  the  latter  in  the  bee's  body  by  the  i^rp- 
tion  of  2  equivalents  of  water.  According  to 
liebig,  an  equivalent  of  starch  is  changed  into 
flit  by  losing  1  equivalent  of  carbonic  acid  and 
7  equivalents  of  oxysen;  and  Dr.  Wetherill 
suggests  that  wax,  which  bears  a  great  analogy 
to  fats,  may  be  derived  from  honey  in  a  similar 
manner.  Wax,  composed  of  cerine  and  myri- 
cine,  is  represented  chemically  by  €^  £^ 
Of,  and  anhydrous  grape  sugar  by  On  Hn 
On;  so  that  ft  equivalents  of  grape  sugar 
would  yield  1  equivalent  of  wax  by  we  loss  oi 
2  equivalents  of  carbonic  acid,  2  of  water,  and 
28  of  oxvgen,— Bees  breathe  by  means  of  air- 
tubes,  which  open  externally  on  the  corslet; 
experiments  show  that  they  soon  perish  in  a 
vacuum  or  under  water,  and  that  a  constant 
renewal  of  atmospheric  air  is  necessary  for 
their  well-being.  The  condition  of  a  hive, 
filled  with  nuuiy  thousand  active  and  crowded 
bees,  and  communicating  with  the  outer  air 
only  by  a  small  opening  at  the  bottom,  and  that 
usually  obstructed  by  &e  throng  passing  in  and 
out,  is  very  unfavorable  for  tne  nuuntenance 
of  a  pm^  air ;  the  black  hole  of  Oalcutta  is 
the  only  human  receptacle  which  can  be  com- 
pared to  it;  a  taper  is  very  soon  extinguished 
m  a  globe  of  tne  dimensions  and  with  the 
aperture  of  a  bee-hive,  and  yet  these  insects, 
as  easily  suffocated  as  any  other,  get  alons 
very  well,  and  their  respiration  is  accompanied 
by  the  usual  absorption  of  oxygen  and  excre- 
tion of  carbonic  acid  sas.  With  all  this  close* 
ness  of  the  air  in  the  hive,  direct  examination 
has  proved  that  it  is  nearly  as  pure  as  atmos- 
pheric ur ;  neither  the  contents  of  the  hive, 
nor  tiie  bees  themselves,  have  any  power  of 
evolving  oxygen,  but  the  air  is  renewed  through 
the  door  of  the  hive,  where  an  inward  current 
is  product,  whenever  required,  by  the  rapid 
agitation  of  the  wings  of  the  bees.  Some  of 
the  workers  are  always  thus  employed  in  ven- 
tilating the  hive,  which  they  ao  by  planting 
themselves  near  the  entrance,  both  mside  and 
outside,  and  imitating  the  action  of  flying;  in 
this  way  the  impulse  which  would  carry  them 
forward  in  fliofat  is  exerted  on  the  ur,  produc- 
ing a  powerful  backward  current;  in  this  man- 
ner is  explained  the  humming  sound  heard  in 
the  intoior  of  an  active  hive,  espedaUy  in  the 
warmest  days.  From  their  active  respiration 
the  temperature  of  a  hive  is  very  high,  varying 
from  78*"  to  S^"*  F.,  and  on  some  occa8i<ms 
rising  to  106° ;  they  are  very  sensitive  to 
ihermometrical  changes,  the  warm  sun  exciting 
to  vigorous  action,  and  cold  reducing 


54 


ihem  to  a  torpid  state.— The  instincts,  and,  in 
the  belief  of  many,  the  intelligenoe  of  the  bee. 
are  renuurkably  displayed  in  the  preparation  of 
the  hive,  the  oonstruotion  of  the  cells,  and  in 
the  phenomena  of  swarming.  The  first  thing  done 
on  entering  a  new  hive  is  to  clean  it  thorough- 
ly, to  stop  all  crevices,  and  lay  the  foundation 
for  the  comb.  Wax  is  not  the  only  material 
nsed  by  bees  in  their  architecture;  beside  this, 
they  employ  a  reddish-brown,  odoriferous,  glu- 
tinous resin,  more  tenacious  and  extensible  tnan 
wax,  called  propoluy  which  they  obtain  from 
the  buds  of  tiie  poplar  and  birch  and  from  va- 
rious resinous  trees.  This  adheres  so  strongly 
to  the  legs  of  the  bee,  that  its  fellow-laborers 
are  obliged  to  remove  it,  which  they  do  with 
their  Jaws,  applying  it  immediately  to  every 
crevice  and  projection  In  the  hive,  to  the  inte- 
rior of  the  cells,  and  to  the  covering  of  any 
foreign  body  too  heavy  for  them  to  remove ; 
in  this  way  even  large  snails  are  hennetioally 
sealed  and  prevented  from  imparting  a  noxious 
quality  to  the  air.  Bees  will  carry  home  many 
artificially  prepared  glutinous  substances  in 
their  taraal  baskets.  After  the  workers  have 
secreted  a  sufficient  amount  of  wax,  the  oon- 
struotion of  the  combs  commences.  These  are 
formed  into  parallel  and  vertical  layers,  each 
about  an  inch  thick,  the  distances  between  the 
surfaces  of  each  being  about  half  an  inch  for 
the  passage  of  the  bees.  They  may  extend  the 
whole  breadth  and  height  of  the  hive,  consist- 
ing of  thin  partitions,  enclosing  6-8ided  cells, 
about  half  an  inch  deep  and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  in  diameter.  The  bottom  of  each  cell  has 
the  shape  of  a  flattened  pyramid  with  8  rhom- 
bic sides,  like  the  diamonds  on  playing  cards ; 
this  gives  the  greatest  strength  and  greatest 
capacity  with  the  least  expenditure  of  ma- 
terial. Maraldi  had  determined  that  the 
S  angles  of  the  rhomb  should  be  lOQ""  28^ 
and  70°  82'  by  mathematical  calculation,  and 
that  by  actual  measurement  thev  are  llO"* 
and  70**.  There  is  nothing  in  the  shape  of  the 
antennie.  mandibles,  or  legs  of  the  bee,  which 
should  aetermine  these  angles  in  the  cells. 
The  foundation  is  a  solid  plate  of  wax,  of  a 
semicircular  form,  in  which  a  vertical  groove 
is  scooped  out  ot  the  size  of  a  cell,  which  is 
strengthened  bv  further  additions  of  wax;  on 
the  opposite  ude  two  other  grooves  are  formed, 
one  on  each  side  of  the  plane  opposite  the  first; 
after  the  bottom  is  formed,  the  walls  are  raised 
round  the  sides.  The  cells  of  the  first  row,  by 
which  the  comb  is  attached  to  the  roof  of  the 
hive,  have  6  sides  instead  of  6,  the  roof  form- 
ing one.  The  first  cell  determines  the  position 
of  all  that  succeed  it ;  and  2  are  not,  in  ordinary 
circumstances,  begun  in  different  parts  of  the 
hive  at  the  same  time.  The  laborers  follow 
each  other  in  quick  succession,  each  one  adding 
a  little  to  the  work;  when  a  few  rows  have 
been  constructed  in  the  centrd  comb,  two  other 
foundation  walls  are  begun,  one  on  each  side  of 
it,  at  the  distance  of  |  of  an  inch,  and  parallel  to 
it,  and  then  two  others  as  the  former  are  ad- 


vanced ;  the  comb  is  thus  enlarged  and  length- 
ened, the  middle  being  always  Uie  most  promi- 
nent. If  all  their  foundations  were  Liid  at  the 
same  time,  it  would  be  difficult  for  them  to 
preserve  ttxeir  parallelism,  which  is  perfect  only 
at  the  last  stage  of  the  building  process.  Beside 
the  vacancies  between  the  cells,  which  form  the 
highways  of  the  hive,  the  combs  are  pieroed 
with  holes,  to  permit  ea^  communicatioD,  and 
prevent  loss  of  time  in  going  round.  The  sym- 
metry of  the  ardiitectnre  of  bees  is  more  ob- 
servable in  their  work  looked  at  aa  a  whole, 
than  in  its  details,  as  they  often  build  irregnlar- 
ly  to  Adapt  the  structure  to  different  looiiities 
and  various  unfavorable  circumstances;  differ- 
ent sized  cells  are  made  for  the  larvas  of  work- 
ers, males,  and  queens;  those  for  honey  and 
pollen  magazines  are  twice  as  large  as  ordinary 
cells,  and  so  placed  that  their  mouths  are  up- 
ward, for  the  easier  retention  of  their  contents. 
These  supposed  defects  are  generally  the  resolts 
of  calculation,  and,  when  mistakes,  are  very 
soon  remedied.  The  cells  at  first  are  whitish, 
soft,  and  translucent;  but  they  soon  become 
yellow  and  firmer,  and  quite  dark  in  an  old 
comb. — ^When  a  hive  becomes  too  crowded,  or 
for  other  reasons  as  yet  not  perfectly  unde^ 
stood,  preparations  are  made  for  the  emigration 
of  a  swarm  with  a  queen ;  soouts  are  sent  oat 
in  advance  to  select  a  proper  place  for  the  new 
hivjjd,  and  the  workers  are  buay  in  collecting  an 
extra  quantity  of  provisions  to  be  carried  with 
them.  When  the  weather  is  warm,  and  after  a 
full  stock  of  eggs  has  been  laid,  the  old  queen, 
unsuccessful  in  her  attempts  to  destror  the 
royal  brood,  abdicates  the  throne  whi(m  the 
first-bom  new  queen  will  soon  dispute  with  her. 
During  the  preparations,  a  great  Duzzing  is  oo* 
casionally  heard,  which  suddenly  ceases  on  the 
day  of  departure.  When  all  is  r^y,  the  signal 
]a  given  by  the  workers,  and  the  queen,  with  aO 
the  departing  swarm,  rushes  to  the  door,  and 
rises  into  the  ur ;  they  follow  the  queen,  alight^ 
ing  with  her  in  a  dense  cluster,  and  returning; 
if  she  does,  to  the  hive.  Cold  weather,  or  even 
a  passing  cloud,  wiU  arrest  the  emigration  until 
a  warmer  or  brighter  period.  After  a  rest  at 
their  first  landing-place,  the  swarm  coUeots  in- 
to a  close  phalanx,  and  files  in  a  direct  line  to 
the  selected  spot  The  deserted  hive  is  busily 
occupied  in  hatching  out  a  new  queen,  whidi, 
in  her  turn,  leads  out  a  swarm;  two  or  three 
will  be  sent  off  in  a  summer  from  an  old  hire. 
After  the  massacre  of  the  males  in  July  or 
August,  the  workers  busy  themselves  in  collect- 
ing stores  for  winter  use;  as  the  autumn  ad- 
vances, honey  becomes  scarce,  and  they  are 
obliged  to  collect  the  sweet  exudations  from 
leaves,  honey-dew,  and  also  the  juices  of  peachea 
and  other  sweet  fruits,  after  the  skin  has  been 
broken  by  birds,  snuk,  and  other  insects :  when 
all  other  resources  fail,  they  do  not  scruple  to  at- 
tack weaker  hives,  and  despoil  them  of  their 
honey.  The  cold  of  winter  reduces  them  to  a 
torpid  state,  in  which  they  remain  until  the 
wann  days  of  spring.    Bees  recognize  the  per 


BEE 


56 


flon  of  their  queen ;  if  a  new  one  be  given  them, 
they  will  generally  sorroand  her,  and  suffocate 
or  starve  her  to  death,  for  it  la  very  remarkable 
tliat  the  workers  never  attack  a  queen  with 
theur  stings;  if  she  be  permitted  to  live  34 
hours,  she  will  be  received  as  their  sovereign. 
If  a  supernumerary  queen  be  introduced,  a  ring 
is  formed  by  the  workers,  and  the  two  queens 
engage  in  mortal  combat,  the  survivor  having 
the  right  to  reign.  Huber  discovered  that  if  the 
fecundation  of  the  queen  be  delayed  beyond  the 
2l5t  day  of  her  life,  she  begins  to  lay  the  cjggs 
of  males,  and  produces  no  otibers  during  her  life ; 
she  lays  them  indiscriminately  in  large  and  small, 
and  even  in  royal  cells;  in  the  latter  case,  they 
are  treated  by  the  nurses  as  if  they  were  royal 
grubs.  Keim  made  the  aingular  discovery  of 
prolific  workers,  thus  explaining  the  laving  of 
e^gs  in  hives  destitnte  of  a  queen ;  but  the  egga 
thus  produced  are  always  those  of  males;  this 
is  aooouoted  for  by  their  having  passed  their 
grub  state  in  cells  oontignouB  to  the  royal  ones, 
and  from  having  their  generative  organs  par- 
tially developed  by  devouring  portions  of  the 
Btimulating  royal  food;  how  they  become  im- 
pregnated has  not  been  ascertained. — ^The  natu- 
ral enemies  of  bees  are  numerous ;  among  them 
may  be  mentioned  wasps,  hornets,  spiders,  dra- 
gon-files, toads,  lizards,  woodpeckers,  the  bee- 
eater,  and  most  insectivorons  birds,  rats  and 
mice,  ant^aters,  bears,  and  badgers.  They  sel- 
dom die  a  natural  death ;  and  the  average  du- 
ration of  life  cannot  be  more  than  a  year;  the 
whole  population  would  be  destroyed  by  their 
enemies,  each  other,  and  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  wore  it  not  for  the  surprising  fecundity 
of  the  queen,  who  will  lay,  in  temperate  climates, 
as  many  as  60,000  egg^s  and  in  warm  regions, 
B  times  that  number;  a  single  impregnation  is 
sufficient  to  fecundate  all  the  eggs  which  a 
queen  will  lay  for  at  least  2  years,  and  probably 
during  her  life.  The  most  destructive  and  in- 
ffidious  enemy  of  the  bee  is  a  lepidopterous  in- 
sect, of  the  group  eramMday  the  goMeria  cere- 
anaj  Fab.,  commonly  called  the  bee  or  waz- 
moth ;  in  its  perfect  state  it  is  a  winged  moth, 
about  }  of  an  inch  long,  with  an  expanse  of 
wings  of  a  little  more  tiian  an  inch ;  the  fe- 
males are  the  largest,  of  a  dark  gray  color, 
tinged  with  purple-brown  and  diu'k  spots; 
they  remain  quiet  in  the  daytime,  but  in  the 
evening,  when  the  bees  are  at  rest,  they  creep 
in  at  tiie  door  of  the  hive  and  deposit  their 
eggs;  when  they  are  prevented  from  entering, 
they  lay  their  eggs  outside,  firom  which  the 
worm-like  caterpiilars  hatched  from  them 
can  easily  creep  in.  These  small  and  tender 
worms  eat  their  way  in  all  directions  through 
the  waxen  cells ;  each  one  spins  a  tough  silken 
tube,  in  which  it  lies  concealed  by  day,  and 
from  which  it  comes  out  at  night,  devouring 
the  wax  within  its  reach ;  they  grow  to  the 
taze  of  an  inch  or  more,  gnawing  the  combs  to 
pieces,  and  filling  the  hive  with  their  dirty 
webs,  until  the  bees,  discouraged  by  the  ravages 
of  their  unseen  enemies,  are  obliged  to  aban- 


don their  hive  with  its  brood  and  honey.  The 
only  way  to  secure  a  hive  from  these  depredat- 
ors is  to  destroy  the  worms  and  chrysalids  at 
least  once  a  week ;  the  moths  may  he  caught 
in  a  mixture  of  sweetened  water  and  vinegar; 
the  best  constructed  hives  will  not  supersede 
the  necessity  of  this  constant  watchfulneas. 
Bees  are  subject  to  a  fatal  disease,  which  has 
been  called  dysentery,  and  which  appears  to  be 
contagious;  nothing  can  be  done  for  it,  except 
by  cleanliness  and  ventilation,  and  by  supply* 
ing  them  with  wax.  In  Wells's  "  Explorations 
in  Honduras"  (New  York,  1867),  it  is  stated 
that  there  are  in  Olancho  14  distinct  species  of 
honey-bee ;  these  are  of  small  size  ana  mostly 
stingless.  The  wild  swarms  generally  establid^ 
themselves  in  the  hollow  limbs  of  trees;  these 
are  removed  to  the  porches  of  the  houses,  and 
are  tftere  suspended  by  thongs;  in  this  primi- 
tive way  Lirge  amounts  of  honey  and  wax  are 
obtained  in  Central  America.  The  honey  is 
said  to  be  contained  in  little  bags  2  inches  long, 
ranged  along  the  hive  in  rows,  the  cells  for  tM 
young  occupying  the  centre. — ^The  Huicblb-Bbb 
{bombtu  terreatris,  Latr.)  hasbeen sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  male  honey-bee  in  name, 
though  they  do  not  resemble  each  other.  The 
humble-bees  live  in  societies  less  numerous 
than  those  of  the  honey-bee,  which  end  in  the 
autunm  to  recommence  in  the  spring;  they 
make  a  loud  humming  noise  during  flisht, 
whence  the  Latin  bombu9y  the  French  oaunum^ 
and  theEnglish  bumble-bee.  They  live  in  subter- 
ranean habitations,  60  or  60,  and  sometimes  800 
together;  the  females  are  the  laigest,  the  males 
the  smallest,  and  the  workers  intermediate  in 
size.  All  perish  in  the  winter,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  few  females,  which  become  the 
founders  of  a  new  colony  in  the  spring; 
these  females  are  6  times  as  large  as  the 
workers,  and  may  be  seen  in  early  spring 
prying  into  every  hole  and  crevice  in  the 
earth  in  search  of  a  suitable  place  for  their  nest. 
This  they  make  at  a  depth  of  1  or  2  feet  in  the 
meadows  and  plains;  they  make  cavities  of 
considerable  extent  dome-shaped,  more  wide 
than  high ;  the  vault  is  made  of  earth  and  mesa 
and  the  interior  is  lined  with  an  inferior  kind 
of  wax ;  the  entrance  may  be  either  a  simple 
aperture  at  the  lower  part,  or  a  tortuous  moss- 
covered  path  ;  the  bottom  is  carpeted  with  leaves 
on  which  are  placed  irr^ular  masses  of  brown 
wax,  the  Aiture  cells  of  the  young.  The  larva 
live  in  society  until  they  are  about  to  change 
into  nymphs,  when  each  spins  a  silken  cocoon 
in  which  the  occupant  is  placed  head  downward, 
and  from  which  it  comes  out  in  4  or  6  davs 
during  May  and  June.  The  females  assist  m 
building  the  cells,  and  deposit  at  the  first  lay- 
ing eggs  both  of  males  and  females;  but  the 
latter,  on  coming  to  maturity,  are  only  one* 
sixth  of  the  size  of  their  mother,  and  lay  only 
the  eggs  of  males.  Several  females  may  Uve  in 
peace  under  the  same  roof;  impregnation  takes 
place  outside  the  nest.  The  honey  and  wax 
are  of  the  same  origin  and  nature  as  those  of 


66 


the  hooey-bee.  As  they  do  not  hibernate,  bat 
perish  dnriug  the  winter,  the  same  nest  is  not 
occupied  for  2  snoceflsiye  years. — ^The  nest  of 
the  'Oasdsb-Bkb  (bombus  muKorumy  Latr.)  is 
oomposed  of  a  dome  of  moss  or  withered  grass 
placed  over  a  shallow  excavation  in  the 
ground  of  about  half  a  foot  in  diameter;  the 
materials,  after  being  carded  by  means  of  the 
mandibles  and  fore-legs,  are  poshed  by  the  first 
bee  backward  to  a  second,  which  passes  it  to  a 
third,  and  so  until  the  nest  is  reached;  they 
work  in  long  files,  the  head  being  tamed  away 
from  the  nest,  and  toward  the  material  Their 
domes  are  often  seen  rising  4  or  6  inches  above 
the  level  of  the  fields  and  meadows ;  the  en- 
trance is  at  the  bottom,  aboat  a  foot  long  and 
i  an  inch  wide.  As  in  the  humble-bees'  nest, 
we  find  in  that  of  the  carder-bee,  little  of  the 
architectural  regularity  of  the  hive  of  the 
honey-bee ;  there  *are  only  a  few  egg-ehiq>ed, 
dark-colored,  irregularly  disposed  cells,  ar- 
ranged generally  in  a  horizontal  position,  con- 
nected by  shapeless  waxen  colmnns;  these  cells 
are  not  made  by  the  old  bees,  but  by  the  grubs, 
who  spin  them  when  they  are  ready  to  under- 
go the  change  into  nymphs;  from  them  they 
are  liberated  by  the  gnawing  of  the  old  ones ; 
the  cocoons  are  afterward  used  as  store-houses 
for  honey.  The  true  breeding  cells  are  con- 
tained in  masses  of  brown  wax,  the  number  of 
eggs  varying  from  8  to  80,  the  whole  colony 
s^dom  exceeding  60;  there  are  8  sizes,  the 
females  being  the  largest,  none  of  which  are 
exempt  from  labor;  the  females,  of  which  sev- 
eral live  in  one  nest^  alone  survive  the  winter. 
The  carder-bee  is  smaller  than  the  humble-bee, 
but  shorter  and  thicker  than  the  honey-bee; 
it  resembles  in  color  the  materials  of  the  nest, 
having  the  fore  part  of  the  back  a  dull  orange, 
and  the  hind  part  with  different  shades  of  gray- 
ish yellow  rings. — ^The  LafeoabtBes  (bomhu 
lapidaritUi  Latr.),  of  a  general  black  color  with 
a  reddish  orange  tail,  builds  its  nest  in  a  heap 
of  stones,  of  bite  of  moss,  neatly  arranged  in  an 
oval  form ;  they  are  social  in  Uieur  habits,  and 
collect  honey  with  great  industry;  the  indi- 
viduals of  a  nest  are  more  numerous  than  the 
carders,  and  much  more  vindictive.  The  soli- 
tary bees  display  as  much  foresight,  ingenuity, 
and  skill  in  the  construction  of  their  nests,  as 
do  the  social  genera;  and  perhaps  in  a  more 
remarkable  manner,  as  a  single  individual  be- 
gins and  finishes  every  part  of  the  work.  There 
are  only  two  kinds  of  individuals,  males  and  fe- 
males; the  males  are  idle,  and  the  females  per^ 
form  all  the  labor  of  making  the  nest  and  pro- 
viding food  for  the  young ;  Uiev  have  no  brush 
to  their  hinder  feet  and  no  badcet  stnaotare  on 
the  external  side  of  the  tarsi. — ^Different  species 
otmegaehiUf  anthophara,  and  amiOy  have  becoi 
called  by  R6anmur  Mabon-Bbes,  from  their 
constructing  their  nesto  with  sand,  earthy  sub- 
stances, and  sometimes  wood,  stock  together  by 
day  rendered  plastic  by  their  saliva;  they 
build  in  the  interstices  of  brick  walls,  in  crev- 
ices in  stonea,  and  wherever  they  can  find  a 


suiteble  place,  often  amid  the  bonert  throngs 
of  men.  Within  a  wall  of  day,  they  make 
from  1  to  6  chambers,  each  containing  a  mass 
of  pollen  with  an  egff ;  the  cells  are  sometimea 
paralld  and  perpendicular,  at  others  with  va- 
rious inclinations,  and  are  closed  with  a  paate 
of  earth ;  they  are  thimble-shi^ped,  and  about 
an  inch  long.  Many  species,  not  larger  than  a 
horse-fly  (andrena),  have  been  called  mining* 
bees,  from  their  dicing  in  the  ground  tubular 
galleries,  a  little  wider  than  the  diameter  of 
their  bodies;  they  are  fond  of  clay-banks,  in 
which  their  holes,of  the  size  of  the  stem  of  a  to- 
bacco pipe,  are  frequently  seen ;  they  are  6  or  8 
inches  deep,  smooth,  and  circular,  with  a  thim- 
ble-shaped horizontal  chamber,  almost  at  right 
angles  to  the  entrance,  and  nearly  twice  as 
wide ;  in  this  is  placed  a  single  grub  with  its  sup- 
ply of  pollen.— There  are  several  British  spedea 
of  solitary  bees  to  whidi  R6aumur  has  given  the 
name  of  Oabfbntbb-Bxbs,  from  their  worldng 
in  wood  as  the  mason-bees  do  in  ear^;  thej 
sdect  posts  and  the  wood-work  of  houses 
which  have  become  soft  from  commencing 
decay.  The  violet-colored  species  {xyloeopa 
^lacecL  Linn.)  makes  her  nest  by  gnawing 
out  small  pieces  of  the  wood,  which  she  csiries 
to  a  short  distance  and  drops  for  future  use,  re- 
turning by  a  circuitous  route  as  if  to  conceal 
ito  location;  the  direction  of  the  tunnd  is 
oblique  for  i^ut  an  inch,  and  then  perpendio- 
ular,  in  the  axis  of  the  wood,  for  12  or  15 
inches,  and  i  an  inch  in  breaath ;  sometimes 
8  or  4  such  excavations  are  made.  The  ton- 
nd  is  divided  into  cells  somewhat  less  than  an. 
inch  deep,  separated  from  each  other  by  par- 
titions made  of  the  chips  and  dust  cemented 
together;  some  other  species  employ  day  for 
these  partitions.    At  the  bottom  of  the  cdl  is 

E laced  an  egg,  and  over  it  a  paste  of  pollen  and 
oney ;  in  tms  way  are  completed  10  or  18 
cdls,  one  above  the  other,  and  then  the  prin- 
cipal entrance  is  closed  by  a  dmilar  sawdust 
covering.  As  several  weeks  are  occupied  in 
these  labors,  and  as  she  is  depositing  her  eggs 
at  considerable  intervds,  it  is  evident  that  the 
first  egg  would  have  become  a  perfect  insect 
before  the  hist  egg  had  left  the  grub  steto ;  in 
order  to  enable  the  young  to  escape  as  they  are 
hatehed,  each  cell  has  a  lateral  opening. — 
Among  the  leaf-cutting  and  upholstering  bees, 
may  be  mentioned  the  poppy-bee  {otmiapapaF' 
e«fif,  Latr.),  a  European  spedes,  i  of  an  indt 
long,  of  a  black  color,  with  reddish  gray  hairs 
on  the  head  and  back,  and  the  abdomen  giaj 
and  silk}';  she  excavates  a  perpendicular  hole 
in  the  ground,  largest  at  the  bottom,  whidi  she 
lines  with  the  petels  of  the  scarlet  poppy  oat 
into  oval  pieces,  and  adapted  with  the  greatest 
nicety  and  smoothness;  the  hole  is  about  S 
inches  deep,  and  the  lining  extends  cxtemally 
on  the  sur&ce ;  filling  it  with  pollen  and  honey 
to  the  depth  of  ^  an  inch,  she  deposits  an  egg^ 
folds  down  the  scarlet  tapestrv,  and  fills  above 
it  with  earth ;  it  is  rare  to  find  more  than  one 
cell  in  an  excavation.     The  roee-lsaf  ootter 


BE&EATER 


BEE-KEEPING 


67 


(megfUihiU  eeiUuneularUf  LtAr,)  makes  aoylin- 
ariaBl  bole  in  the  hard  earth  of  a  beaten  path, 
from  6  to  10  inches  deep,  in  which  ahe  con- 
atracts  aeveral  ceils  about  an  inch  deep,  thim- 
ble-shaped, and  made  with  dronlar  pieces  of 
leaves  neatlj  cat  out  and  folded  together ;  the 
lose-leaf  is  preferred,  bot  almost  anj  leaf  with 
a  serrated  mar^n,  as  the  birch  and  monntaln- 
ash,  will  be  taken ;  no  cement  is  employed,  the 
elastic  property  of  the  leaves  keeping  them  in 
place ;  it  takes  9  to  12  pieces  to  make  a  single 
odl,  which,  when  completed  with  its  contents 
oi  pollen  and  honey,  and  single  egg,  is  closed 
wiUi  8  pieces  of  leaf  exactly  circular ;  the  con- 
vex extremity  of  one  cell  fits  into  the  open  end 
of  the  next,  by  this  means  greatly  incressing 
the  strength  of  the  &bric. 

BEE-EATER  (meropBf  Linn.).  The  bee-eafr 
en  belong  to  the  genos  meropa  and  family  me- 
ropidm.  There  are  26  species  described,  inhab- 
iting most  parts  of  the  old  world,  and  migrating 
from  place  to  place,  according  to  change  of  sea- 
son. In  the  winter  they  seek  the  warmest  por- 
tions of  the  globe,  and  the  temperate  rej^ons  in 
summer,  in  search  of  food,  wluch  consists  ex- 
dnsively  of  insects.  They  eommcmly  perch 
singly,  or  in  small  parties^  on  a  prominent 
branch,  from  which  they  can  see  all  around 
them.  Ftom  this  they  capture  insects  on  the 
ving,  like  the  swallow,  generally  returning  to 
the  same  perch.  At  morning  and  evening 
they  often  congregate  in  considerable  numbers. 
Their  flight  is  gracefol  and  sustained ;  their  cry 
is  loud,  consisting  of  pleasant,  whistling  notes, 
oontinued  at  morning  and  evening.  They  rear 
their  young  in  horizontal  holes  in  the  sandy 
banks  of  rivers,  or  in  soft  rocks  which  they  can 
excavate.  The  entrance  is  small,  opening,  at 
the  depth  of  8  or  4  feet^  into  a  cavity  in  which 
the  parent  can  easily  tmn.  The  eggs  are  from 
5  to  7  in  number,  laid  on  the  bare  ground,  or 
on  moss  or  other  soft  material.  The  common 
bee-eater  (jMrops  a/piaster^  Dnn.)  inhabits  the 
south  of  Europe,  especially  about  the  Busman 
rivers  Don  and  Volga,  and  the  northern  parts 
of  Africa.  It  is  occasionaUy  seen  in  England 
and  Sweden.  The  other  species  of  the  genus 
are  found  in  Africa,  Asia,  and  the  Indian  archi- 
pelago. The  common  species  is  about  10  inches 
long;  the  bill.  If  inch,  black  and  pointed ;  eyes, 
red ;  forehead,  bluish  green,  and  behind  it  green ; 
top  <tf  the  head,  chestnut,  with  a  green  tinge; 
hind  head  and  upper  part  of  neck,  chestnut, 
paler  toward  the  back ;  from  the  bill  is  a  bUck 
stripe,  passing  through  the  eye ;  the  back  and 
scapulars,  pide  yellow,  tinged  with  chestnut 
and  green ;  rump  and  upper  tail  coverts,  blue- 
green,  with  a  vellowish  tinge ;  throat,  yellow ; 
nnder  parts,  blue-green,  palest  on  the  belly; 
lesser  wing  coverts,  dull  green ;  quills,  mosdy 
sea-green  witliout,  and  many  of  the  inner  ru- 
fous— the  first  very  short,  the  second  the  laigest 
of  all ;  the  tail,  wedge-shaped,  of  12  feathers, 
the  shafts  brown  above  and  whitish  beneath — 
the  2  middle  ones  sesrgreen,  shaded  with  ru^ 
£>aa— and  the  longest  by  nearly  an  inch;  daws^ 


black.  In  Egypt  this  species  is  eaten  as  food. 
The  eggs  are  white.  It  receives  its  name  from 
the  insect  which  is  its  favorite  food,  though  it 
feeds  on  most  of  the  winged  insects,  which  it 
takes  as  it  flies. 

BEE-KEEPING.  The  selection  of  a  suitoble 
place  for  an  apiary  is  of  great  importance.  The 
situation  should  be  well  sheltered  from  strong 
winds,  either  naturally  or  by  building  walls  or 
fences.  If  not  sufficiently  protected,  the  bees 
are  prevented  from  leaving  the  hive,  and  when 
returning  with  heavy  loads  of  honey  and  pollen 
are  blown  to  the  ground,  or  dashed  against 
trees  and  rocks,  and  thus  many  are  lost.  It  is 
not  well  to  have  large  surfaces  of  water  very 
near,  lest  the  bees,  overcome  by  cold  or  fatigue, 
should  be  forced  to  alight  on  them,  or  be  car- 
ried down  by  the  winds  and  perish.  The  hives 
should  especially  be  jproteoted  frbm  north-west 
winds  and  from  chilling  south  winds.  It  is 
necessary  where  the  winters  are  severe  par- 
ticularly to  regard  protection  fh>m  cold.  The 
hives  may  face  the  south  or  east,  or  south- 
east, and  thus  the  greatest  benefit  will  be  de* 
rived  from  the  continuance  of  the  heat  and 
liffht  of  the  sun  during  that  portion  of  the  day 
when  tiiey  are  most  usefuL  The  hives  should 
be  placed  in  a  right  line;  it  is  better  to  place 
them  on  shelves,  one  above  another,  than  in 
near  rows  upon  the  ground.  The  distance  be- 
tween the  hives  should  not  be  less  than  2 
feet;  their  height  from  the  ground  should  be 
about  the  same.  Some  experienced  bee-keepers, 
however,  raise  the  platform  of  the  hive  not 
more  than  2  inches  from  the  earth,  considering 
this  preferable,  because  fewer  of  the  fatiguea 
or  chilled  bees  that  miss  the  hive  in  returning 
and  alight  under  it,  are  lost,  the  flight  of  isoir 
ing  swarms  is  lower,  and  there  is  less  exposure 
to  strong  winds.  It  will  be  found  of  not  a  lit- 
tle consequence  to  have  the  apiary  where  it  can 
be  conveniently  watched  in  swarming  time, 
but  it  should  bv  all  means  be  removed  from  all 
annoyance  and  disturbance  by  men  or  teams 
passing  and  repassing,  or  animals  laboring  or 
graang  too  near  the  hives.  Grounds  on  which 
there  are  no  large  trees,  but  some  of  small  size 
and  shrubbery,  on  which  the  swarms  may 
alight,  are  preferable.  The  grass  should  be 
mowed  frequently  around  the  hives,  and  the 
ground  kept  clean,  not  only  for  the  delight  of 
5ie  bees,  but  to  prevent  too  much  dampn^ 
and  to  destroy  the  lurking  places  of  noxious  in- 
sects and  vermin. — ^The  proper  construction  of 
the  hive  is  one  of  the  things  most  essential  to 
success  in  bee-keeping.  Many  different  kinds 
have  been  inventea,  each  more  or  less  complex, 
designed  to  gain  certain  advantages,  and  to  ob- 
viate certain  evils  in  managing  bees  and  pro- 
ducing honey.  Of  these  it  will  be  sufficient  to 
mention  several  of  the  most  important  varieties. 
The  chamber  hive  is  made  with  two  apartments 
— ^the  lower  for  the  residence  of  the  bees,  the 
upper  to  hold  the  boxes  in  which  the  bees  put 
their  honey  after  having  filled  the  lower  part 
The  advantages  of  this  are  claimed  to  be,  a  per* 


68 


BEE-KEEPING 


manent  cover  for  the  boxes  of  glass  or  wood,  or 
vessels  of  any  kind  put  on  the  hive ;  a  better 
protection  from  the  weather,  with  less  incon- 
venience in  taming  np  the  hive  and  in  fitting  a 
shelter  over  it,  th^n  is  found  with  a  movable 
cover.  These  hives  are  sometimes  made  wedge- 
shaped,  being  several  inches  narrower  from 
front  to  rear  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top,  to 
prevent  the  comb  from  slipping  down.  They 
are  idso  sometimes  furnished  with  inclined  bot- 
tom-boards to  roll  out  the  worms  that  fall  upon 
them,  or  are  driven  down  by  the  bees.  These 
modifications  are,  however,  not  generally  found 
of  much  importance.  To  protect  the  bees  from 
vermin,  several  kinds  of  suspended  hives  have 
been  contrived  with  inclined  movable  bottom- 
boards. — ^The  dividing  hives  are  made  with 
several  compartments,  the  object  being  to  mul- 
tiply, at  the  will  of  the  bee-keeper,  the  number  of 
colonies  without  the  trouble  and  risk  of  swarm- 
ing and  hiving.  When  bees  from  any  cause 
lose  their  queen,  and  the  combs  contain  eggs  or 
very  young  larva,  another  queen  will  be  de- 
veloped. By  means  of  these  hives,  the  par- 
titions of  which  are  supposed  to  divide  the 
brood-combs,  a  part  of  the  bees  and  of  the 
combs  are  removed  and  placed  by  themselves 
to  go  on  making  honey,  and  multiplying  in 
everv  respect  like  a  natural  swarm.  A  very  larse 
number  of  stocks  or  swarms  may  be  thus  made 
bv  a  bee-keeper  sufiiciently  experienced.  The 
objections  sometimes  made  against  this  kind  of 
hives  are :  tiie  expense  of  construction,  the  fre- 
quency with  which  bees  are  found  to  put  all 
tne  brood-combs  in  one  compartment,  the  diffi- 
culty of  removing  a  part  at  Just  the  time  for 
the  development  of  a  new  queen,  and  the  in- 
creased exposure  to  cold  and  starvation  in  win- 
ter by  separating  the  bees  in  the  different  com- 
partments.-^veral  inventions  have  been  made 
to  enable  the  bee-keeper  to  change  the  combs 
and  get  the  honey  without  driving  out  or  de- 
stroying the  bees.  Changeable  hives  are  made 
in  sections,  generally  three  drawers  placed  one 
above  another,  holes  being  made  to  allow  the 
bees  to  pass.  When  the  boxes  are  all  filled, 
and  it  is  desired  to  change  the  combs,  the  upper 
box  is  removed,  and  its  place  supplied  by  a  new 
one  put  in  at  the  bottom.  This  being  done 
vearly,  the  entire  contents  of  the  hive  would 
be  changed  every  three  years,  and  be  kept  new. 
It  is  held  that  there  is  a  necessity  for  changing 
the  brood-combs,  because  the  larv»  hatched  from 
the  eggs  and  sealed  up  in  the  cells,  there  spin 
their  cocoons,  which  remain,  when  they  go  out, 
upon  the  walls  of  the  cells.  This  deposit, 
although  extremely  thin,  diminishes  the  size  of 
the  cell,  affording  less  room  for  each  succeeding 

generation,  thus  causing  the  bees  to  gradually 
eteriorate  in  size.  The  additional  advantages 
claimed  for  this  kind  of  hive  are :  the  facility 
with  which  small  swarms  may  be  united  and 
large  ones  divided ;  the  opportunity  it  offers  for 
feeding,  by  putting  into  the  hive  a  box  of  sur- 
plus honey ;  and  the  uniformity  of  temperature 
preserved  by  the  air  chamber  between  the 


drawers  and  the  outside  of  the  hive.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  the  cost  is  considerable,  and  it 
is  denied  that  deterioration  is  caused  in  the  bees 
by  the  filling  up  of  the  brood-cells,  and  time 
and  honey  are  therefore  needlessly  wasted  by 
keeping  the  bees  constantly  making  new  brood- 
comb  ;  this,  and  the  difficulty  of  putting  the 
swarms  into  the  hives,  and  the  many  lurk- 
ing places  they  afford  to  the  bee  moth,  and  also 
the  difficulty  of  procuring,  in  this  method  of 
taking  away  honey,  that  which  is  good  and  free 
from  cocoons  and  bee  bread,  more  than  counter- 
balance, in  the  opinion  of  many  bee-keepers|, 
their  aavantages. — Swarming-hives  are  some- 
times used.  They  are  made  with  sections,  so 
that  by  closing  all  or  a  part  of  them,  the  spaoe 
which  the  bees  occupy  is  lessened,  and  th^ 
are  crowded  oat,  and  their  swarming  hastened. 
Hives  are  sometimes  arranged  so  as  to  allow 
the  bees  to  go  on  accumulating  honey  and  in- 
creasing in  number,  and  not  swarm  at  alL  A 
hive  of  bees  is  put  in  a  bee-house,  and  empty 
hives  connected  with  it,  so  that  as  soon  as  one 
becomes  filled  the  bees  pass  to  the  adjoining 
ones.  In  some  instances  great  quantities  of  hon^ 
have  been  obtained  by  this  method ;  but  it  has 
not  generaUy  been  found  practicable  or  profit- 
able.— The  result  of  all  the  experiments  niade  in 
this  country,  with  complicated  and  ingenionaly 
contrived  hives,  and  also  in  Europe  where  equally 
many  attempts  have  been  made  to  adapt  arti- 
ficial tenements  to  the  simple  instincts  of  the 
bee,  tends  to  show  the  superiority,  for  practical 
purposes,  of  the  simpler  hives.  For  nrotection 
against  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  sum- 
mer and  winter,  straw  hives  are  excellent.  In 
Poland,  where  finer  honey  is  produced,  and 
bees  more  successfully  mani^^  than  elsewhere 
in  Europe,  hives  are  made  by  excavating 
trunks  of  trees,  taking  logs  a  foot  or  more  in 
diameter  and  about  9  feet  long.  They  are 
scooped  out  or  bored  for  the  length  of  6  feet 
from  one  end,  forming  hollow  cylinders,  the 
diameter  of  the  bore  being  6  or  8  inches.  A 
longitudinal  slit  is  made  in  the  cylinder  nearly 
its  whole  length,  and  about  4  inches  wide. 
Into  this  is  fitted  a  slip  of  wood  with  notches 
on  the  edges  hu*ge  enough  to  admit  a  single  bee. 
This  slip  is  fastened  in  with  wedges  or  hinges ; 
if  it  is  in  several  parts,  it  will  often  be  found 
more  convenient.  The  top  is  covered,  and  the 
trunk  set  upright  with  the  opening  toward  the 
south.  Through  this  door  the  condition  of  the 
entire  swarm  is  seen,  and  the  honey  taken  fit>m 
time  to  time.  The  length  of  this  hive  and  its 
smidl  diameter  fit  it  for  both  lai^  and  smaU 
swarms. — One  of  the  best  kind  of  hives  is  made 
of  pine  boards,  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  quarter 
thick.  The  best  size  is  12  inches  square  inside^ 
and  14  deep.  If  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun  and 
rain,  they  would  be  better  painted.  The  top  is 
made  of  boards  16  inches  square.  The  boards 
should  be  Joined  carefully;  many  put  paint 
between  the  Junctions  to  keep  the  moths  from 
breeding  in  them.  It  saves  the  bees  much 
labor  if  the  inside  of  the  hive  is  planed  and 


BEE-KEEPING 


59 


deaned,  and  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of 
melted  beeswax.  It  Bhoold  not  be  washed  im- 
mediately before  a  swarm  is  pat  in,  with  water 
or  spirita  or  any  liquid  that  will 'prevent  the 
comb  from  adhering  readily.  Cfross  sticks 
gbonld  be  pnt  in  to  support  the  oomb.  Small 
notches  ^oold  be  made  in  the  bottom  of  the 
hive  for  the  passage  of  the  bees.  Boxes  for 
caps  or  covers  may  be  made,  if  the  chamber- 
hive  is  not  preferred,  aboat  7  inches  deep  and 
IS  or  18  square.  If  glass  vessels  or  others  are 
to  be  used  to  receive  uie  box  honey,  they  may 
be  pnt  under  these  oap&  or  the  caps  may  be 
used  alone.  They  shoidd  fit  close  to  the  tops 
of  the  hives,  several  holes  being  made  in  the 
tope  for  the  passage  of  the  bees.  The  bottom 
board  should  be  15  inches  square,  at  least 
large  enough  to  give  the  bees  space  to  alight 
and  expatiate.  It  is  better  to  give  each  hive  a 
separate  stand.  If  protection  from  vermin  and 
insects  is  required,  the  hive  may  be  placed 
on  a  single  pedestal  2  feet  from  the  ground ; 
but  if  there  is  no  danger  from  them  nor  from 
dampness  nor  snow,  they  may  be  nearer  the 
ground.  The  hives  need  some  cover  from  the 
sun  and  run.  A  separate  one  for  each  may  be 
easily  made  by  patting  together  2  boards,  1^  or 
2  feet  long,  and  of  the  necessary  width,  letting 
them  incline  to  each  other  so  as  to  form  a  rooE 
Bee  houses  are  found  not  absolutely  necessary, 
and  worse  than  useless  when  not  rightly  con- 
structed. It  is  necessary  to  guard  against 
shading  the  hives  too  much  in  spring  and  fall, 
against  preventing  a  free  circulation  of  air  all 
around  Uiem  in  summer,  and  exposing  them  too 
much  in  the  middle  of  the  day  to  the  sun. 
The  bee  house  should  not,  in  cool  weather, 
make  the  temperature  around  the  hives  much 
hij^er  than  the  bees  will  encounter  at  a  dis- 
tance. The  nmple  movable  covers  just  men- 
tioned, which  are  eanly  a4justed  as  the  season 
demands,  with  hives  made  of  boards  of  sufficient 
thickness,  well  painted  to  prevent  warping  and 
cracking,  will  generally  prove  an  ample  pro- 
tection, except  in  winter. — ^The  new  swarms 
generally  appear  during  the  months  of  June 
and  July,  but  sometimes  as  early  as  May,  or 
as  late  as  August  The  swarms  are  usually 
hived,  when  the  branch,  or  whatever  they 
ali^t  on,  can  be  removed,  by  shaking  them  off 
in  front  of  the  hive,  a  little  raised  on  one  side 
to  allow  their  passage.  When  they  collect 
where  they  cannot  be  shaken  oS^  and  the  hive 
cannot  be  placed  near,  they  may.be  brushed 
quickly  into  a  gauze  sack  or  any  veasel  in  which 
they  can  be  kept  and  carried  to  the  hive.  It  is 
generally  irritating  to  the  bees,  and  unnecessary 
fir  not  useless,  to  endeavor  to  make  the  swarms 
collect  by  a  din  of  horns,  tin  pans,  and  bells. 
They  will  sometimes  collect  on  a  pole  with  a 
few  branchy  some  broom  com,  or  dry  mullein 
tops  or  similar  things  fastened  to  the  end,  and 
held  in  the  air.  They  may  sometimes  be  ar- 
rested when  going  off  by  throwing  water  or 
earth  among  them.  Various  means  are  used  on 
anch  occasions  to  disconcert  them,  and  with 


about  equal  sucoeas.  It  is  very  seldom  that  a 
swarm  starts  for  its  chosen  destination  without 
previously  alighting.  If  2  or  more  swarms 
issue  at  the  same  time  and  unite,  they  may  be 
separated,  if  desired,  by  shaking  them  from  the 
branch  between  2  or  more  hives  placed  near 
together.  Should  the  queens  enter  the  same 
hive,  the  bees  must  be  shaken  out  between 
empty  hives  as  before,  and  this  operation  re- 
peated till  the  queens  separate,  or  the  bee- 
keeper is  able  to  catch  one  or  more  of  them, 
and  put  them  with  the  bees  where  wanted.  Or 
if  there  are  only  2  swarms  united,  a  part  may 
be  separated  and  returned  to  the  parent  hives, 
and  the  rest  put  in  one  hive ;  or  they  may  all 
be  pnt  in  one,  and  boxes  put  on  immediately. 
It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  unite  small  swarms; 
this  may  be  easily  done  if  they  issue  about  the 
same  time,  by  inverting  one  hive  and  placing  the 
other  over  it;  the  b^  in  the  lower  wiB  as- 
cend. When  for  any  reasons  it  is  wished  to 
defer  for  a  short  time  the  issuing  of  a  swarm 
which  the  signs  indicate  to  be  just  at  hand,  the 
bees  on  the  outside  of  the  hive  should  be 
sprinlded  with  water.  This  is  effectual,  but 
only  before  the  swarm  has  started.  Sometimes 
tlie  swarm  issues  and  returns  several  times ;  if 
this  is  owing  to  the  inability  of  the  queen 
to  fly,  she  should  be  found,  if  possible,  and 
put  with  the  others  in  the  new  hive. 
If  the  weather  should  be  such  as  to  prevent  the 
new  swarms  from  Koing  out  to  collect  honey, 
several  days  immediat^y  after  beinff  hived,  it 
may  be  necessary  to  feed  them. — ^fiany  bee- 
keepers have  discarded  the  practice  of  kill- 
ing bees  to  get  the  honey;  the  surplus  after 
enough  has  been  stored  in  the  hive  for  win- 
ter, bsing  taken  away  by  means  of  boxes,  or,  if 
they  aie  not  used,  cut  from  the  hives,  the  bees 
being  stupefied  by  sulphur  or  tobacco  smoke. 
The  comb  is  to  be  cut  off  dean  so  that  the 
honey  may  run  as  little  as  possible  upon  the 
bees.  The  boxes  should  be  put  on  a  little  be- 
fore the  hive  is  full.  Polish  apiarians  cut  out 
the  old  comb  annually  to  lessen  the  tendency 
to  swarming,  and  thus  obtain  the  largest 
amount  of  honey.  The  old  practice  of  destroy- 
ing the  bees,  except  those  intended  for  winter- 
ing, after  the  hives  are  filled  and  the  honey 
season  has  passed,  still  prevails  extennvely.  La 
Gren^e  gives  manv  reasons  proving  this  the 
most  profitable.  The  time  for  takiuff  up  hives 
depends  somewhat  on  the  season  and  the  bee- 
pasturage.  The  quantity  of  honey  does  not 
increase  genendly  after  Sept.  1.  To  suffocate 
the  bees,  the  hive  is  put  over  an  inverted  hive, 
or  over  a  hole  in  the  earth  in  which  some  rags 
smeared  with  sulphur  are  being  burned.  The 
bees  fidl  in  a  short  time  and  are  buried  to  pre- 
vent resuscitation,  and  the  honey  removed. 
The  bees  are  sometimes  deprived  of  the  entire 
store  c^  comb  and  honey  in  the  eariy  part  of 
the  season,  generally  after  the  leaving  of  the 
first  swarm,  and  driven  into  a  new  hive.  When 
the  old  hive  is  infested  with  motlis,  or  the  comb 
is  not  good,  and  it  is  desirable  to  winter  the 


60 


BEE-KEEPING 


bees,  this  operation  nuiy  be  expedient  The 
effect  oa  the  bees  is  not  aeneraUy  good.  It  is 
performed  hy  inverting  the  liive,  and  putting 
the  other  into  which  the  bees  are  to  be  driven 
over  it,  making  the  Junction  dose,  and  tapping 
with  the  hand  or  a  stick  the  sides  of  the  hive ; 
the  bees  will  pass  up  to  the  new  hive,  which  is 
to  be  tiien  removed  to  the  stand. — Hives  are 
sometimes  attacked  and  robbed,  either  because 
they  are  too  weak  or  other  bees  are  attracted 
bv  broken  honeycomb  or  by  food  put  near  the 
hive.*  To  protect  it  after  the  robbery  has  com- 
menced, the  hive  should  be  removed  to  the 
cellar,  or  some  cool  dark  place,  and  allowed  to 
remun  2  or  8  days.  It  is  sometimes  sufficient 
to  dose  the  entrance  to  the  hive  so  as  to  admit 
but  one  bee  at  a  time.  It  is  beneficial  to  put 
a  similar  hive  in  the  place  of  the  one  removed, 
and  rub  on  the  bottom  board  wormwood  leaves 
or  the  oil  of  wormwood.  This  is  so  disagree- 
able to  the  bees  that  they  speedily  forsake  the 
place.  Breaking  the  comb  in  the  hive  of  the 
robbers  will  generally  make  them  desist. — The 
quantity  of  honey  usually  necessary  for  winter- 
ing safely  a  swarm  of  bees  is  80  pounds.  Those 
that  are  found  in  the  autamn  to  be  weak  in  num- 
bers and  with  a  scanty  supply  of  honey  should 
be  taken  up.  Only  the  strong  swarms  are 
profitable  to  winter.  Brown  sugar  made  into 
candy  by  being  dissolved  in  water,  clarified 
and  boiled  to  evaporate  the  water,  is  the  best 
.  food  for  bees.  Tne  sirup  should  be  boiled  till 
it  begins  to  be  brittle  when  cooled.  This  or 
common  sugar-candy  may  be  fed  to  bees  in  the 
hives,  under  them,  or  in  the  boxes.  If  fed  in 
the  liquid  state,  it  may  be  introduced  into  the 
hives  in  dishes,  some  contrivance  being  made 
to  enable  the  bees  to  eat  it  without  getting  into 
it.  It  may  sometimes  be  necessary  to  com- 
mence feeding  in  the  autumn.  It  is  not  gener- 
ally best  to  begin  unless  it  is  to  be  continued  till 
fiowers  become  abundant.  Honey  is  of  course 
the  best  food,  yet  sometimes  too  expensive;  if 
candied,  it  is  to  be  heated  tiU  dissolved.  Feeding 
should  never  be  attempted  as  a  matter  of  profit. 
The  best  honey  cannot  be  made  from  cheap 
honey  and  refuse  sugar  and  molasses ;  it  is  not 
made  by  the  bees  but  by  the  fiowers.  Of 
these  dover  is  the  prindpal  source  of  supply. 
Fruit-trees,  basswood,  locust^  and  maple  yidd 
abundantly  and  of  fine  quality,  buckwheat  fur- 
nishes a  large  quantity,  excdlent  for  the  win- 
ter food  of  bees,  but  inferior  for  the  table. — ^The 
bee  moth  is  the  greatest  foe  the  apiarian  has  to 
contend  with.  Many  inventions  have  been 
tried  without  success,  to  protect  the  bees  from 
this  pest  The  best  safeguard  is  to  have  the 
hive  close  and  well  jointed,  and  well  covered 
with  paint,  the  entrances  not  too  large,  and  the 
bees  vigorous  and  numerous,  and  to  examine 
the  hive  daily  from  about  Hay  1,  till  Septem- 
ber or  October.  Constant  watching  is  mdis- 
pensable.  In  the  daytime  the  moths  re- 
nudn  in  their  hiding-places,  and  may  ofb&a 
be  found  around  the  hive.  They  are  on 
the  wing  in  the  evening,  hovering  around  the 


apiary  or  running  over  the  hivea,  endeavoring 
to  enter  and  deposit  tiieir  eggs.  Many  may  be 
destroyed  by  entrapping  them  in  shallow  dishes 
of  sweetened  water  with  a  little  vin^ar  added. 
Hollow  sticks,  small  shells,  and  similar  things 
are  often  placed  on  the  bottom  board,  where 
the  worms  hatohed  from  the  eggs  may  take 
refage  and  be  destroyed.  It  is  necessary  to 
look  often  under  the  bottom  of  the  hive,  and  if 
one  side  is  raised  (as  is  required  for  ventilation 
in  warm  weather),  under  the  blocks  or  shells 
on  which  it  rests.  These  catorpillan  at 
first  are  not  thicker  than  a  thread,  are  of 
a  yellowish-white  color  with  a  few  brownish 
dots.  They  live  in  the  wax,  eating  it,  and 
filling  the  comb  with  webs.  They  protect 
themsdves  from  the  bees  by  a  sort  of  silken 
sack,  which  they  spin^  and  in  which  they  lodge. 
When  they  have  attamed  their  full  size,  which 
requires  about  8  weeks,  they  spin  their  cocoons; 
in  these  they  remain  endoeed  some  time,  and 
change  to  chrysalids  of  a  light  brown  color, 
with  a  dark  devated  line  along  the  back.  A 
few  days  afterward  they  are  transformed  to 
winged  moths  and  issue  from  the  cocoons,  and 
are  soon  ready  to  deposit  em  for  another  gen- 
eration. Rats  and  mice  do  not  attack  the 
hives  except  in  winter,  unless  the  comb  is  un- 
protected by  bees. — Spiders  sometimes  spin 
their  webs  upon  and  around  the  hivea,  whidi 
entangle  and  annoy  the  bees.  They  are  eaaly 
removed.  There  is  a  disease  cdled  ^  fod 
brood,"  which  sometimes  is  very  destructive 
to  the  young  bees  in  the  larva  state.  They 
die  in  tlie  cdls,  and  become  bkok  and  putrid. 
The  disease  appears  to  be  in  a  measure  infec- 
tious. The  only  remedy  is  to  drive  out  the 
bees  into  a  new  dean  hiva  It  is  the  practice, 
in  some  parts  of  Germany,  to  put  the  bees  in  a 
temporary  hive,  and  let  tiiem  remain  d4  homv, 
without  food,  in  the  dark,  before  settling  them 
in  the  new  hive.  It  is  attributed  sometimes  to 
feeding  the  bees  with  foreign  honey ;  the  infee- 
tion  being  conveyed  by  the  honey,  which,  to 
be  safely  fed,  should  be  previously  scalded. — 
Many  different  methods  are  practised  in  win- 
tering bees.  It  is  necessary  to  protect  them 
especially  from  2  things:  from  being  frozen, 
and  from  being  starved.  The  latter  happens 
when  they  coUect  together  dosdy,  in  the  cold- 
est weather,  and  the  comb  becomes  covered 
with  frost  and  ice,  the  moisture  from  their 
bodies  and  from  the  air  bdng  there  deposited 
and  fh)zen,  exduding  them  from  the  honey. 
The  entrance  to  the  mve  is  liable  to  be  Btopgoa 
with  ice,  and  the  bees  thus  suffocated.  The 
bee  never  passes  into  the  torpid  state  in  winter, 
like  some  other  insects ;  it  pcoishes  at  a  degree 
of  cold  low  enough  to  freeze  it  As  in  the  case 
of  other  kinds  of  farm  stock,  it  requires  less 
food  when  kept  warm  and  comfortable.  If  the 
hives  are  to  be  carried  into  a  house  or  cellar, 
the  idace  for  them  should  be  cool,  dry,  and 
dark.  The  best  method  is  to  house  them,  nn* 
less  sufficient  protection  can  be  given  them  on 
the  stands.    The  Bnsaiaa  and  PcSiah  bee-ke^* 


BEE-KEEPING 


BEEOH 


61 


eTB,  "wbo  manage  bees  as  extensively  and  suo- 
cerafolly  as  any,  winter  their  hives  on  the 
stands;  bot  they  make  their  hives  of  inch 
and  a  half  plank,  and  wind  the  upper  part  with 
twisted  ropes  of  straw  or  cordage  to  increase 
the  protection  against  extremes  of  heat  and 
cold.  If  left  on  tbe  stands,  hives  made  of  com- 
mon hoards  need  additional  cpvering ;  the  en- 
trance should  also  he  narrowed  so  as  to  leave 
only  space  enough  for  a  sinsle  bee  to  pass.  This 
must  not  be  aUowed  to  become  stopped  with 
frost  and  ice,  or  dead  bees  and  filth.  Light 
snow  may  cover  the  hive  without  danger.  The 
practice  of  bee-keepers  id  about  equally  divided 
between  these  2  modes  of  wintering.  The  suc- 
cess of  out-door  wintering  would  be  greatly 
increased  bv  making  better  hives^  by  better 
protecting  them  from  extreme  cold,  and  from 
changes  of  temperature.  It  is  easier  and  pref- 
erable, whea  the  number  of  hives  is  very  large, 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  theft,  to  manage  them 
out-doors  than  in-doors.  With  a  small  number 
it  may  be  otherwise. — ^The  time  for  carrying 
bees  out  from  their  winter  quarters  is  in  March, 
except  in  very  backward  seasons.  A  few 
bright  cold  days  will  not  be  more  destructive 
to  them  than  too  long  confinement  If  new 
snow  has  fidlen,  and  the  weather  is  not  suffi- 
cientiy  warm  for  them  to  venture  into  the  air 
safely,  the  hive  may  be  shaded  from  the  sun, 
or  the  bees  confined  in  the  hive.  If  they  are 
to  stand  veiy  near  each  other,  it  is  not  well  to 
cany  out  too  many  hives  at  once,  the  bees  at 
first  not  readily  distinffuifihing  their  own.  The 
hives  should  be  raised  from  the  bottom  board 
only  on  one  side,  if  at  all.  Many  prefer,  if  the 
bees  are  not  especially  numerous,  to  let  the 
hive  rest  entirely  on  tiie  board,  allowing  less 
KKHn  for  passage,  and  securing  greater  d^enoe 
a^onst  intruders.  More  ventilation  than  this 
affords  may  be  required  in  warm  weather, 
when,  if  liable  to  suffer  from  heat,  the  hive 
may  be  raised  entirely,  proper  means  being 
fdinished  for  the  bees  to  ascend  fr^m  the  bot- 
tom board. — The  careful  bee-keeper  has  long 
desired  to  possess  some  method  of  measuring 
the  daily  increase  or  decrease  in  the  weight  of 
his  hiva  A  recent  German  publication  states 
that  a  German  bee-keeper  took  the  tirouble 
to  weigh  one  of  his  hives  twice  a  day — ^before 
the  bees  left  in  the  morning  and  after  their 
return  at  night — ^and  thus  he  determined  the 
nightiy  loss  by  consumption  and  evaporation. 
These  observations  were  continued  from  May 
5  to  August  3,  a  period  of  91  days,  and  the  re- 
sults are  very  interesting.  On  May  6  the  hive 
w^hed  64  pounds;  it  lost  two  swarms  weigh- 
ing 13  pounds,  yet  on  Aug.  3  it  weighed  120i 
pounds.  There  was  no  increase  in  weight  from 
June  38  to  Julv  31,  except  of  1  pound  on  1  day 
and  i  on  another,  and  fr'om  July  17  to  Aug.  3 
the  whole  increase  was  only  8  pounds.  The 
work  of  each  day  is  minutely  recorded,  and  the 
results  go  to  prove  that  the  bee-keeper  should 
have  some  means  of  ascertaining  tne  weight 
of  his  hivea  daily  throughout  the  season.    A 


method  of  doing  this  has  been  invented  by  Mr. 
Shirley  Hibbard,  of  Tottenham,  England.  It 
consists  of  a  turned  pillar,  made  after  the  fash- 
ion of  a  telescope,  working  like  a  piston  in  a 
brass  or  iron  cylinder.    Beneath  the  pillar  is  a 

3>iral  spring  on  which  the  piUar  rests.  Two 
ots  run  down  the  side  or  front  of  the  cylinder, 
and  between  them  an  index  is  marked.  A  fin- 
ger is  attached  to  the  base  of  the  pillar,  and  the 
hive  adjusted  on  the  top  of  the  ktter,  so  that 
as  it  presses  down  on  the  spring  the  finger 
marks  the  gross  weight  of  the  whole.  A 
thumb-screw  passes  through  the  cylinder,  and 
by  pressing  against  the  pillar  holds  it  in  a  fixed 
position  whenever  it  may  be  desirable.~^Bee- 
keeping  has,  in  some  instances,  been  made  verv 
profitable.  It  is,  however,  uncertain.  Much 
depends  on  the  season  ana  on  the  pasturage. 
The  value  of  the  best  honey  is,  in  a  great  de- 
{^ree,  determined  by  the  style  and  state  in  which 
It  is  marketed.  It  will  generaUv  be  found  most 
advantageous  to  use  glass  vessels  or  boxes,  and 
to  send  the  honey  to  market  in  the  same. 

BEEOH  (Saxon,  boe,  from  Lat  fagtUt  Gr. 
^Tyor,  verb  <^€iy,  to  eat,  the  nut  of  the 
tree  being  eatable),  a  genus  of  Endlicher^s  order 
cupuUfercBy  Lindley^s  eorylaeemj  Jussieu^s  quer^ 
cineoiy  and  of  Linn,  class  numacia  polyaiidria. 
The  order  is  most  nearly  allied  to  the  hetulaceiB^ 
or  birches,  and  contains  the  genera  of  the  oal^ 
hazel,  horn-beam,  chestnut;  Sa  distinguished 
from  all  other  plants  by  an  apetalous  superior 
rudimentary  calyx,  the  fruit  in  a  cup,  a  one- 
celled  nut  with  one  or  two  seeds,  the  others  be- 
ing  abortive.  The  generic  characters  of  the 
fagn$  are:  sterile  (male^fiowers — ament  glob- 
ular, pendulous  on  sUky  thread;  perianth  6- deft, 
bell-shaped ;  6  to  13  stemens.  f*ertile  (female) 
fiowers — 2  within  a  4-lobed  prickly  involucre ; 
perianth  4  to  5-lobed;  ovary  8-celled  (3 
abortive);  styles.  8;  nut  one-seeded.  Some 
branches  bear  male,  others  female  fiowers.  The 
number  of  species  is  very  limited,  some  being 
considered  as  mere  varieties.  In  the  temperate 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  on  both 
continents,  there  are  extensive  forests  consisting 
of  beeches ;  which  also  occur  mixed  with  oaks, 
pines,  firs,  &c.  The  following  are  the  most  re- 
markable species :  F,  iyhatica^  or  common  white 
beech :  leaves  ovate^  acuminate,  slightiy  toothed, 
ciliate  on  the  margm,  acute  at  base ;  nut  ovate, 
8-sidedf  obtuse,  pointed;  European;  of  this  the 
American  is  taken  to  be  a  variety,  growing  in 
Florida  and  other  southern  states.  F,  ferru- 
ginea^  or  red  beech :  leaves  oblong-ovate,  acu- 
minate, pubescent  beneath,  coarsely  toothed,  ob- 
tuse, and  unequally  subcordate  at  base;  nut 
acutely  8-sided,  muricate ;  most  frequent  in  the 
northern  United  States.  FohUqtiaaxidlhfhbeyi^ 
both  having  valuable  wood  and  a  beautiful 
crown;  F.  procera,  scarcely  less  towering  in 
height  than  the  arauoaria ;  jr.  pumiliOj  a  dwarf 
species  growing  above  the  region  of  trees,  on  lofty 
mountains — are  all  natives  of  the  Andes  of  south- 
em  ChiU.  Some  species  grow  in  the  Magellanic 
regions;  others  in  Van  Diemen's  Land  and  the 


BEECH 


BEEOHER 


colder  parts  of  New  Zealand.  The  varieties  of  tlie 
European  F,  fyUatica  are :  F,  purpurea^  whose 
bright  blood-oolored  leaves,  when  tossed  by  the 
wind  in  sunshine,  seem  to  be  flames;  F,  cuprea^ 
with  copper-oolored  shining  leaves;  F,  asplenia 
folioj  with  some  leaves  entire,  and  others  cut 
into  narrow  strips;  F.  pendulc^  or  weeping 
beechj  with  branches  drooping  to  the  ground; 
F,  erutat€ty  with  ragged  crest-like  leaves;  F, 
wiriegatOj  with  leaves  spotted  with  white ;  F, 
lati/olia^  with  chestnut-like  leaves,  &c  All 
these  are  ornamental  trees. — The  beech  is  easily 
propagable  by  seed ;  also  by  grafting,  budding, 
and  in-arching.  It  thrives  in  a  deep  moist 
soil  (on  the  Ohio  some  attdn  100  feet  in 
height),  but  also  succeeds  well  in  rocky  soil,  in 
heaps  of  stones  under  difik,  even  in  shaded  sit- 
uations. When  crowded  by  its  kindred,  or  by 
other  trees,  its  stem  rises  pUlar-like  even  to  80 
feet  in  undiminished  thickness,  before  branching 
into  a  tufty  crown,  reminding  one  of  Gothic 
halls.  Standing  alone,  it  sends  forth  branches  at 
from  10  to  80  feet  above  the  root,  at  a  large  angle, 
far  and  wide,  the  lower  ones  almost  horizontal, 
while  the  upper  rise  to  form  a  miyestic 
crown.  In  depth  of  shade  it  is  scarcely  equalled 
by  any  other  tree.  Its  light  grayish,  or  leaden- 
greenish,  smooth,  shining  bark,  its  rich  green, 
shining  foliage,  which  appears  earlier  than  that 
of  the  oak,  from  long  buds  in  tender  drooping 

Jets,  and  which  is  tinted  yellow,  red^h,  and 
rown  in  the  autumn,  remaining  often  through 
the  winter  on  the  tree,  recommend  it  for  ave- 
nues, plantations,  and  clumps.  Of  these  there 
are  many  in  Kormandy  and  other  parts  of 
Europe,  which  abound  in  beech  forests.  The 
diameter  of  the  common  beech  seldom  surpasses 
8  feet.  The  tree  scarcely  bears  fruit  before  the 
50th  year  of  its  age,  and  then  not  every  year. 
After  the  140th  year,  the  wood-rings  become 
thinner.  The  tree  lives  for  about  250  years. 
Some  stems  are  fluted,  some  even  twisted.  The 
roots  stretch  far  away,  near  to  the  surface  of 
the  soil,  partly  above  it.  Young  beeches  are 
useful  for  live  hedges,  as  they  bear  pruning, 
and  as  their  branches  coalesce  by  being  tied  to- 
gether, or  by  rubbing  each  other.  Amputations 
of  limbs,  and  deep  incisions  in  the  tree,  soon 
become  obliterated  by  the  bark,  which  contains 
a  peculiar  periderma.  The  wood  is  yellowish- 
white  in  the  common  beech,  brownish  in  the 
red ;  very  hard,  permeated  by  transverse  lighter- 
colored  pith-rays  and  shorter  rays,  so  that  the 
longitudinal  fibres  are  somewhat  waving.  Its 
dose  wood-cells,  with  thick  -walk,  mord  a 
great  quantity  of  heating  material,  and  of  pot- 
ash, so  that  the  wood  ranks  next  to  hickory, 
oak,  and  maple,  as  fuel.  It  is  easily  decayed  by 
alternation  of  dryness  and  moisture,  and  is  unnt 
for  many  purposes ;  but  it  is  good  for  cylinders 
for  polishing  glass,  for  plane  stocks,  chair  posts, 
shoe  lasts,  tool  handles,  wheel  felloes,  cart 
bodiejs,  rollers,  screws,  bowls,  even  for  ship- 
building, where  no  better  timber  can  be  ob- 
tained. It  is  incorruptible  when  constantly  un- 
der water.     The  tree  is  so  rarely  stmdk  by 


lightning,  that  woodmen  and  Indians  consider 
themselves  safe  when  under  its  shelter.  Very 
good  oil  may  be  pressed  from  the  beech  nut, 
almost  equalling  that  of  olives,  and  lasting 
longer  than  any  other  after  proper  purification. 
Wild  animals  feed  on  the  nut,  swine  are  fattened 
on  it,  and  people  eat  it  in  Europe;  too  freely 
eaten,  it  produces  giddiness  and  nausea.  The 
husks  of  the  nut  contain  fagine^  a  peculiar  nar- 
cotic extractive  principle. 

BEEGHER,  Lymak,  D.  D.,  an  American  cler- 
gyman, born  at  New  Haven,  Gon.,  Oct.  12, 1775, 
graduated  at  Yale  coliese  in  1797,  and  studied 
tiieology  under  the  tUrection  of  President 
D  wight.  In  Dec.  1798,  he  was  ordained  pastor 
of  a  churdi  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  upon  a  sala- 
ry of  $300  per  annmn.  In  1810  he  removed  to 
the  care  of  the  first  church,  at  Litchfield,  Gonn. 
Here  he  remained  about  16  years,  during  which, 
time  his  remarkable  qualities  as  a  preacher  and 
as  a  zealous  and  active  minister,  brought  him  a 
great  reputation  and  a  remarkable  infiuence 
throughout  New  England.  He  was  much  con- 
sulted, and  was  forward  in  most  of  the  religious 
undertakings  of  the  time,  such  as  the  Gonnecti- 
cut  missionary  society,  the  Gonnecticut  educa- 
tion society,  the  American  Bible  society,  and 
the  like.  In  1826  great  defections  had  takea 
place  in  the  churches  in  Boston  and  the  neigh- 
boring parts  of  New  England  into  IJnitariaa- 
ism,  following  the  lead  of  Dr.  Ghanning  and  oth- 
ers in  sjrmpathy  with  him,  and  Dr.  Beeoher 
^as  chosen,  out  of  all  the  clergy  of  New  Eng^ 
land,  to  uphold  the  standard  of  the  ancient  Pa- 
ritan  faith  against  their  desertion.  He  was  in- 
stalled over  the  newly  established  Hanover 
street  church,  Boston,  and,  during  his  residence 
there,  devotea  himself  with  both  zeal  and  ability 
to  the  urgent  work  committed  to  his  guidance. 
His  ministry  necessarily  partook  lu^y  of  a 
controversial  character.  He  flung  himself  into 
the  thickest  of  the  battle,  and  was  sustained  by 
the  confidence  and  fervent  admiration  of  the 
religious  body  to  which  he  belonged.  The  sin- 
cerity and  spirituality  of  his  preaching  was  gen- 
erally acknowledged,  and  it  was  attended  by 
decisive  results,  in  a  revival  of  the  spirit  and 
increase  in  tlie  numbers  of  evangelical  Ghiis- 
tians,  so  as  still  to  preserve  to  them  the  nu- 
merical superiority  in  that  part  of  the  country, 
at  one  time  thought  to  be  seriously  in  dan- 
ger. In  this  work  Dr.  Beecher  was  look* 
ed  up  to  as  the  most  efficient  champion  and 
defender  of  the  faith.  But  he  was  not  of  a 
mind  to  rest  while  any  thing  remained  to  be 
done.  The  vital  importance  of  communicating 
sound  religious  influences  to  the  population  of 
the  g^pat  Mississippi  valley  became  the  para- 
mount interest  in  the  minds  of  many  reflecting 
as  well  as  philanthropic  people,  for  the  highest 
social  and  political  as  well  as  religious  consid- 
erations were  concerned.  Among  many  similar 
institutions  founded  for  this  purpose,  the  Lane 
theological  seminary  was  established  at  Gincin- 
nati,  and  Dr.  Beecher  was  invited  to  take  the 
direction  in  1832.  He  carried  the  same  strength 


BEEOHER 


68 


and  ardor  into  his  new  oonnectionB,  and  electri- 
fied a  considerable  part  of  the  country  by  the 
publication,  soon  aifter  his  arrival,  of  a  tract 
sounding  the  alarm  of  Roman  Catholic  suprem- 
acy  at  the  West.  The  transplanting  of  a  mind 
of  such  vigor  into  that  impressible  society 
oonld  not  be  of  slight  effect  His  great  char- 
acter, uniform  principles,  and  fixed  adherence 
to  truth  and  his  conTicdona,  together  with  his 
boldness  and  fervent  eloquence,  worthily  filled 
a  large  sphere  of  duty  and  produced  a  service- 
able impression  upon  western  society.  He  re* 
muned  in  Cincinnati  about  lO^ears,  having,  in 
addition  to  the  care  of  the  semmary,  the  pasto- 
ral charge  of  the  second  Presbyterian  church. 
Since  leaving  there  he  has  resided  mostly  in 
Boston,  without  fixed  employment^  but  with 
ondiminished  intelligence  and  vigor  even  at  a 
very  advanced  age.  During  the  more  active 
portion  of  his  life  few  or  none  of  his  profession 
were  better  known  to  the  people  of  the  United 
States,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  labors  of  no 
other  have  produced  a  more  immediate  and  ap- 
parent effect.  His  fame  as  an  orator  was  natu- 
rally the  most  prominent,  and  as  such  he  possess- 
ed remarkable  powers.  His  style  was  that  of  a 
man  thoroughly  in  earnest,  whose  life  was  devot- 
ed to  the  inculcation  of  great  truths,  and  whose 
convictions  were  of  a  heat  to  melt  all  obstacles. 
Original  turns  of  thought  and  expression,  and 
flashes  of  pictorial  illustration,  were  frequent  in 
his  oratory,  and  gave  him  an  electrical  influence 
over  his  audience.  His  position  as  a  theologian 
will  be  judged  with  that  of  the  body  for  which  it 
may  properly  be  said  he  combated,  but  it  was 
sustained  by  sterling  qualities  which  were  uni- 
versally recognized.  In  almost  all  the  conspicu- 
ous moral  enterprises  of  his  time  he  has  borne  a 
prominent  part,  and  in  particular  his  connection 
may  be  mentioned  with  the  temperance  move- 
ment, which  for  80  years  has  elicited  and 
absorbed. so  much  of  the  moral  life  of  this  coun- 
try. Early  in  its  course  he  printed  a  famous 
series  of  sermons  on  intemperance,  which  at- 
tracted much  attention  to  tbe  cause.  His 
nnmerous  publications  have  been  mostly  oc- 
casional and  miscellaneous,  and  hardly  of  a 
kind  to  perpetuate  his  influence.  Dr.  Beecher 
has  been  8  times  married,  and  has  been  the 
fiather  of  13  children,  of  whom  several  have 
attained  to  eminence  as  writers  and  ministers. — 
OATOAsusn  EsTHSB,  eldest  daughter  of  the 
preceding,  bom  at  East  Hampton,  L.  I.,  Sept. 
6, 1800,  where  she  resided  till  she  was  about  10 
years  of  age.  She  received  her  early  education 
at  litchfiddi,  and  soon  after  leaving  school,  ex- 
peri^ioed  a  great  calamity^  to  which  she  alludes 
in  her  writings  as  the  crisis  of  her  life.  This 
was  the  death  of  Prof.  Fisher,  of  Tale  eoUege, 
to  whom  she  was  betrothed,  and  who  lost  his 
life  by  shipwreck  on  the  coast  of  Ireland.  This 
event  threw  a  deep  doud  over  her  mind,  firom 
Irhich  she  dowly  emerged  to  find  consolation  in 
a  life  of  activity.  In  1822,  she  opened  a  female 
seminary  at  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  she  continu- 
ed the  work  of  instruction  for  the  next  10  years, 


during  which  time  she  made  her  appearance  as 
the  author  of  a  manual  of  arithmetic,  and  of  el- 
ementary books  of  instruction  in  theology  and 
mental  and  moral  philosophy.  She  accompa- 
nied her  father,  in  1882,  to  Cincinnati,  where, 
for  2  years,  she  was  at  the  head  of  an  institu- 
tion for  female  instruction.  Obliged  to  resign 
by  failioff  health,  she  conceived  and  undertook 
the  development  of  a  plan  for  female  Christian 
education,  to  be  promoted  through  a  national 
board,  with  high  schools  and  normal  schools 
to  provide  a  sufficient  supply  of  well-instruct- 
ed teachers.  This  has  been  made  the  guiding 
purpose  of  her  life,  for  which  she  has  written, 
travelled,  and  exerted  all  the  influence  of  her 
active  mind,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  for  many 
years.  The  incidents  of  this  grand  scheme  have 
frequently  led  her  before  the  public  in  essays  in 
authorship.  Amon^  these  are  '^  Domestic  Ser- 
vice," "  The  Duty  of  American  Women  to  their 
Country,"  "Housekeeper's  Receipt  Book,"  "The 
True  Remedy  for  the  Wrongs  of  Woman,"  "  Trea- 
tise on  Domestic  Economy."  She  has  recently 
published  a  work  on  physiology  and  the  conation 
and  liabits  of  American  women,  and  the  first  vol- 
ume of  a  course  on  theology  and  moral  philoso- 
phy, in  which  she  makes  some  striking  depart- 
ures from  the  Calvinistio  theology. — Edwabd, 
eldest  son  of  the  Rev.  Lyman  Beecher,  born 
1804,  graduated  at  Yale  college  1822,  studied 
divinity  at  Andover  and  New  Haven,  tutor  in 
Tale  college  1825,  pastor  of  Park  st.  church  in 
Boston,  1826-31,  president  of  Illinois  college  at 
Jacksonville  1881-^44,  pastor  of  Salem  st  church 
in  Boston  1846-1866.  and  ia  now  pastor  of  a 
church  in  Galesbuiig,  IlL  He  has  published  ^^  Con* 
fiiot  of  Ages,"  "  Papal  Conspiracy,"  and  a  work 
on  Baptism. — ^Henjrt  Wabd,  minister  of  Ply- 
mouth church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  son  of  the  Rev. 
Lyman  Beecher,  bom  in  Litchfield,  Conn.,  June 
24,  1818,  graduated  at  Amherst  college,  Mass., 
in  1884,  and  studied  theology  under  his  father, 
at  the  Lane  seminary,  Cincinnati.  He  was 
first  settled,  in  1887,  as  Presbyterian  minister 
at  Lawrenceburg,  Indiana.  After  a  residence 
of  2  years,  he  removed  to  Indianapolis.  He  re- 
mained there  till  1847,  when  he  accepted  an  invi- 
tation to  become  pastor  of  the  Plymouth  church, 
in  Brooklyn,  N.  i .,  an  organization  of  orthodox 
Con^egational  believers,  an  office  which  he  still 
contmues  to  occupy.  Beside  occasional  addresses, 
he  is  the  author  of  a  volume  of  "Lectures  to 
Young  Men  "  and  editor  of  the  "Plymouth  Col- 
lection of  Hynms."  He  was  also  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  "Independent,"  a  weekly  re- 
ligious newspaper  of  New  York,  to  which 
he  has  been  a  constant  contributor,  his  ar- 
ticles being  signed  with  an  asterisk.  A  vol- 
ume of  these  articles  has  been  collected  under 
the  name  of  the  "  Star  Papers."  As  a  popular 
lecturer,  he  has  appeared  very  generally  before 
the  lycenms  of  the  country.  As  a  preacher,  he 
is  said  to  have  the  largest  uniform  congregation 
in  the  United  States.  Discarding  many  of  the 
usual  formalities  of  his  profession,  he  addresses 
himself  with  vigor  to  the  hearts  and  under- 


64 


BEEOBffiY 


standings  of  his  hearers,  and  with  all  the  more 
effect  on  account  of  tlie  greater  range  of  topics, 
as  well  as  of  style  and  illustration,  which  he 
has  introduced.  Born  an  orator,  the  smiles  and 
tears  of  an  audience  are  at  his  command,  and  in 
his  sermons,  no  less  than  in  his  lectures,  they 
are  both  aroused.  As  a  moralist  and  politician 
he  is  opposed  to  the  institution  of  slavery,  and, 
in  the  presidential  contest  of  1856,  he  took  an 
active  part  in  favor  of  the  republioansi  not  only 
wiUi  his  pen,  but  by  addressing  mass  meeting 
in  various  parts  of  the  northern  states. 

BEEOHEY,  Fredbbio  William,  British 
admiral  arctic  navigator,  born  in  London  in 
Feb.  1796,  died  there  Nov.  29,  1856,  eldest 
son  of  the  late  Sir  William  Beechey,  portrut 
painter.  He  entered  the  British  navy  as  a  vol- 
unteer, at  the  age  of  10,  and  saw  a  great  deal 
of  service  (dnclnding  the  contest  at  New  Or- 
leans) during  the  12  years  following.  In  1815 
he  was  made  lieutenant;  in  1818  ne  sailed  in 
the  Trent,  under  Franklin,  on  his  first  voyage 
of  arctic  discovery,  acting  as  artist  to  the  ex- 
pedition. In  1819  he  went  as  lieutenant  in  the 
Hecla,  under  Sir  Edward  Parry,  in  his  first 
arctic  voyage.  In  1821  he  was  commissioned 
(with  his  brother,  H.  W,  Beechey)  to  make  a 
survey  of  the  north  coast  of  Africa,  from  Trip- 
oli to  Derne.  He  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
commander,  and  sent  out,  in  1825,  in  the  Blos- 
som, on  another  arctic  expedition,  via  Cape 
Horn,  to  act  in  concert  with  Franklin  and 
Parry,  and,  having  passed  Behring's  straits, 
reached,  in  Aug.  1826,  a  point  north  of  Icy 
cape,  reaching  in  boats  Tl''  28'  81"  N.  kt.,  and 
156**  21'  80"  W.  long.— only  146  miles  from  the 
extreme  point  simultaneously  reached  by  Frank- 
lin. As  they  were  not  aware  of  each  other's 
portion,  neither  advanced.  Commander  Beech- 
ey subsequently  discovered,  in  1827  (in  which 
vear  he  was  made  post-captain),  2  secure 
harbors,  south-east  of  Cape  Prince  of  Wales, 
and  near  to  Behring^s  straits,  which  he  named 
Port  Clarence  and  Grantley  Harbor.  He  return- 
ed to  England,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  8  years. 
Between  1829  and  1889,  he  was  employed  in 
making  surveys  of  the  coasts  of  South  America 
and  Ireland.  In  1854  he  was  appointed  rear 
admiral  of  the  blue.  In  1828  he  married  a 
daughter  of  Col.  Stapleton. 

BEECHEY,  Sir  William,  English  portrait 
painter,  born  at  Burford,  Oxfordshire,  Deo.  1758, 
died  at  Hampstead,  near  London,  Jan.  1 889.  He 
was  articled,  first  to  a  conveyancer  in  the  coun- 
try, and  then  to  a  London  attorney,  but  pro- 
cured his  release,  at  the  age  of  19,  and  became 
a  student  of  the  royal  academy,  and  closely 
imitated  the  style  of  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds.  For 
some  time  he  confined  himself  to  portraits  at 
Norwich,  but  having  executed  some  small 
pieces  in  the  manner  of  Hogarth,  which  were 
very  successful,  he  returned  to  London,  where 
he  obtained  numerous  commissions  for  full- 
length  portraits.  In  1798  he  was  elected  asso- 
ciate of  the  royal  academy,  and  appointed  por- 
trait painter  to  Queen  Charlotte.     In   1797, 


having  painted  a  good  picture  of  George  UI., 
he  was  knighted. 

BEEFEATERS,  the  yeomen  of  the  queen  of 
England's  guard.  They  are  now  merdy  rem- 
nants of  the  ancient  pomp  of  feudal  royalty,  and 
only  act  as  warders  at  the  Tower,  and  as  at- 
tendants on  the  queen's  state  coach  on  occa- 
sions of  high  oeremonial,  such  as  coronations, 
the  opening  and  prorogation  of  Parliament,  and 
similar  processions.  At  state  royal  dinners,  they 
are  on  duty  at  the  side-board,  as  th^  name  (cor- 
rupted from  buffetiers)  implies,  recalling  probably 
the  time  when  Kings  were  not  so  sure  of  tiie  loyd- 
ty  of  their  guests,  but  that  tiie  presence  of  an 
armed  life-guardsman  at  the  bufifet  was  an  agree- 
able addition  to  their  sense  of  security.  Beadeis 
of  romance  will  remember  the  fine  scene  in 
Quentin  Durward,  where  Louis  XI.  conceals  an 
archer  of  his  guard,  with  loaded  arquebuse  and 
lighted  match,  behind  such  a  piece  of  furniture, 
during  a  solemn  banquet  given  to  the  envoy  of 
Burgundy.  The  beefeaters  are  now  only  100  in 
number,  but  are  interesting  from  the  &ct  that 
they  wear  the  exact  dresses,  flat  black  velvet 
berrets,  and  slashed  doublets  of  black,  blue,  scar- 
let and  gold,  with  gilded  partisans  for  weapons, 
which  they  wore  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII. 
and  Elizabeth ;  so  that,  on  a  visit  to  the  Tower, 
they  add  much  to  the  effect  of  the  scene. 

BEELZEBUB,  a  compound  of  Baal,  though 
concerning  the  terminal  part  of  the  word  there 
has  been  much  difference  of  opinion.  Some 
writers  translate  the  term  "goa  of  flies,^"  and 
assign  two  reasons  for  it^  either  or  both  of 
which  may  be  true  or  ihlae,  viz. :  that  he  pro- 
tected the  people  against  noxious  insects,  or 
that  he  was  so  called  in  derision  by  the  Israel- 
ites when  they  wished  to  speak  disrespectfully 
of  the  religion  of  their  Moabitish  neighbors. 
Others  translate  the  term  still  more  disrespect- 
fbUy,  "  god  of  ordure,'^  while  others  still,  chang- 
ing the  word  to  Beelzebaoth,  render  it  ^*  god 
of  hosts,"  or  Beehcebul,  "ffod  of  heaven."  It 
appears  very  certain  that  he  was  regarded  in 
New  Testament  times  as  an  evil  demon,  for 
Jesus  was  accused  of  casting  out  devils  by 
*^  Beelzebub,  the  prince  of  devib,"  and  he  is  per- 
haps the  same  deity  elsewhere  styled  the  prince 
of  the  power  of  the  ab.  Such  deities  were 
common  in  the  worship  of  the  ancients,  being 
but  a  modified  form  of  the  oriental  dualism, 
which  recognized  a  good  deity  and  an  evil  one. 

BEEMSTER,  one  of  the  polden  or  tracts  of 
drained  land  of  the  Netherlands,  area  8,000  acres, 
containing  a  neat  village.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  employed  in  raising  sheep  and  cattie. 

BE^R  (Germ.  ln&r%  a  fermented  liquor  made 
from  malted  grain — in  Europe  most  oommon* 
ly  from  barley,  but  in  this  country  from  wheat 
as  well,  and  in  India  from  rice.  Com,  oata, 
peas,  and  other  similar  articles  of  food,  may  be 
used  also  for  tiiis  manuflsoture.  Hops,  and 
other  bitter  flavoring  matters,  are  added  to 
improve  the  taste,  and  impart  their  peculiar 
properties  to  the  liquor.  The  name  beer  is  also 
given  in  this  country  and  in  Britain  to  several 


BEEB 


66 


partially  fermented  extraots  of  the  roots  and 
other  parts  of  plants,  as  spruoe,  sassafras,  gin- 
ger^ &C. ;  most  of  which  are  designated  by  the 
term  root-beers.  Bat  as  generally  used  in 
Europe  it  is  applicable  only  to  liquors  prepared 
b^  malting,  and  seasoned  with  hops  or  other 
bitters.  The  drink  in  some  of  its  varieties  ap- 
pears to  be  of  great  antiquity,  and  was  proba- 
bly discovered  by  the  Egyptians.  Tacitus  no- 
tices it  as  being  in  common  use  with  the  Ger- 
mans of  his  time.  Pliny  describes  the  eelia 
and  emo,  the  beer  of  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
eerenuia  of  the  Gauls,  made  from  almost  every 
species  of  grain,  and  evidently  named  from 
Ceres,  the  goddess  of  com.  Aristotie  speaks 
of  its  intoxicating  qualities^  and  Theophrastus 
very  properly  cSQb  it  the  wine  of  barley. 
Herodotus  (450  years  B.  0.)  stated  that  the 
Egyptians  niade  their  wine  of  barley.  An  an- 
cient description  bylsidorus  and  Orosius  of  the 
process  in  use  by  the  Britons  and  Celtic  nations 
defines  the  liquor  as  not  differing  essentially 
from  that  now  made.  "  The  gram  is  steeped 
in  water  and  made  to  germinate,  by  which  its 
spirits  are  excited  and  set  at  liberty;  it  is  then 
^ed  and  ground,  after  which  it  is  infused  in 
a  certain  quantity  of  water;  which,  being 
fermented,  becomes  a  pleasant^  warming, 
strengthening,  and  intoxicating  liquor.^^  Beer 
is  a  nourishmg  drink  from  the  gum,  sugar, 
and  starch  it  holds  in  solution;  and  the 
bitter  substances  combined  with  it  impart 
their  tonic  properties.  The  proportion  of  alco- 
hol is  small  In  the  Edinburgh  ale  it  has  been 
found  by  Mr.  Brando  to  amount  to  6.20  per 
cent;  in  brown  stout,  to  6.80;  Burton  ale, 
8.88;  London  porter,  4.20;  small  beer,  1.28. 
Burton,  or  the  pale  India  ale,  as  found  by  Hoff- 
man,  contauis  in  100  parts :  water,  78.87 ;  ex- 
tract of  malt,  14.97 ;  absolute  alcohol,  6.62 ; 
and  carbonic  acid,  0.04.  Pale  ale  consists  of  the 
same  ingredients,  in  the  following  proportions: 
water,  89.74;  extract  of  malt,  4.62;  alcohol, 
5.57;  carbonic  acid,  0.07.  Lactic  acid,  aro- 
matic matters,  and  various  salts,  are  detected 
in  the  extract  I^  by  continued  fermentation, 
the  sugar  is  all  converted  into  alcohol,  the  ace- 
tous fermentation  is  likely  to  ensue,  and  the 
heer  then  passes  into  vinegar.  For  the  present 
process  of  manufacture,  see  Brewino. — ^Lager 
bier  is  beer  that  has  been  stored  for  some 
months  in  vaults.  Its  name  is  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  name,  ^'stock'^  ale.  The 
vaults  are  made  of  great  capacity,  often  of 
stone,  under  the  breweries ;  and  such  recep- 
tacles are  essential  in  the  production  of  good 
lager  bier.  It  is  a  &vorite  drink  with  the 
Grermans,  and  the  demand  for  it  with  this  class 
of  our  population  has  led  to  its  extensive  man- 
ufacture in  this  country.  As  in  Bavaria  itself. 
Us  use  is  almost  an  essential  article  of  diet  with 
the  laboring  classes,  and  to  some  extent  it  takes 
the  place  of  animal  food.  Drunk  as  it  often  is 
to  the  amount  of  more  than  a  gallon  a  day,  but 
littie  other  food  than  bread  is  required  to  satis- 
fy  the  appetite.  But  this  free  use  of  it  should  be 
vol*,  in.— 6 


ocmdemned,  from  the  tendency  to  produce  apo- 
plexy and  palsy. — ^The  stronger  beers,  like  those 
of  northern  Germany,  are  especially  objection- 
able from  their  daogerous  effects  upon  the 
health. — For  the  following  analyses  of  several 
of  the  best  known  European  and  American 
beers,  we  are  indebted  to  an  excellent  paper 
upon  this  subject,  publidied  by  Fenner  von 
Fenneberg,  of  Kew  York  city: 

LaroherA  "Holy  Father  Beer,** 

Munich. 8196  18.08  iM  0.08 

Salvator  beer,  Munich 87.88    T.97  4JM>  0.80 

Londonale 7408  15.88  8.08  aOl 

Double  porteivBarday,  London.  88.74    &.»8  8.10  ai8 

Pale  ale.  London 89.85    450  5.65  — 

Philadelphia  lager  bier 92.18    4.86  a40  0.08 

Beading  lager  bier 91.80    4.68  a78  0.18 

Walter^laierbier,Wimamsbuig  91.80    465  &44  0.11 

Bavarian  lager  bier,  Munich.....  90.95    470  484  a04 

At  the  date  of  this  paj%r  (1854),  it  was  stated 
there  were  no  less  than  27  breweries  in  the  city 
of  New  York,  several  of  which  brewed  more 
than  10,000  barrels,  of  80  gallons  each,  of  higer 
bier  in  the  course  of  the  year.  In  Williamsburg 
there  were  IS  breweries;  in  Brooklyn,  8;  on 
Staten  Island,8 ;  in  Albany,  8 ;  Buffalo,  7 ;  Phila- 
delphia, 28 ;  Pittsburg,  1 1,  &c  The  production 
of  those  of  New  York  was  estimated  at  85,000 
barrels  of  lager  bier,  and  from  otBer  places 
were  introduced  17,500  barrels  more,  mc^ng 
the  consumption  of  the  city  at  that  time  about 
8,075,000  gallons.  The  cost  of  a  barrel,  which 
varies  with  that  of  grain  and  hops,  was  esti- 
mated from  $8  50  to  |4.  Hops  then  cost  from 
45  to  50  cents  per  pound,  and  a  bushel  of  malted 
barley  from  $1  87  to  $1  50.  To  produce  40 
barrels  of  lager  bier  Uiere  are  consumed  50 
bushels  of  malt,  60  pounds  of  hops,  and  3  gal- 
lons of  yeast.  A  single  brewing  of  this  quan- 
tity requires  ^  a  ton  of  coal.  The  hands  in  a 
German  brewery  are  paid  monthly  from  $10  to 
$25,  beside  their  full  board  and  free  use  of  as 
much  beer  as  they  can  drink.  The  season  for 
brewing  begins  late  in  October  and  closes  early 
in  ApnL 

BEEB.  I.  WiLHSuc,  a  brother  of  Meyerbeer, 
the  great  composer,  born  Feb.  4, 1797,  diedMaroh 
27, 1 850.  He  was  established  as  banker  at  Berlin, 
and  in  1849  he  became  a  member  of  the  Prussian 
diet.  His  claim  to  notice  rests  upon  his  achieve- 
ments in  the  ephere  of  astronomical  science. 
His  labors  in  this  department  were  associated 
with  those  of  the  astronomer,  Madler.  Beer 
built  an  observatory,  chieflv  devoted  to  the 
observation  of  the  planet  Man  and  ti^e  moon. 
The  crowning  labor  of  the  2  astronomers  was 
a  map  of  the  moon,  published  in  1885,  upon 
which  the  Lalande  prize  was  conferred  by  the 
French  academy.  II.  Miohasl,  a  brother  of 
the  preceding,  born  in  Berlin,  1800,  died  in 
Munich,  March  22, 1883,  became  known  to  the 
literary  world  by  5  tragedies,  of  whidi  his 
Struensee  is  the  best  His  complete  works 
were  published  at  Leipsic  iu  1885,  and  his 
"  Ck>rre6pondence*'  in  1887.    (See  Metebbxsb.) 

BEEREN,  Gboss,  a  Prussian  village,  pop.  242, 
memorable  for  the  great  battle  of  Uie  22d  and 


BEEBNEM 


BEET 


28d  of  Angnst^  1818,  in  which  the  French  troops 
were  defeated  hj  the  Prassians. 

BEERNEM,  a  village  of  Belginm,  6  miles  S. 
E.  of  Bmgee.  It  has  trade  in  cattle  and  in  linen 
goods,  and  has  also  mills  for  flonr,  malt,  and 
oil.  Pop.  in  1851,  8,440.  The  village  is  the 
seat  of  the  reform  school  for  girls  under  the 
charge  of  the  sisters  of  charity,  tiie  complement 
of  the  reform  school  for  hojs  at  Rnysselede. 
The  pupils  are  instructed  in  every  department 
of  household  duty,  as  well  as  in  the  elements  of 
common  school  education.  The  discipline  of 
the  school  is  that  of  Mndness  and  affection  only. 

BEERS,  Nathan,  an  officer  of  the  army  of 
the  revolution,  born  at  Stratford,  Ot,  1758,  died 
at  New  Haven,  Feb.  10,  1849.  WhUe  stiU 
quite  young,  he  went  with  his  fSather  to  New 
Haven,  and  was  a  member  of  a  military  com- 
pany formed  there  iri*'l774,  which  was  com- 
manded by  the  celebrated  Benedict  Arnold. 
Immediately  on  the  receipt  of  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  Lexington,  the  company  was  called 
together  by  their  captain,  and  Beers  with  89 
others  volunteered  to  accompany  him  to  the 
seat  of  war.  They  immediately  set  out,  and, 
as  they  passed  through  Pomfret,  were  Joined  by 
Gen.  rutnam.  Beers  received  a  lieutenant's 
commission  in  the  army  in  1777,  and  served 
until  1788.  He  was  afterward  engaged,  for  a 
time,  in  mercantile  affairs,  and,  in  1798.  was 
chosen  steward  of  Yale  college,  which  office  he 
resigned  in  1819.  He  was  a  man  of  integrity, 
courtesy,  and  piety. 

BEER-SHEBA.  As  the  traveller  to  Palestine 
emerges  from  the  desert  of  Sinai,  upon  the  south- 
em  frontier  of  the  holy  land,  he  bagins  to  meet 
with  deep  artificial  excavations,  often  through 
solid  rock,  and  covered  with  stone  slats.  These 
are  the  wells  of  Palestine.  Among  the  first 
that  greet  him  are  the  wells  of  Beer-sheba. 
This  place  of  Old  Testament  renown,  as  iden- 
tified in  the  14th  century,  is  situated  about 
midway  between  the  southern  point  of  the 
Dead  sea  and  Rafa  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  is  at  present  known  as  Bir-es-Seba.  The 
name  signifies  ''the  well  of  covenant,"  and 
doubtless  was  so  designated  to  commemorate 
the  covenant  between  Abraham  and  Abime- 
lech.  Near  it  Abraham  planted  a  grove  of 
tamarisks.  A  town  of  some  importance  nat- 
urally grew  up,  in  those  desert  places,  around  a 
well.  Beer-sheba  lying  on  the  southern  fron- 
tier of  Palestine,  and  Dan  on  the  northern, 
''from  Dan  to  Beer-sheba"  came  to  be  used  to 
signify  the  entire  extent  of  the  country.  Dr. 
Robinson  found  still  2  circular  wells  in  toler- 
able preservation,  about  65  rods  apart,  one  44 
feet  deep  to  the  water,  and  the  other  only  about 
12  feet,  the  deeper  one  excavated  through  solid 
rock  for  the  lower  16  feet.  It  was  generally 
much  labor  to  construct  these  wells,  and  from 
theur  importance  in  so  desert  a  country,  we  can 
well  understand  how  the  strife  arose  which  in 
its adj nstment  gave  the  name  to  Beer-sheba.  This 
town  fell  originally  to  Judah,  but  was  afterward 
.transferred  to  Simeon.    It  was  an  important 


judicial  station  under  Samuel,  and  a  seat  of 
idolatry  in  the  time  of  Uzziah.  From  this 
time  we  lose  sight  of  it  until  it  is  mentioned 
again  in  the  4th  century  of  the  Christian  era 
by  Jerome  and  Eusebins,  as  a  flourishing  village. 
BEET,  a  plant  of  the  genus  beta,  belonging 
to  the  natural  order  chenopodecs,  among  which 
it  is  known  by  its  lar^e  succulent  roots  and  a 
green  calyx  united  half  way  to  a  hard  rugged 
nut.  The  species  are  found  in  Europe,  the 
north  of  Africa  and  the  western  parts  of  Asia. 
Four  species  of  this  genus  are  cultivated  as  es- 
culents ;  the  others  are  mere  weeds.  The  com* 
mon  beet  or  beta  wilgariSj  is  found  in  a  wild 
state  in  Egypt  and  along  the  whole  of  the  sea- 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean.  There  are  several 
varieties,  differing  in  the  form,  size,  color,  and 
sweetness  of  their  roots.  The  "  small  red"  and 
the  "  long  yellow"  are  the  most  sweet  and  de- 
licate, and  have  the  richest  color  when  served 
at  table.  Beet  roots  can  only  be  obtained  ia 
perfection  in  a  rich,  light,  sandy  soil,  through 
which  they  can  easily  penetrate.  In  stony  or 
stiff  soils  the  roots  become  parched  and  lose 
their  succulence.  Mangel-wurzel,  or  beta  aUw- 
HmOf  is  a  much  larger  and  coarser  plant  thaa 
the  common  beet,  from  which  it  differs  by  its 
roots  being  marked  internally  with  zones  of 
red  and  pink  or  white.  Its  native  country  is 
unknown.  It  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  feeding  cattie ;  its  leaves  affording  a  verjr 
nutritious  food  for  all  kinds  of  live  stock,  and 
its  roots,  from  their  exceeding  sweetness,  being 
consideived  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants  on 
which  cattie  can  be  fed  in  winter.  There  are 
few  crops  so  valuable  for  this  purpose.  Swedish 
turnips,  or  ruta  baga^  exceed  them  in  the  quan- 
tity of  nourishment,  weight  for  weight ;  but  on 
good  light  soils  the  produce  of  the  beet  per 
acre  is  much  greater.  The  proportional  vfdue 
of  hay,  potatoes,  Swedish  turnips,  and  beets  in 
feeding  cattie,  is  said  by  Einhof  and  by  Thaer 
to  be  as  follows :  18  tons  of  mangel-wurzel  are 
equal  tp  16  tons  of  Swedish  turnips,  or  7^  tons 
or  potatoes,  or  8i  tons  of  good  English  hay,  each 
quantity  containing  the  same  amount  of  nour- 
ishment; but  the  roots  may  be  grown  upon  less 
than  an  acre  of  ground,  while  two  or  three 
acres  of  good  grass  land  are  required  to 
produce  the  equivalent  amount  of  hay.  The 
beet  root  is  also  deemed  the  least  exhausting 
to  the  land. — The  white  beet  has  been  chiefly 
cultivated  for  the  purpose  of  extracting  sugar 
from  its  juice.  It  is  smaller  than  the  mangel- 
wurzel  and  more  compact.  The  manufacture 
of  sugar  from  beet  root  was  first  commenced 
in  France  in  consequence  of  the  Emperor  Na- 
poleon^s  scheme  for  excluding  British  colonial 
produce.  It  was  known  that  a  crystallizable 
sugar  could  be  obtained  from  the  juice  of  the 
beet  root,  and  he  encouraged  the  establishment 
of  beet  root  sugar  manufacture  on  a  large  scale, 
by  every  advantage  which  monopoly  and  pre- 
miums could  give  it.  Oolonial  sugar  was  sold  as 
high  as  a  dollar  a  pound ;  and  as  sugar  had  b^ 
come  an  indispensable  luxury  in  Fran|^  the 


BEETHOVEN 


67 


mannfactare  had  ererj  chance  of  rapid  and 
coiuplete  8acc€98^  althou^^  the  process  was  ex- 
pensive. It  has  since  been  much  improved,  and 
beet  root  sugar  now  competes  on  nearly  equal 
terms  with  colonial  or  cane  sugar,  in  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world.  Most  of  the  operations  in 
manufacturing  beet  root  sugar  are  nearly  the 
same  as  those  by  which  the  juice  of  the  sugar 
cane  is  prepared  for  use,  but  much  greater  skill 
and  nicety  are  required  in  rendering  the  juice 
of  the  beet  root  crystallizable,  owmg  to  its 
greater  rawness  and  the  smaller  relative  pro« 
portionof  sugar  it  contains.  When  beet  root 
sugar  is  refined,  however,  it  is  said  to  be  im- 
possible for  the  most  experienced  judge  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  other,  either  by  the  taste 
or  the  appearance.  Five  tons  of  clean  roots 
produce  tSbont  4^  cwt.  of  coarse  sugar,  which 
gives  about  160  lbs.  of  double  refined  sugar  and 
(K)  lbs  of  inferior  lump  sugar;  the  rest  is  molas- 
ses, from  which  flpirits  of  sood  quality  are  dis- 
tilled.— ^The  chard  beet,  arleta  cyclOj  inferior  in 
the  fflze  of  its  roots^  is  remarkable  for  the  thick- 
ness of  the  ribs  of  its  leaves,  which  are  white, 
yellow,  green,  orange  colored,  or  deep  crimson, 
in  Afferent  varieties.  It  is  cultivated  like  the 
common  beet  in  gardens,  and  forms  one  of  the 
principal  vegetables  used  by  agricultural  labor- 
ors  and  smaU  occupiers  of  land  in  many  parts 
of  Germany,  Svritzerland,  and  France.  Swiss 
chard  produces  numerous  large  succulent  leaves, 
with  a  very  solid  rib  running  along  the  middle. 
The  leafy  port  stripped  off  and  boued  is  used  as 
a  substitute  for  greens  and  spinach;  the  riband 
stalk  are  dressed  like  asparagus  or  soorzenera; 
they  have  a  pleasant  sweet  taste,  and  are  deem^ 
ed  by  some  persons  more  wholesome  than  the 
cabbage  tribe ;  but  in  other  varieties,  they  have 
an  earthy  taste  which  is  unpleasant.— Sea  beet, 
or  beta  maritima,  is  a  perennial,  and  one  of  the 
most  valuable  plants  Imown  for  greens.  It 
thrives  in  gardens  without  any  sort  of  care,  and 
is  increased  by  seeds  which  it  yields  in  great 
abundance. 

BEETHOVEN.  I.  Ludwio  van,  probably  a 
native  of  Maestricbt  in  Holland,  was  a  base  singer 
of  considerable  reputation,  in  the  electoral 
chapel  at  Bonn,  and  in  opera.  About  1761  he 
was  elevated  by  the  elector  Maximilian  Freder- 
ic to  the  position  of  kapellmeister,  which  office 
be  seems  to  have  held  until  the  appointment  of 
Luochesi  in  1771.  He  composed  several  operas, 
none  of  which,  however,  are  now  preserved. 
He  died  Dec.  24, 1778.  II.  Lttdwio  vaw,  one  of 
the  matest  of  musical  composers,  son  of  Johann 
van  ^Beethoven,  a  tenor  singer  in  the  electoral 
chapel  at  Bonn,  and  grandson  of  the  foregomg, 
bom  Dec.  16  or  17,  1770,  died  at  Vienna, 
March  26,  1827.  He  was  the  second  of  4 
children,  the  first  of  whom  died  in  early 
infiincy.  Thehabitsof  Johann  van  Beethoven 
were  bad,  and  soon  after  the  death  of  Kapell- 
meister Beethoven  the  family  sank  into  pov- 
erty. It  is  probable  that  Ludwig  exhibited 
proofs  of  his  remarkable  musical  talents  at  a 
vexy  early  age,  and  that  his  father  indulged  the 


hope  of  deriving  fame  and  profit  from  his  pre- 
cocity, as  had  then  very  recently  been  the  case 
with  Leopold  Mozart  and  his  son  Wolfgang,  for 
before  the  boy  was  4  vears  of  age,  he  was 
placed  at  the  harpsichord,  and  forced,  unrelent- 
mgly,  to  perform  his  daily  task  of  exercises. 
He  soon  required  better  instruction  than  his 
fiEither  could  give,  and  became  successively  the 
pupil  of  Pfeiffer,  oboist  in  the  chapel,  and  of 
Van  der  Eder,  court  organist  In  1781  Van  der 
Eder  was  succeeded  by  0.  G.  Neefe,  and  the 
pupil  was  transferred  to  him.  A  musical  peri- 
odical of « that  day,  in  a  letter  describing  tiie 
musical  establishment  at  Bonn,  probably  written 
by  Neefe  himself,  includes  the  boy  among  the 
musicians,  and  speaks  of  him  thus:  "Louis 
van  Beethoven,  son  of  the  above-named  tenor- 
ist,  a  boy  of  11  years  and  of  very  promising  tal- 
ents. He  plays  the  harpsichord  with  great  skill 
and  power,  reads  well  at  sight,  and,  to  say  all 
in  a  word,  plays  nearly  all  of  Sebastian  Baches 
Wohltetnperirt€i  Klanier  placed  in  his  hands  by 
Herr  Neefe.  He  that  knows  this  collection  of 
preludes  and  Aigues  in  every  key  (which  may 
almost  be  called  the  nepltu  uUra  of  music)  wiU 
know  what  this  implies.  Herr  Neefe  has  also, 
so  far  as  his  other  duties  allow,  given  him  some 
instruction  in  thorough  base.  At  present  he  is 
exercising  him  in  oomnosition,  and  for  his  en- 
couragement has  causea  9  variations  composed 
by  him  upon  a  march,  for  the  hupsichord,  to  be 
engraved  at  Mannheim.^'  Beside  these  vari- 
ations, we  possess  a  specimen  of  his  powers  at 
this  early  age,  in  8  piano-forte  soni^as,  dedicated 
to  the  elector  and  printed  at  Spire.  In  1788 
the  elector  died,  and  fortunately  for  the  young 
Beethoven  was  succeeded  bv  Maximilian  Francis^ 
a  member  of  the  music-loving  family  of  the 
empress  Maria  Theresa.  Attached  to  the  young 
elector's  court  was  a  certain  Ck>unt  Waldstein, 
his  bosom  friend,  a  practical  musician  and  fami- 
liar with  the  music  of  Vienna^  where,  at  that 
time,  Gluck,  Haydn,  Salien,  RighiJii,  &c^ 
reigned  supreme.  The  count  soon  discovered 
the  promise  of  the  boy,  and  became  his  protec- 
tor. Through  his  influence,  Beethoven,  in  his 
16tii  year,  was  appointed  assistant  court  organ- 
ist, and  in  his  18tn  was  sent  to  Vienna  at  the 
elector^s  expense,  to  study  with  Mozart.  The 
illness  of  his  mother  recalled  him  to  Bonn,  and 
her  death  about  the  end  of  July,  1787,  donbtiess 
was  the  cause  of  his  remaining  for  the  present 
there,  for,  owing  to  the  habits  of  his  father,  the 
support  of  his  two  young  brothers,  Easper  An- 
ton Karl,  bom  April  8,  1774,  and  Nicholas 
Johann.  Oct  2.  1776,  must,  in  a  great  measure, 
have  devolved  upon  him.  The  4  succeed- 
ing years  must  have  been  years  of  great  exertion 
to  the  young  man.  His  salary  could  not  have 
been  krge,  either  as  organist  or  as  member  of 
the  orchestra,  in  which  he  played  the  viola;  nor 
were  the  profits  of  teaching  great  His  position 
in  the  orchestra  as  player  of  the  viola  would  be 
a  sufficient  refatation  of  ^e  oft-told  anecdote 
of  Beethoven  and  the  spider,  did  we  not  know 
that  the  real  hero  of  the  story  was  Berthaume, 


88 


BEETHOVEN 


a  Parisum  violinist.  In  1T92,  his  brothers  being 
off  hiB  bands  (Karl  a  mnsio  teacher,  and  Johann 
an  apothecary's  boj),  Beethoven  was  again  in 
a  position  to  accept  the  elector^s  kindness,  and 
retnmed  to  Vienna;  which  capital,  and  its  en- 
virons, save  npon  a  single  visit  to  Berlin,  one  or 
two  to  Pragae,  and  li^  summer  Joameys  for 
health  to  various  watering  places,  he  never 
again  left.  The  young  composer  reached  Vien- 
na a  few  weeks  before  completinff  his  22d  year. 
With  the  modesty  of  real  tialent  he  suppressed 
all  his  previous  attempts  at  composition,  and 
oame  before  the  public  only  as  a  pianoi-forte  vir- 
tuoso. In  this  field  he  had  but  one  rival — ^for 
Mozart  had  died  the  year  before — Joseph 
Woelfi ;  and  the  only  rivahy  between  them  was 
in  execution,  of  which  Woelfl  was  an  astonish- 
ing master.  In  force,  fire,  and  originality  of 
oonoeption,  Beethoven  was  far  the  greater  of  the 
two.  The  first  6  years  of  his  sojourn  in  Vienna 
were  the  happiest  of  the  composer's  life.  He 
mingled  in  the  best  society,  was  the  finvorite  of 
people  of  the  first  rank,  and  was  placed  at  thehead 
of  his  profesaon  by  the  best  judges.  In  the 
mean  time  he  was  making  himself  master  of  mu- 
sical form,  studying  successively  with  Haydn 
and  the  renowned  contrapuntist  Albrechtsber- 
ger,  kapellmeister  at  St  Stephen's.  The  some- 
what dry  but  thorough  course  of  study  pursued 
under  the  latter,  may  be  followed  by  the  musical 
student  in  the  work  known  as  *^  Beethoven^s 
Studies,"  which  is  made  up  from  the  lessons 
original  and  (Elected  given  him  by  his  teacher, 
and  is  often  enriched  by  the  shrewd,  witty,  and 
caustic  remarks  of  the  gift;ed  pupil.  The  an- 
nexation of  Oologne  to  the  French  empire*,  and 
the  expulsion  of  the  Sector,  at  length  left  Beet- 
hoven firee  to  remain  in  Vienna  and  devote 
himself  to  composition,  the  science  of  which  he 
had  now  thoroughly  mastered.  The  first  im- 
portant works  which  he  sent  to  the  press  were 
the  8  sonatas,  op.  3,  and  the  8  trios,  op.  1,  but 
others  followed  yriih.  a  rapidity  truly  astonish- 
ing. It  is  not  possible  to  arrange  the  works  of 
this  master  in  the  order  of  their  composition, 
and  to  decide  how  many,  of  his  earlier  produc- 
tions especially,  belong  to  a  given  period.  It  is 
certain,  however,  that  before  the  close  of  the 
last  century  the  list  included  many  variations 
and  songs,  more  tiian  20  sonatas  for  the  piano- 
forte solo,  8  (probably  more)  sonatas  for  piano- 
forte and  violin,  8  for  piano  and  violoncello,  8 
trios  for  piano,  violin,  and  violoncello,  that  in  Bb 
with  darinet,  the  quartet  for  piano  and  bowed 
instruments,  the  quintet  for  piano  and  wind  in- 
struments, the  concertos  in  0  and  Bb  for  piano 
and  orchestra,  5  trios,  6  quartets,  the  quintet 
in  £b  for  bowed  instrumenta,  the  septet,  the 
ballet  '*  Men  of  Prometheus,"  and  the  Ist  and  2d 
symphonies!  Such  fertility  certainly  promised 
a  career  in  no  respect  behind  those  of  Handel, 
Bach,  Haydn,  and  Mozart.  But  he  was  already 
suffering  from  a  calamity  which  afterward 
greatly  limited  his  productiveness,  but  which 
we  may  consider  the  cause  of  the  profound 
depth  cf  sentiment,  feeling,  and  passion,  which 


Is  the  leading  characteristic  of  the  music  of 
Beethoven.  In  a  letter  to  his  Mend,  Dr. 
Wegeler,  dated  June  29, 1800,  he  says:  ^^My 
hearing  has  been  gradually  becoming  weaker 
for  8  years  past."  The  original  cause  of  this 
misfortune  was  a  hemorrhoidal  difficulty,  and 
a  conseauent  chronic  weakness  of  the  bowels, 
attended  with  violent  colic.  He  describes  the 
symptoms  of  his  case  and  its  treatment  by  phy- 
sicians, and  adds :  **'  I  may  say  that  I  feel  myself 
stronger  and  better  in  consequence,  only  my 
ears— they  are  still  ever  ringing  and  singing  day 
and  night  I  can  truly  say  that  I  pass  a 
wretched  existence ;  for  the  last  2  years  I 
have  almost  entirely  shunned  society,  be- 
cause it  is  impossible  to  tell  people  I  am 
deafl'^  Agiun:  ^*In  the  theatre  I  am  forced 
to  lean  up  dose  to  the  orchestra  to  understand 
the  actors.  The  higher  tones  of  the  voices  and 
instruments,  if  I  am  at  a  little  distance,  I  cannot 
hear,  and  it  is  remarkable  that  people  do  not 
notice  it  in  conversation  with  me.**  In  the 
summer  of  1802  he  had  a  dangerous  attack  of 
illness,  and  in  the  prospect  of  death,  wrote  a  re- 
markable paper,  addressed  to  his  brothers,  in 
which  he  paints  the  sufferings  which  he  had 
passed  through  in  very  powerfol  language.  We 
quote  a  few  lines:  '*B6m  of  an  ardent,  san- 
guine temperament,  and  peculiarly  susceptible 
to  the  pleasures  of  society,  yet  at  this  early 
age  I  must  withdraw  from  ihe  world,  and  lead  a 
solitary  life.  When  I  at  times  have  determined 
to  rise  superior  to  all  this,  oh,  how  cruelly  have 
I  been  again  cast  down  by  proo&  doubly  painfiol 
of  my  defective  hearing,  and  yet  it  has  been 
utterly  impossible  for  me  to  say  to  people, 
*  Speak  louder,  scream,  for  I  am  deaf  1'  Ah, 
how  could  I  proclaim  the  weakness  of  a  sense 
which  I  ought  to  possess  in  a  higher  degree  than 
others,  which  once  I  did  possess  in  the  highest 
perfection — a  peifection  equalled  by  few  of 
my  profession.  Alaa  I  cannot  do  thist  For- 
give me  then,  if  I  draw  back  when  I  would 
gladly  mingle  with  you.  My  misfortune  inflicts 
upon  me  a  double'  woe  in  causing  me  to  be  mis- 
apprehended. For  me  there  can  be  no  recreation 
in  social  intercourse,  no  Joining  in  refined  and 
inteUectuid  conversation,  no  mutual  outpourings 
of  the  heart  with  others."  Again :  **  Bat  what 
humiliation,  when  some  one  standing  by  me 
hears  a  distant  flute,  and  I  hear  nothing,  or 
listens  to  the  song  of  the  herdsman,  and  I  hear 
no  sound.  Such  incidents  have  brought  me  to 
the  verge  of  despair — a  little  more,  and  I  had 
put  an  end  to  my  life.  One  thing  only,  art — 
this  restrained  me.  I  could  not  leave  the  world 
until  that  was  accomplished  which  I  felt  was 
demanded  of  me.*'  This  i>eriod  was  a  crids  in 
his  life.  Upon  his  recovery  from  his  illneaa, 
though  he  had  little  hope  of  ever  recovering  his 
hearing,  he  became  more  patient  and  cheerful, 
and  again  wrought  out  his  musical  inspirations 
with  great  industry.  Among  the  numerous 
compositions  of  the  few  following  years  are 
several  of  his  capital  works.  The  "Heroic 
Symphony'*  was  iHX>duced  in  1804;  ^^Fidelio** 


BEETHOVEN 


in  1805 ;  the  4th,  5th,  and  dth  symphonies,  and 
the  mass  in  G,  daring  the  4  following  years.  It 
is  a  oommon  impression,  that  the  m  success  of 
his  opera,  "Fidelio,''  discoaraged  Beethoven 
eyer  after  from  attempting  dramatio  composi- 
tions. Cis  negotiations  with  varions  poets, 
Kdmer,  Bellstab,  Grillparzer,  Bernard,  for  a 
libretto,  even  down  to  the  dose  of  life,  and  espe- 
cially a  formal  written  i»x>podtion  dated  in  1807, 
and  still  in  existence,  to  the  management  of  the 
imperial  theatres  for  an  engagement  as  regular 
composer,  show  how  erroneous  is  the  impres- 
non.  What  prevented  the  acceptance  of  Beet- 
hoven^B  proposition  by  the  managers  is  not 
now  known.  The  mnsio  to  Kotzebae^s  ^  Rains 
of  Athens''  was  first  performed  in  1812 ;  the 
*^  Battle  of  Yittoria''  and  the  7th  symphony 
in  the  aatomn  of  1818 ;  the  cantata,  *'  The  Glo- 
rioas  Moment,'' at  the  Yienna  congress  in  1814; 
and  the  8th  symphony  was  written  as  early 
881816.  Thelaborsof  the  sammer  of  1815  were 
principally  devoted  to  the  arrangement  of  the 
Dcottish  songs  for  George  Thompson  of  Edin- 
bnrgh.  Ftom  Ihis  period  the  works  of  Beet- 
hoven followed  each  other  in  still  less  rapid  suc- 
cession, not  only  from  the  grandeur  and  extent 
of  their  dedgna,  but  from  uie  effects  produced 
T^>on  him  by  a  legal  process,  which  claimed 
madi  of  his  attention,  and  caused  him  the  deep- 
est anidetj.  The  last  half-dozen  sonatas^  those 
giants  of  ^ano-forte  composition,  the  grand 
mass  in  I>->a  8  years'  labor — ^the  overture  in 
C,  op.  115;  the  9th  symphony,  with  chorus, 
completed  in  1824,  the  last  grand  quartets,  were 
the  principal  productions  of  his  last  10  years. 
The  legal  process  above  mentioned  was  too 
important  in  its  influence  to  be  passed  over 
without  some  notice.  Karl  van  Beethoven  had 
been  unfortunate  in  his  marriage,  and  upon  his 
death  in  1815  had  left  his  son  to  the  special  care 
and  protection  of  the  composer.  The  mother, 
although  she  soon  became  the  kept  mistress  of 
a  dtizen  of  Yienna,  refused  to  part  with  her 
son,  and  Beethoven  was  forced  to  bring  the  case 
before  the  courts.  The  will  of  the  father  was 
not  sufficient  ground  by  the  laws  of  Austria 
for  removing  the  child  from  his  mother,  nor  his 
legal  adoption  by  his  unde.  It  became  neces- 
sary for  Beethoven  to  prove  the  bad  character  of 
his  dster-in-law,  and  show  that  the  moral  wel- 
fare of  the  boy  demanded  his  removal  from  her 
influence.  This,  to  a  man  who  in  the  corrupt 
sodetv  of  Yienna  had  lived  a  blameless  life,  and 
who  had  his  friends  and  acquaintances  princi- 
pally among  princes  and  the  nobility,  was  in  the 
last  degree  mortifying.  Its  effect  upon  him 
was  so  great  that  nothing  but  the  necessitv  oi 
meeting  the  large  expenses  entailed  upon  him 
by  the  process,  and  by  his  adoption  of  the 
bov,  induced  him  to  meet  the  demands  of  his 
publishers.  During  8  years  not  one  of  his 
great  works  was  produced.  The  suit  was 
originaDy  brought  in  1816,  in  the  court  in 
which  the  causes  of  the  nobility  were  tried, 
and  afler  2  or  3  years,  during  which  the  boy 
was  0ometiines  in  possession  of   the  mother 


and  at  others  of  the  uncle,  was  decided  in  favor 
of  the  latter.  The  opposing  counsel  thereupon 
brought  a  technical  objection  to  the  proceedings, 
viz.,  that  Beethoven  was  not  of  noble  birth, 
and  could  not  bring  suit  in  this  court ;  that  van 
in  Holland  was  not  equivalent  to  van  in  Germany. 
The  i>oint  was  sustained,  to  Beethoven  s  great  in- 
dignation, and  the  suit  was  transferred  to  the 
magistrates'  court  of  the  city,  clearly  the  proper 
plaoe,  as  Beethoven  had  been  made  a  dtLzen  of 
Vienna,  some  years  before,  as  a  mark  of  honor. 
The  former  decision  was  here  reversed,  and 
Beethoven  was  obliged  to  bring  a  new  action. 
It  was  not  until  some  time  in  the  year  1821 
that  he  obtained  full  possesion  of  the  boy.  In 
the  mean  time  the  nephew  had  fallen  into  habits 
of  indolence,  falsehood,  and  extravagance  be- 
yond the  power  of  his  unde  to  restrain  or  control. 
Johannvan  Beethoven,  the  composer's  younger 
brother,  was  mean,  sordid,  and  viun,  and  mar- 
ried to  a  woman  who  brought  her  illegitimate 
daughter  to  his  house,  and  not  seldom  received 
her  own  lovers  there.  For  such  a  roan  Beet- 
hoven could  have  littie  fraternal  affection. 
The  nephew  became  all  in  aU  to  him.  Upon 
him  he  lavished  all  the  rich  affections  of  his 
great  heart  No  pains  nor  expense  was 
spared  on  the  young  man's  education ;  but  in 
vain.  In  August,  1826,  the  youth,  then  about 
20  years  of  age,  unable  to  pass  the  examina- 
tions of  the  school  to  which  he  belonged,  filled 
up  the  measure  of  his  ingratitude  by  shooting 
himself  in  the  head.  The  wound  was  not  fatal, 
and  at  length  he  recovered.  By  the  laws  of 
Austria,  he  was  an  offender  against  public 
morals  and  the  church,  and  for  some  months 
was  deprived  of  liberty.  When  at  length 
restored  to  his  imde,  it  was  with  the  order  to 
leave  Yienna  in  24  hours.  In  hiB  extremity 
Beethoven  accepted  the  invitation  of  his 
brother  to  retire  with  Karl  to  Johann's  estate 
some  80  miles  above  Yienna,  on  the  Danube, 
until  such  time  as  a  place  in  the  army  could  be 
found  for  the  young  man.  The  place  and  the 
society  of  his  brother's  family  soon  became  in- 
supportable to  the  composer,  and  he  deter- 
mined to  return  to  the  capital.  This  Journey  of 
2  days,  in  cold,  wet  weather,  was  too  much  for 
his  feeble  constitution,  and  he  reached  Yienna, 
Dec.  2, 1826,  with  his  nephew,  laboring  under 
the  effects  of  a  very  severe  cold.  A  few  days 
afterward  a  billiard  marker  of  one  of  the  coffee 
houses  was  taken  to  the  hospital  sick,  where  he  in- 
formed Dr.  Wawruoh,  climoal  professor  in  the 
university,  that  Earl  van  Beethoven  had  request- 
ed him  to  send  a  physician  to  his  sick  uncle,  and 
besought  Dr.  Wawruch  to  call.  Duriujg^  the  days 
that  had  elf4)sed,  a  violent  inflammation  of  the 
lungs  had  set  in,  and  the  professor  found  Beet- 
hoven in  a  veiT  bad  condition.  The  inflammation 
snbdded,  but  Vas  succeeded  hydropsy,  under 
which  the  illustrious  patient  sank,  and  a 
quarter  before  6  in  the  evening  of  March  26, 
1827,  in  the  midst  of  a  sudden  storm  of  rain, 
hail,  and  lightning,  breathed  his  last  Notwith^ 
standing  the  great  expenses  to  which  Beethoven 


TO 


BEETHOVEN 


had  been  put,  daring  most  of  hiB  life,  bj  ill 
health,  ana  the  Bams  whioh  he  had  spent  for 
his  brothers  and  nephew,  daring  the  long-oon- 
tinned  legal  prooess  mentioned  above,  he  left 
property  to  the  amoant  of  aboat  fSfOOOj  a  fiEUJt 
which  soffioiently  refutes  tbe  common  impres- 
sion that  he  passed  his  life  in  abject  poverty. — 
In  the  catalogae  of  Beethoven's  works,  we  find 
hardly  a  branch  of  the  art  in  which  he  had  not 
wrought,  but  the  preponderance  of  the  instm- 
rnent^  over  the  vocal  music  is  striking.  For 
the  full  ordiestra  he  has  left  us  9  symphonies, 
11  overtures,  the  Egmont  music,  the  battle  of 
Yittoria,  and  some  snorter  pieces.  Of  chamber 
music  the  compoations — among  them  16  grand 
quartets^  and  4  trios  for  bowed  instruments, 
m>m  the  grand  concerto  and  septet  down  to 
the  romanza  and  sonata — are  very  numerous. 
There  are  82  grand  sonatas  for  the  piano-forte 
solo,  and  more  than  100  other  compositions, 
varying  from  the  grand  concerto  to  the  varia- 
tions upon  a  melody  for  that  instrument  alone 
or  combined  with  others.  Two  masses,  1  sacred 
cantata,  and  a  number  of  songs,  beloo^  to  the 
branch  of  sacred  music ;  an  opera,  and  a  vast 
variety  of  songs,  trios,  &c.,  fill  up  the  catalogue 
of  his  vocal  music.  Beethoven's  mission,  if  we 
may  use  the  term,  was  to  perfect  instrumental 
music  as  the  language  of  feeling  and  of  the  sen- 
timents. Under  Bacb,  Haydn,  and  Mozart,  the 
sonata  and  the  symphony  had  attained  their 
complete  development  in  form.  Under  Beet- 
hoven, a  new  soul  was  infused  into  them. 
Something  had  already  been  done  in  this  direc- 
tion. We  perceive  traces  of  it  in  Bacb,  and  in 
Mozart.  Olementi  had  written  a  sonata  for 
piano-forte,  entitled  Dido  Ahbandanata,  and 
Haydn,  in  quartet  and  symphony,  was  in  the 
habit  of  imagining  some  story,  the  situations  of 
which,  in  their  corresponding  emotions,  he  en- 
deavored to  depict.  Beethoven  went  further. 
He  not  only  painted  character  as  no  other 
master  had  done  in  music  (see  his  overtures 
to  Prometheus  and  Goriolanus),  but  made  his 
music  the  medium  of  commanicating  tbe  feel- 
ing which  swelled  his  own  breast.  We  feel 
this  continuallv  in  his  piano-forte  sonatas,  nor 
is  the  explanation  of  the  fact  difficult  The  un- 
remitting practice  to  which  he  was  forced  by 
his  father  during  childhood,  together  with  the 
course  of  instruction  then  in  vo^e,  which 
aimed  rather  at  making  sound  musicisjis,  than 
masters  of  finger  gymnastics,  gave  him  that 
power  over  the  piano-forte  and  the  organ, 
without  which  no  one  can  be  said  to 
have  a  mastery  over  those  instruments. 
We  speak  of  the  mastery  of  style  in  an  orator, 
when  his  thoughts,  as  they  rise,  clothe  them- 
selves at  once  in  language  forcible,  appropriate, 
and  elegant  So  a  complete  ^lastery  of  the 
piano-forte  and  organ  implies  that  the  musical 
thought,  as  it  rises  in  the  composer's  mind,  sug- 
gests inunediately  the  combinations  and  succes- 
sions of  notes  which  will  express  it,  and  the 
instantaneous  dropping  of  the  fingers  upon  the 
corresponding  keys  of  the  instrument.    This 


mastery  Beethoven,  in  common  with  all  the 
really  great  masters,  had,  and  it  was  tempered 
even  in  his  youth  by  such  a  knowledge  of  the 
principles  of  harmony,  that  his  extemporaneous 
performances  were  as  firee  from  false  harmonic 
relations,  as  the  speaking  of  an  accomplished 
orator  from  errors  hi  the  use  of  articulate  speech. 
As  he  advanced  in  years  his  improvisations  at- 
tracted more  and  more  notice,  and  upon  his 
arrival  in  Vienna,  men  who  had  known  Mozart 
and  fully  appreciated  his  marvellous  powers, 
confessed  their  astonishment  at  the  force,  vigor, 
and  fire  of  the  young  Rhinelander  when,  gii^ng 
his  fancy  the  rein,  his  flying  fingers  interpreted 
the  current  of  his  musical  thoughts.  In  his 
earliest  published  works  will  be  found  much  of 
that  pensive  feeling  which  distinguished  his  ex- 
temporaneous efforts,  and  this  quality  in  his 
sonatas  became  more  marked  as  he  advanced 
in  years.  Hence  the  marvellous  fascination  of 
his  sonatas  for  every  appreciative  performer  or 
hearer.  They  appeal  to  our  hearts  as  the  lan- 
guage of  his  own.  They  paint  to  us  his  moments 
of  joy  and  of  sorrow ;  of  hope  and  of  longings  for 
that  which  is  loftier  and  nobler — ^longings  oft- 
times  which  can  be  uttered  only  in  music. 
When  writing  for  the  orchestra  the  grandeur  of 
his  thoughts  rose  with  the  increase  of  means  at 
his  command,  and  he  reached  heights  beyond 
all  that  composers  before  him  or  since  have 
attuned. — Justice  has  not  usually  been  done  to 
Beethoven  on  the  score  of  intellect.  His  large 
head  was  in  fact  filled  with  a  brain  capable  of 
intensely  energetic  and  long-continued  action. 
He  was  an  insatiable  reader,  especially  of  his- 
tory, and  none  followed  with  a  deeper  interest 
the  rapidly  changing  scenes  of  that  great  po- 
litical drama  which  began  in  his  19th  year 
in  Paris,  and  ended  at  tine  congress  of  Vienna 
in  1815.  Bom  upon  the  Bhine,  reared  under 
the  remarkably  liberal  institutions  of  tbe  elec- 
torate of  Cologne,  and  subjected  to  the  direct 
influence  of  those  ideas  which  set  France  in  a 
blaze,  he  was  early  and  for  life  a  repubUcan  in 
his  politics.  He  had  not  tbe  education  of  a 
scholar,  and  the  universal  fiict  which  obtains  in 
regard  to  men  of  strong  minds  and  great  reflective 
powers,  who  have  not  enjoyed  the  advantages 
of  high  culture,  obtains  also  in  his  case,  viz. :  a 
tendency  to  put  full  faith  in  conclusions  founded 
upon  insufficient  data,  and  to  consider  their  con- 
fessedly high  authority  upon  subjects  to  which 
they  have  devoted  themselves  as  a  guarantee 
of  tiie  correctness  of  their  views  upon  others. 
This  argues  not  a  want,  but  rather  the  posses- 
sion, of  a  high  degree  of  intellectual  power. 
In  whatever  sphere  of  mental  activity  Beet- 
hoven had  been  placed,  he  would  have  been  a 
man  of  mark.  The  exciting  social,  religions, 
and  political  topics,  which  agitated  all  Europe 
during  the  age  of  Beethoven,  are  familiarlv 
known  to  all.  Upon  these  topics  he  studied, 
pondered,  reflected,  and  the  aspirations,  hopes, 
triumphs — the  grie^  woe,  and  despair  of  that 
age,  found  a  place  in  his  all-embracing  sympa- 
thies.   We  perceive  a  tendency  in  his  early 


"RMlgrT.H 


71 


orchestral  works,  while  etili  inflaonoed  in  his 
style  by  Hiiydn  and  Mozart^  in  the  direction 
which,  as  stated  above,  his  piano-forte  music 
followed  —  to  become  the  medinm  through 
which  the  composer  made  known  his  feelings. 
Bat  when,  still  in  the  prime  of  life,  he  fonnd 
the  sense  most  necessary  to  the  musician  forsak- 
ing him,  and  under  this  calamity  he  graduaUy 
withdrew  himself  from  society,  retaining  a  few 
old  friends,  but  making  comparatively  few  new 
ones,  the  tendency  became  more  marked.  As 
years  passed  on  and  old  friends  fell^  he  retired 
more  and  more  within  himself,  trusting 
more  fully  to  the  impulses  of  his  genius,  unin- 
fluenced by  modes  and  flashions  and  popular 
styles ;  then  it  was  that  the  rich  stores  of  musi- 
obI  knowledge,  acquired  in  his  younger  and 
happier  days,  were  lavished  upon  works,  the 
depths  of  whose  thoughts,  and  the  grandeur  of 
whose  designs,  so  far  surpassed  the  apprecia- 
tion of  many  of  his  contemporaries  as  to  be 
condemned  as  the  vagaries  of  a  madman.  As 
Gothic  architecture  is  the  artistic  record  of  the 
aspirations  of  the  ages  during  which  it  grew  to 
perfection,  so  the  orchestral  works  of  Beethoven 
are  the  musical  record  of  the  great  ideas  of  his 
time  in  the  form  and  likeness  which  they  as- 
flumed  in  his  mind.  Haydn  and  Mozart  per- 
fected instrumental  music  in  its  form — ^Beet- 
hoven touched  it,  and  it  became  a  living  soul. 
BEETLE,  a  very  numerous  and  well-known 
order  of  insects,  constituting  the  eoleoptera. 
They  have  usually  4  wings:  2  membranous,  the 
organs  of  flight,  filmy  and  folded  transversely ; 
and  2,  anterior  and  superior  to  these,  of  a 
harder  consistence,  protecting  the  former,  and 
called  elfftra.  They  all  have  mandibles  and 
jaws.  Tbe  attention  of  naturalists  has  been 
specially  called  to  this  order,  the  most  nu- 
merous among  insects,  from  their  singular 
forms,  brilliant  markings,  size,  and  ease  of  pres- 
ervation ;  80  that  tiieir  structure,  habits,  and 
transformations  are  very  well  ascertained.  The 
head  varies  greatly  both  in  size  and  form  in  the 
different  tribes;  it  presents  2  antenna^  of  va- 
rious forms,  of  which  the  joints  are  generally  11 
in  number;  the  eyes  are  2,  and  compound; 
they  have  no  simple  eyes,  according  to  La- 
treille.  The  mouth  consists  of  a  Icirum;  2 
mandibles,  usually  of  a  homy  consistence ;  2 

SWB,  each  one  having  1  or  2 palpi;  and  a  2a- 
um  of  2  pieces,  accompanied  by  2  palpi. 
The  anterior  segment  of  the  thoram^  or  the  cors- 
let, whidi  is  in  front  of  the  wings,  is  larger 
than  the  other  2  segments,  and  is  free  in  its 
movements;  it  supports  only  the  first  pair  of 
legs ;  the  other  segments  are  united  together, 
aid  nearly  immovable;  the  fnmothoraa  sup- 
ports the  second  pair  ik  legs  and  the  elytra; 
the  membranous  wings  and  the  third  pair  of 
legs  are  attached  to  the  third  and  last  seflnent. 
The  elytra  and  wings  originate  from  the  lateral 
and  upper  portions  of  the  segments;  the  former 
are  of  a  nrm  consistence,  almost  crustaoeous, 
and,  in  a  state  of  rest,  are  applied  horizontally 
one  against  the  other  along  their  internal  edge; 


they  almost  always  conceal  the  true  wings,  and 
are  generally  as  long  as  the  body;  in  the  act  of 
flight  they  are  usually  extended,  though  in 
some  species  destitute  of  true  wings  they  are 
united  on  the  dorsal  suture;  in  me  wingless 
genera  the  elytra  are  always  found.  The  ab- 
domen is  sessile,  or  united  to  the  chest  by  its 
greatest  breadth,  composed  of  6  or  T  rincs, 
membranous  above  where  it  is  protected  by  Uie 
elytra,  and  of  a  more  homy  consistence  below. 
In  the  males  the  anterior  pair  of  legs  are  often 
stronger,  and  the  tarsi  broader,  than  in  the  fe- 
males. All  the  eoleoptera  masticate,  and  are 
accordingly  provide^  with  instraments  proper 
for  cutting  and  triturating  their  food ;  the  sali- 
vary glands  are  quite  mdimentary,  and  few  in 
numlNBr;  the  digestive  canal  varies  in  length 
acoordinff  to  the  habit  of  life,  but  it  genendly 
is  much  longer  than  the  body.  The  sexes  are 
separate,  and  the  act  of  reproduction  is  a  true 
sexual  connection.  The  organs  of  respiration 
are  »tigmata  along  the  sides  of  the  body,  and 
trachsa  pervading  all  parts  of  the  system.  The 
abdomen  encloses  a  fatty  tissue,  apparently  con- 
nected with  nutrition,  which  causes  many  of 
these  insects  to  be  eagerly  sought  for  as  food 
by  the  savage  tribes  of  llie  old  world.  They 
undergo  a  complete  metamorphosis;  and  the 
2ar!MB,  or  grabs,  are  generally  soft  bodied,  and 
provided  with  6  legs;  it  is  in  this  state  that 
they  are  so  destractive  to  vegetation.  The 
males  perish  soon  after  the  sexual  union,  and 
the  females  die  shortly  after  the  eggs  have  been 
deposited. — ^The  eoleoptera  have  been  variously 
divided  by  different  authors;  the  divisions^ 
Latreille,  according  to  the  number  of  the  joints 
in  the  tarsi,  have  been  generally  adopted  by 
naturalists.  These  divisions  are  uie  following : 
1,  pentamera^  having  5  joints  on  each  foot ;  2, 
neteromeray  having  5  joints  to  the  anterior  2  pairs 
of  feet,  and  4  joints  to  the  posterior  pair; 
8,  tetramera^  having  4  joints  to  all  the  feet ; 
4,  trimeri^  having  no  more  than  8  ioints  to 
the  feet.  Though  this  system  is  artificial,  and 
in  many  points  very  defective,  it  is  still  sufficient 
to  give  a  clear  idea  of  this  very  complex  order. 
In  the  short  space  of  this  article  little  more  can 
be  done  than  to  enumerate  the  fiunilies  of  the 
order,  with  very  brief  notices  of  some  of  the 
most  remarkable. — ^Latreille  makes  20  families, 
as  follows.  The  pefUamera  include:  1.  The 
eamicora^  whose  varied  roecies  all  agree  in  being 
exceedingly  voracious;  they  are  both  terrestrial 
andaauatic;  the  former  have  been  divided 
into  tne  tribes  deindeUtm  and  earabici^  the  lat- 
ter constitute  the  tribe  hydroeanthari.  The  ei- 
cindela  are  very  beautifally  ornamented,  of 
light  and  active  forms,  quick  in  their  motions, 
darting  on  their  insect  prey,  which  they  devour 
alive;  they  prefer  light  and  sandy  districts  ex- 
posed to  the  sun ;  they  are  extensively  distrib- 
uted over  the  eaiih;  the  larva  are  of  a  forbid- 
ding appearance  and  extremely  voracious,  seiz- 
ing any  insect  which  passes  the  openings  of 
then:  subterranean  holes.  All  the  carabtei^  in 
the  grub  and  perfect  state,  feed  on  living  prey ; 


BEETLE 


thej  emit  a  fetid  liquid  when  pursued,  and  are 
for  the  most  part  agile  ninners ;  many  have  no 
tme  wings;  thej  conoeal  themselves  in  the 
earth  or  nnder  stones  and  the  hark  of  trees. 
This  is  a  verj  namerons  trihe,  and  its  study  is 
diffioolt.  Borne  of  the  most  interesting  genera 
are  cardbiUy  searitea,  harpalus,  hraehinus^  /er<h 
nia,  &c.  The  hydroeanthariy  or  swimming 
beetles,  include  the  genera  dytUeus  and  ffyri- 
nus;  the  feet  are  adapted  for  swimming, 
being  compressed  and  ciliated;  they  live  in 
the  fresh  lakes  and  marshes  and  quiet 
streams  of  all  countries,  and  they  pass 
their  first  and  final  sta^  in  the  water. 
The  d/ytiaci  can  live  on  the  land  and  also  can 
fly ;  they  vary  in  size  from  1^  inch  to  }-  of  an 
inch  in  length ;  they  are  carnivorous  and  vora- 
cious, and  can  remain  a  long  time  under  water 
in  pursuit  of  their  prey ;  they  swim  on  the  sur- 
face with  great  rapidity.  The  gyrini  are  smaller, 
and  may  be  found  in  troops  on  the  surface  of 
still  waters,  darting  about  with  surprising  agil- 
ity ;  they  can  see  in  the  water  and  in  me  air 
at  the  same  time;  they  can  fiy  well,  though 
they  swim  better;  the  eggs  are  deposited  on 
the  leaves  of  aquatic  plants.  This  family  is 
useful  in  destroying  noxious  and  predacious  in- 
sects and  grubs.  2.  The  hTochefyira  have  but 
1  palpus  in  the  jaws,  or  4  in  all ;  the  wing  cases 
are  shorter  than  the  body,  which  is  narrow  and 
elongated ;  the  head  is  large  and  flat  the  man- 
dibles strong,  the  antenna  short ;  they  live  in 
moist  earth,  on  dung  and  other  exorementitious 
matters,  and  most  of  all  in  decaying  animal  car- 
casses; they  are  courageous  and  strong,  run- 
ning or  flying  with  the  greatest  facility ;  they 
destroy  insects  with  eagerness.  This  fiimily  is 
composed  entirely  of  the  old  and  vaguely  de- 
termined Limuaan  genus,  ataphylinut.  The  lar^ 
▼»  live  in  the  same  situations  as  the  perfect 
insects.  The  £unily  are  very  useful  natural 
scavengers.  8.  The  terrteomeg  have  elytra  cov- 
ering the  abdomen,  and  antennn  equal  through- 
out, dentated,  saw-like  or  fiui-uke.  Some 
of  the  most  interesting  genera  are:  Buprea- 
tia^  many  of  whose  species  are  very  lai^  and 
exceedingly  brilliant ;  these  walk  very  slowly, 
but  are  excellent  flyers ;  they  are  most  numer- 
ous in  warm  climates,  and  live  generally  in 
wood.  The  genus  elater  is  remarkable  for  the 
shortness  of  the  legs,  and  for  the  fisiculty  it  has 
of  changing  from  a  supine  position  to  its  feet  by 
springing  into  the  air  by  means  of  a  spine  on  its 
pnestemum ;  the  species  are  found  in  flowers^ 
or  plants,  and  on  the  ffronnd ;  some  of  the 
American  species,  as  the  B.  noetilueua^  are 
phosphorescent,  and  are  called  fire-flies.  The 
genus  lampyru^  also,  is  interesting,  as  contain- 
ing the  phosphorescent  species  whose  females 
go  by  the  name  of  glow-worms;  the  genus 
teUphorua  is  noted  as  furnishing  the  species 
which  are  occasionally  taken  up  by  high  winds^ 
and  deposited  in  distant  regions,  causing  the  so- 
called  insect  lowers;  the  tick  of  the  death- 
watch  is  produced  by  a  species  of  atiobium^ 
living  in  decaying  wood.    The  larv»  sometimes 


cause  great  destraotion  of  valuable  timber. 
4.  The  olcmcomea  have  the  antennie  thickened, 
or  knob-shaped,  at  the  end ;  they  live  chi^y 
on  animal  substances.  The  genus  hiaUr  feeds 
on  decaying  and  excrementitious  matters.  The 
genus  necrophoTua  is  noted  for  its  habit  of  in- 
terring small  animals,  such  as  mice  and  moles, 
for  the  purpose  of  depositing  its  eggs  in  tiie  de- 
caying carcass ;  this  they  do  by  removing  the 
earth  beneath  the  body,  which  falls  into  the 
hoUow ;  their  sense  of  smell  must  be  extremely 
acute.  The  genus  aUpha  also  prefers  putrefying 
animal  substances.  The  genera  dermeaUa  and 
OfrUhrenua^  in  their  larva  state,  are  perfect  pests 
to  the  naturalist,  as  they  devour  every  animal 
substance  accessible  in  his  cabinet ;  the  action 
of  heat,  usually  employed  to  destroy  them,  is 
nearly  as  destructive  as  the  insects.  6.  The 
palpieomea  resemble  the  preceding  fSeonUy  in 
the  shape  of  the  antenn»,  composed  of  only  9 
Joints,  and  the  feet  in  most  of  the  genera  are 
fonned  for  swinmiing.  The  genus  hydrophilua 
is  carnivorous  and  voracious,  frequenting  fresh 
water  and  marshes,  swimming  well,  but  not  so 
rapidly  as  dytiaeua;  their  larva  destroy  great 
numbers  of  aquatic  insects  and  water-smuls; 
they  pass  the  nymph  state  in  cavities  in  the 
earth,  for  about  8  weeks.  Other  genera  are 
elopharua  and  apharidium  ;  the  latter  is  terres- 
trial 6.  The  tameUieomea  are  the  last  family 
of  the  pentamera,  including  numerous  genera, 
among  which  are  some  of  the  most  brilliuit  and 
the  largest  of  the  order;  those  that  feed  on 
vegetable  substances  are  beautifully  colored, 
while  dark  tints  prevail  among  those  which  de- 
vour decaying  animal  matters.  The  antennas 
are  deeply  inserted  under  the  side  of  the  head, 
short,  ending  in  a  knob,  composed  of  plates  or 
lamimB,  An  idea  of  the  form  of  the  larvaa, 
which  are  often  very  destructive  to  vegetation, 
may  be  formed  from  the  weU-known  white- 
worm,  the  larva  of  the  melolontha.  In  this 
family  are  included  the  genus  acarabmua  of  Un- 
nnus,  proper  to  warm  climates,  particularly 
Africa;  they  live  in  ordure  of  all  kinds;  the 
ateuchua  aaeer^  an  object  of  religious  veneration 
among  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  often  repre- 
sented on  their  monuments,  and  found  in  the 
sarcophagi,  belongs  to  this  genus ;  other  genera 
are  eopru,  yeotrupea,  trosD^  melohntha^  eetonia^ 
and  hiOfmua  (stag  beetie).  While  many  of  the 
melolonthians  are  destructive,  the  geotrupidca 
and  aoarabcndca  are  useftil  in  removing  carrion 
and  filth. — The  hetevvmerc^  the  2d  section  of 
the  order,  are  all  vegetable  fideders ;  many  of 
them  avoid  the  light ;  it  Includes:  7.  The&m- 
ily  fndaaoma^  of  black  or  ash-colored  species, 
for  the  most  part  apterous,  with  the  elytra  as  it 
were  soldered  together ;  some  of  them  have  a 
salivary  apparatus;  they  dwell  on  the  ground, 
nnder  stones,  and  in  dark  situations  in  houses, 
quitting  their  retreats  at  night ;  they  are  dow  in 
their  movements.  Among  the  genera  are  jmam- 
Zio,  hJapa^  and  tendnio  (meal-worms).  They  and 
their  hrvBd  are  useful  scavengers.  8.  The  taa^ 
coTTiea  have  no  oomeoos  tooth,  on  the  inner  sido 


BEETLE 


BEGAS 


78 


of  the  jaws ;  aQ  are  winged,  and  the  legs  are  not 
adapted  for  ranning ;  in  the  males  the  head  is 
sometimes  fnratshed  with  horns.  Most  liye  on 
tree  fnngi  or  nnder  the  bark^  or  nnder  stones  on 
the  ground.  Some  of  the  genera  are  diap&rit, 
phaleriOy  and  sledana.  These  fnngns-eaters  are 
nseflil  to  man.  9.  The  itendiftra  differ  from 
the  preceding  chieflj  in  the  antennn ;  they  are 
quite  aotiye,  conceiding  themselves  nnder  the 
hflffk  or  among  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  trees ; 
some  live  in  togi,  others  in  old  wood.  To  this 
belong  the  genera  hdopg.  euUHa^  diroaa,  CBde- 
tMroy  and  otiiers  servioeaole  to  man.  10.  The 
traekeUdeB  live  on  plants,  of  which  they  devonr 
the  leaves  and  snok  the  Juices.  Here  belong  the 
genera  loffria,  fyrw^vrwh^  mordeUa,  notaxus^ 
horiOf  melo€i,  earUluuit^  Ac ;  the  O.  ^^eneataria^ 
or  Spanish  fly,  is  well  known  in  medicine  for 
its  blistering  properties. — The  third  section, 
the  tetramera,  are  vegetable  feeders ;  they  in- 
olnde :  11.  The  rhffn^!ophara^  a  large  and  richly 
ornamented  fiimily,  living  very  often  in  the  in- 
terior  of  fruit  and  seeds,  and  very  destmctive 
to  the  products  of  the  farm  and  ihe  orchard ; 
it  is  eaaly  recognized  by  its  projecting  muzzle. 
Among  the  genera  are  hruchvs,  whose  larvas 
are  very  destructive ;  attddbus^  brentui  ;  eur* 
euUOy  the  greatest  peit  of  the  horticulturist ; 
dUandra^  one  of  whose  species,  the  weevil,  de- 
stroys immense  quantities  of  grains ;  the  larves 
of  the  C»  piUmarum^  on  the  other  hand,  are 
considered  a  great  dainty  by  the  West  Indian 
Uaoks.  12.  The  xylcphagif  in  the  larva  state, 
destroy  or  render  useless  great  numbers  of  for- 
est trees  by  the  channels  which  they  gnaw  in 
various  directions ;  among  the  most  destmctive 
is  the  genus  tooiytus;  other  genera  are  IxMtri' 
ehfu»  and  trogonta.  18.  The  platytoma  are 
found  beneath  the  bark  of  trees ;  the  principsl 
genus  is  cwupu.  14.  The  longicamm  have 
filiform  and  very  long  antenna ;  their  larv» 
live  in  the  interior  or  beneath  the  bark  of 
trees,  where  they  are  very  destructive.  Some 
of  the  species  are  among  the  largest  of  the  or- 
der. Among  the  genera  are  pe^^mdrOj  eeram* 
hyx^  eaUidium,  lemiOy  9aperd<k,  and  l^turck, 
10.  The  eupoda  derive  their  name  ftom  the 
large  size  of  the  posterior  thighs  in  many  spe- 
cies; they  are  aU  winged,  and  occur  on  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  plants,  especially  the  Uli- 
acem;  among  the  jgenera  are  M^ra,  erioeeruy 
and  danada.  16.  The  evcliea  are  small,  dow 
in  their  movements,  but  often  brilliantly 
oolored;  the  females  are  very  proMc.  Here 
sre  placed  the  genera  hitpa^  eamda,  crypto^ 
eephahu^  chrymmela;  eumolpm,  one  species  of 
which,  B.  titiSj  in  its  larva  state,  commits 
great  ravages  in  wine  countries ;  galerwoa  and 
a2<i0fi^  possessed  of  great  Jumping  powers;  the 
latter  is  often  very  destructive  to  the  turnip 
<sroM.  17.  The  ekmipalpi  are  all  gnawers, 
and  may  be  distinguished  by  their  antenna 
ending  in  a  knob,  and  by  an  internal  tooth  to 
the  Jaws ;  the  body  is  usually  rounded.  Some 
of  the  genera  are  erotyhu^  triplaa^  ag<Uhidiuw^ 
and  phalaeinu. — ^The  last  section,  the  irmtrck^ 


have  the  antennie  ending  in  a  compressed  club 
formed  by  tlie  lost  8  of  the  11  joints ;  it  con- 
tains :  18.  The/vn^ieato,  living  chiefly  in  fnn(|^ 
and  dead  wood ;  the  principal  genus  is  eumor- 
pJws,  19.  The  aphidiphagi  are  best  repre- 
sented by  the  genus  coceineU^  or  lad^-bird; 
these  pretty  little  beetles,  more  especially  in 
the  larva  state,  live  almost  entirely  on  aphides^ 
or  plant-lice,  and  in  this  way  are  of  immense 
service.  20.  The  p»elaphii  have  short  trun- 
cated elytra;  the  species  are  generally  very 
small,  and  live  on  the  ground  in  moist  places^ 
and  under  stones  and  moss ;  the  types  of  thi& 
the  last  family,  are  the  genera  pUlaphus  and 
eiaoiger. — ^The  coleoptera  are  exceedmgly  nu- 
merous in  species.  It  is  by  the  occurrence  of 
elytra  that  this  order  may  be  at  once  recog- 
nized; these  organs  are  highly  ornamented, 
and  they  serve  not  only  to  protect  the  mem- 
branous wings,  but  to  shield  the  body  in  the 
dark  and  dangerous  places  in  which  beetles 
delight  to  go ;  and  by  4Jieir  broad  expanded 
surfaces  they  assist  the  heavy  species  in  their 
fli^t,  acting  both  as  a  sail  and  a  parachute. 

%£FANA,  in  Italy  the  name  of  a  puppet  or 
doll  dressed  as  a  woman,  and  carriea  through 
the  streets  in  procession  on  the  day  of  Epi- 
phany, and  on  some  other  feast  days.  The 
name  is  probably  derived  from  JEfpifania,  the 
feast  of  the  Epiphany.  On  the  day  of  this 
feast  |M-esents  are  given  to  children  in  Italy,  as 
they  are  in  America  on  Christmas  or  New 
Tear's,  and  the  h^ana  is  supposed  to  bring  them. 

BEG,  Bbt,  Bbolxebbo,  titles  of  honor  amons 
the  Turks.  The  term  beg  means  *4ord;'* 
the  beglerbeg  is  **  the  lord  of  the  lords."  The 
beg  is,  in  some  parts  of  the  empire,  inferior  to 
a  pasha,  holding  a  town  or  district  subject  to 
the  supervision  of  the  pasha.  In  the  African 
provinces,  the  bey  is  the  supreme  officer  of 
Tunis  and  Tripoli,  and  was  the  chief  title  among 
the  Mamelukes. 

BEG  A,  a  river  of  Eastern  Hungary.  It  joins 
the  Theiss  21  miles  east  of  Peterwardein,  and 
forms  a  part  of  the  Bega  canal,  extending  from 
Facset  to  Becskerek,  a  distance  of  86  miles. 

BEGA,  OoRKEuus,  a  Dutch  painter,  born  at 
Haarlem  in  1620,  died  Aug.  16,  1664.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Ostade,  whose  manner  he  imitated. 
The  subjects  of  his  paintings  are  commonly  the 
amusements  of  the  Dutch  peasantry,  and  the 
interior  of  cottages  and  taverns.  When  the 
plague  in  1664  visited  Holland,  a  young  lady, 
whom  he  loved,  was  attacked  by  it,  and  aban- 
doned by  her  friends.  Bega  remained  by  her 
side,  rendering  her  every  attention  till  her  last 
moment.  He,  however,  caught  the  flBital  infec- 
tion, and  died  of  it. 

BEGAS,  K41IL,  a  Prussian  painter,  professor, 
and  member  of  the  Berlin  academy  of  fine  arts, 
bom  April  80,  1T94,  at  Heinsberg,  near  Aix  la 
Ohapelle,  died  in  Berlin.  Nov.  28,  1854.  He 
studied  first  nnder  Philippart,  and  in  Paris 
under  Gros.  His  first  work,  a  copy  of  tho 
Madonna  della  Sedia,  attracted  the  attention  of 
the  king  of  Prussia,  who  appointed  him  painter 


74 


BEGGABT 


BEGUINS 


of  the  Prussian  oonrt.  His  productions  com- 
prise historical,  genre,  and  portrait  paintings, 
of  which  the  most  important  are  "  Henry  1 V. 
at  the  Castle  of  Ganossa,^*  the  ^  Sermon  on  the 
Mount,"  "  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,"  the 
Loreln,  the  portraits  of  Humholdt,  Schelling, 
Bitter,  Rauoh,  Cornelius,  and  Meyert^^er. 

BEGGARY.    See  Paupebisbc. 

BEGHAEMI,  or  Baghebmeh,  a  country  of 
central  Africa,  S.  of  the  great  Saharan  region,  and 
between  the  country  of  Waday  on  the  east  and 
that  of  Borneo  on  the  west.  It  extends  as  far  as 
Lake  Tchad,  and  with  a  south-easterly  trend 
fix>m  that  point,  having  for  its  western  boundary 
the  river  Shary,  it  reaches  to  about  lat.  8<^  80' 
K.  It  is  an  irregular  valley  or  basin  formed 
by  the  slopes  which  feed  the  Shary  and  its 
tributaries.  The  inhabitants  are  probably  a 
branch  of  the  Gallas,  who  have  overrun  Beg- 
hormi  as  they  have  Abyssinia.  Dr.  Barth 
visited  Begharmi  in  1862,  and  to  him  we  are  in- 
debted for  what  we  know  of  it.  The  horses 
are  said  to  be  of  the  finest  breed.  The  inhab- 
itants are  warlike,  and  often  make  predatory 
incursions  upon  their  neighbors.  They  are 
possessed  of  considerable  military  skill,  and  are 
muscular  and  well  formed.  They  are  idolaters, 
so  far  as  they  have  any  religion.  The  capital 
of  Begharmi  is  Mesna. 

BEGHRAM,  a  plain  in  A^hanistan,  and 
also  the  name  of  an  ancient  city  of  that  coun- 
try. Various  relics,  such  as  coins,  rings,  &c., 
have  been  discovered,  but  efforts  to  ascertain 
the  precise  site  of  the  city  of  Beghram  have 
hitherto  been  unsuccessful. 

BEGKOS,  a  village  of  Asia  Minor.  It  is 
situated  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name  in  the  Bos- 
porus. In  ancient  Greek  mythology,  Begkos 
18  known  as  the  scene  of  the  contest  between 
Pollux  and  Amycus. 

BEGSHEHER,  Beosrehb,  or  Bstsheheb,  a 
lake,  river,  and  town  in  Asia  Minor,  Cara- 
mania.  The  lake,  which  is  20  miles  long  and 
from  6  to  10  miles  broad,  is  supposed  to  be  the 
one  anciently  known  by  the  name  of  Lake  Cora- 
lis,  or  Karcyeli.  It  contains  a  nunaber  of  islands. 
The  Begsheher  river  serves  to  discharge  the 
waters  of  this  lake  into  Lake  Soglah.  Its 
length  is  about  25  miles.  On  the  banks  of  this 
river  stands  the  town  of  the  same  name.  It  is 
built  on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  the  opposite 
quarters  being  connected  by  a  stone  bridge  of 
7  arches. 

BEGUARDS.    SeeBKouiNs, 

BEGUINS,  an  order  of  Christiana,  who  have 
received  as  many  names  as  there  have  been  opin- 
ions concerning  their  origin  and  character. 
They  are  called  Bizochi  and  Bocasoti  in  Italy, 
and  Beguards  and  Beghards  in  Germany,  while 
by  many  they  are  confounded  with  the  Beguines 
of  Germany  and  Belgium,  and  with  the  Lol- 
lards who  came  after  the  Beguins^  and  sprung 
from  them.  The  origin  of  the  Beguins  is  his- 
torically dependent  on  that  of  the  Beguines. 
The  order  of  Beguines  was  founded  by  St  Fran^ 
cis  of  Assisi,  who,  after  he  had  established  Uie 


order  of  Franciscan  monks,  perceived  the  ne- 
cessity of  providing  for  femaJes,  as  well  as  for 
males,  some  specific  mode  of  expression  to  tiie 
spirit  of  asceticism  which  had  so  greaUy  in> 
creased  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  crusades 
(A.  D.  1094).  For  those  men  who  wished  to 
devote  themselves  to  the  church,  the  priesthood 
offered  itself  while  the  expeditions  against  the 
infidels  in  the  possession  of  Jerusalem  afforded 
ample  vent  for  the  zeal  of  tiie  laymen.  St, 
Francis  instituted  the  order  of  Beguines  (1206 
or  1220)  to  meet  the  want  which  had  begun  to 
be  felt  by  women  who  were  unable  to  take  the 
veil,  and  so  devote  themselves  to  a  life  of  secln- 
aion  fix>m  society,  beyond  a  limited  time  and  de- 
gree, and  who  could  not  follow  tlie  armies  of 
the  crusaders  into  Palestine,  as  some  of  their 
sisters  had  done.  But  the  fire  of  the  crusades 
had  begun  to  wane.  The  death  of  the  emperor 
Henry  VL,  who  had  prosecuted  the  4th  crusade 
(1195),  and  the  disastrous  termination  of  the 
5th  (1198)  on  account  of  the  plague,  had  cooled 
the  ardor  of  the  laymen  for  that  kind  of  service. 
Since  in  the  institution  of  the  order  of  Beguines 
the  way  had  been  opened  for  societies  and  com* 
binations  among  the  laity,  men  began  now  to 
follow  the  example  which  had  been  set  them  by 
the  other  sex.  St.  Francis  instituted  the  third 
rule,  or  order  of  Tertiaries,  for  such  men  as  wish- 
ed, without  becoming  ecclesiastics,  to  give  them- 
selves to  a  more  ascetic  mode  of  living  than  the 
circles  of  business  or  social  life  admitted  of. 
The  society  of  Tertiaries  was  a  society  whicli 
kept  alive  and  gave  expression  to  the  ascetic 
spirit  which  was  so  rapidly  increasing  among  the 
masses.  It  was  the  rule  of  this  oraer  to  sub- 
sist entirely  upon  the  charities  of  those  to  whom 
they  appealed.  From  this  circumstance  they 
were  designated  by  the  epithet  Beguards,  Be- 
guins, or  Beghards  in  Germany,  from  the  Ger- 
man heggen.  Probably  the  epithet  Beguines,  as 
applied  to  the  second  order  of  St.  Francis,  the 
lay  women,  was  indicative  of  the  same  mendi- 
cant character,  or  as  some  writers  say,  it  was 
meant  to  designate  them  as  the  "praying 
sisters."  Neither  of  these  names,  however, 
was  given  at  the  time  the  orders  were  founded. 
The  Beguines  were  at  first  called  the  ordod/m^ 
narum  pauptrum^  and  later,  the  order  of  St. . 
Glara^  while  the  Beghards  were  originally 
known  as  the  fratre%  p<BnitmtuB.  Mosheim. 
does  not  altogether  agree  with  this  histcMT-  of 
the  origin  of  the  Beguines,  for  he  says,  in  refer- 
ence to  the  great  debate  which  arose  in  the  llih 
century  in  the  Netherlands  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  Beguines,  that  the  Beguines  proved 
themselves  by  8  historical  documents  to  have  as 
great  an  antiquity  as  about  the  middle  of  the 
11th  century,  which  would  throw  them  back  150 
years  before  the  time  of  Francis  of  Assisi.  The 
Beguines  of  the  11th  century  were  probably, 
however,  not  known  as  Beguines  at  the  time, 
for  they  were  not  originally  mendicants ;  or  even 
if  they  were  thus  known,  since  the  title  is  only 
a  nicknarile,  they  might  not  have  had  any  reliv- 
tionship  with  the  Beguines  of  the  17tJ^  or  the 


BEGUINS 


BEGUM 


76 


18th  century .*  Of  one  thing  we  are  oertain, 
that  the  epithet  of  Beghards  or  Begaines  was 
hestowed  in  after  time  npon  numerous  sects  and 
orders,  which  had  nevertheless  each  a  different 
chronological,  aod  many  of  them  a  widely  dif- 
fering philosophical  origin.  TheBegnins  and 
Begoines  of  St  Francis,  for  so  we  may  design 
nate  them  in  distinction  from  all  others,  were 
an  outgrowth  of  the  crusades,  and  cannot  be 
understood  if  contemplated  separately  from  these 
St  features  of  ecclesiastical  history.  The 
nines  differed  from  the  nuns  who  took  the 
J  in  that  they  still  had  control  over  their 
own  properly,  and  never  were  regarded  at  any 
stage  of  their  career  as  having  pledged  them- 
selves, without  return  or  repentance,  to  a  life 
of  sechision.  They  might,  indeed,  be  the 
mothers  of  ftmilies,  and  many  of  them  were 
the  widows  of  those  who  had  perished  in  the 
crusades.  *  The  same  general  principle  character- 
ized the  Beguins  or  Beghards.  They  were  in 
many  instances  the  heads  of  families,  while  the 
real  monks  wore  required  to  abstain  from  mar- 
riage. Thus  the  orders  of  the  Beguines  and  Be- 
gmns  were  instituted  by  St.  Francis  as  a  kind  of 
middle  rank  between  the  priesthood  and  the 
laity,  and  were  the  residt  of  a  practical  insight 
on  his  part  into  the  wants  which  the  spirit  of 
the  crusades  had  begotten.  These  sects  or 
orders  were  both  of  them  characterized  by 
simple  and  temperate  habits,  nor  do  they  ever 
appear  to  have  been  guilty  of  great  person  14 
offences.  They  were,  however,  destined  to 
persecution.  Unconnected  with  the  church 
ecclesiastically,  the  powers  of  the  church  were 
not  always  engaged  to  protect  them.  Having 
become  suspected  of  some  heresies  in  doctrine, 
on  account  of  a  division  in  their  ranks  into 
practicals  or  orthodox  and  mystics,  the  mystic 
branch  of  tha  Beguines  seem  to  have  allied 
themselves  with  an  order  of  the  laity  which  had 
come  to  be  known  as  the  Brethren  of  the  Free 
Spirit,  and  so  exposed  themselves  to  the  censure 
of  the  church,  which,  in  1311,  passed  the  fa- 
mous act  of  the  council  of  Vienna,  known  as 
the  Clementina,  the  persecutions  Justified  by 
which  nearly  mined  the  mystic  Beguines,  and 
seriously  injured  both  the  orthodox  sisterhood, 
and  their  brethren  the  Beguins.  The  Beguines 
of  Holland  seem  to  have  avoided  the  suspicion 
of  heresy,  and  were  therefore  less  molested. 
But  after  1250  the  term  Beghard  was  mainly 
synonymous  with  heretic  in  the  ecclesiastical  vo- 
cabulary. The  more  orthodox  portion  of  the 
order  joined  by  degrees  either  the  Franciscans 
or  the  Dominicans,  and  wandered  on  the  banks 
of  the  Rhine,  crying  piteously  **  Bread  for  God's 
sake.**  From  1811  to  1818,  the  Beguins  were 
persecuted  in  Germany  with  too  little  regard  to 
the  division  above  mentioned,  and  to  1826  in 
Italy,  at  which  several  dates  John  XXII.  took 
the  orthodox  branch  of  them  under  protection. 
After  1374,  the  Beghards  are  mostly  merged  in 
the  Lollards.  There  are  still  Beguinagia,  or 
establishments  of  the  Beguines,  in  many  cities 
of  Belgium  and  Holland.    There   is  one  in 


Brussels  containing  1,000  inmates,  who  are 
governed  by  matrons. 

BEGUM,' in  the  East  Indies,  a  title  of  honor 
bestowed  upon  princesses,  and  also  upon  the  sid- 
tanas  of  seraglios.  Two  wealthy  begums  of 
Onde,  in  Hindostan,  the  wife  and  mother  of 
Sujah  Dowlah,  are  celebrated  for  the  cruelties 
which  they  suffered  from  Warren  Hastings. 
That  resolute  governor  having  looked  in  vain 
elsewhere  for  the  treasures  which  he  required, 
determined  to  extort  it  from  these  princesses. 
To  this  end  their  confidential  servants  were  ar- 
rested and  tortured,  their  zenanas  or  dwellings 
were  surrounded  by  troops,  and,  the  treasure 
being  still  withheld,  their  apartments — sanctu- 
aries respected  in  the  east  by  governments  which 
respect  nothing  else — ^were  burst  open  by  gangs 
of  Daili&  For  the  fiEu^e  of  an  eastern  laSy  to 
be  seen  by  strange  men  is  an  intolerable  outrage, 
and  to  avoid  so  terrible  an  exposure  the  begums 
surrendered  to  the  governor  immense  sums. 
Yet  the  cruelties  did  not  cease,  but  many  of  the 
women  and  children  were  flung  into  gaol,  dis- 
tressed by  torture  or  want  of  food,  or  driven 
to  the  extremity  more  dreaded  than  death  of 
appearing  publicly  before  the  sepoys.  Begums 
are  generally  of  noble  birth,  and  heirs  to  at  least 
a  portion  of  the  wealth  which  they  posoess.  Not 
unfrequently,  however,  they  are  quick-witted 
provincial  girls,  whose  first  successes  were  due 
to  their  beauty,  and  who  after  an  adventurous 
career  find  themselves  the  survivors  and  heirs 
of  their  various  husbands.  Thus  in  the  present 
century  the  famous  begum  Sumroo,  who  swayed 
the  territory  of  Sirdhana,  and  whose  annual 
revenue  was  £260,000,  was  by  birth  a  Gash- 
merian,  and  by  family  a  Georgian.  At  first  a 
dancing  girl,  her  lustrous  eyes  charmed  a  French 
officer,  who  with  more  enterprise  than  prin- 
ciple, served  on  all  sides  in  the  Indian  wars,  till 
by  the  last  of  his  8  masters  he  was  rewarded  with 
the  territory  of  Sirdhana  for  his  valuable  ser- 
vices. The  Oashmerian  girl,  whose  maiden  name 
was  Zeb-al-Nissa  (the  ornament  of  the  sex),  ac- 
companied thb  officer  in  his  various  expeditions, 
and  was  at  length  successful  in  alluring  him  into 
a  marriage.  Wearied  at  length  of  her  lord  and 
master,  and  exasperated  at  discovering  that  she 
was  not  the  sole  object  of  his  love,  she  with  cool 
perfidy  beguiled  him  to  his  death  in  a  weU- 
vami^ed  but  horrible  plot.  Having  seen  his 
dead  body  she  returned  to  her  tent,  buried  alive 
the  poor  skve  girl  who  had  been  the  object  of 
her  husband's  passion,  and  placing  her  bed  over 
the  grave,  slept  there  until  morning,  lest  any 
one  more  compassionate  than  herself  should 
lend  a  saving  nand  to  the  victim.  8he  now 
owned  and  rnled  an  immense  estate  till  her 
death  in  1886,  at  90  years  of  age,  living  in  splen- 
dor at  her  houses  and  gardens  in  Merat  and 
Delhi,  entertaining  guests  in  the  most  magnifi- 
cent style,  admired  even  by  the  British  for  her 
taste  auod  wit,  though  she  usually  sat  in  the  cross- 
legged  fashion,  and  seeming  to  exist  principally 
upon  tea  and  the  smoke  of  tobacco,  and  to  keep 
death  at  arm's  length  rather  by  the  energy  of 


76 


BEHADC 


BEHEMOTH 


her  mind  than  hy  any  strength  of  the  fieeh. 
Eminent  among  the  begmns  of  India  was  Nonr 
Jehan  (the  light  of  the  world),  the  &yorite  wife 
of  the  emperor  Shuh  Jehan,  reputed  to  have 
been  the  most  beantifnl  and  accomplished 
woman  of  her  age  in  Asia,  and  in  reverence  for 
whose  illastrlons  beaaty,  virtnes,  and  accom- 
plishments, and  to  immortalize  her  name,  that 
prince  erected  over  her  remains  the  magni- 
ficent mausoleum  of  Talh  Mahal,  at  Agra,  one 
of  the  most  anperb  specmiens  of  architecture  in 
the  Orient  In  its  centre  is  a  block  of  marble 
recording  the  name  and  graces  of  the  begum, 
and  extravagantly  inlaid  and  bedecked  with 
gems.  The  begum  and  light  of  the  harem 
Kourmahal  in  the  poem  of  Lalla  Bookh,  is 
well  known,  and  Mr.  Thackeray  in  his  novel  of 
the  '^^N'ewoomes,^*  makes  a  begum,  or  wealthy 
widow  returned  from  India,  figure  in  English 
society. 

BEHADC,  or  Bbhbsl  Mabtik,  a  German  navi* 
gator  and  geographer,  t>om  at  Nuremberg  about 
1459,  died  at  Lisbon,  July  29, 1506.  After  having 
at  an  early  age  pursued  astronomical  and  mathe> 
maticsl  studies,  he  went,  in  1477,  to  Flanders, 
where,  at  Mecheln  and  at  Antwerp,  he  engaged 
in  manufSacturing  and  selling  cloths.  The  active 
commerce  between  Flanders  and  Portugal,  and 
also  the  interest  which  he  took  in  the  great 
maritime  undertakings  of  the  Portuguese  at  this 
time,  induced  him,  in  1480,  to  visit  Lisbon, 
where  he  was  weU  received  at  the  court  of  King 
John  II.,  and  became  a  pupil  of  the  learned 
John  Moller,  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Be- 
giomontanus.  Here  he  was  associated  with 
Oolumbus,  whose  views  of  a  western  passage  to 
India  he  is  said  by  Herrera  to  have  supported* 
In  1488  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
commission  for  calculating  an  astrolabe  and  ta- 
bles of  declension ;  and  in  reward  for  his  ser- 
vices, was  made  a  knight  of  the  order  of  Christ 
In  the  following  year  he  was  cosmographer  in 
the  expedition  of  Diego  Gam,  who  sailea  along 
the  western  coast  of  Africa  as  &r  south  as  the 
mouth  of  the  Congo.  In  1486  he  sailed  to 
Fayal,  one  of  the  Azores,  where  he  established 
a  Flemish  colony,  and  married  the  daughter  of 
its  governor.  Here  he  remained  till  1490, 
when  he  returned  to  Nuremberg,  where  he 
constructed  a  terrestrial  globe,  on  which  histor- 
ical notices  were  written,  and  which  is  a  valu- 
able memorial  of  the  discoveries  and  geograph- 
ical knowledge  of  his  time.  Behaim  subsequent- 
ly returned  to  Fayal^  and  was,  for  a  time, 
employed  in  diplomacy  by  the  Portuguese 
government  It  has  been  maintained,  by  some 
writers,  that  he  visited  America  before  Colum- 
bus;, and  an  island  which  he  places  upon  his 
globe  far  to  the  west  of  the  Azores,  has  been 
thought  to  be  evidence  of  this.  But  the  exist- 
ence of  an  island  somewhere  in  the  western 
waters  was  one  of  the  current  beliefs  of  the 
time,  and  it  is  probable  that  Behaim  had  no 
positive  evidence  in  assigning  it  a  locality. 

BEHAM,  Hans  6]cbali>^  a  painter  and  en- 
graver, born  at  Nuremberg  in  1500,  died  at 


Frankfort  in  1550,  as  notorious  for  his  pro- 
fligacy as  he  was  eminent  for  his  abilities  as  an 
artist  Bartsch  enumerates  430  of  his  prints^ 
of  which  171  are  wood-cuts.  He  excelled  prin- 
cipally as  an  engraver  upon  copper,  and  in  small 
prints,  which  are  much  in  the  style  of  those  of 
Aldegrever. 

BEECEADING,  a  mode  of  execution  said  to 
have  been  first  employed  by  the  Persians.  Ac- 
cording to  Xenophon,  it  was  looked  upon  in 
Greece  as  the  least  degrading  capital  punish- 
ment ;  and  this  classic  iJ^ry  of  beheading  was 
adopted  by  tlie  British  nobility,  whose  heads 
are  cut  ofi^  while  commoners  are  consigned  to 
tiie  less  aristocratic  gallows.  St  John's  head 
was  cut  off  under  the  Boman  regime  in  Judea. 
Caligula  was  a  great  amateur  of  executions,  and. 
employed  a  soldier,  an  eminent  artist  m  the 
profession  of  beheading,  who  brought  prisoners 
indiscriminately  from  their  dungeons,  in  order 
to  exercise  his  art  upon  their  heads  for  the  spedal 
delight  of  his  imperial  master.  In  the  earljr 
ages,  the  blow  was  given  with  an  axe ;  but  as 
chivalry  and  good  taste  advanced,  the  sword  was 
substituted,  which  remains  to  the  present  day  a 
favorite  instrument  of  beheading,  as,  for  instance, 
in  Bavaria,  and  some  other  parts  of  Germany. 
The  Boman  beheading,  or  decollation  was  a  popu- 
lar military  punishment.  The  earl  Waltheof  was 
l^e  first  Englishman  beheaded,  by  order  of  Wil- 
liam the  Conqueror,  in  1075.  In  some  English, 
counties,  beheading  was  not  confined  to  the  no- 
bility;  and  under  Edward  II.,  it  was  customary 
in  Cheshire  to  behead  every  common  felon. 
The  murderous  instrument  which,  in  the  18th 
century,  cut  off  the  heads  of  Italian  noblemen, 
was  called  matmaia.  In  1268,  Conrad  of  6wa- 
bia  was  beheaded  at  Naples  with  a  Welsh  trap, 
or  Wsli^  Falle,  as  the  Germans  call  it.  The 
instrument  used  for  the  first  time  in  Germany 
in  Zittau,  in  1300,  was  called  dolabra^  which 
caused  death  by  drivine  the  instrument  through 
the  neck.  In  Scotcn  antiquity,  the  edged 
instrument  used  for  beheaoing  was  called 
the  maiden,  introduced  into  England  by  the 
regent  Morton^ho  became  a  victim  of  his  own 
invention,  as  Dr.  Guillotin  was  subsequently, 
in  France,  of  his.  The  Duke  of  Montmorencv 
was  beheaded  at  Toulon  in  1632.  In  the  18th 
century,  the  Dutch  beheaded  the  convicted 
slaves  in  ^eir. colonies.  The  Scotch  muden 
does  not  differ  much  from  the  guillotine,  and 
chops  off  the  head  in  descending,  with  the  excep- 
tion that  the  oblique  descent  of  the  guillotine 
causes  a  more  instantaneous  death.  In  France, 
beheading  was  formerly  confined  to  the  nobili* 
ty ;  but  since  the  invention  of  the  guillotine,  it 
as  the  only  mode  of  capital  punishment 

BEHEMOTH,  the  beast  described  in  the  book 
of  Job  (xL  15-24).  There  has  been  much  va- 
riety of  opinion  as  to  what  species  of  animal 
is  referred  to  under  this  appellation.  The  ele- 
phimt,  the  ox,  and  the  crocodile  have  been 
suggested.  The  christian  fathers  variously  sup- 
posed it  to  be  a  figurative  representation  of  the 
devil,  Antichrist,  Sennacherib,  and  Pharaoh. 


BEEN 


BEEDKING'S  ISLAND 


77 


Dr.  Adam  Clarke  believed  it  to  be  the  mastodon, 
a  kind  of  monster,  whose  prior  ezistenoe  on  the 
earth  is  certified  by  huffe  fossil  remains  that 
have  been  discovered.  Bochart,  in  a  learned 
treatise,  maintained  that  it  was  the  hlppopota- 
mos,  and  this  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  most 
recent  commentators.  The  rabbins  teach  that 
the  behemoth  is  one  of  2  marvdlons  ox-like 
animals,  male  and  female,  created  by  God  at 
tiie  beginning  of  the  world.  They  add  that 
the  female  has  long  been  slain,  and  the  flesh  is 
preserved  for  a  banquet  to  the  flaithfol  Israelites 
on  the  mom  of  the  resarrection.  The  male 
stOl  lives,  and  eats  daily  the  foliage  of  1,000 
mountains,  which  grows  agam  by  night  He, 
too,  will  be  slain  to  furnish  a  feast  to  the  Mes- 
siah at  his  appearance. 

BEHN,  ApBjJtA,  or  Afhba,  a  ladv  distin- 
guished for  her  wit,  beauty,  and  wntings,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  11.,  bom  at  Canterbury 
about  1640,  died  at  London,  April  16,  1689. 
She  was  very  young  when  she  sailed  with  her 
father,  whose  name  was  Johnson,  for  the  prov- 
ince of  Surinam,  in  South  America,  of  which  he 
was  appointed  lieutenant-general.  Her  &ther 
died  on  the  passage,  but  the  voyage  being  con- 
tinued she  resided  for  some  time  in  Surinam, 
where  she  became  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  native  prince  Oroonoko,  whom  she  admired 
as  a  type  of  heroism,  and  whose  adventures  and 
unhappy  &te  became  the  theme  of  one  of  her 
own  novels,  and  of  a  tragedy  by  her  friend 
Southem.  Soon  after  her  return  to  England 
she  married  Mr.  Behn,  a  London  mer^ 
chant  of  Dutch  extraction,  and  was  intro- 
duced to  Charles  XL,  whom  she  delighted  by 
her  free  and  livelv  manners,  and  her  entertain- 
ing account  of  the  colony  of  Surinam.  This 
monarch  selected  her  as  a  political  spy  to  collect 
intelligence  and  manage  afEurs  for  him  on  the 
continent  during  the  Dutdi  war.  She,  therefore, 
took  up  her  residence  at  Antwerp,  and  attracted 
numerous  lovers  and  admirers,  whom  she  man- 
aged so  well  that  in  1666  she  detected  the  project 
formed  by  Admirals  De  Witt  and  De  Buyter  of 
buming  the  English  ships  in  the  Thames.  She 
Bt  once  transmitted  the  mtelligence  to  England, 
but  the  court  of  Charles  refill  to  believe  the 
fair  envoy,  though  her  report  was  speedily 
proved  true  by  the  event.  Mortified  that  her 
skilful  labors  should  have  been  so  ill  appreciat- 
ed, she  renounced  politics,  and  revelled  in  the 
amusements  of  Antwerp.  Embarking  soon  for 
England,  she  narrowly  escaped  death,  being 
saved  in  a  boat  after  the  vessel  had  foundered, 
imd  from  this  time  she  devoted  herself  to  au- 
thorship and  to  the  gay^t  society  of  the  cap- 
ital Her  comely  manners,  brilliant  eye,  pas- 
sionate character,  and  conversational  talent^ 
made  her  the  delight  of  such  men  of  wit  and 
pleasure  as  Bochester,  Etheridge,  Southern, 
Crisp,  and  even  of  Dryden;  and  her  works, 
consisting  of  17  plays,  some  little  novels,  a 
variety  of  short  poems,  and  numerous  letters, 
of  which  those  between  a  ^  Nobleman  and  his 
Sister-in-Law  '^  (Lady  Henrietta  Berkeley  and 


Lord  Grey)  were  the  most  famous,  are  remark- 
able for  their  grace  and  sprightliness,  their 
lack  of  moral  principle,  and  their  entirely  un- 
bounded license.  She  wrote  under  the  signa- 
ture of  *^  Astnea,'^  and  Pope  alludes  to  her  by 
that  name.  She  died  after  a  lingering  sickness, 
and  was  buried  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

BEHR,  WiLHBLM  JosBP,  a  German  publicist, 
bom  at  Sultzheim,  Aug.  26, 1775,  died  at  Bam- 
berg, Aug.  1, 1861.  Bfe  was  professor  of  law  at 
WOrtzburg,  from  1799  to  1821,  and  became  bur- 
gomaster there.  In  1819  he  represented  the 
university  at  the  Bavarian  diet,  and  was  a  con- 
spicuous member  of  the  opposition.  When  he 
was  chosen  a  second  time  to  represent  WtLrtz- 
burg,  in  1881,  the  royal  approbation  was  not 
granted  him.  This  created  great  disturbance, 
and  Behr  himself  having  taken  advantage  of  an 
opportunity  to  express  his  ideas,  at  Gaibach, 
May  27, 1832,  an  investigation  was  ordered,  and 
Behr  was  dismissed  fh>m  office.  In  1886  he 
was  condemned  to  imprisonment  at  Passau; 
but  in  1889  was  released,  but  kept  under  su- 
pervision of  the  police,  and  not  until  1848  was 
he  restored  to  full  liberty.  In  1848  he  was 
elected  to  the  Frankfort  parliament. 

BEHBING,  or  Bxbbiko,  Yitub,  an  arctic 
navigator,  born  in  1680,  at  Horsens,  Jutland, 
died  Dec.  8,  1741.  In  his  youth  he  made 
several  voyages,  in  a  subordinate  capacity,  to 
the  East  and  West  Indies.  Peter  the  Great 
early  enlisted  his  services  for  Russia.  During 
the  Swedish  wars,  he  served  in  the  Gronstadt 
fleet  He  was  made  lieutenant  in  1707,  oap- 
tain-lieutenant  in  1710,  captain  some  few  years 
later;  and  captain  commander  in  1782.  He 
previously  made,  in  1725,  an  expedition  to 
the  northern  seas,  to  discover  an  overland 
passage  to  America.  Having  discovered,  in 
1728,  what  he  considered  to  be  the  north- 
eastern headland  of  the  Asiatic  continent, 
he  returned  the  same  year  to  his  winter  quar- 
ters, from  which  he  made  another  expedition  in 
the  spring,  the  result  of  which  was  the  discov- 
ery that  Kuntchatka  did  not  connect  with 
Japan,  according  to  the  usual  belief.  In  1741 
he  took  charge  of  an  expedition  with  larger 
outfit,  for  purposes  of  general  discovery.  His 
first  attempt  was  in  the  north.  Soon,  however, 
he  was  oi^ered  by  the  government  eastward, 
in  which  direction  he  proceeded  for  44  days, 
making,  fit>m  Avatcha,  50°  of  longitude,  when 
he  descried  high  mountains,  which  proved 
to  be  on  the  American  side  of  the  straits  which 
now  bear  his  name.  Coasting  for  some  timeu 
probably  on  that  part  of  the  shore  now  callea 
^e  w  Norfolk,  the  sickness  of  his  crew  compelled 
him  to  return.  But  on  the  island  which  bears 
his  name,  his  vessel  was  wrecked,  and  he  him- 
self died  there  85  days  thereafter.  His  orew  es- 
caped in  a  boat  constructed  from  the  remains 
of  the  wreck. 

BEHBING'S  IsLAiTD.  This  island,  named 
from  its  discoverer,  Vitus  Behring,  lies  off  the 
east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kamtdiatka,  nearly 
2°  distant  from  the  cape.    It  is  about  90  miles 


78 


BEILAK 


BEJAPOOR 


long.  It  was  uninhabited  at  the  time  of  its  dis- 
covery (1741),  but  has  since  been  occupied  by  far 
traders,  and  is  a  winter  harbor  for  the  trading 
vessels.  The  island  is  destitute  of  wood,  and 
its  soil  is  exceedingly  barren.  It  abounds  in 
springs  of  fresh  water,  and  the  furs  of  the 
arctic  animals  found  here  are  very  valuable, 
the  principal  of  which  are  the  ice-fox  and  sea- 
otter. — BsHBiNe^s  Sea,  that  part  of  the  Pacific 
ocean  which  lies  immediately  south  of  Behring 
straits,  and  between  the  continents  of  America 
and  A^a.  Its  southern  limit  is  the  curvilinear 
line  of  isJands,  which,  in  connection  with  Beh- 
ring's  island,  stretches  quite  across  the  Pacific 
from  Alaska  to  Kamtchatka.  It  receives  the 
Anadyr  river  in  a  gulf  of  the  same  name  on 
the  Viatic  side,  has  several  islands,  and  is  al- 
most perpetually  covered  with  fog.  The  cur- 
rent sets  north  through  the  strait.  This  sea  is 
not  so  much  obstructed  with  ice  as  Boffin^s  bay. 
It  was  first  explored  by  Behring,  in  1728.— 
Behbinq^s  Stbaits.  These  straits  connect  the 
north  Pacific  and  the  Arctic  oceans,  and  lie 
between  the  continents  of  Asia  and  America. 
Between  East  cape  in  Asia,  and  Cape  Prince  of 
Weles  on  tixe  American  side,  the  straits  are 
only  86  miles  wide.  The  depth  of  the  straits 
is  from  20  to  30  fathoms.  They  are  com- 
monly reckoned  about  400  miles  long.  They 
were  discovered  by  Vitus  Behring  in  1728,  and 
from  him  take  their  name.  Oapt.  Gook  visited 
and  described  them  in  1788,  and  later  Oapt 
Beechey.  About  midway  across,  in  the  narrow- 
est place,  are  8  islands,  called  Diomedes.  Op- 
posite the  soutiiem  opening  of  the  straits  stands 
the  large  island  of  St.  Lawrence.  A  current 
sets  through  the  straits  from  south  to  north. 
The  adjacent  coasts  are  uninhabited.  The  shores 
are  bluff  and  deeply  indented.  The  straits  are 
frozen  over  every  winter,  and  large  quantities 
of  ice  are  constantly  blocked  in  nortii  of  the 
capes. 

BEILAN,  a  town  and  pass  of  Syria,  at  its 
northern  extremity,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  gulf 
of  Iskanderoon.  The  pass,  between  the  moun- 
tains Rhossus  and  Amanua,  is  identical  with  the 
Amanian  gates  of  antiquity.  The  town,  which 
overlooks  the  pass,  has  some  stone  houses  and 
several  aqueducts.  Here  the  Egyptians  defeated 
the  Turkish  troops  in  1882.    Pop.  6,000. 

BEIRA,  or  Beyba,  a  central  province  of  Por- 
tugal, between  lat.  89°  80'  and  41""  SO'  N.,  and 
long.  6^^  40'  and  9°  60'  W.;  bounded  K  bv 
Minho  and  Tras-os-Montes,  E.  by  Spain,  S. 
by  Estremadura  and  Alemti^o,  and  w.  by  the 
Atlantic;  pop.  in  1854, 1,156,276.  The  surface 
is  very  mountainous ;  the  soil  not  fertile,  but 
produces  barley,  wine,  wheat^  maize,  olives,  and 
fruits.  The  mountains  frirnish  fine  pasturage 
for  sheei>,  and  vield  iron,  marble,  and  coal. 
The  province  is  divided  into  npper  Beira,  capi- 
tal viseu,  and  lower  Beira,  capital  Oastello 
Branco. 

BEISAN  (andently  called  Bethshan  and 
SoTTHOPOLiB),  a  village  of  Palestine,  situated 
near  the  Jordan  and  about  65  miles  north  of 


Jemsalem.  It  consists  of  60  or  70  houses,  and 
contains  traces  of  the  ancient  city — the  remains 
of  walls  on  an  acropolis,  a  Roman  bridge,  frag- 
ments of  columns,  ruins  of  houses,  tombs,  a 
theatre,  &c. 

BEIT,  an  Arabic  word  for  house,  often  used 
as  a  name  of  a  place,  and  corresponds  to  the 
Hebrew  heth.  Thus  Beit^l-licMrmn  is  "  the  edi- 
fice of  the  sanctuary,"  and  is  applied  to  the 
temple  at  Mecca.  The  village  of  Bethlehem  is 
in  Arabic  BeilHiJrLakmy  that  is,  the  *^  house  of 
bread." 

BEIT-EL-PAEIH  (house  of  a  saint),  an  Ara- 
bian port  on  the  Red  sea.  It  is  a  large  town 
with  a  population  of  about  8,000,  and  contains 
a  mosque  and  a  strong  citadel.  The  houses  are 
built  of  brick  and  clay,  and  roofed  with  date 
leaves.  Oaravans  from  all  parts  of  Arabia, 
Syria,  Persia,  and  Egypt,  resort  hither  witli 
Indian  and  British  goods,  spices  and  sugar,  re- 
ceiving in  exchange  coffee,  wax,  and  various 
gums.  Much  of  the  commercial  importance  of 
the  place  is  owing  to  an  annual  festival  of  8 
days  which  is  held  at  the  tomb  of  a  sheik 
near  by. 

BEIT-EL-MA,  a  village  in  the  pashalic  of 
Aleppo,  in  Syria.  It  is  supposed  to  occupy  a 
portion  of  the  site  of  ancient  Daphne,  and  con- 
tains, beside  some  classic  remains,  the  ruins  of 
an  early  Ohristian  church. 

BEJA,  a  fertile  district  of  Portugal,  in  the 
province  of  Alemtejo;  pop.  in  1854,  124,890. 
It  is  extraordinarily  rich  in  cereal  productions, 
and  the  plain  surrounding  the  city  of  the  same 
name,  is  said  to  produce  more  than  a  million, 
bushels  of  wheat  annually,  beside  oil,  wine,  and 
fruit.    Pop.  of  the  city  6,000. 

BEJA,  or  BojA,  a  race  of  Africans  to  the 
north  of  Abyssinia,  near  the  harbor  of  Suakun. 
The  Arabs  traded  all  along  this  coast,  and  seem 
to  have  intermarried  with  the  B^jas,  who  were 
once  of  some  importance,  and  joined  in  the  wars 
of  their  northern  neighbors.  They  are  men* 
tioned  on  the  obelisk  of  Axum  as  the  Bon- 
gaeit». 

BEJAPOOR,  or  Viziapoor,  a  city  and  former 

Srovince  of  Hindostan,  in  the  great  territorial 
ivision' called  the  Deccan ;  funded  N.  by 
Aurungabad,  E.  by  that  province  and  Beeder, 
S.  by  Oanara,  W.  by  the  Indian  ocean.  It 
contains  about  60,000  square  miles.  The  city 
is  situated  in  lat.  16°  48'  N.,  long.  75**  46' 
E.  It  was  once  of  great  dze,  and,  accordinf^ 
to  the  tradition  of  the  natives,  the  largest  city 
of  the  East  It  was  a  fortress  defended  by  out- 
works of  great  extent  Among  the  artillery 
with  which  the  walls  were  mounted  were  guns 
of  huge  dimensions,  2  of  which  came  into  the 
English  possession,  one  said  to  be  capable  of  car- 
rying a  ball  weighing  2,646  lbs.  The  modern 
city  retains  few  traces  of  its  former  grandeur. 
There  is  a  street  3  miles  in  length,  several  nun* 
neries,  and  a  Bramin  temple  of  unknown  aa* 
tiquity.  The  province  was  formerly  under 
Mahratta  government,  and,  in  1818,  the  British 
took  possession  of  it,  expelling  the  Peishwa 


B£E£ 


BELABRE 


79 


Bijee  Bao,  the  prime  minister  and  ruler  of  the 
provinoe.  The  dominions  of  the  present  R%jah 
of  Sattara  are  part  of  the  original  provinoe,  held 
by  him  under  the  provisions  of  a  treaty  with 
the  East  India  company,  by  which  he  is  to 
govern  it  in  sach  manner  as  not  to  conflict  with 
the  British  interests,  he,  on  his  part,  being  se- 
enred  in  his  government. 

BEKE,  Ghablbs  Tiistone,  an  English  Abys- 
fitnian  traveller,  bom  October  10,  1800,  in  Lon- 
don. He  quitted  commerce  to  study  law,  and 
then  devoted  himself  to  historical,  philological, 
and  ethnographical  investigations,  and  publish- 
ed OriffinuBiblictBy  or  *' Researches  in  Primeval 
History'^  (Lond.  1834).  He  next  became  im- 
pressed with  the  importance  of  Abyssinia  in 
the  history  of  civilization,  and  made  proposi- 
tions to  uiQ  British  government  and  several 
scientific  institutions  concerning  its  explora- 
tion. These  offers  were  not  accepted,  but 
private  individnals  took  the  matter  up,  and  he 
went  out  in  the  Abyssinian  expedition,  headed 
by  Migor  Harris.  He  explored  Godshem  and  the 
lands  south.  The  results  of  his  discoveries  have 
been  published  in  series,  in.  the  *^  Journal  of  the 
G^eographical  Society,"  London,  and  in  a  work  of 
his  own^  entitled  "Abyssinia"    (Lond.  1846). 

BEKES,  or  Bekbsvab,  a  Hungarian  town, 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  White  and 
Black  Zdrds,  in  the  county  of  the  same  name. 
It  was  formeriy  a  fortified  place,  and  the  re- 
mains of  an  ancient  castle  are  still  to  be  seen 
in  its  vicinity.  Bekes  has  considerable  trade 
in  cattle,  com,  and  honey.  In  1854,  the  pop- 
ulation of  the  town  was  17,260,  and  of  the 
county,  166,000. 

B££!E,  Joh&nk  Baptist,  a  statesman  of 
Baden,  bom  Oct.  29, 1797,  at  Tryberg,  in  the 
Black  Forest,  died  at  Bruchsal,  March  22, 1866. 
He  was  a  lawyer,  entered  the  2d  chamber  of 
Baden  in  1831,  was  its  president  from  1842  to 
1845,  and,  in  1846,  was  made  prime  minister. 
In  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  was  too  moder- 
ate for  one  party  and  too  liberal  for  the  other, 
and  went  into  retu^ment.  In  March,  1860, 
howeverf  he  again  became  president  of  the 
Baden  chamber,  and  after  his  death  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  to  his  memory  at  Bruchsal. 

BEEKER,  Eluabbth,  an  elegant  Dutch  wri- 
ter, was  bom  in  Flushing,  July  24, 1738,  and  died 
at  the  Hague,  Nov.  26,  1804.  Many  of  her 
works  are  esteemed  among  the  Dutch  classics, 
especially  her  romance  ffistarie  van  Wilhelm 
Lemoend.  In  some  of  her  more  important 
works  she  was  aided  by  her  friend  Agatha 
Deken,  who  died  just  9  days  after  her. 

BEKKER,  Immakuel,  a  German  philologist, 
was  bom  in  1786  at  Berlin,  and  was  a  pupil 
of  the  celebrated  Wolf  at  Ualle,  by  whom  he 
was  designated  as  the  only  person  able  to  con- 
tinue the  researches  he  had  begun.  When  the 
university  at  Berlin  was  established,  he  went 
thither,  and  passed  2  years  in  examining  the 
manuscripts  in  the  library.  In  1816  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences, 
and,  in  1817,  was  sent  to  pursue  his  researches 


in  Rome  and  the  Italian  convents.  He  went, 
in  1820,  to  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  subse- 
quently  published  his  magnificent  edition  of  all 
the  Attic  orators,  with  the  works  of  Pho* 
tius  and  some  of  the  Greek  granmiarians.  He 
also  published  the  works  of  many  of  the  Alex- 
andrine historians,  among  them  those  of  the 
princess  Anna  Gomnena,  and  several  volumes 
of  Scholia  on  the  Iliad  and  Aristotle,  notes  on 
Tacitus,  and  other  classical  works. 

BEL,  Matyas,  a  Hungarian  historian,  bom 
at  Orsova  in  1684,  and  died  in  1749.  He  was 
distinguished  as  a  theologian  and  historian,  and 
became  rector  of  the  Protestant  schools  at 
Neusohl.  He  wn>te  on  the  history  of  Hungary 
alone,  and  achieved  much  distinction.  His 
writings  are  valuable  even  now. 

BELA,  Belah,  Beila,  or  Betlah,  capital  of 
the  province  of  Loos,  or  Lus,  in  Beloochistan. 
It  contains  the  fortified  palace  of  the  chief  of 
the  province,  and  a  mosque,  but  has  no  other 
substantial  buildings.  There  are  about  800 
houses,  of  mud ;  pop.  about  6,000. 

BELA,  the  name  of  several  Hungarian  kings 
of  the  lineage  of  Arpad. — ^Bela  I.,  son  of 
Ladislas,  reigned  in  tne  11th  century;  was 
twice  obliged  to  escape  to  Poland,  on  account 
of  domestic  dissensions  occasioned  by  his 
brothers.  In  1061,  he  retumed,  supported 
partly  by  Poles,  partly  by  Magyars,  and  succeed- 
ed in  seizing  the  throne.  He  energetically  sub- 
dued the  remains  of  paganism  and  strengthened 
the  royal  power,  but  his  reign,  lasting  oidy  2 
years,  was  too  short  to  carry  out  all  the  reforms 
which  Magyar  annalists  ascribe  to  him. — 
Bela  IL,  a  drankard,  reigned  10  years,  from 
1181  to  1141.  In  his  youth  he  was  blinded  by 
his  own  uncle. — ^Bela  III.  reigned  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  12th  century,  and  died  in  1196. 
He  warred  successfully  against  the  Poles,  Aus- 
trions,  and  Venetians,  and  reconquered  from  the 
latter  some  cities  in  Dalmatia.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  a  sister  of  Philip  Augustus^  king  of 
France. — ^Bela  IY.  reigned  for  86  years,  from 
1236  to  1270.  He  was  crowned  in  childhood, 
and  was  son  of  Andras  II.,  who  gave  to  tiie 
nobility  the  golden  bull  or  charter,  establish- 
ing their  privileges.  The  greater  part  of  his 
reign  was  stormy ;  the  nobility  rose  and 
obliged  him  to  fiy  to  Austria,  and  tiius  extemal 
and  internal  war  devastated  Hungary,  which 
was  then  likewise  invaded  by  tiie  Tartars,  in 
pursuit  of  the  Polowzy  and  tiie  Eumans,  ad- 
mitted into  Hungary  by  Bela.  Their  descend- 
ants are  found  in  Gentral  Hungary.  He  finally 
overpowered  his  enemies,  was  victorious  over 
Frederic  IL,  archduke  of  Austria,  who  be- 
haved treacherously  toward  him  during  his 
misfortunes,  and  succeeded  in  curbing  the  en- 
croachments of  the  clergy.  His  last  &ys  were 
embittered  by  the  revolt  against  him  of  his 
own  son  Stephan. 

BELABRE,  a  tovm  in  the  department  of  the 
Indre,  France.  The  sieur  de  Flavi,  whose 
order  to  dose  the  gates  of  Gompidgne  led  tp 
the  capture  of  Joan  of  Arc,  was  strangled  in 


80 


BELAIA 


BELEIC 


the  old  castle  there.    Pop.  of  the  commiine 
in  1856,  2,217. 

BELAIA,  or  Biblaja,  a  Raasian  river  rises 
in  the  Ural  monntains,  in  the  goyemment  of 
Orenburg,  flows  S.  £.  for  100  miles,  then  N.  100 
miles ;  then  tarns  N.  £.  and  Joins  the  Zama 
river.  Its  entire  length  is  560  miles;  naviga- 
hle  ftbont  240 

BELASPOOR,  capital  of  the  n^ahship  of 
Cahlore,  north  Hindostan,  situated  on  the  Sat- 
1^ ;  pop.  about  15,000. — In  the  presidency  of 
Bengd  is  another  town  of  the  same  name. 

BELBEG,  or  Eabarta,  a  small  river  of  the 
Crimea.  It  rises  in  the  monntains  to  the  K 
of  Aloopka,  and  empties  into  the  Black  sea,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  peninsula,  to  the  N.  of  8e- 
bastopol,  and  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Eatcha. 
The  valley  of  the  BelbeO  is  agreeable  and  fer- 
tile, and  covered  with  vineyards  which  produce 
fine  grapes,  from  which  the  Tartars  prepare  a 
poor  wine.  The  Anglo-French  army,  Sept  24, 
1854,  encamped  upon  the  banks  of  Uie  Belbec, 
4  days  after  the  battle  of  the  Alma. 

B£IX)H£R,  Sib  Edwabd,  grandson  of  Ohief- 
Justice  Belcher,  of  Nova  Scotia,  a  British  naval 
officer  and  hydrographer,  bom  in  1799,  entered 
the  navy  at  an  early  age,  and,  after  having  taken 
part  as  midshipman  in  the  defence  of  Gaeta  and 
the  battle  of  Algiers,  he  was  in  1819  appointed  to 
the  Myrmidon  sloop,  destined  for  the  African 
station.  In  1825  he  became  assistant-surveyor 
to  the  Behring^s  straits  discovery  expedition 
under  Capt.  Beechey  in  the  Blossom.  In  1829 
he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  commander,  and 
served  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  of  Portugal, 
rendering  on  the  latter  occasion  valuable  ser- 
vices to  the  British  residents  by  protecting 
their  property  daring  the  political  troubles  in 
Portugal.  Subse<^uently  he  was  engaged  for  a 
number  of  years  m  a  voyage  round  the  world 
in  the  surveying- vessel.  Sulphur.  In  1841  we 
find  him  in  the  Ohinese  waters,  exploring  the 
inlets  of  the  Canton  river,  and  materially  assist- 
ing in  securing  the  triumph  of  the  British 
army.  In  acknowledgment  of  these  services, 
he  was  knighted  and  appointed  post-ciiptain. 
Afterward  he  was  employed  on  board  of  the 
Samarang,  on  surveying  service  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  was  severely  wounded  while  assist- 
ing the  n^ah  of  Sarawak,  Sir  James  Brooke, 
in  his  efibrts  to  subdue  the  pirates  of  Borneo. 
From  1852  to  1864  he  commanded  the  expedi- 
tion in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin.  On  his 
return  to  England,  he  was  tried  before  a  court- 
martial  for  voluntarily  abandoning  the  ships. 
The  case  against  him,  however,  was  not  legally 
supported,  he  was  acquitted,  and  his  swotd  re- 
turned to  him,  but  whOe  some  of  the  other  offi- 
cers were  commended,  his  name  was  passed 
over  in  significant  silence.  Sir  Edwai^  has 
written  books  on  his  various  surveying  expiedi- 
tions,  and  a  treatise  on  practical  sunreving.  His 
best  known  work  is  his  **  Narrative,"  giving  an 
interesting  account  of  his  voyage  round  the 
world. 

BELCHEB)  Jonathan,  governor  of  Mas- 


sachusetts and  Kew  Jersey,  bom  in  Jan.  1681, 
died  in  1757.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1699,  visited  Europe  and  made  acquaintance 
with  the  princess  Sophia  and  her  son,  afterward 
George  II. ;  returned  to  Boston,  and  lived  there 
as  a  merchant.  He  was  chosen  a  member  of  the 
council,  and  in  1729,  went  as  agent  of  the  colcmy 
to  England.  At  the  death  of  Gov.  Burnet  in 
1780,  he  was  appointed  to  the  government  of 
Massachusetts  and  New  Hampshire,  which  sta- 
tion he  held  11  years,  and  was  then  superseded. 
Repairing  to  England,  he  obtained  a  victory  over 
his  opponents,  uid  received  the  government  of 
New  Jersey,  where  he  arrived  in  1747,  and 
where  he  spent  the  remiunder  of  his  life.  He  en- 
larged the  charter  of  Princeton  college,  and  was 
its  chief  patron  and  benefactor.— Jonathan, 
chi^  justice  of  Nova  Scotia,  second  son  of  the 
preceding,  died  at  Halifax,  March,  1767,  grada- 
ated  at  Harvard  college  in  1728,  studied  Taw  at 
the  Temple  in  London,  and  was  one  of  the 
first  settlers  of  Chibncto,  afterward  called  Hali- 
fiix.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  lieutenant-goT- 
emor,  and  in  1761  chief  justice. 

BELCHER,  Tom,  an  English  pugilist,  bom 
at  Bristol  in  1788,  died  at  Peckham,  Dec  9, 
1854.  He  was  the  hero  of  12  prize  fiffhta,  in 
8  of  which  he  was  the  conqueror,  in  8  ne  was 
defeated,  and  the  12th  was  a  drawn  battle. 
He  was  one  of  the  18  pugilists  selected  to  act 
as  pages  at  the  coronation  of  George  lY.,  to 
protect  the  access  to  Westminster  abbey. 

BELCHERTOWN,  a  village  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Hampshire  county,  Mass.,  was  origin 
nally  granted  to  Gov.  Belcher  and  others,  and 
named  from  him.  It  contains  a  classical  school, 
and  is  known  for  its  manufactories  of  light 
wagons.    Pop.  in  1855,  2,698. 

BELCHITE,  a  Spanish  town,  22  miles  S.  S.  £. 
of  Saragossa,  noted  as  the  scene  of  a  victory 
gained  June  18,  1809,  by  the  French,  under 
Suchet,  over  the  Spanish  forces  under  Blake. 
Belchite  has  some  manufactories  of  woollens. 
Pop.  2,665. 

BELED-EIrJEREED,  or  Bled-el-jkrbbd, 
the  Bilidulgerid  of  old  maps,  *'thf  land  of 
dates,'*  a  district  of  the  Atlas  chain,  on  the  bor- 
ders of  the  great  Sahara.  It  has  earned  its 
name,  not  from  its  absolute,  but  its  comparative 
fertility,  the  date  palms  being  dear  to  every 
Arab. 

BELEM  (properly  Bbthlbhxm ),  formerly  a 
market  town,  now  a  suburb  of  Lisbon,  on  the 
Tagns,  S.  of  tne  city.  It  derives  its  name  frY>m 
the  church  of  Our  Lady  of  Bethlehem,  built 
here  by  King  Emanuel  in  1499,  on  the  return 
of  Yasco  da  Gama  from  his  expedition  to  India 
around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Belem  con- 
tains a  GoUiic  church,  in  which  is  the  tomb  of 
the  royal  family  of  Portugal  It  has  also  an 
old  fortress,  called  Torre  de  BeUrn^  which  rises 
from  the  bank  of  the  Tagus^d  with  its  batt^ 
ries  commands  that  river.  This  quarter  of  the 
city  contains  a  royal  palace  and  the  residences 
of  many  persons  of  note. — ^Also  a  city  of  Bra- 
zil.   See  r  ABA. 


BELBMNmSS 


BELFAST 


81 


BELE1CNIT8S  (Gr.  jSeXc/iiw,  a  dart»  or  ar« 
row),  a  dbi88  of  extdaot  moUnsoons  animals, 
beLonging  to  the  same  division  as  ammonites, 
termed  eq^alopodovs,  from  the  organs  of  mo- 
tkNL  being  arranged  aronnd  the  head.  The 
Ibaril  remains  of  the  animal  are  met  with 
in  the  rocks  of  the  upper  seoondarr,  both  in 
this  eonntry  and  other  parts  of  the  world; 
they  are  partionlarly  abundant  in  the  strata  of 
the  green  sand  formati<m  in  New  Jersey.  The 
part  preserved,  often  detached  from  the  loose 
strata,  is  a  pointed  oone  sometimeB  8  inches 
long,  of  brown  color  and  stony  material,  re- 
aembting  in  shape  the  head  of  a  dart  or  lavelin, 
whence  their  name.  The  larger  end  is  hollow, 
the  cavity  being  of  rtmilar  shape  to  that  of  the 
whole  spedmen.  Few  fosal  shells  have  at* 
tracted  so  mnch  interest  as  these  simple-looking, 
thoogh  still  obsoore,  belemnites.  They  are 
firnrad  by  millions  in  the  formations  to  which 
they  belong;  and  from  80  to  90  species  of 
them  have  been  recognised.  They  early  at- 
trastedthe  attention  of  scientific  men  as  weU  as 
of  the  common  people ;  and  it  appears  from  the 
memoir  of  M.  de  Blainville,  that  no  less  than 
91  authors,  whose  names  he  gives,  beginning 
with  Theophrastns,  have  written  on  this  subject. 
The  andent  inhabitants  of  Asia  Minor  are  rep- 
reaented  by  some  writers  to  have  designated 
tiiese  ibssils  by  the  term  daetyli  Idai,  fingers 
of  Monnt  Ida,  which,  however,  according  to 
ether  learned  aathorities,  was  very  differently 
applied,  some  describing  these  unknown  Daotytt 
as  divine  persons  worthy  of  worship,  as  having 
nursed  and  brooght  up  the  god  Jupiter;  and 
others,  as  Sophocles,  making  them  to  be  the  in- 
ventors of  the  manufacture  of  iron.  But  what- 
ever truth  there  may  be  in  these  representations, 
the  term  certainly  finds  a  very  proper  applica- 
tion in  these  finger-ehaped  fossils,  and  the  an- 
oients,  if  they  so  used  %  displayed  a  better  taste 
in  their  selection  of  a  name  than  the  modems, 
who  caE  them  thunder  stones^  devH's  fingers^ 
and  spectre  candles.  By  the  researches  of  Dr. 
Bnckland  and  Prof.  Agassiz,  the  true  nature  of 
the  belemnites  has  been  fully  established.  The 
lioUow  pointed  body  is  composed  of  carbonate 
of  lime,  part  of  which  was  the  original  fibrous 
flfaell,  and  the  remainder  introduced  by  infiltra- 
tion. Thus  the  fossil  became  crystalline  and 
nearly  solid.  The  cavity  was  the  reoeptade  of 
the  animal,  but  as  in  the  genera  &tt2Zti  and  Mjpia, 
and  the  coralline  coophytea^  it  by  no  means 
covered  the  fleshy  pordons ;  these,  on  the  con- 
trary, extended  outside  of  the  shell,  and  enclosed 
it,  very  much  as  a  skeleton  is  enclosed  and 
oovered  with  the  softer  portions  of  the  body. 
"Within  this  cavity  was  the  apparatus  of  the  air 
chambers  and  dpbon,  common  also  to  tbe  am* 
immite,  nautilus,  and  other  chambered  shells, 
hy  means  of  which  the  animal  could  rise  or  sink 
at  will.  But  the  belemnites  also  were  provided 
with  the  ink-bag  apparatus  of  the  modem  sepia ; 
an  important  protection  for  their  soft  booies, 
unguarded  as  they  were  by  any  outer  shelL 
Tbese  ink-bags  were  noticed  in  a  oommunica- 
VOL.  m. — 6 


tion  by  Dr.  Bnckland  to  the  geological  sodety 
of  London  in  1829,  as  having  been  found  bv 
him  in  a  fossil  state,  and  which  he  supposed, 
from  comparison  with  known  molluscous  ani- 
mals that  were  furnished  with  them,  must  have 
belonged  to  cephalopods  connected  with  belem- 
nites. Subsequently,  Prof.  Agassiz  met  with 
specimens  retaining  the  ink-bag  within  the  cav- 
ity; and  the  fact  being  thus  established,  the 
name  belemtuMepiawas  tJiereupon  given  to  the 
&mily  in  the  class  of  cei^opods  oomprising 
all  the  species  of  belemnites.  From  the  im- 
mense numbers  of  these  animals,  and  also  of  the 
still  more  abundant  varieties  of  ammonites, 
which  flourished  during  the  periods  of  the  for- 
mation of  the  oolite  and  cretaceous  groups,  Dr. 
Bnckland  is  led  to  infSsr  that  these  extinct  fiuni- 
lies  filled  a  larger  space,  and  performed  more 
important  functions  among  the  inhabitants  of 
ihe  ancient  seas,  than  are  assigned  to  their  few 
living  representatives  in  our  modern  oceans;  and 
in  the  retention  through  long  epochs  of  time  of 
so  delicate  an  apparatus  as  that  of  the  ahv 
chamber  and  siphon,  continued  through  succes- 
sive species,  and  given  to  the  nautilus  of  the 
present  period,  he  sees  tiie  uniform  and  constant 
agency  of  a  watchfiil  and  controlling  intelligence. 

BELESTA,  a  town  and  commune  of  firanee, 
department  of  Aridge,  17  miles  £.  S.  K  of  Foiz ; 
pop.  9,700.  Its  claim  to  notice  rests  mainly  nppn 
the  intermitting  sprinff  of  Fontestorbe.  This 
spring  rises  in  a  naturu  grotto  or  cavern,  and  ia 
BO  copious  as  to  form  the  principal  Murt  of  the 
river  Lers,  a  feeder  of  tbe  Garonne.  The  stream 
which  flows  from  the  cavern  is  16  or  20  feet  wide, 
and  a  foot  or  more  deep,  and  runs  very  rapidly, 
yet  in  the  summer  and  autumn,  and  whenever 
there  is  a  drought,  it  becomes  intermittent 
The  intermission  takes  place  at  equal  intervals 
twice  in  the  24  hours. 

BELFAST,  a  town  in  Waldo  county,  state  of 
Maine,  situatdd  on  a  broad  bay  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Penobscot  river, 
SO  miles  firom  the  ocean.  Oastine,  9  miles  dis- 
tant^ occupies  the  opposite  ride  of  the  bay.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1778,  and  first  settled  in  1785. 
The  harbor  is  deep  and  spacious,  and  always 
open ;  so  that  it  is  the  winter  port  of  the  Pe- 
nobscot The  Passaggassassawakeag,  a  small  riv- 
er, empties  into  the  Penobscot  at  this  pointy 
and  furnishes  a  limited  water  power,  which  is 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  lumber.  There  is 
considerable  ship  building  and  commerce,  the 
vessels  built  in  1854  amounting  to  over  12,000« 
tons.  The  schools  are  excellent,  and  there  is  a 
well-endowed  academy.  The  churches  are  hand- 
some specimens  of  arcnitecture ;  and  the  public 
buildings,  the  court  house^  custom  house,  are 
neat  and  substantial.  Lines  of  steamboats  con- 
nect with  Bangor,  Portland,  and  Boston.  A 
company  has  been  incorporated  here  with  a 
charter  for  a  railroad  to  Quebec,  tia  Moose- 
head  Lake.  Three  weekly  newspapers  are  pub- 
lished here,  and  there  are  2  banks.  Pop.  in 
1810,  1,259;  1820,  2,026;  1880,  8,077;  1840, 
4^186;  1850,5,051;  1857,  about  6,000. 


BELFAST 


BELGIOJOSO 


BELFAST,  a  seaport  town  and  pariiameatary 
borough  of  Ireland,  ooanty  of  Antrim,  88  miles 
K.  N.  E.  of  Dublin;  pop.  in  1841,  76,808;  in 
1861.  99,660.  It  is  on  the  Lagan,  near  its  em- 
boncnnre  in  Belfast  bay.  The  site  of  the  great- 
er part  of  the  town  is  low  and  fiat,  having  been 
redaimed  from  the  marshy  banks  of  the  Lsgan* 
Hie  river  is  260  yards  wide,  and  was  formerly 
crossed  by  a  bridge  of  21  arches,  erected  in  1682. 
In  1840,  this  was  replaced  by  an  elegant  stone 
bridge  of  6  arches,  each  of  60  feet  span.  The 
booses  of  the  town  are  mostly  of  brick.  The 
streets  are  regular  and  spadous,  macadamized, 
and  well  lighted ;  and  the  enterprise  and  activity 
of  the  inhabitants,  particularly  the  mercantile 
class,  have  given  JBeteist  the  reputation  of  being 
the  first  commercial  town  in  Ireland.  It  has  nu- 
merous places  of  worship.  At  the  head  of  its  edu- 
cational institutions  is  the  queen's  college,  built 
of  brick  and  stone,  at  an  expense  of  upward  of 
.  £26,000,  and  opened  in  1849.  For  the  main- 
tenance of  the  institution,  £7,000  a  year  is  al- 
lowed. There  are,  beside,  the  royal  academ- 
ical institution,  founded  in  1810;  the  Belfast 
academy,  th*e  Lancastorian  school,  and  numer- 
ous national  schools  and  private  seminaries. 
Belfast  has  many  chariteble  and  benevolent  in- 
stitutions; a  natural  history  society;  a  royal 
botanical  and  horticultural  society;  a  society 
for  the  promotion  of  knowledge;  a  teachers' 
association ;  and  a  mechanics'  institute.  It  is 
the  great  depot  of  the  linen  trade  of  the  nortb 
of  Ireland,  and  is  also  the  chief  seat  of  manu- 
fiactures  of  cotton  and  linen,  which  furnish 
work  to  upward  of  1,200  people.  There  are, 
also,  distilleries,  breweries,  flour  mills,  foun- 
deries,  tan-yards,  vitriol  works,  a  felt  manufac- 
tory, saw  mills,  extensive  ship  and  rope  yards. 
Steamers  ply  regdarly  between  Belfast  and 
London,  Liverpool,  Fleetwood,  Oarlisle,  White- 
haven, Glasgow,  Greenock,  Stranraer,  An- 
drossan,  and  Dublin.  In  1863,  5^11  vessels 
(768,600  tons)  entered  the  port  Belfast  is  a 
comparatively  modem  town.  It  was  erected 
into  a  municipality  and  parliamentary  borough 
early  in  the  17th  century.  Three  nulways  di- 
verge from  it:  K.  W.,  the  BaUymena  and  Oar- 
licldfergus  railway ;  N.  E.,  the  Oounty  Down, 
and  S.  W.,  the  fjlster  railway,  in  connection 
with  a  line  to  Dublin. 

BELGiE^  one  of  tihe  8  peoples  who  divided 
the  possession  of  the  whole  of  Gaul  among 
them,  at  the  time  of  its  invasion  and  conquest 
by  tfulius  Osdsar.  The  other  2  were  the 
Celts  and  Aquitanians.  the  former  possessing 
the  middle  of  France,  from  the  British  channd 
and  the  Seine  and  Marne  to  the  bay  of  Biscay 
and  the  river  Garonne,  which  divided  them 
from  the  Aquitani.  The  Belgeo  occupied,  there- 
fore, nearly  the  country  which  constitutes,  at 
present,  the  kinsdoms  of  Belgium  and  Holland. 
It  is  not  a  settled  point  among  ethnologists  how 
far  the  Belgss  and  Celta)  of  Gaul  were  of  differ- 
ent or  kindred  races;  nor  at  what  time,  whe- 
ther previous  or  subsequent  to  this  period,  the 
intermigrations  with  Britain  occurred,  which 


had  aa  their  result  the  establishment  of  a  Gam- 
bro-Briton,  rather  than  a  Celtic  population,  oa 
the  southern  shore  of  the  channel,  from  tha 
mouth  of  the  Seine  to  Douamenez  bay ;  nor  is 
it  well  ascerteined  whether  the  Cdts  of  Gaol 
were  analoffous  to,  or  identical  with — as  their 
name  would  seem  to  indicate — ^the  Celtic  Gafil 
of  the  highlands  of  Scotland;  or  with  the  Erse 
Celts  of  Ireland;  or,  lastly,  with  the  Cambro 
Celts  of  southern  and  western  England.  It  is 
assumed,  however,  from  many  considerations, 
that  the  Belgie  had  at  least  a  mixture  of  Teu- 
tonic blood,  if  they  were  not  Teutons ;  and  this 
the  obstinacy  and  doggedness  of  their  charac- 
ters,  and  the  absence  of  that  nervous  and  irri- 
table mobility,  both  of  intellect  and  temper, 
which  CfDsar  especially  ascribes  to  the  Celtio 
Gauls  of  his  day,  and  which  continues  to  the 
present  hour  to  be  a  characteristic  of  the  pure- 
ly Celtic  races,  seems  to  give  reason  for  accept- 
ing as  truth. 

BELGAUM,  a  town  m  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  British  India,  and  the  head-quarters  of 
the  southern  division  of  the  Bombay  army.  Its 
site  is  elevated  and  healthy,  and  it  is  stron^^y 
fortified.  The  British  captured  this  place  in 
1818,  after  a  long  and  vigorous  siege.  Popw 
about  8,000. 

BELGIOJOSO,  a  town  of  Lombardy,  north- 
ern Italy,  contiuning  a  fine  castle  belong- 
ing to  the  princes  of  Belgiojoso.  Frands  L 
passed  the  night  in  the  <»stle  after  his  de- 
feat at  Pavia,  Feb.  24, 1626.  Pop.  of  the  town, 
8,000. 

BELGIOJOSO,  Cmstiwa  TBrvriLao,  prin- 
cess of,  born  in  Milan,  June  28, 1808,  of  the 
illustrious  family  of  the  Trivulzios,  which  had 
been  Guelphic  for  centuries,  always  standing  for 
the  political  liberty  and  national  independence 
of  Italy.  Her  education  was  directed  by  the 
celebrated  Manzoni;  and  thus  by  culture,  as 
well  as  under  hereditary  tradition,  her  mind 
was  developed  in  the  love  of  freedom  and  of 
her  country.  In  the  year  1824,  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Hie  prince  Emiglio  di  Belgiojoso,  a  scion 
of  the  house  of  Este.  This  nnion  did  not  prove 
happy  for  the  princess.  Some  time  after  the 
marriage,  she  resided  successively  in  Florenoe, 
Naples,  and  Rome.  The  French  revolution  of 
1880  found  her  at  Geneva.  Shortly  afterward  a 
movement  took  place  in  Romagna,  and  one  was 
preparing  in  Lombardy,  when  Uie  princess  went 
to  Paris  to  ascertain  the  intentions  of  the  French 
cabinet  and  of  Louis  Philippe.  She  met  with  a 
cordial  reception  at  the  capital,  and  her  saloons 
were  at  once  filled  with  the  most  eminent  politi- 
cal and  scientific  men.  Lafayette  was  an  inti- 
mate, confidential,  and  daily  visitor.  The  strong 
preventive  measures  of  Austria,  however,  left  to 
the  patriots  of  Lombardy  no  hope  of  a  successful 
ridng,  and  the  suspected  chiefs  avoided,  by  a 
seasonable  escape,  the  dungeons  of  Spielberg, 
Carinthia,  and  Hungary.  Count  Appony,  the 
Austrian  ambassador  at  the  court  of  the  Tuiler- 
ies,  intimated  to  the  princess  that  she  must  either 
return  to  Milan,  or  that  her  immense  estates 


BELGIOJOBO 

woold  be  put  ymdee  seqnortratioD,  and  dnaQy 
oonfiacated.  She  did  not  hesitate  a  moment ;  in 
one  day  ahe  difimissed  her  household  and  car- 
liafles,  abandoned  the  Inxories  of  a  palace,  and 
to(^  a  small  apartment  several  stories  high. 
Here  she  was  not  deserted  by  French  society ;  sa- 
vantSy  statesmen,  artists,  paid  her  even  more 
ooort  in  tiiose  mean  lodgings  than  in  her  former 
splendor.  It  was  soggested  that  she  might  profit 
by  her  varied  talents.  Being  skilled  in  drawing, 
she  undertook  to  make  the  likenesses  of  the 
prominent  men  of  all  parties  in  the  chamber  of 
deputies^  of  whom  IL  Bichon  and  others  were 
to  write  bic^^phies.  Several  drawings  were 
thus  made,  but  a  severe  illness  interrupted  the 
undertaking.  Dnring  these  years  of  honorable 
poverty  the  prinoess  attended  the  lectures  of 
the  college  of  France,  of  the  Sorbonne,  of  the 
reformer  Bnohez,  and  many  others.  No  new 
idea  or  tendency  escaped  her  attention,  and  she 
became  familiar  with  the  whole  philosophical 
and  social  movement  of  that  epoch.  Her  small 
parlor  served  as  a  lecture  room  for  savants  and 
thinkers,  among  them  the  original  German 
Hoene  Wronsky,  and  the  celebrated  Italian, 
OrriolL  In  the  course  of  the  year  1884,  the 
Austrian  government,  yielding  to  the  entreaties 
of  the  mother  of  the  princess,  who  lived  at 
Milan,  somewhat  mitigated  its  severity,  and 
allowed  a  small  portion  of  her  previous  in* 
come  of  about  $140,000  a  vear  to  reach  her. 
Some  time  afterward,  through  the  interference 
of  her  friends,  and  principally  through  that  of 
Mignet,  the  celebrated  historian,  a  stanch  sup- 
porter and  fiftvorite  of  Louis  Philippe,  and  that 
of  Marshal  Sebastiani,  Louis  Philippe  obtained 
from  Prince  Mettemich  the  restoration  of  her 
fortune.  About  the  same  time  the  Saint  Si- 
moniana,  then  led  by  Enfantin,  Michel  Cheva- 
lier, and  Duvergier,  elected  her  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  living  law  in  the  name  of 
woman  made  socially  equal  with  man  in  the 
new  religion  which  they  were  then  preach- 
ing, but  she  declined  the  honor.  Restored 
to  her  estates,  the  prinoess  devoted  her 
time,  income,  and  even  her  capital,  to  ame- 
liorating the  condition  of  her  Italian  peasantry, 
establiuiing  numerous  elementary  scnools  ana 
aoylums  for  children,  endowing  marriageable 
Cprk,  and  organizing  regular  distributions  of 
sx>d  among  the  poor.  Always  prompt  to  alle- 
viate human  sunering,  when  Augustin  Thierry 
lost  his  wife,  who  was  his  reader,  the  princess 
undertook  to  become  the  amanuensis  of  the 
great  historian.  Some  writings  now  appeared 
under  her  name.  They  aim^  at  a  oatholio 
philosophy  in  imitation  of  the  Abb^  Bantin,  with 
astrong  tmgeof  the  Italian  spirit  In  ia47,  she 
went  to  Ituy,  then  fermenting  with  the  reforms 
of  Pius  IX.  She  visited  Geneva,  Florence, 
Bome^  ^^^^  and  took  up  her  residence  in 
Milan.  When  MOan  and  Lombardy  rose,  she 
proffered  her  whole  fortune  to  the  patriotio 
cause,  and  at  her  own  cost  equipped  several 
hundreds  of  volunteers,  but.  her  energetic 
oomiBela  were  sot  followed.    When  &te  de- 


BELGIUM 


88 


dded  against  Italy  on  the  plains  of  Oustozzai 
and  Milan  surrendered  to  the  enemy,  the 
princess  retired  to  Rome.  During  the  siege 
by  the  French  army,  she  animated  by  her 
fervor  the  defenders  of  the  city.  She  presided 
over  the  hospitals,  and  in  company  with  the 
American,  Margaret  Fuller,  devoted  night  and 
day  to  assuaging  the  sufferings  of  the  wounded. 
On  the  fall  of  Rome,  when  die  revolutionists 
were  sent  into  exile,  the  prinoess  shared 
their  lot  and  went  to  Malta,  whose  Irish 
commander  refused  them  a  landing.  They 
then  went  to  Athens,  the  heroic  woman  shar- 
ing the  common  sufferiugs  and  dividing  her 
scanty  purse  with  her  companions.  From 
Athens  she  went  to  Oonstantmople,  and  there 
earned  a  humble  livelihood  by  corresponding 
with  American  and  European  journals,  her  for- 
tune having  once  more  been  confiscated.  Final- 
ly, she  resided  several  years  in  Asia  Minor, 
under  the  special  protection  of  the  sultan,  who 
gave  her  a  grant  of  land  near  Nicomedia. 
After  travelliug  in  Syria,  she  was  on  her 
return  to  Constantinople,  when  she  was  mur^ 
derously  attacked  by  one  of  her  servants.  But 
the  wound  was  not  fatal.  After  her  recovery, 
she  returned  to  Europe  and  arrived  at  Paria 
In  1856  her  fortune  was  restored  to  her  by  the 
Austrian  government  M>ut  die  still  resides  at 
the  Fren<m  capital  Though  educated  in  all 
the  refinements  of  wedth  and  luxury,  she  has 
twice  deliberately  sacrificed  her  fortune  to  her 
convictions,  and  deliberately  chosen  poverty 
and  exile.  The  versatility  of  her  intellectu^ 
powers  is  remarki^le.  ^e  has  been  able  to 
Jeam  and  comprehend  the  most  various  and  op- 
posite sciences.  She  mastered  mathematics,  m 
which  Arago  was  her  teacher,  and  solved  the 
highest  problems  with  the  same  facility  as  song 
aud  music.  She  studied  and  mastered  the 
Ghinese.  Her  manners  are  marked  by  that 
graceful  ease  and  simplicity  peculiar  to  Italian 
women,  with  a  modesty  of  mind  peculiar  to 
herself^  and  without  any  disposition  to  make 
a  show  of  her  superior  acquirements.  A  work 
illustrative  of  Asiatic  life,  by  the  princess  Bel- 
giojoso,  has  recently  been  published  in  Paris. 
Her  husband,  who  was  one  of  the  roost  famous 
amateurs  of  music  in  Europe,  and  remarkable 
for  his  handsome  person,  died  at  Milan  at  the 
beginning  of  1858. 

BELGIUM  (Fr.  La  Bdgique^  Ger.  BdlgierC^ 
a  kingdom  of  Europe,  situated  between  the 
north-western  part  of  France  and  Holland, 
Germany,  and  the  North  sea,  and  extending 
from  49*^  81'  to  hV  27'  of  N.  lat,  and  from 
a**  87'  to  6«  of  E.  long.;  area,  2,942,674  heo- 
tares,  equal  to  about  7,278,612  acres ;  pop.  in 
1816,  rather  above  8,000,000 ;  in  1882,  4,064,- 
285;  in  1849,  4,859,090;  in  1856,  4,580,228. 
Its  greatest  length  from  S.  E.  to  N.  W.  is  178 
English  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  from  the 
most  northern  part  of  Antwerp  to  the  most 
southern  part  of  Hainaut,  is  112  miles.  Thla 
area  and  population  are  distributed  in  9  prov- 
inces, as  follows: 


BELGIUM 


Aatwvrp .  ^ . « 

Bi^bnnt . . . . , 

fifllluut 

Xiiobarg..., 

Humu- . 


T4ft.#T4 


1,  )M». 


44T,B£fl 


711,833 

728^5 

1S7^IS 
9e^l4S 


ISM. 


4S1485 
74^^40 

77fi,9G0 
7e*,B41 

1M,758 
£811^079 


7,2*5,61? [4. S*K),398,4;a5«,OeO  4,5S0,2aS 


The  chief  city  of  Belgium  is  Brussels,  pop. 
in  1850,  160,000.  The  other  important  cities 
are  Antwerp,  pop.  79,000.  Bmges,  pop.  49,600, 
Ghent,  pop.  115,296,  Liege,  pop.  80,245,  Na- 
mnr,  pop.  23,500,  and  Malines,  pop.  23,800. 
The  snr&oe  of  Belgium  is  generallj  leveL  In 
the  east  there  are  some  hign  and  well-wooded 
lands,  connected  with  the  Yoeges  mountains. 
Near  Malmedy  there  is  also  a  wild  tract  of 
elevated  conntry  of  smaD  extent^  the  highest 
elevation  not  exceeding  2,800  feet.  Between 
the  Mense  and  the  Scheldt  there  ib  another 
ridge. — The  rivers  of  Belgium  are  the  Keuse, 
the  Scheldt,  the  Ourthe,  and  the  Sambre. 
The  Meuse  runs  part  of  its  course  only  in 
Belgium,  rising  in  France  and  passing  through 
the  provinces  of  Namur  and  Li^ge.  It  is  nav- 
IgaUe  throughout  its  Belgian  course.  The 
[w)h^dt  rises  in  France,  enters  Belgium  in  the 
province  of  Hainaut,  and  runs  across  the 
Bdgian  territory,  passing  into  Holland  below 
Antwerp.  It  is  navigable  throughout  Belgium, 
but  the  sand  banks  at  its  mouth  interfere  with 
its  navigation,  and  the  policy  of  the  Dutch 
government  not  encouraging  a  removal  of 
mem,  the  commerce  of  Ajotwerp  soflEers  mate- 
rially. The  Ourthe  rises  in  the  Ardennes,  and 
fUls  into  the  Meuse  at  Li^ge.  The  Sambre 
flows  from  France  into  Belgium,  and  falls  into 
the  Keuse  at  Namur. — The  northern  part  of 
Belgium  is  of  tertiary  formation.  In  the  south- 
eastern provinces  the  lower  formations  are  red 
sandstone  and  limestone,  resting  upon  granite, 
quartz,  and  slate.  Fossil  animals  are  very  numer- 
ous; the  limestone  caverns  through  which  the 
river  Lesse  has  made  its  way  are  remaricable 
natural  curiosities.  £.  and  W.  ilanders  are 
principally  sand.  —  After   England,    Belgium 

gelds  more  fuel  than  any  oUier  country  in 
arope,  the  coal-fields  |producing  in  1855 
6,500,000  of  tons  (representmg  a  value  of  nearly 
^0,000,000),  of  which  f  are  consumed  in  the 
country,  and  the  rest  exported  to  France  and 
Holland.  The  production  of  iron  is  also  large, 
amounting  in  1855  to  750,000  tons.  The  best 
iron  is  found  in  the  country  between  the  Sam- 
bre and  the  Keuse.  Lead,  manganese,  and 
other  minerals,  especially  zinc,  are  found  in 
various  parts  of  the  country.  The  most  cele- 
brated zinc  mines  are  between  Li^ge  and  Aix 
la  Ohapelle.  The  country  abounds  at  the  same 
time  in  building,  paving,  and  lime  stones,  roof- 
ing slate,  and  marble.  The  black  marble  of 
Dissant  ib  renowned  for  its  beauty.    The  min- 


eral  wealfli  of  Bslginm  ia^  next  to  agrieultiiie, 
the  most  important  source  of  her  national  pros- 
perity.   The  most  celebrated  mineral  q^rin^s 
of  Bdgium  are  at  the  flEunous  watering  place 
Spa,  which  is  situated  near  the  frontier  of 
Rhenish  Prussia.    Another  popular  watering 
place  of  Belgium  ib  OstoMi,  to  whidi  many 
visitors  resort  for  the   purpose   of  bathing 
in  the  sea. — ^The  canaki  though  numeroua^  are 
not  equal  in  length  to  those  of  Holland,  being 
about  800  miles.    The  greatest  ai  these  is  t^e 
Brussdsoanal,  suppliedby  theriverLenne^  which 
was  opened  in  1550.    Ghent  is  connected  with 
the  sea  by  a  canal  opening  into  the  £.  Scheldt,  in 
some  measure  accounting  ibr  the  Dutch  control 
of  the  mouth  of  that  nver.    It  admits  veasds 
drawing  18  feet.    The  railways  of  Belgium 
were  the  earliest  of  ocmtinental  Europe,  and 
rapidly  followed  those  of  England,  which  they 
have  surpawed  in  unity  of  dedgn  and  economy 
of  construction.     Soon  after  King  Leopold^a 
accession,  he  took  measures  to  estoblish  rail- 
ways.   The  country  was  surveyed  and  levelled 
by  government  engineers,  the  lines  decided 
on,  and  the  permanent  way  was  constructed  at 
the  expense  of  the  country.    Mechlin,  on  ac- 
count of  superior  engineering  advantages,  was 
made  tiie  centre  of  the  ^stem.    The  polipy  of 
low  fares  and  good  acoommodation  was  adopt- 
ed, and  the  result,  if  not  one  of  snooess  as  a 
commercial  epeculation,  has  answered  the  aims 
of  a  wise  government — ^There  are  nearly  550 
miles  of  ndlway  now  opeiLpaying  8^  per  cent, 
interest  on  their  outlay,    llie  receipts  of  the 
public  treasury  from  railways  in  1856  were 
22,780,000   francs,  and   in   1857,  28,780,000 
francs.     The  total  cost  of  the  eartii  works 
and  permanent  way  has   been    $88,268,061, 
raised    in   5   national    loans. — ^Electric  tele- 
graphs have  been  in  operation  since  March  15, 
1851,  and  belong  to'  the  government — ^The 
Roman  Gatholio  religion  is  predominant  in  Bel- 
gium.   The  stipends  of  ministers  of  all  denom- 
inations  are  aerived   from   the  state.     The 
archbishop  of  Malines  is  the  Oathdic  primate. 
There  are  government  universities  at  Ghent 
and  Ii6ge,  a  Boman  Oatholio  university  at 
Louvain,  and  a  firee   nniv^rnty  at  Brussels. 
There  are  superior  public  schools  in  most  of 
the  dties,  beside  the  primary  schools  through- 
out the  kingdom ;   and   a  great  number  of 
schools  have  been  established  for  instruction 
in  particular  branches  of  industry — agricultu- 
ral processes,  chemistry,  design. — ^The  number 
of  Journals  gradually  rose  from  84  iu  1830  to 
about  200  in  1848,  of  which  from  50  to  60 
were  published  in  the  Flemish  language  and 
the  rest  chiefly  in  French.    The  abc^tion  of  the 
stamp  tax  in  the  latter  year  and  the  rednctioa 
of  the  rate  of  postage  have  given  a  further  im- 
petus to  the  circulation  or  newspa^rs,  and 
their  number  has  been  continually  increadn^ 
within  the  last  10  years.    The  Independanos 
Belge^  a  liberal  Journal  published  at  Brussels^ 
and  oriffinally  established  in  1881,  under  the 
name  of  Indip€nd$fU^  has  the  largest  drcula- 


BELGIUM 


85 


laon  and  iboat  9,000  solMoriberB.  The  Obser^ 
taUur^  establtthed  at  Brossels  sinoe  1885,  is 
leas  eonBe^ati^e  in  its  tone,  and  the  other 
first-olaBS  Journals  in  the  liberal  interest  are 
the  Preeunemr,  issued  at  Antwerp  since  1886 
(an  important  shipping  and  commercial  paper), 
the  Journal  de  LUge^  puhliahed  in  the  latter 
dtj  (one  of  the  oldest  Journals  of  Belgium, 
established  during  the  Spanish  and  Austrian 
rule),  the  Measager  de  Gand,  the  prindpal  po- 
litic Journal  of  Ghent,  the  Jowmal  de  Venidrs^ 
De  SGkdd^  the  best  ilemish  Journal  of  Ant- 
werp, and  the  BurgerwelMiyn^  an  important 
Flemish  organ,  published  at  Bruges.  The 
other  politioEil  Journals  which  eqjoy  the  largest 
patronage^  are  the  Emancipation  of  Brussels 
(in  the  interest  of  the  so-called  Oatholio  party), 
the  Jownai  de  BruxeUet  (the  official  organ 
of  the  ultramontane  party),  the  Oautte  de 
Liege^  the  J<mmal  d?Anver$y  the  GoMervatetir^ 
and  the  Standaert  (the  latter  in  Flemish),  pub- 
lished at  Ghent^  and  the  Ami  de  Vard/re^  at 
Namur.  The  principal  organs  of  the  democratic 
party  are  the  Nation^  of  Brussels,  the  Tribum^ 
of  Li^  and  the  Scforme^  of  Yerviers.  The 
maOe  Edge  and  the  TeUgraphe  (the  latter  in 
ezistenoe  since  Sept  1654),  are  anti-Bonapart- 
ist  journals,  published  at  Brussels.  The  Ifard^ 
which  appeared  within  the  last  few  years  at 
Brussels^  is  a  Journal  dedicated  to  the  interests 
and  policy  of  Russia.  The  organ  of  the  gov- 
ernment is  the  Moniteur  Beige,  in  existence 
rince  1831.  The  independent  and  general 
new8pq>erB  of  larsest  circulation  are  the  JSoho 
de  BruxeUee  and  tibe  Jou/mal  de  Belgique,  both 
published  at  the  capital,  where  also  2  satirical 
prints  flourish,  namely,  the  Saneko  and  tiie 
MephiMtopheiea*  The  principal  historical  mag- 
asine  is  the  Menager  dee  eeieneee  Metoriquee, 
published  at  Ghent  since  1888.  The  most  ^n- 
inent  polemical  periodicals  are  the  Bevue  eath- 
oUgue  (conducted  by  the  professors  of  the  uni- 
versity of  LouvaineX  the  Journal  historiqae 
et  litUraire  (a  rigidly  orthodox  publication, 
conducted  with  great  ability  by  kersten,  of 
IA6ge),  and  the  Beime  TrimestrieUe,  proffressive 
in  its  tradencies^  which  appeared  at  Brussels 
since  1854  The  principal  Flemish  magazine  is 
the  Taaieerhond  of  Antwerp.  The  principal 
religious  papers  for  the  Roman  Oatholio  inter- 
ests are,  the  JPrSoie  hiitcriquee,  litUraires  et 
edem^fiquee,  in  existence  sinoe  1863,  and  for 
the  i^testants  the  OUmewr  miteumnaire^  ea- 
tabHabed  in  1844^  and  the  ChrUien  Beige  et 
P  Dhion^  in  existence  since  1850.  Ilie  principal 
oi^gaa  of  industrial  enterprises  is  the  Bulletin 
de  Pinduatriey  of  fine  arts  the  Btnaieeanee,  of 
music  the  Gaeette  mueieale.  The  principal  pe- 
riodical devoted  to  the  cause  of  education  is 
the  Moniteur  de  Veneeignementj  published  at 
Toumao,  while  Jurisprudence,  medicine,  and 
otiber  sciences  are  equally  represented  by  mag- 
aanefl^  which  aH  sprung  up  within  the  last  20 
years.  literature  and  science  are  much  indebt- 
ed for  their  progress  to  the  efforts  of  the  vari- 
ous academies  of  acimces^  of  whioh  the  institu- 


tion of  Brussels  is  the  most  important,  and  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  government  Ouet- 
eleLin  the  held  of  mathematics:  Nothomb,  de 
Gerlaohe,  Grachard,  Borguet,  and  others,  in  this 
sphere  of  history ;  Ck>n8cience,  the  Flemish 
novelist,  Bormans,  Blommaert,  &c.,  in  the 
science  of  philology;  Willems,  tlie  eminent 
Flemish  scholar,  in  the  same  branch  of  knowl- 
edge; Beriot,  Vieuxtemps,  F^tia,  in  music ;  Gal- 
lait,  de  Keyaer,  van  Eyken,  Yerboekhoven,  Jcc, 
in  jpainting;  Jehotte,  Froikin,  &c.,  in  slatuary, 
and  many  other  contemporaneous  names  in  vi^ 
nous  other  branches  of  literature,  science,  and 
art,  attest  the  growth  and  intellectual  activity  of 
this  young  and  prosperous  country. — ^The  agri- 
culture of  Belgium  is  not  surpassed  by  that 
of  anv  nation.  The  originally  uufavori- 
ble  soil  has  by  generations  of  careful  culture 
been  raised  to  great  productiveness.  Large 
farms  are  rare,  the  subdivisions  of  the  soil  have 
been  carried  down  to  garden  size,  and  less  tiian 
^j  of  the  whole  area  of  the  kingdom  is  un^ 
profitable.  Flax  is  an  object  of  peculiar  care 
in  Belgium,  and  the  Belgian  system  of  cultiva- 
tion is  studied  everywhere.  £.  and  W.  Flaa- 
ders  alone  produce  flax  to  the  value  of 
$8,000,000  annually.  The  artificial  grasses  are 
also  generally  productive,  while  the  production 
of  root  crops  oy  artificial  manure  is  matter  of 
elaborate  study  and  attention.  Belgium  is  cel- 
ebrated for  its  horses,  of  which  it  possesses 
nearlv  800,000.  Those  of  the  Ardennes  are 
exceUent  cavalry  horses,  and  those  of  Kamnr 
are  fJEtmous  draught  horses.  The  number  of 
cattle  exceeds  1,000,000,  and  of  sheep  700,00a 
The  government  pays  special  attention  to  the  im- 
provement of  horses  and  cattle. — In  commercial 
pursuits  and  manufactures,  Belgium  has  long 
enjoyed  the  highest  reputation.  But  the  fame 
of  her  linens  and  woven  goods  had  somewhat 
deteriorated  fh>m  their  high  estimation  in  the 
14th  centui^,  until  the  separation  fh>m  Hol- 
land. The  lace  of  Brussels  and  Mechlin,  the 
linens  and  damftsks  of  Oambray  and  Li^ge, 
the  woollens  of  Tpres,  the  cotton  goods,  car- 
pets, and  hosiery,  compete  with  the  productiona 
of  the  French  and  English  looms.  The  mSr 
chine  factory  of  Oockenll  and  Oo.,  founded  at 
li^ge  in  1816,  is  one  of  the  greatest  works  of 
tiie  kind  in  Europe.  li^  has  a  cannon  foun^ 
dery,  and  is  notea  for  its  manufactories  of  fire- 
arms.— ^The  foreign  commerce  of  Belgium  dur^ 
ing  its  connection  with  Holland  suffered  for 
the  sake  of  Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam,  and 
Judicious  plans  of  internal  improvement  have 
dnce  occupied  the  national  attention.  The 
entries  at  the  Belgian  ports,  chiefly  Antwerp 
and  Ostend,  in  1855,  were  2,558  vessels, 
of  441,554  tons,  and  the  clearances  were  2,507 
vessels,  of  482,457  tons.  The  hnports  for  the 
same  year  were  854,706,000,  and  the  exports 
875,281,000  francs.  The  imports  from  the 
United  States  to  Dec  1857,  were  $1,950,698^ 
and  the  exports  to  that  country  $5,060,811. 
The  revenue  of  Belgium  for  1857  was  188^ 
604^990  francs,  and  the  expenditure  186,680,75a 


BELGIUM 


The  public  debt  was  created  bj  the  aasnmption 
of  220,000,000  j^ancs  of  Hie  enormous  deot  of 
the  kisgdom  of  Netherlands  at  the  time  of  the 
separation,  and  now  consists  of  685,946,647 
francs,  a  large  portion  of  which  has  been  ex« 
pended  at  home,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  rail? 
ways.  The  mihtarj  force  of  the  kingdom, 
according  to  the  law  of  Jane  8,  1858,  consists 
on  the  war  footing  of  100,000  men,  beside 
tiie  national  guar£  The  actual  standing 
army  in  1867  was,  however,  78,718  men. — 
The  history  of  Belgium  as  an  independent  state 
dates  from  1880,  at  which  time  it  was  sep- 
arated from  the  kingdom  of  the  ^Netherlands. 
After  the  decay  of  the  Roman  empire  a  number 
of  independent  nobles  established  themselves 
in  Belgium,  among  whom  the  counts  of  Flan- 
ders rose  to  historical  distinction ;  for  failure  of 
male  heirs  their  possessions  devolved  to  the 
house  of  Burgundy,  in  1885,  which  gradually  ex- 
tended its  influence,  by  conquest  or  treaty,  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Netherlands.  On  the 
death  of  Charles  the  Bold,  his  daughter  Mary, 
the  greatest  heiress  of  Europe,  married  Maxi- 
milian, emperor  of  Germany,  and  in  his  success- 
or Oharles  V.  the  rule  of  the  Flemish  provinces 
was  joined  to  the  crowns  of  Spain  and 
Austria.  Both  Maximilian  and  Charles  re- 
spected the  freedom  and  rights  of  their  indus- 
trious and  stout-hearted  Batavian  and  Belgian 
subjects,  and  were  careful  to  make  no  encroach- 
ments. But  Philip  n.,  at  once  a  fanatic  and  a 
despot,  severely  tried  their  patience,  and  his 
fiscal  exactions,  with  the  establishment  of  the 
inquisition,  drove  them  to  that  famous  revolt 
which  ended  in  the  independence  of  the  TTnited 
Provinces,  and  the  confirmation  of  the  yoke  of 
Spain  on  the  necks  of  the  Belgians.  From  this 
period  Belg^ium  followed  the  fortunes  of  Spain. 
In  1698  Philip  bestowed  the  Flemish  provinces 
on  his  daughter  Isabella  and  her  husband  Al- 
bert, during  which  period  something  was  ef- 
fected toward  the  settlement  of  the  internal 
afEfdrs  of  the  province.  On  the  death  of  Isa- 
bella without  issue,  Spain  again  assumed  the 
government,  and  the  Low  Countries  were  for  the 
next  century  the  battle-field  of  Europe.  The 
dties  were  taken  and  retaken,  the  territory  cut 
im,  and  passed  from  one  power  to  another  by 
the  treaties  of  Aix  la  Chapelle,  Nimeguen,  and 
Byswick ;  and,  as  though  these  influences  had 
not  been  sufficiently  usurious  to  the  country, 
the  treaty  of  1716  delivered  over  several  of  the 
fortresses  of  Belgium  to  her  commercial  rival 
Holland,  in  order  to  create  a  barrier  against 
French  ambition.  Holland  closed  the  Scheldt, 
and  so  diverted  the  trade  of  Antwerp,  and  in 
1722  the  risiuff  commerce  of  Ostend  was  sac- 
rificed to  the  Dutch.  At  the  end  of  the  war 
of  succession  the  Low  Countries  passed,  ^tlmost 
in  their  former  integrity,  to  the  nouse  of  Aus- 
tria. The  empress  Maria  Theresa  appointed 
Charles,  duke  of  Lorraine,  her  viceroy,  and  in 
his  mild  and  equitable  rule,  the  people  enjoyed 
an  interval  of  peace.  Joseph  II.  shook  off  the 
bonds  of  the  barrier  treaty  with  the  Dutch,  and 


compelled  Holland  to  withdraw  her  army  of  oc- 
cupation, but  could  not  succeed  in  re-opening 
the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt  Joseph  IL  also  ad- 
dressed himself  to  the  reform  of  existing  abuses ; 
but  in  Belgium,  as  in  other  parts  «f  his  empire, 
his  precipitation  placed  a  lever  in  the  hands  of 
those  who  opposed  his  plans,  which  they 
used  successfully  to  excite  popular  discontent 
against  his  measures.  The  states  were  against 
him  and  refused  to  pay  taxes.  In  1788  the 
Catholic  seminary  of  Louvain,  which  had  been 
closed  by  the  government,  was  reopened. 
This  sign  of  weiSmess  encouraged  the  aiscon- 
tented,  who  at  once  organized  for  measures  of 
active  resiBtance.  The  theories  of  freedom, 
and  the  schemes  for  a  new  organization  of 
society,  which  were  at  that  period  rife  in  the 
French  capital,  spread  to  the  Low  Countries, 
and  on  Dec.  11,  1789,  the  discontent  was  made 
evident  by  a  movement  in  Brussels  against  the 
garrison,  which  was  forced  to  capitulate. 
Joseph  and  his  successor  Leopold  made  liberal 
offers  for  an  adiustment  of  the  differences  and 
for  the  re^tablishment  of  the  constitution.  But 
the  liberal  leaders  reftised  all  terms^  and,  ren- 
dered over-confident  by  their  past  success,  stood 
out  for  an  independent  republic.  Internal  dis- 
sensions soon  threw  them  mto  the  power  of  the 
Austrians  again,  when  Pichegru  crossed  the 
frontier  under  instructions  from  the  directory,  to 
assist  the  Belgians.  The  Austrians  were  rap- 
idly driven  ba^  and  the  Belgians  found  them- 
selves incorporated  into  the  French  republic, 
their  dream  of  independence  dissipated,  and 
eventually  they  became  a  part  of  the  empire. 
On  the  al>dication  of  Fontainebleau  Belgium  was 
put  under  the  control  of  an  Austrian  governor, 
but  on  the  final  peace  Prince  William  Frederic 
of  Orange-Nassau  received  as  the  reward  of  his 
faithftil  adherence  to  the  allied  cause,  the  ter- 
ritory and  title  of  king  of  the  Netherlands. 
The  inclinations  and  habits  of  the  Belgians, 
which  led  them  to  a  French  alliance,  were  not 
consulted  in  this  settlement;  nevertheless  a  tern* 
perate  and  conciliating  policy  on  tJie  part  of 
the  Dutch  would  no  doubt  have  smoothed  away 
obstacles  between  parties  whose  ancient  recol- 
lections might  have  prompted  friendly  relations. 
As  it  was,  the  differences  which  might  have 
formed  the  strongest  bonds  of  union  in  mutual 
support  became  the  grounds  of  mutual  aver- 
sion. The  Dutch  were  engaged  in  commerce, 
the  Flemings  in  agriculture  and  manu&otures. 
The  Belgians,  from  an  uninterrupted  intercourse 
not  only  during  the  republic  and  the  empire, 
but  since  the  days  of  Ix>uis  XIY..  had  adopted 
the  French  language,  at  least  in  tne  higher  car- 
des,  and  in  all  public  proceedings.  The  Dutch 
were  Protestant  and  Calvinist,  the  Bel^ans 
Catholic.  The  Dutch  were  only  half  as  nu- 
merous in  the  new  kingdom  as  the  Belgians. 
The  education  and  modes  of  thought  of  the 
Dutch  were  particularly  staid  and  leaned  to 
Puritanism.  The  Belgians  in  their  free  inter- 
course with  France  had  acquired  ideas  and 
prindples,  which,  in  their  liberalism  and  in- 


BELGIUM 


87 


dependence  of  aoihorit^  and  traditioxL  were 
the  very  opposite  of  Batch  preoision  and  con- 
servatism. Unfortunately  the  Dutch  looked 
on  the  new  territory  as  the  spoils  of  victory. 
The  Hague  was  henceforth  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. The  use  of  the  French  language  in  ju- 
dicifd  and  government  proceedings  was  to  he 
abolished;  and  although  the  ordinances  for 
oanying  out  this  arrangement  were  mitigated 
to  meet  objections,  still  the  offensive  order  re- 
mained. In  the  states-general  Holland  with 
her  2,000,000  was  to  have  a  number  of  repre- 
sentatives equal  to  Belgium  with  her  nearly 
4,000,000  of  Deople.  Belgium  had  only  a  debt 
of  4,000,000  florins,  Holland  a  debt  of  1,200- 
000,000  florins.  This  was  imposed  on  Bel- 
gian industry.  The  constitution  which  con- 
tained all  these  objectionable  provisions  was 
passed  by  an  assembly  in  which  the  dissentient 
Belgian  nobility  were  an  actual  m^ority,  but 
tiie  absent  Belgians  were  reckoned  as  assenting, 
and  thus  the  majority  present  was  converted 
into  a  minority.  The  neart-bumings  and  an- 
cient rivalry  of  the  two  countries  were  increased 
as  well  by  the  measures  themselves  as  by  the 
proceedings  taken  from  year  to  year  to  carry 
them  into  effect  The  flame^  which  might  have 
died  out  from  n^ect,  was  kept  alive  by  per- 
petual £uining.  The  opposition  was  composed 
of  heterogeneous  elements,  French  liberalists 
with  CSatholic  ultramontamsts.  This  divided 
party  was  permitted  to  fhse  into  a  union  which 
was  designated  *^ monstrous^'  by  the  king,  but 
the  mere  fact  ought  to  have  been  a  warning. 
There  was  indeed  but  one  sentiment  in  the  Bcu- 
pjan  opposition.  They  accorded  upon  the  most 
irreconcilable  questions,  provided  only  that  in 
such  unnatural  friendship  they  could  display 
their  enmity  against  the  Dutch  government, 
which  in  1829  decided  on  energetic  proceedings. 
In  Kay,  1830,  disregarding  640  petitions,  thev 
carried  a  new  law  of  the  press.  Officials  hold- 
ing Belgian  opinions  were  dismissed.  K.  de 
Potter,  the  head  of  the  Belgian  parly,  opened  a 
0uh6cription  for  all  those  who  thus  simered  for 
their  principles.  De  Potter  and  his  confidential 
iKends,  Tielemans,  Bartels,  andDeNewes,  were 
arraigned  for  sedition ;  the  charge  was  proved 
by  tibeir  private  correspondence  with  each 
other.  They  were  banished.  The  public  mind 
was  in  a  state  of  excitement,  which  was  raised 
to  its  highest  pitch  of  intensity  by  the  revolu- 
tion of  July  in  Paris.  At  length  on  Auffust  25, 
1880,  Auber's  Masaniello  (La  Muette  de  r^fridc^ 
was  performed  at  the  grand  opera,  at  Brussels. 
The  ^hit-stirring  airs  moved  Uie  souls  of  those 
present,  and  the  market-chorus  and  the  revolu- 
tionary scene  sent  the  eleotric  shock  vibrating 
through  all  hearts;  the  house  was  rf^>idly  emp- 
tied, the  streets  resounded  with  tumiijtuous 
cries,  and  the  first  Uow  of  Belgian  independ- 
ence was  at  once  struck.  The  office  of  the 
National  newspaper,  the  government  organ, 
was  at  once  attacked,  the  matMel  destroyed, 
and  the  residence  of  its  chief  editor,  Libry 
Bi^ano,  was  the  next  point  which  shared  the 


same  his.  The  people  now  proceeded  in  thw 
work;  they  divided  themselves  into  parties, 
broke  open  the  armorers'  shops,  attacked  the 
houses  of  the  Dutch  ministers,  and  had  posses- 
sion of  the  town  all  xught.  gratifying  their 
rage  on  the  government  offices  and  establish- 
ments. The  troops  were  mustered,  but  nothing 
could  be  done  until  daybreak.  They  were  then 
ordered  out,  without  anycombined  plan;  they 
fired  upon  the  people.  This  only  increased  the 
popular  exasperation.  Barricades  were  formed, 
and  outrages  commenced  on  private  property. 
The  civic  guard  now  turned  out,  took  possea- 
irion  of  the  military  posts  and  restored  order. 
The  news  of  the  revolution  in  Brussels  spread 
rapidly  through  the  kingdom,  and  in  all  the 
principal  cities  the  same  scene  was  refinacted. 
On  August  28,  a  congress  of  various  citizens 
of  distinction  took  place  at  the  hotel  de 
ville,  in  Brussels;  they  adopted  an  address  to 
the  king,  which  was  altered  by  the  dep- 
uties of  Li^  into  a  petition.  They  asked 
for  reform  of  the  system  of  government 
and  dismissal  of  the  unpopular  ministers; 
trial  by  imj  in  criminal  prosecutions  and  pro- 
ceedings a£^ting  the  press.  The  king  received 
the  deputies  at  the  Hague,  and  refused  to  pledge 
himself  to  any  tMng  while  under  menaces  of 
force,  but  promised  an  early  consideration  of 
the  matter.  This  answer  gave  great  dis8ati»- 
faction.  Subsequently  the  crown  prince  was 
induced  to  visit  Brussels,  which  he  found  almost 
impassable  from  the  impromptu  fortifications 
raised  bv  tiie  people.  He  held  a  conference  with 
the  leadmg  men  of  tiie  city,  and  appointed  a  com- 
mittee for  redress  of  mevancea.  The  LiSge 
deputies,  however,  boldly  told  the  prince  that 
nothing  short  of  total  separation  from  HoUand 
would  now  pacify  tiie  people.  The  prince  lis- 
tening with  commendaole  patience,  tne  orator 
of  the  party  advanced  such  cogent  reasons  that 
he  promised  to  report  the  matter  to  the  king,  if 
on  their  part  thev  would  pledge  themselves  for 
the  loyalty  of  the  Belgians  to  the  house  of 
Orange.  The  compact  was  carried  by  acclama- 
tion. The  prince  dissolved  the  recently  formed 
committee,  and  returned  to  the  Hague.  The 
king  summoned  here  a  states-general  extraor- 
dinary, on  Sept  18.  It  was  numerously  at- 
tended. Matters  were  put  in  train,  but  the 
Dutch,  with  their  accustomed  phlegm,  showed 
a  dilatoriness  which  the  impetuosity  of  some  of 
the  Belgian  deputies  attributed  to  intentional 
procrastination.  Baron  de  Staffart  proclaimed 
Ids  convictions  loudly  on  this  head,  and  the  com- 
mittee of  safety  at  Li^  issued  a  proclamation 
in  the  name  of  the  people.  The  government 
was  deposed  and  a  new  one  formed  under  the 
administration  of  De  Potter  and  De  Staffiurt  The 
king,  on  the  requisition  of  some  of  the  Dutch 
party,  now  sent  troops  to  Brussels,  and  a  pro- 
damation  was  issuea  calling  on  the  rebels  to 
submit  and  to  remove  the  tricolor.  On  Sept 
20,  the  streets  of  Brussels  were  rendered  com- 
pletely impassable.  Prince  Frederic  advanced 
with  16,000  men,  and  on   Sept  28,  attacked 


88 


BELGIUM 


the  Porte  de  Saarbrtlck.  After  a  battle  of  6 
boars  the  troops  fought  their  way  through  the 
streets  to  the  palaoe,  and  for  8  days  there  was 
an  incessant  engagement,  during  which  the 
Datoh  made  themselves  masters  of  the  princi- 
pal part  of  the  city.  But  the  men  of  li^ge 
now  put  themselves  in  motion;  rednforoements 
ponred  in,  the  insurgents  recovered  strength, 
and  under  the  Judicious  advice  of  GoL  Don  Juan 
van  Halen  ana  Gen.  Mellinet,  Prince  Frederic's 
position  became  hopeless.  He  ordered  a  retreat ; 
Brussels  was  won ;  Mons,  Ghent,  Tpres,  and  all 
the  other  leading  towns,  at  once  declared  in  fa- 
vor of  total  separation,  and  on  Oct  6,  the  Dutch 
garrison  of  Li^  capitulated.  Antwerp  was 
now  the  only  important  place  which  remained 
in  the  hands  of  the  Dutch,  and  even  in  that  city 
their  authority  was  rapidly  crumbling  away. 
Gen.  OhaB86  had  thrown  hmiself  into  tiie  cita- 
del, and  the  authorities  agreed  on  an  armistice. 
But  the  insurgent  forces  repudiated  the  right 
of  the  magistrates  to  negotiate  with  the  enemy, 
and  summoned  Ohass6  to  surrender.  He,  how- 
ever, only  opened  his  guns  on  the  quarter  of  the 
town  in  which  the  revolutionary  troops  lay,  and 
did  much  harm  to  the  city,  beside  destroying  a 
vast  quantity  of  valuable  merchandise.  •  A  pro- 
visional government  had  been  already  formed 
in  Brussels,  consisting  of  Baron  van  Hoogvorst, 
Charles  Bogier,  Jolly,  Count  Felix  de  Merode, 
M.  Gendebien,Yan  de  Weyer,  Potter,  and  some 
others.  They  appointed  the  various  ministers, 
summoned  a  national  congress,  and  settled  the 
basis  of  a  constitution  wnich  recognized  the 
monarchical  principle.  Secretaries  Northomb 
and  Paul  Devaur  were  directed  to  prepare  a 
draft  of  a  constitution  in  accordance  with  this 
basis.  Prince  Frederic  meanwhile  announced 
the  independence  of  Bel^^um.  It  was  too  late. 
On  Oct.  25  he  quitted  Antwerp,  and  2  days 
afterward  Gen.  Chass6  commenced  a  2  days' 
bombardment  of  the  town,  by  which  wanton 
act  the  Dutch  part^  crushed  out  aU  chance  of  a 
friendly  settlement.  On  Nov.  10,  the  national 
congress  was  opened — ^the  independence  of 
Belgium  proclaimed.  The  form  of  monarchical 
government  was  adhered  to,  but  the  exclusion 
of  the  house  of  Orange  forever  from  the  crown 
of  Belgium,  was  carried  by  an  overwhelming 
minority.  King  William  now  turned  to  the 
great  powers  who  had  g^ven  him  Belgium  and 
guaranteed  his  quiet  ei\joyment  of  his  new  do- 
minion. At  his  request  a  congress  was  sum- 
moned in  London,  in  which  all  the  important 
parties  were  represented.  The  importance  of 
this  step,  in  reference  to  the  settlement  of  Eu- 
rope by  the  holy  alHance  and  the  congress  of 
Vienna,  can  hardly  be  overstated.  It  opened 
the  door  for  all  future  alterations  in  the  balance 
of  power,  and  nothing  but  the  imminent  danger 
of  keepinff  open  a  dangerous  outlet  for  diraffec- 
tion  could  have  induced  the  astute  poUtioiana 
of  Europe  to  pass  this  great  point  The  confer- 
ence at  once  ordered  an  armistice,  and  tiie  re- 
tirement of  the  troops  of  botb  parties  within 
their  respective  frontien.     On  Jan.  20, 1881, 


the  independence  of  Beldam  was  adknowlr 
edged  by  the  congress.     William  of  Holland 
protested  against  this  declaration,  but  as  it 
was  coupled  with  an  apportionment  of  half 
the  Dutch  debt  to  Beljg^um,  he  angracnonsly 
submitted.    Belgiuxn,  on  the  other  hand,  pro- 
tested against  the  debt,  which  entailed  upon  her 
the  payment  of  14,000,000  florins  annually.  The 
next  question  was  a  monarch.    The  crown  was 
offered  to  the  duke  of  Kemours^  Louis  Philippe^s 
son,  and  declined,  why  we  know  not    This  de- 
clension threw  a  degree  of  embarrassment  over 
the  proceedings  of  Uie  contoence,  and  thero  is 
ground  for  believing  that  the  plan  of  dividini; 
the  territory  like  another  Poland,  among  the 
strongest,  was  mooted.    In  the  national  con- 
gress, however,  it  was  determined  by  a  m^jori^ 
to  appoint  a  regent  in  place  of  the  provindal 
government,  and  Baron  Surletde  Choquierwas 
elected.    He  took  the  rems  of  government  and 
named  a  ministry,  which  being  composed  of  in:- 
congruous  materials  soon  resigned,  and  another 
was  appointed.    The  choice  of  the  ministiy  and 
natioxud  congress  now  fell  on  Leopold  of  Saza- 
Coburg,  to  whom,  being  found  not  unwilling, 
a  formal  offer  of  the  crown  was  made,  which  he 
accepted.    He  held  the  balance  between  France 
and  Germany,  while  his  relationship  to  England 
as  widower  of  the  Princess  Charlotte  was  enoog^ 
to  insure  his  independence  of  continental  in^- 
trigues,  yet  not  to  implicate  him  too  de^ly  with 
British  politics.    On  July  21, 1881,  he  ascended 
the  throne  of  Belgium.    Bcarcely  had  his  reign 
ooDunenced  when  Holland,  in  defiance  of  llie 
armistice,  sent  an  army  across  the  frontier,  and 
Leopold  found  himself  engaged  in  war,  with  a 
Idngdom  all  disorganized,  an  army  hastily  levied, 
and  an  unformed  administration*  Leopold  asked 
aid  from  France,  which  was  promptiy  afforded, 
and  the  duke  of  Orleans  marched  an  army  to 
Brussels,  which  compelled  the  Dutch  forces  to 
retreat    acroas  their   frxmtier.     William   of 
Holland  had  not,  .however,  given  his  consent 
to  the  new  order  of  things  in  Belgium,  see- 
inff  that  as  yet  the  question  of  the  puhlio 
debt  was  not  satis&ctorily  disposed  of    Ao- 
oordingly,  tiie  conference  determined  on  ootn* 
peUing  Holland  to  evacuate  the  Belgian  terri- 
tory, and  an  Anglo-French  army  was  despatched 
to  drive  the  Dutch  out  of  Antwerp,  Fort  lillo, 
and  Liefkenshoek.  The  siege  of  Antwerp  b^gaa 
Nov.  19, 1882,  and  on  the  24:th  Gen.  Chass6  ca- 
pitulated«    The  other  fortresses  were,  however, 
not  evacuated,  but  Leopold  declared  hunself  sat- 
isfied to  hold  Limburgand  Luxembourg  affainst 
the  strong  plaoes  in  question,  and  accordingly  the 
French  army  retired.   On  Aug.  0,1882,  Leopold 
married  the  princess  of  Orleans,  daughter  of 
Louis  Philippe.    The  new  king  soon  found  him* 
self  obliged  to  dissolve  the  chamber  which  had 
elected  him,  and  to  summon  a  second.    The  in^- 
extinguishable  hostilK^  of  Holland  kept  up  a 
state  of  great  irritation  in  Belgium,  which  was 
not  allayed,  wh^  upon  the  surrender  of  Lux^ 
embourg  to  the  Dutch,  in  pursuance  of  the  trea^ 
of  1881,  theLuzemboargeraprotostedlowUy  and 


BELGimC 

fttea  raised  arebdlioxi,  petidoning  King  Lecmold 
to  maintaiii  the  integrity  of  the  provmoe.  ffot- 
withstanding  ih»  threatening  aspect  of  affairs, 
Leopold  skilrally  condacted  them  to  a  peaoeM 
issne.  The  events  of  France  in  1848,  natnrally 
gave  rise  to  a  crisis  oS  alarm  and  anxiety  in  Bel- 
cram.  Leopold  at  once  signified  to  the  people 
Sis  willingness  to  re^gn  the  constitntioniu  trust 
he  held,  if  snch  was  their  wish.  This  sogges- 
tion  was  not  accepted.  The  le^latare,  how- 
ever, proceeded  to  carry  out  the  fhll  roeasnre  of 
olectOTal  reform  contemplated  hy  the  oonstita- 
tioo,  and  to  abolish  the  newspaper  duty.  Some 
uHra  French  republicans  attempted  an  irmptlon 
into  Belgimn,  bat  they  were  seized  at  the  rail- 
way station,  disarmed  by  the  Belgian  troops,  and 
sent  back  nnhort  to  the  place  from  which  they 
came.  In  the  active  contentioa  for  power  be- 
tween the  liberals  and  the  Roman  Oatholie 
party,  varioiis  ministerial  crises  have  ocoorred, 
which  we  cannot  disease  more  minntely.— 
Die  eonstitation  of  Belgium  Is  a  limited 
mooardiy,  with  male  succession,  and  in  de- 
fralt  of  male  iasue  the  king  may  nominate 
hiB  aucoessor  with  consent  of  the  chambers. 
The  legidativB  body  consists  of  a  senate  and 
house  of  reoresentatives.  The  elective  fran- 
ohise  is  Tested  in  citizens  pa]ring  not  less  than  43 
firsnos  annually  of  direct  taxes.  The  house  of 
Te]»esentativee  consists  of  deputies,  in  tlie  pro- 
pcsrtkm  of  1  to  40,000  of  population.  Citizen- 
ship is  the  sole  qualifloatioB  for  representatives, 
and  th^  are  elected  for  4  years  (except  in  case 
of  a  dissdution),  half  retiring  every  2  years. 
The  senate  has  half  the  nnmber  of  the  house, 
elected  by  the  ciluens  for  8  years,  half  retiring 
ev^y  4  years.  The  senatorial  qualification  is  dt* 
izenship,  domiciliation,  40  years  of  age,  and  pay- 
ment of  direct  taxes  of  at  least  2,000  francs  annu- 
ally. The  restriction  created  by  this  large  propor- 
tion (tf  taxes  is  enlarged  by  the  admission  of  those 
citizens  who  pay  the  largest  sums,  so  that  the 
list  shall  always  be  kept  up  to  the  footing  of  at 
least  one  eligible  person  for  every  6,000  inhab- 
itants. The  representatives  receive  pay  at  the 
rate  of  about  20  dollars  per  week.  Senators 
receive  no  pay.  Each  house  may  originate  lawa^ 
but  money  bills  must  ori^^nate  witii  the  repre* 
seatatives.  The  chambers  assemble  as  of  right 
on  the  second  Tuesday  in  Nov^nber.  The  Idng 
may  dissolve  theehambers,  but  the  act  of  dissolu- 
tioa  mustcontain  a  provision  for  convoking  them 
again  within  2  months.  The  nnmber  of  electors 
in  1852,  was  78,228.  Tities  of  nobilitfy  are  al- 
lowed by  the  constitution,  but  without  particu- 
lar privileges,  all  Belgians  being  equal  in  the  eye 
ci  the  law.  Trial  by  Jury  in  criminal  and  politi- 
oal  chaiges,  and  offences  of  the  press,  are  pro* 
Tided  for.  Taxes  and  thearmy  contingent  must 
be  voted  annually.  The  law  is  administered  bv 
kKsal  and  provindal  tribunabk  with  ooorts  of 
appeal  at  Bnissels,  Ghent,  and  Li^ge.— Various 
pernidoiis  influences  have  produced  a  vast 
amoant  of panperism.  In  1847, 2d2,428persons 
had  to  be  supported  by  the  state  in.  Flanders 
W.,  and  221,280  in  Flanders  £.,  to  which  pur- 


BELIAL 


89 


pose  $500,000  were  devoted.  The  following  is 
the  proportion  of  pauperism  in  the  respective 
provinces  alleviated  by  the  government:  Lux- 
embourg, 1  in  69  inhabitants;  Namur,  1  in  17; 
Antwerp,  1  in  16;  li^  1  in  7;  Lhnbnrg,  1  in 
7 ;  Hainaut,  1  in  6 ;  mnders  £.,  1  in  5 ;  Bra- 
bant 1  in  4;  Flanders  W.,  1  in  8.  Since  then 
the  condition  of  the  poor  has  been  somewhat 
improved  by  the  solicitade  of  tiie  government 
to  employ  tbem  in  public  works,  by  the  estaln 
lishment  of  agricultural  colonies  for  the  poor 
(after  the  plan  of  that  of  Van  den  Bosch),  and 
by  the  ^neral  increase  of  commercial  and  man- 
ufactnnng  prosperity. 

BELGOBOD,  or  Bjvlgobod,  once  the  capital 
<^  a  province,  but  now  the  chief  town  of  a 
circle  m  the  government  of  Eoorsk  in  the  S.  £. 
part  of  European  Bussia;  pop.  10,318. 

BELGBADE,  the  krgest  and  best  built  dly 
of  Servia,  with  a  good  harbor,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Danube,  at  its  junction  with  the  Save,  44 
miles  S.  K  of  reterwardein ;  pop.  80,000.  The 
citadel,  occupied  by  a  Turkish  garrison,  is  on  a 
small  strip  of  land  between  the  two  rivers, 
behind  which  is  the  city.  Its  parts  are  l^e  Turk- 
ish qoarter,  which  slopes  to  the  Dannbe,  and 
the  Servian  quarter,  which  borders  the  Save^ 
with  a  quay  and  rows  of  houses  in  modem 
style.  Bel^ade  is  gradually  becoming  modern- 
ized, churches  are  snperseding  mosques,  new 
buildings  are  being  constmoted  in  the  German 
foshions,  bat  its  streets  are  filthy  and  not  light- 
ed, and  its  public  accommodations  most  oom- 
fortiess.  It  produces  arms,  carpets,  silk  goods, 
outiery,  and  saddles.  It  is  the  entrepot  of  com- 
merce between  Turkey  and  Austria,  and  the 
seat  of  the  principal  authorities  of  Servia.  Its 
fortifications  are  now  rapidly  decaying.  Bel- 
grade was  long  an  object  of  contention  between 
the  Austrians  and  the  Turks.  It  was  unsuccess- 
folly  besieged  by  the  latter  in  1456;  but  was 
taken  by  them  in  1522,  and  held  until  1688, 
when  it  was  retaken  by  the  elector  of  Bavaria. 
Two  years  later  it  was  retaken  by  the  Turks. 
In  1717  it  was  besieged  by  Prince  £ugene  with 
an  army  of  90,000  men ;  after  a  desperate  con- 
flict the  Turks  were  defeated,  with  a  loss  of 
13,000  killed,  5,000  wounded,  and  3,000  prison- 
ers— ^the  AustrUns  having  only  8,000  killed 
and  4,500  wonnSed.  In  1789  the  Turks  made 
another  unsnccessfol  attempt  to  regain  it,  but 
aubsequentiy  came  into  possession  of  it  by 
treaty,  retaining  it  till  1789,  when  it  was  again 
taken  by  the  Austrians,  who,  however,  relin- 
quished it  to  the  Turks  in  1791.  It  has  since 
remained  in  their  possession,  except  for  a  short 
time  during  the  Servian  insorrection  in  1818. 

BELGBAM,  or  Bauloramb,  a  town  of  tiie 
kinffdom  of  Chide,  Indiaj  75  miles  N.  W.  df 
Lodaiow.  It  is  a  very  ancient  place,  and  con- 
tains some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Mogul 
architecture  extant,  but  it  is  in  a  decaymg 
state. 

BELIAL  is  a  compound  Hebrew  word,  and 
Is  variously  derived  by  Hebrew  scholars.  It  is 
generally  interpreted  *^  a  worthless  follow.** 


90 


BELIDOB 


BELEKAP 


Some  render  it  **  idle  fellow,'*  others  ^^  one  never 
to  rise,"  or  grow  better,  while  the  Talmadists 
translate  it  ^^withoat  yoke"  or  restraint  It 
seems  to  be  variouslj  used  in  the  Scriptures. 
In  Dent.  xiii.  18,  it  is  applied  to  persons  gniltj 
of  idolatry.  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  the  sons  of 
i^i,  are  called  '^  sons  of  Belial."  Hannah,  in 
answer  to  the  accusation  of  drunkenness  made 
by  Eli,  who  noticed  her  strange  conduct  in  the 
temple,  says,  "  Count  not  thy  handmaid  a  daugh- 
ter of  ^lial."  Those  who  opposed  the  inaugu- 
ration of  Saul  as  kmg  of  Israel  are,  in  the  book 
of  Samuel,  called  sons  of  Belial.  Kabal,  in  his 
opposition  to  David,  is  called  a  man  of  Belial, 
and  so  also  is  Sheba,  engaged  in  a  similar  cause ; 
while  Shimei,  in  his  hatr^  of  David  because  he 
had  superseded  the  house  of  Saul  on  the  throne 
of  Israel,  calls  him  a  son  of  Belial ;  and  Abijah, 
the  partisan  and  successor  of  Behoboam,  ap- 
plies the  same  epithet  to  the  followers  of  Jero- 
boam, in  the  division  of  the  government  of  Is- 
rael In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  used 
but  once.  Paul  asks  the  Oorinthians,  "What 
concord  hath  Christ  with  Belial?"  The  scrip- 
tural use  of  the  term  in  the  Old  Testament  seems 
generally  to  be  to  designate  a  wicked  and  un- 
principled character.  So  far  as  the  passage  in 
the  Kew  Testament  goes,  it  would  convey  the 
same  idea.  We  must  agree  with  Milton  to  set 
down 

Belial,  tho  diwolntest  spirit  that  foil. 

BELIDOR,  Bebnabd  Pobbst  db,  a  French 
writer  on  military  science,  was  born  in  Catalo- 
nia in  1697,  and  died  at  Paris,  Sept.  8, 1761. 
Left  an  orphan  in  his  infancy,  he  was  adopted 
by  an  officer  of  artillery,  who  educated  him  as 
his  own  child.  Having  served  in  the  army,  he 
was  appointed  professor  in  the  royal  school  of 
artillery  at  La  F^re,  and  soon  after  published 
his  work  on  mathematics  for  the  use  of  military 
engineers.  In  1742  he  fought  in  Bavaria  under 
Gen.  de  S6gur. 

BELIEF.  In  a  perfectly  general  sense,  be- 
lief is  the  assent  of  the  understanding  to  the 
truth  of  a  proposition.  In  a  technical  and  theo- 
logical sense,  it  has  come  to  be  used  as  a  mental 
exercise  somewhat  depending  upon  the  volition 
of  the  individual.  A  distinction  is  therefore 
made  between  believing  with  the  mind,  or  the 
assent  of  the  understanding,  aid  the  affiance  of 
the  will.  This  latter  is  the  tedinical  belief  of 
theology,  or  what  is  sometimes  termed  ^^  saving 
faith."  Thus  men  are  exhorted  to  this  exercise 
of  faith,  and  rebuked  for  having  postponed  it. 
Belief  is  also  used  theologically  to  express  the 
bod^  of  doctrine  which  an  individual  or  denom- 
ination adopts  and  professes,  as  when  we  say, 
after  giving  a  summary  of  theological  dogmas, 
*'This  is  the  belief  of  the  catholic  church." 
That  is,  belief  is  used  to  signify  the  thing  be- 
lieved. • 

BELIEVER,  one  who  believes  any  proposi- 
tion. Since  about  the  close  of  the  12th  century, 
however,  the  word  has  been  applied  to  those 
who  believe  the  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  and 
have  been  baptized  in  that  faith»    It  is  in  this 


sense  another  term  for  a  member  of  a  Ohna- 
tian  church,  and  in  this  use  it  simply  distinguish- 
es all  such  persons  feom  those  who  have  not 
been  baptized  in  the  Christian  faith,  who  are 
classed  as  unbelievers.  The  word  unbeliever  is 
also  sometimes  in  theology  applied  to  one  who 
is  sceptical  as  to  the  doctrines  of  Christianity. 

BELISARIUS,  a  distinguished  Bomangenml 
of  the  lower  empirci  bom  about  the  close  of  the 
6th  century,  died  A.  D.  665.  To  him  the  em- 
peror Justmian  owed  much  of  the  splendor  of 
his  reign.  Descended  from  an  obscure  fumily 
in  Thrace,  he  attained  the  highest  dignities  <^ 
the  empire.  He  successively  defeated  the  Per^ 
sians,  the  Vandals,  and  the  Goths,  taking  the 
kings  of  the  two  latter  nations,  Gelimer  and 
Vitiges,  prisoners,  and  leading  them  in  triumph 
to  Constantinople,  where  a  medal,  still  extant, 
was  struck  in  his  honor,  inscribed  Belisariui 
gloria  Bomanorum.  He  also  suppressed  the 
tumults  aridng  from  the  contests  of  the  bine 
and  green  factions,  which,  having  theh:  ori- 
gin in  the  chariot  races  of  the  hipi>odrome^ 
brought  the  life  of  the  emperor  into  the 
greatest  dan^,  and  caused  Hypatius  to  be 
nominated  rival  emperor,  until  he  was  put 
down  by  Belisarius.  In  aU  his  career,  he 
lost  but  a  single  battle,  to  the  Pernans.  On 
his  return  to  Constantinople,  he  was  aooused  of 
taking  part  in  a  conspiracy,  and  was  for  a  time 
in  di^ace.  But,  convinced  of  his  innooenoe^ 
Justinian  restored  to  him  his  favor  and  his  di^ 
nities.  The  whole  of  the  romantic  story  of  his 
blindness,  his  imprisonment,  and  his  beggin^his 
bread  with  the  plaintive  cry,  DaU  n^lum  Belir 
9ario,  is  pure  fiction,  without  a  shadow  of  foun- 
dation. 

BELIZE.    See  Balizb. 

BELKNAP,  a  south-eastern  county  of  Kew 
Hampshire ;  area,  887  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  18601, 
17,721.  Winnq)iseogee  lake  forms  its  N.  £. 
boundary,  and  Winnepiseogee  river  flows  for 
some  distance  along  its  southern  border.  The 
Pemigewasset  touches  it  on  the  west.  The  but- 
&0&  is  uneven,  and  between  many  of  the  hilb 
by  which  it  is  diversified  lie  small  lakes.  The 
soil,  though  rocky  in  some  places,  is  generally 
fertile,  and  hi  1860  produced  14:^028  bushels  of 
wheat,  118,007  of  corn,  886,092  of  potatoes, 
88,446  tons  of  hay,  and  471,148  pounds  of  but- 
ter. There  were,  during  the  same  year,  4  cot- 
ton and  6  woollen  fitotories,  a  car  factory,  an  iron 
foundery,  6  flour,  1  grist,  and  18  saw  mills  in 
operation  in  the  county,  and  4,980  pupils  at- 
tendmg  the  public  schools.  A  raihroad  fitan 
Concord  to  Warren,  and  one  from  Dov«  to 
Alton,  pass  through  portions  of  Belkns^  county. 
Capitol,  Gilford. 

BELKNAP,  Jbbeict,  D.  D.,  an  American 
clergyman  and  historian,  born  in  Boston, 
June  4^  1744,  died  there  June  20,  1798.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1762,  and  was 
ordained,  after  4  years'  service  as  a  school 
teach^  as  pastor  of  the  church  in  Doven 
New  Hampshire,  in  1767,  where  he  passed 
20  years.      In  1787  he  took  the  charge  of 


BELKNAP 


BELL 


91 


the  Federal  street  church  in  Boston,  which 
be  held  nntil  his  sodden  death  by  paralysis. — 
He  was  fitted  hy  nature  for  an  annalist  and  his- 
torian. From  tiie  age  of  15  he  kept  notes  and 
abstzucts  of  his  reamng,  and  a  series  of  inter- 
leaved and  annotated  almanacs,  of  which  ca- 
nons specimens  are  preserred.  His  history 
of  New  Hampshire  was  commenced  soon 
after  his  residence  at  Dover,  and  though  some- 
wiiat  interrupted  by  the  scenes  of  the  revolu- 
tion, in  which  he  took  the  part  of  a  good 
whig,  he  prosecuted  it  with  great  care  and  dili- 
gence. The  1st  volume  appeared  at  Philadel- 
phia in  1784,  the  2d  in  JBoston  in  1791,  and 
the  8d  in  that  dty  in  the  following  year.  Not 
paying  the  expenses  of  publication,  the  legisla- 
ture of  New  Hampshire  granted  him  £60  in 
its  aid.  This  work  has  long  ranked  at  the 
head  of  the  local  histories  of  the  country  for  its 
agreeable  manner  and  historical  fidelity.  It 
shows,  also,  the  power  of  a  comprehensive  and 
methodical  thinker.  In  1790  he  projected  the 
Hassaehusetts  historical  society,  which  has  been 
followed  by  similar  associations  throughout  the 
country.  In  1792  he  published,  in  successive  numr 
b^rs  of  the  '*  Columbian  Magazine,"  ''The  Forest- 
era,'^  an  apologue  after  the  manner  of  Arbuthnot's 
**  John  Bull, "  intended  to  represent  the  course  of 
the  history  of  the  country,  and  particularly  the 
formation  and  adoption  of  the  federal  constitu- 
tion. It  is  done  in  a  most  humorous  and  agree- 
able style.  The  next  year  he  published  a  life 
of  Watts ;  in  1794,  a  series  of  American  bi- 
ographies; and,  in  1795,  the  '*  Collection  of 
Psalms  and  Hymns,"  for  a  long  time  in  use  in 
many  of  the  New  England  churches,  several  of 
whidi  were  written  by  himself.  He  was  also 
the  author  of  many  fugitive  pieces,  contribu- 
tions to  magazines,  sermons,  &c.,  printed  at  dif- 
erent  periods  of  his  life.  A  life  of  Dr.  Belknap, 
by  his  granddaughter,  with  selections  ttom  his 
correspondence,  was  published  in  New  York, 
in  1847. 

BELKNAP,  WiLUAH  G.,  an  American  mill 
tary  officer,  bom  in  Newburg,  N.  Y.,  Nov.  14^ 
1794^  died  on  the  Washita  river,  Nov.  10,  1852. 
He  was  appointed  2d  lieutenant  in  the  28d  in- 
fantry, Apnl  5,  1818 ;  distinguished  himself  in 
the  attack  on  Fort  Erie,  in  Aug.  1814 ;  was  re- 
tained in  service  on  the  reduction  of  the  army, 
in  1822,  having  been,  in  1818,  one  of  the  assist- 
ant professors  of  tactics  in  the  military  academy. 
He  became  a  captain  in  1822,  and  was  brevettod 
for  faithful  service,  10  years  afterward.  In 
1842  he  was  appointed  mi^or  of  the  8d  in- 
£inti7,  and,  having  served  in  Florida  during 
the  war,  was  made  ueutenant-colonel  by  brevet 
He  served  on  the  general  staff  at  Buena  Vista, 
was  complimented  in  general  orders,  and  re» 
ceived  a  sword  of  honor  lh>m  the  citizens  of 
his  own  state,  for  his  services  in  that  battie.  He 
also  received  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general, 
having  previously  received  that  of  colonel 
From  Dea  1843,  to  May,  1851,  he  was  in  com- 
mand of  his  regiment,  and  of  the  troops  in  l^e 
Gherokee  nation  (Arkansas).   In  Hay,  1851,  he 


was  ordered  to  upper  Texas,  for  the  purpose 
of  keeping  the  Indian  tribes  within  the  hues, 
and,  while  there,  contracted  a  fever  of  which 
he  died. 

BEIJ^,  a  hollow  shaped  metallic  vessel,  which, 
by  its  vibrations  when  struck,  gives  forth  sounds; 
whence  its  name,  lh>m  the  old  Bazon  word 
hdkniy  to  bawl  or  bellow.  It  is  an  instrument 
of  great  antiquity,  being  spoken  of  by  the  old  He- 
brew writers,  as  in  Exodus  xxviiL,  in  which 
ffolden  bells  are  prescribed  as  appendages  to  the 
dress  of  the  high-priest,  that  notice  may  thus 
be  given  of  his  approach  to  the  sanctuary.  And 
at  this  day  the  bell  is  used  for  a  similar  purpose 
before  the  priest,  in  Catholic  countries,  as  he 
proceeds  to  render  the  rite  of  extreme  unction 
to  the  soul  that  is  passing  away ;  and  so  when 
the  bell  is  tinkled,  in  administering  the  sacra- 
ment, by  the  same  priest,  it  is  in  pursuance  of  a 
custom  founded  on  the  ancient  Hebrew  use  of 
the  belL  More  intimately  than  any  other  instru- 
ment are  beUs  associated  with  the  religious  and 
imaginative,  as  also  with  the  most  joyous  and 
the  saddest  feelings  of  mankind.  A  quaint  old 
writer  describes  their  threefold  duties  thus: 

To  eaU  the  ibid  to  ehuroh  In  time, 
We  chime. 

When  Joj  and  miith  are  on  the  wing, 
We  ring. 

When  we  lament  a  departed  sonl, 
^etolL 

By  the  Roman  Catholics,  bells  are  solenmly 
blessed,  as  they  are  consecrated  to  their  holy 
work  of  summoning  worshippers  to  their  reli- 
gious rites.  From  uie  circumstance  of  the  bell 
receiving  a  name,  and  being  washed  with  holy 
water,  the  ceremony  is  frequentiy  called  the 
baptism  of  beUs. .  It  is  a  mistake,  however,  to 
suppose  that  the  form  of  baptism  is  used.  There 
appears  to  be  something  poetical,  and  a  littie 
playfbl,  in  the  cusUnn  of  giving  the  oell  sponsors, 
who  are  usually  persons  who  have  presented  the 
bell  to  the  churon,  or  who  contribute  handsome- 
ly to  the  expense  of  purchasing  it,  at  the  time  of 
the  blessing.  Chrism  and  ou  are  used  in  the 
ceremony  of  benediction,  and  in  aU  the  more 
solemn  consecrations  of  utensils  employed  in  the 
divine  service.  The  consecration  of  bells  dates 
back  to  a  very  early  period.  In  Oharlemagne^s 
capitulary  of  787,  we  find  the  prohibition  ^^iU 
tHoccm  Jxiptuentur  ;'*^  and  in  the  old  liturgies  of 
the  Catholic  church  is  a  form  of  consecration  di- 
recting the  priests  to  wash  the  bell  with  water, 
anoint  it  wiw  oil,  and  mark  it  with  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  in  the  name  of  the  Trinity.  Names  were 
given  to  bells  as  early  as  the  year  968,  when 
tiie  great  bell  of  the  Lateran  church  was  named 
by  John  XIIL,  for  himself^  John. — ^The  ancient 
custom  of  ringing  the  paadng  bell,  that  those 
who  heard  it  might  pray  for  the  soul  that  was 
leaving  this  world,  appears  to  have  siven  to 
the  beu  a  mysterious  connection  with  departed 
spirits ;  and  the  belief  has  extensively  prevailed 
that  the  evil  spirits,  waiting  to  seize  the  stran- 
ger about  entering  their  domain,  are  driven  off 
m  terror  at  its  sound,  and  leave  to  the  neophyte 
an  entrance  f^  and  unobstructed.    And  when 


92 


BELL 


'^the  earfew  tcXLed  the  knell  of  paiting  day,**  a 
8adder  influenoe  was  shed  over  the  spirits  of  our 
fiU^ers  than  was  jostified  by  the  fiiot  that  this 
curfew  bell  was  only  a  signal  for  aU  to  put  ont 
thdr  fires.  Accord^  to  some  historians,  this 
enstom  was  introduced  into  Great  Britain  by 
William  the  Oonqneror,  though  others  date  it 
back  to  the  reign  of  the  good  king  Alfred.  The 
practice  of  ringing  a  bell  at  an  early  hour  in  the 
evening  was  not  peculiar  to  England,  for  it  pre- 
▼uled  to  a  consiaerable  extent  in  various  coun- 
tries on  the  continent;  as  the  buildings  at  this 
eariy  period  were  mostly  of  wood,  it  was  in- 
tended as  a  precaution  a^^unst  fires,  which  were 
then  very  common.  The  pasang  bell  and  the 
curfew  bell  are  still  represented  in  some  New 
England  villages;  the  one,  as  a  ftaneral  proces- 
sion slowly  wends  its  way  to  the  graveyard, 
and  the  other,  by  the  9  o'clock  belL  which 
hints  the  time  for  visiting  to  cease,  ana  prepa- 
rations to  be  made  for  bed — an  hour  later  than 
in  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  it  is  true, 
but  yet,  in  general,  an  hour  or  two  too  early, 
ev^  for  the  quiet  rerid^ts  of  New  England 
towns. — ^As  a  signal  to  call  tiie  people  toffetber 
to  join  in  any  concerted  action,  the  bell  has 
been  used  fit>m  remote  times;  the  feast  of 
Osiris  was  announced  by  the  ringing  of  bells^ 
and  the  same  sound  to  this  day  notifies  to  hun- 
gry mortals  the  time  to  Join  in  satisfying  the 
calls  of  their  appetite.  The  Romans  by  bells 
announced  the  time  for  bathing;  and  the  early 
Ohristians  adopted  the  same  signal  for  desig- 
nating the  hour  of  prayer,  kept  up  by  the 
Boman  Catholic  in  the  ringing  of  the^n^^^tw 
at  morning,  noon,  and  night,  at  the  sound  of 
which  all  good  Catholics  join  in  this  rite;  and 
by  the  Protestant,  in  the  church-going  bell, 
which  summons  him  to  his  devotion  m  the 
hour  of  prayer.  In  times  of  public  danger, 
the  bells  were  rung,  and  signal  ^res  were 
burned  to  alarm  the  country;  sometimes,  also, 
they  were  employed  to  alarm  the  public  enemy 
as  well,  under  the  impression,  i^parently,  that 
they  would  be  inspired  with  the  same  terror  as 
the  evil  spirits  waiting  for  their  victim.  In  the 
jear  610,  when  Clothaire  II.,  king  of  France, 
besieged  Sens,  Lupus,  the  bishop  of  Orleans,  or- 
dered for  this  purpose  the  bells  of  St  Stephens  to 
be  rung;  and  as  late  as  1457,  Caliztus  III.  em- 
ployed the  same  device  as  a  security  against  the 
dreaded  Osmans,  who  considered  bells  their 
most  dangerous  foe ;  whence  they  were  at  this 
time  called  Turks'  bells.— In  our  cities^  alarm 
bells  are  rung  to  an  extent  our  ancestors  never 
dreamed  of;  and  their  sound,  grown  familiar  to 
our  eaft^  no  longer  inspires  terror,  as  it  calls  the 
firemen  to  their  constant  duties.  In  tiie  quaint 
dd  rhymes  of  the  monks,  and  the  songs  of  the 
poets,  which  commemorate  the  uses  of  ^e  bell, 
this  modem  application  of  it  is  not  alluded  to. 
They  tell  us  of  the  bell-— 

Lftndo  THam  Tdnun,  plebem  tooo,  eongrego  demm, 
Beftanotot  ploro,  pMtem  ftigo,  feste  daoora 

Bchiller,  however,  in  his  celebrated  ^Song  of 
the  Bell,^  the  motto  of  which  is^ 


yiTot  Toeo^  mortnM  plango^  folium  Augoi 

does  not  omit  to  notice  this  fear-inspiring  sound. 
Indeed,  in  this  beautiful  poem,  all  the  joys^  sor- 
rows, pangs,  emotions,  terrors,  and  blessings,  at- 
tendant on  humanity,  in  connection  with  the 
part  which  the  bell  plays,  are  most  vividly  por- 
trayed. Even  the  description  of  the  various 
operations  of  mixing  and  fodng  the  alloy,  and 
pouring  the  liquid  metal  into  Sie  mould  pre- 
pared to  give  it  its  shape,  are  happily  interwov- 
en with  m  those  uses  which  the  bell  is  thereafter 
to  serve.  Each  phase  of  the  process  suggesto 
its  appropriate  phase  ai  human  life;  and  the 
story  of  the  beU  draws  forth  those  admirable 
pictures  of  the  infant  presented  at  the  baptismal 
font — of  the  maiden  at  the  altar — of  the  sweet 
ministrations  of  maternity  and  home—of  man^ 
ambition,  and  woman's  love — such  as  tiie  hand 
of  a  master-workman  alone  can  produce.  The 
fire-bell  is  also  well  described  \>j  the  American 
poet,  EdgarA.Poe: 

Hear  the  load  alanim  beHft— 
Bnxen  bells  I 
ynuX  4  tale  of  terror  now  their  tnrbttlenej  telk! 


In  the  startled  ear  of  night, 

How  theT  scream  out  their  afldghtl 

Too  mnch  horrified  to  speak. 

They  can  onlv  shriek,  snrlek. 
Out  of  tone, 
In  a  damoroQS  appealing  to  the  merqj  of  the  ftre. 
In  a  mad  ezpoetulatlon  with  the  deaf  and  flrantie  ftrsL 

The  use  of  the  bells  ^fhlgura  frangere"  Is 
from  the  old  belief  that  as  they  served  to 
alann  the  spirits  of  the  air,  so  those  that 
rule  the  storm  are  firightened  away,  its 
power  is  broken,  and  the  thunderbolt  is  avert- 
ed.— ^Musio  bells  are  still  in  use  in  some  parts 
of  Europe.  These  are  played  by  means  of 
keyS)  not  unlike  those  of  a  piano-forte.  An 
old  painting  of  Kiag  David  represents  him  as 
playing,  with  a  hammer  in  eaioh  hand,  upon 
6  bells,  which  were  huns  up  before  him. 
The  music  of  the  88  bells  which  were  suspend- 
ed in  the  tower  of  the  cathedral  at  Antwerp  is 
highly  celebrated.  One  of  these  bells  was  7 
feet  wide,  and  8  feet  high.  The  Swiss  beU- 
ringers,  famous  for  their  performances,  prodnoe 
the  most  exquisite  melody  from  hand-bells.  So 
skilful  are  they  in  the  use  of  them,  that  they 
will  change  from  one  to  another  with  almost 
the  same  rapidity  as  printers  take  up  their 
types.  The  bells  vary  in  siae  from  a  large  cow- 
bell to  the  smallest  dinner  bell;  and  as  many  as 
42  are  often  used  by  a  company  of  7  persons. — 
Bells  were  early  introdaced  into  almost  all  the 
countries  of  Europe.  We  find  8  golden  bells,  in 
an  azure  field,  making  the  coat  of  arms  of  the 
imperial  house  of  the  Comneni,  one  of  the 
most  iUustrious  families  that  have  occupied  the 
Byzantian  throne.  Aboat  the  year  400,  bdb 
were  first  used  for  churches  by  6t  Paulinus^ 
bishop  of  Nola,  a  city  of  Oampania;  and  henoe 
the  names  given  to  dinrch  bells  in  some  of  the 
European  languages  of  Nbla  and  Campana.  In 
England  and  Enmce  they  were  in  use  as  early 
as  tiie  6th  century,  and  the  first  parish  churches 
iq)pear  to  have  been  frirniBhed  with  their  cam* 
puiile  or  bell-tow  er,  whioh  atill  oontinusB  to  be 


SELL 


one  of  iSiMskt  distiiigiiialiinff  fMares.  Several 
ivore  used  in  a  siiigto  ohnrdi,  as  ia  still  the  cub- 
toni^Tvlien  arranged  in  chimae,  or,  aa  in  Roman 
Oatholic  oountries,  without  regard  to  harmony 
of  tonea.  The  ohtiroh  of  the  ahbej  of  Oroj- 
land  in  England  had  one  great  bell  named  Outh^ 
2de,  presented  by  the  abbot  Tarketolns,  who 
died  about  the  year  870,  and  anbaeqaently  6 
othera,  presented  by  his  saooesaor,  Egelrio,  and 
named  Bartholomew  and  Betelin,  Tnrket^ 
and  Tatwin,  Bega  and  Pega.  When  all  these 
were  nmg  together,  Ingolphna  says,  ^^Fiebat 
nUrdbilu  harmcnia,  nee  erat  tuna  tanta  eonsih 
ncaMa  eampamarum  f»  tota  AngUa,'*^ — ^Bat  Bos- 
oa  exceeds  all  other  nations  in  its  fondness  for 
bells.  In  Moscow  alone,  before  the  revolntion, 
tiiere  were  no  leas  than  1,706  large  bells;  in  a 
ain^e  tower  there  were  37.  One  was  so  large 
tiiat  it  required  24  men  to  ring  it,  and  this  was 
done  by  simply  pulling  the  clapper.  Its  weight 
is  estimated  at  288,000  lbs.  The  great  bell  cast 
by  order  of  the  empress  Anne,  in  1658,  and 
now  lying  broken  upon  the  ground,  is  estimated 
to  weigh  448,772  lbs. ;  it  is  19  feet  high,  and 
measures  around  its  margin  68  feet  11  inches. 
The  value  (^  the  metal  alone  in  this  bell 
ia  estimated  to  amount  to  over  $800,000* 
Whether  this  bell  was  ever  hung  or  not,  au* 
tfuwities  appear  to  differ.  The  following  no- 
tioe  of  the  beUs  of  Moscow,  and  of  the  great 
bell  in  particalar,  la  from  darkens  Travels : 
^The  numberiesB  bells  of  Moscow  continue  to 
ring  during  the  whole  of  Easter  week,  tinkling 
and  tolling  without  harmony  or  order.  The 
large  bell  near  the  cathedral  ia  only  used  upon 
important  occaaiona,  and  yields  the  finest  and 
most  solemn  tone  I  ever  heard.  When  it  sounds, 
a  deep  hollow  murmur  vibrates  all  over  Mos* 
oow,  like  the  fullest  tones  of  avast  organ,  or  the 
rolling  of  distant  thunder.  This  beU  ia  sos- 
pended  in  a  tower  called  the  belfry  of  Bt  Ivan, 
beneath  othera  which,  though  of  less  size,  are 
enormous.  It  is  40  ft.  9  in.  in  circumference, 
16i  in.  thick,  and  it  weighs  more  than  57  tona. 
The  great  bell  of  Moscow,  known  to  be  the 
largest  ever  founded,  is  in  a  deep  pit  in  the 
midst  of  the  Kremlin*  The  history  of  its  fall  is 
a  £ible^  and  aa  writers  continue  to  copy  each 
other,  the  story  oontinnes  to  be  propagated;  the 
&et  is,  the  beUfremaina  where  it  was  originally 
caat;  it  was  never  suspended.  The  Bussiana 
might  as  well  attempt  to  suspend  a  first-rate 
line  of  battle  ship  with  all  ita  guna  and  stores. 
A  fire  took  place  in  the  Kremlm,  the  flames  of 
which  caught  the  building  erected  over  the  pit 
In  which  the  beU  vet  remained ;  in  conaequenoe 
of  this  the  metal  became  hot,  and  water  thrown 
to  extinguiah  the  fire  fell  upon  the  bell,  causing 
tiie  fracture  which  has  taken  place. . .  .The  beU 
is  truly  a  mountain  of  metal.  They  relate  that 
it  ootttaina  a  very  lar^  proportion  of  g(dd  and 
aOver,  for  that  while  it  was  in  fiiidon  the  noblea 
and  toe  people  caat  in  as  votive  offerings  their 
plate  and  money. . .  J  endeavored  in  vain  to 
assay  a  small  port  The  natives  regard  it  with 
ffopeoRBtitioaa  veneration,  and  they  would  not 


allow  even  a  grain  to  be  ftted  off;  at  the  aame 
time,  it  may  be  said,  the  compound  has  a  white, 
shining  appearance,  unlike  b^-metal  in  gen- 
eral, and  perhapa  ita  silvery  appearance  haa 
strengthened,  if  not  given  rise  to  a  conjecture 
respecting  the  richness  of  its  materials.  On 
festival  days  the  peasants  visit  the  bell  aa  they 
would  a  church,  considering  it  an  act  of  devo- 
tion, and  they  cross  themselvea  as  they  descend 
and  ascend  the  steps  leading  to  the  belD'  After 
Mr.  Clarke's  visit  the  czar  Nicholas,  in  the  year 
1887,  caused  the  great  bell  to  be  taken  out  of 
the  deep  pit  in  which  it  ky,  and  to  be  placed 
upon  a  granite  pedestal  TTpon  its  side  is  seen, 
over  a  border  of  flowers,  the  figure  of  the  em- 
press Anne  in  flowing  robes.  The  bell  haa  been 
consecrated  as  a  chapel;  and  the  door  ia  in  the 
aperture  made  by  toe  piece  which  f^  out 
The  size  of  the  room  is  22  ft  diameter,  and  21 
ft  8  in.  in  height.*— The  beUs  of  Ohina  rank  next 
in  size  to  those  of  Russia.  In  Pekin,  it  is  stated 
by  Father  Le  Compte,  there  are  7  beUa  each 
weighing  120,000  lbs.  Excepting  the  bells  re- 
cently cast  for  the  new  houses  of  parliament, 
the  largest  of  which  we^hs  14  tons,  there  is  only 
1  bell  in  England  larger  than  that  upon  the  city 
hall  in  New  York  city.  It  was  cast  in  1845  for 
T(«k  Minster,  and  wei^  27,000  lbs.,  and  ia 
only  7  feet  7  inchea  in  diameter.  The  great  Tom 
of  Oxford  weigha  17,000  lbs. ;  and  the  great 
Tom  of  Lincoln  12,000  lbs.  The  bell  of  St 
Paul's  in  London  is  9  feet  diameter,  and  weigha 
11,500  lbs.  One  placed  in  the  cathedral  of 
Paris,  in  1680,  weighs  88,000  lbs.  Another  in 
Vienna,  cast  in  1711,  weiffhs  40,000  lbs. ;  and 
in  Olmutz  ia  another  weighing  about  the  aame. 
The  famoua  bell  called  Susanna  of  Erftort  ia  con* 
ridered  to  be  of  the  finest  boll  metal,  containing 
the  largest  proportion  of  silver ;  its  wei^t  ia 
about  80,000  lbs.  It  waa  cast  in  1497.  Luther, 
when  a  schoolboy,  must  have  heard  its  earlieat 
peals,  and  in  later  yeara  have  welcomed  ita 
sound  at  each  return  to  Erfiirt  At  Montreal, 
Canada,  ia  a  larger  bell  than  any  in  Eufdand. 
It  waa  imported  in  1848  for  the  Notre  Dame 
cathedral.  Ita  weight  is  29,400  Iba.  In  the  op- 
posite tower  of  the  cathedral  is  a  chime  of  10 
bells,  the  heaviest  of  which  weigha  6,048  lbs., 
and  then-  aggregate  weight  ia  21,800  lbs.— There 
are  few  bells  of  large  ^  in  the  United  Statea. 
The  heaviest  is  the  alarm  bell  on  the  city  hall 
in  New  York.  It  waa  cast  in  Boston,  and 
weighs  about  28,000  lbs.  Ita  diameter  at  mouth 
ia  about  8  fSset ;  its  height  about  6  feet,  and 
thickness  at  the  point  where  the  clapper  strikea 
6i  or  7  inches.  The  bell  now  on  the  hall  of  in« 
dependence  in  Philadelphia,  is  celebrated  aa 
being  connected  with  the  ever  memorable  4th 
of  July,  1776,  when  it  first  announced  by  ita 
peal  the  declaration  then  made,  the  most  un- 
portant  event  in  the  histoir  of  our  country. 
It  waa  imported  fh>m  Eng^d  in  1752,  and 
owing  to  its  being  cracked  on  trial  by  a  stroke 
of  the  clapper  waa  recast  in  Philadelphia  under 
the  direction  of  Mr.  Isaac  Norris,  to  whom  we 
are  probably  indebted  ff«  the  following  in- 


94 


•piCTJ. 


Bcription,  'which  muroundB  the  hell  near  the 
top,  from  Levitlcas  zzv.  10:  ^^  Proclaim  lib- 
erty throaghoQt  all  the  land,  imto  all  the  in- 
habitants thereof/'  Immediately  beneath  this 
is  added :  **  By  order  of  the  assembW  of  the 
provinoe  of  Penn*.  for  the  State  House  in 
Phil*."  Under  this  again,  "  Pass  &  Stow,  Phi?., 
MDCOLUI.'*  In  1777,  daring  the  occunation 
of  Philadelphia  by  the  British,  the  bell  was 
removed  to  Lancaster.  After  its  return  it  was 
nsed  as  state  house  bell  until  the  erection  of  the 
present  steeple  with  its  bell  in  1828.  Then  it 
ceased  to  be  used  excepting  on  extraordinary 
occasions,  finally  it  was  removed  to  its  pres- 
ent appropriate  resting-place  in  the  hall  of  in- 
dependence. Its  last  rinnng,  when  it  was  un- 
fortunately cracked,  was  m  nonor  of  the  visit 
of  Henry  Clay  to  Philadelphia.  There  are  no 
other  beUs  of  particular  interest  in  this  country. 
Those  used  upon  the  fire  alarm  towers  in  our 
cities  are  from  10,000  to  11,000  lbs.  weight 
They  are  hung  in  a  fixed  position  and  struck 
by  a  hammer,  instead  of  hein^  turned  over. — 
Bells  have  heen  made  of  various  metals.  In 
France  formerly  iron  was  used,  and  in  other 
parts  of  Europe  brass  was  a  common  materiaL 
In  Sheffield,  England,  the  manufacture  of  cast- 
steel  bells  has  been  recently  introduced;  the 
material  is  said  to  have  the  advantages  over 
the  ordinary  composition,  of  greater  strength 
and  less  weight  and  cost.  As  the  swinging  of 
heavy  bells  often  endangers  the  towers  in  which 
they  are  hung,  it  is  of  no  little  consequence  to 
reduce  as  much  as  possible  their  weight.  Steel 
beDs  are  cast  hy  pouring  tihe  contents  of  the 
steel  pots  into  the  bell  mould  instead  of  into  the 
ordinary  inaot  moulds.  Their  tone  is  said  to  be 
harsh  and  disagreeable.  Oast-steel  drills,  bent 
into  the  form  of  a  triangle  and  suspended  to  a 
building  or  post,  are  much  used  in  place  of 
bells  about  mining  establishments.  Bell-metal 
IS  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin  in  no  fixed  propor- 
tion, but  varying  from  66  to  80  per  cent,  of  cop- 
per, and  the  remainder  tin.  But  other  metals 
are  also  often  introduced,  as  zinc,  with  the 
object  of  adding  to  the  shrillness  of  the  sound, 
silver  to  its  softness,  and  also  lead.  Dr.  Thomp- 
son found  an  English  bell-metal  to  consist  of 
copper  800  parts,  tin  101,  zinc  66,  and  lead  48. 
Cymbals  and  gongs  contain  81  copper  and  19 
tin.  Mr.  Denison,  who  has  charge  of  the  found- 
ing of  the  new  beUs  for  the  British  houses  of  par- 
liament, thinks  the  use  of  silver  is  entirely 
imaginary ;  and  tiiat  there  is  no  reason  for  be- 
lieving it  could  be  of  any  service.  He  condemns 
the  use  of  all  other  materials  hut  copper  and 
tin,  and  advises  that  contracts  for  beUs  stipulate 
that  the  alloy  shall  consist  of  at  least  20  per 
cent  of  tin,  and  the  remainder  copper.  Three 
and  a  half  to  one  is  perhaps  the  best  proportion. 
Huch  interesting  information  upon  the  qualities 
of  the  alloys  and  the  forms  of  beUs  is  contained 
in  a  paper  recentiy  presented  by  him  to  the 
royal  institution  of  Great  Britain.  He  regards 
the  hemispherical  form  of  modem  bells  as 
adapted  only  for  giving  a  thin  and  poor  sound. 


suitable  for  house  docks  and  such  uses,  but  en- 
tirely unfitted  for  the  heavy,  far-reaching, 
and  pleasing  tones  required  in  large  bells. 
The  European  nrocess  of  casting  bells  is  to 
make  the  mould  in  a  depression  in  the  sand 
fioor  of  the  foundery,  piling  up  a  hollow  core 
of  brickwork  upon  a  solid  foundation,  within 
which  a  fire  is  kept  burning  to  preserve  the 
liquid  metal,  when  poured  around  it,  from  too 
rapid  cooling.  The  outer  surface  of  tiie  core  is 
the  shape  of  the  inner  surface  of  the  helL  To 
give  the  outer  surface,  a  cover  of  earthenware 
is  fashioned  to  fit  over  the  core,  leaving  be- 
tween these  a  vacant  space  to  be  filled  with  the 
metal.  This  arrangement  is  deficient  in  not 
providing  proner  escape  for  the  ^ases,  wluch 
are  ensenderea  in  heavy  castings  m  the  earth, 
and  which  are  liable  to  cause  the  metal  to  be 
porous,  or,  being  highly  infiammable,  to  explode 
with  great  damage.  An  improved  process  has 
been  mtroduoed  at  Meneely^s  bell  foundery  at 
Troy,  New  York,  consisting  in  the  use  of  per- 
forated iron  cases,  the  outer  one  in  the  shape 
of  the  bell,  and  the  inner  one  the  core,  which 
sets  in  tiie  centre  of  its  saucer-shaped  founda- 
tion. Each  of  these  receives  a  coating  of  loam, 
the  outer  one  within,  and  the  core  around  its 
outside ;  biit  over  the  latter  is  first  wrapped  a 
straw  rope,  which  taking  fire  and  burning  slowly, 
as  the  metal  is  poured  between  the  2  casesi 
leaves  a  free  space  for  the  bell  to  contract  in 
cooling  without  straining.  The  perforationa 
througn  the  cases  let  out  the  vapors,  and 
also  serve  to  keep  the  coating  of  loam  in  its 

Elace.  As  the  gas  escapes  through  these 
oles,  it  bums  with  a  pale  blue  fiame  with- 
out risk,  the  whole  apparatus  being  placed 
above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Flanges  be- 
tween the  2  cores  keep  them  at  the  required 
distance  from  each  other,  in  order  to  give  the 
proper  thickness  of  metal. — ^The  best  propor- 
tion of  the  height  of  a  bell  to  its  greatest  diam- 
eter is  said,  by  foreign  authorities,  to  be  as  12 
to  15.  In  conformity  to  the  laws  of  acoustics, 
the  number  of  vibrations  of  a  bell  varies  in  in- 
'  verse  ratio  with  its  diameter,  or  the  cube  root 
of  its  weight ;  so,  for  a  series  of  bells  forming  a 
complete  octave,  the  diameters  should  goon  m- 
creasing  with  the  depth  of  tone,  as  for  dOy  1 ; 

— ^A  work  on  church  bella,  by  the  Rev.  w .  0. 
Lukis,  appeared  at  London  in  1857. 

BEIXi,  a  central  county  of  Texas,  watered  by 
Littie  river  and  its  head  streams  the  Leon  and 
Lampasas.  It  has  an  area  of  about  850  square 
nulea,  a  fine,  rolling  surface,  and  a  soil  consist* 
ing  of  sandy  loam,  well  adapted  to  pasturage. 
Forests  of  cotton  wood  and  live  oak  cover  about 
f  of  tiie  land«  Pure  water  is  abundant,  and 
tiie  climate  generally  healthy.  The  county  was 
formed  from  Milam  in  1850,  and  its  increase 
from  that  period  up  to  1858  has  been  at  least 
six-fold.  Wheat  and  Indian  com  are  the  staple 
productions.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1857| 
$596,300 ;  value  of  horses  and  cattie.  $156,872 ; 
aggregate  value  of  taxable  property,  $1,265,110. 


TngTj^ 


96 


Capital,  Cameron.     Pop.  in  1856,  4^481,  of 
^liom  660  were  dayea. 

BELL,  AifDBEW,  a  clergyman  of  the  English 
chxiTch^  who  introduced  into  the  English  schools 
wliat  was  termed  the  system  of  mntaal  Lnstmc- 
lion,  bom  at  St  Andrew's,  Scotland,  in  1758, 
died  at  Cheltenham,  England^  Jan.  27,  1882. 
After  studying  in  the  nniyersity  of  his  native 
town,  he  yisited  the  colonies  or  America,  and 
in  1789  went  to  India,  where  at  Madras  he  be- 
came chaplain  of  Fort  St.  George,  and  engaged 
^  to  instnict  the  orphan  milita^  asylmn.  He 
found  in  the  mission  schools  of  India  a  monito- 
rial system,  which  on  his  return  to  England  he 
ezphuned  in  an  elaborate  treatise  and  proposed 
for  adoption  into  English  schools.  Theeystem 
consists  in  a  division  of  the  school  into  cuussesy 
and  of  the  classes  into  pairs.  The  2  members 
of  a  pair  are  each  pupil  and  tutor  of  the  other. 
Each  class  has  a  teacher  and  assistant  teacher 
who  assist  the  tutors,  and  a  master,  the  only 
adult  member  of  the  system,  has  the  generid 
Boperintendence.  It  was  not,  however,  till  an 
analogous  system  had  been  Introduced  by  the 
Quaker,  Joseph  Lancaster,  into  the  schools  of  the 
dissenters^  that  Dr.  Bell  was  authorized  by  the 
Anglican  church  to  employ  it  in  schools  placed 
under  his  charge.  He  published  several  works 
upon  educational  subjects,  and  left  all  of  hia 
fortune  for  the  endowment  of  various  schools. 

BELL,  BxNjAicnr,  a  Scotch  surgeon,  bom  at 
Edinbuigh,  died  near  the  beginning  of  the 
preaeut  century.  After  studying  in  the  prin- 
cipal universities  of  the  continent,  he  became 
one  of  the  suraeons  of  the  royal  infirmary  at 
Edinburgh.  He  wrote  several  professional 
works,  of  which  the  most  important  is  his 
**  ^stem  of  Surgery." 

BELL,  8m  Chable&  a  British  surgeon  and 
anatomist,  bom  at  Edinburgh,  in  Nov.  l774w 
died  at  Hallow  Park,  in  Worcestershire,  April 
29, 1842.  He  began  his  education  in  the  high 
flchool  and  university  of  his  native  city,  and 
pursued  lus  professional  studies  under  his  elder 
brother  John,  who  was  already  distinguished 
38  an  anatomist  and  snxgeon.  He  quickly  gave 
evidence  of  his  great  talents,  was  admittM  in 
1799  to  the  college  of  surgeons,  became  at  the 
same  time  one  of  the  surgeons  to  the  royal  infirm- 
ary, and  while  still  a  youth  delivered  lectures  be- 
fore 100  pupils  on  the  science  of  anatomy.  He 
gave  particular  attention  to  dissections,  which 
be  illustrated  by  many  careful  drawings,  some 
of  which  were  published,  and  he  eagerly  availed 
himself  of  all  the  opportunities  adOforded  by  the 
infirmary  for  studying  pathology  and  observing 
the  diseased  appearances  when  bodies  were  dis- 
eected,  and  in  many  cases  he  made  representa- 
tions of  the  morbid  parts  in  models.  Ambitious 
of  a  larger  field  of  exertion,  and  weary  of  the 
dissensions  which  vexed  the  medical  school  of 
Edinburgb,  he  removed  in  1806  to  London, 
where  he  immediately  began  a  course  of  lec- 
tures, became  acquainted  with  Sir  Astley  Coop- 
er, Abemethy,  and  other  fkmous  surgeons,  and 
rapidly  roa^i^  distinction.    He  now  published 


his  work  on  the  ^Anatomy  of  Expression,'' 
which  he  had  written  in  Edinburgh,  and  which 
was  designed  to  show  the  rationale  of  those 
muscular  movements  which  follow  and  indicate 
the  excitement  of  the  various  passions  and  emo- 
tions. The  work  attracted  attention,  being 
valuable  to  the  physician,  since  it  showed  how 
the  countenance  often  betrays  the  nature  of  the 
disease,  and  its  value  to  the  punter  is  seen  in 
the  flEU)t  that  Wilkie  carefully  studied  it  while 
drawing  the  hmnan  figure,  and  Buskin  often 
refers  to  it  in  his  criticisms.  It  is  also  interest- 
ing as  having  occasioned  the  author  those  in- 
vestigations which  led  him  to  his  great  dis- 
covery concerning  the  nervous  system.  He 
published  in  1807  his  "  System  of  Operative  Sur- 
gery," a  work,  the  practical  character  of  which 
renders  it  still  useful.  Letters  which  he  this 
year  wrote  to  his  brother  announced  his  new 
doctrine  of  the  nervous  system,  but  he  did  not 
publish  his  views  for  many  years.  He  sup- 
ported himself  unconnected  with  any  medi<^ 
schools  till  1811,  when  he  was  invited  to  the 
Hunterian  school,  and  8  years  later  he  was  ap- 
pointed surgeon  to  the  Middlesex  hospital,  an 
mstitution  which  during  the  22  years  of  his 
connection  with  it  he  raised  to  the  highest  re- 
pute both  by  his  striking  manner  of  lecturing 
and  his  great  dexterity  as  an  operator.  Zealous 
in  the  practice  of  military  surgery,  he  visited 
the  fields  of  Corunna  and  Waterloo,  immediate- 
ly after  the  battles,  and  gave  his  services  to  the 
wounded.  He  made  known  to  the  public  in 
1821  his  ideas  on  the  nervous  system  in  ^  paper 
in  the  *^  Philosophical  Transactions."  It  imme- 
diately airested  the  attention  of  anatomists 
throughout  Europe,  some  of  whom  contested 
with  him  the  priority  of  discov^;  yet  it  was 
fully  proved  that  Dr.  Bell  had  taueht  the  doc- 
trine for  many  years  to  his  pupils,  had  explain- 
ed it  in  a  pamphlet,  a  private  edition  only  of 
which  was  printed,  m  1810,  and  had  clearly 
stated  it  in  letters  to  his  brother  in  1807,  when 
all  of  his  rivals  were  teaching  the  old  theory. 
The  principle  of  t^e  discovery  is  that  no  one 
nerve  conveys  both  motion  and  sensation,  car- 
ries both  the  impulses  of  volition  from  the  brain 
and  the  impulses  of  the  senses  to  the  brain ;  but 
on  the  contrarv,the  nerves  work  only  in  one  direc- 
tion, one  portion  of  them  bearing  messages  irom 
the  body  to  the  brain,  and  the  other  portion 
from  the  brun  or  will  to  the  body.  It  had  for- 
merly been  believed  that  both  impulses  might 
in  some  mysterious  way  be  simultaneously  and 
harmoniously  communicated  along  the  same 
chord.  It  was  shown  by  Dr.  Bell  that  the 
brain  and  spinal  marrow  are  likewise  divided 
into  2  part&  which  minister  respectively  to  the 
functions  of  motion  and  sensation ;  that  those 
roots  which  join  the  back  part  of  the  spinal 
marrow  are  nerves  of  feeling,  messengers  from 
the  senses,  but  incapable  of  moving  the  mus- 
cles, while  those  roots  which  have  their  orig^ 
in  the  front  column  of  the  spinal  marrow  and 
the  acyaoent  portion  of  brain  are  nerves  of 
voluntary  motion,  conveying  only  the  mandates 


96 


BELL 


of  the  will.  He  showed  that  thon^h  8  distinct 
nerves  may  be  bound  together  in  a  single  sheath 
for  convenience  of  distribution,  they  yet  per- 
form different  functions  in  the  physical  economy, 
and  have  their  roots  divided  at  the  junction 
with  the  brain.  The  nerves  of  the  ctifferent 
senses  are  connected  with  distinct  portions  of 
the  brain.  Such  is  the  outline  of  one  of  the 
greatest  discoveries  in  physiology,  and  which 
entitles  Bell  to  a  dory  equal  to  that  of  Harvey. 
As  Harvey  annihilated  the  theory  of  the  flux 
and  reflux  of  the  blood  through  the  same  or- 
gans, and  discovered  the  law  of  its  circulation 
tiirough  the  veins  and  arteries,  so  Bell  distin- 
guished the  2  classes  and  separate  functions  of 
the  nerves.  For  this  discovery  he  received  a 
medal  from  the  royal  society  of  London,  in 
1829,  and  upon  the  accession  of  William  lY.  he 
was  invested,  in  company  with  Brewster,  Her- 
schel,  and  others,  with  the  honor  of  knight- 
hood, in  the  new  order  then  instituted.  He 
was  offered  the  s^ior  chair  of  anatomy  and 
surgery  in  the  London  college  of  physicians, 
where  his  lectures  were  attended  both  by  pu- 
pils and  practitioners,  and  where  he  attiiActed 
crowds  by  a  series  of  discourses  on  the  evidence 
of  design  in  the  anatomy  of  the  human  body. 
His  reputation  was  great  also  upon  the  con- 
tinent, and  Ouvier  expressed  his  admiration  of 
his  abilities  and  labors.  He  published  about 
this  time  2  essays,  "  On  the  iNervous  Circle," 
and  ^  On  the  Eye,*'  having  reference  to  the 
theory  of  a  6th  sense,  and  a  treatise  on  '^  Animal 
Mechanics,"  for  the  society  for  the  dififtision  of 
useful  knowledge.  Being  invited  to  take  part 
in  the  great  argument  published  by  the  bequest 
of  the  earl  of  Bridgewater,  he  wrote  the  ad- 
mirable treadik  on  ^'  The  Hand,"  and  he  soon 
after  assisted  Lord  Brougham  in  illustrating 
Paley's  "Natural  Theology."  In  1886  he  ac- 
cented the  chair  of  surgery  in  the  Edinburgh 
nniversity,  and  his  lectures  there  were  attended 
by  the  most  eminent  literary  and  scientific  men 
in  that  capital.  He  afterward  visited  Italy, 
making  many  observations,  with  which  he  en* 
riched  a  new  edition  of  the  "  Anatomy  of  Ex- 
pression ;"  he  died  soon  after  returning  to  Eng- 

BELL,  Geobgb  Joseph,  a  Scotch  lawyer  and 
writer  upon  law,  bom  at  Fountainbridge,  near 
Edinburgh,  March  26, 1T70,  died  in  Edinburgh, 
Sept.  28,  1843.  His  first  legal  publication  was 
a  treatise  on  the  laws  of  bankruptcy,  which,  in 
1810,  was  enlarged  and  published  under  the 
titie  of  "  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  Scot- 
land." The  third  edition  of  this  work,  issued 
in  1816,  gained  for  him  the  rare  honor  of  a 
▼ote  of  thanks  from  the  faculty  of  advocates. 
His  subsequent  works  on  the  law  of  Scotland 
are  standard  text-books  in  the  courts  of  that 
country,  and  are  also  referred  to  as  authorities 
in  England  and  America.  Mr.  Bell  was  at  the 
head  of  2  commissions  for  improving  the  ad- 
ministration of  civil  justice  in  Scotiand,  and 
firom  the  year  1821  was  professor  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Edinburgh.    In  1881  he  was  appoint- 


ed to  one^of  the  principal  clerkships  in  the 
supreme  court. 

BELL,  Henbt,  steam  navigator,  bom  at 
Torphichen,  near  Linlithgow,  Scotiand,  April  V, 
1767,  died  March  14, 1830.  A  millwright  by 
trade,  he  went  to  London  when  his  apprentice- 
ship exphred,  and  while  in  Mr.  Bennie^s  service, 
conceived  the  idea  of  propelling  vessels  by  steam 
— ^ignorant,  it  would  appear,  of  Millar's  prior  ex- 
periments, and  of  the  &ot  that,  nearly  8  years 
before,  Robert  Fulton  had  actually  made  a  suo- 
cessful  practical  attempt  on  the  Hudson.  In 
1811  Bell  laundied  a  boat  on  the  Clyde,  calling 
it  ihe  Comet,  after  the  luminous  appearance  in 
the  heavens  during  that  year.  He  made  a 
steam  engine  for  this  new  craft,  with  his  own 
hands,  and  the  first  trial  of  the  boat  took  plaoe 
on  the  Clyde,  in  January,  1812.  Three-horse 
power  was  successfully  applied  at  first,  subse- 
quentiy  increased  to  6.  After  numerous  ex- 
periments and  improvements,  steam  navigation 
was  introduced  into  Scotland  by  Henry  Bell. 
His  first  boat  Is  preserved  in  the  museum  of 
Glasgow  nniversity.  The  city  of  Glasgow 
settied  a  small  annuity  on  him,  barely  sufficient 
for  his  support,  and  the  British  governmenti 
not  long  ago,  gave  a  small  pension  to  his  widow. 
A  monument  to  his  memory  has  been  erected 
on  the  rock  of  Dunglass,  a  promontory  on  the 
Clyde,  2i  miles  fi-om  Dumbarton. 

&ELL,  James,  geographical  writer,  bom  at 
Jedburgh,  in  Scotiand,  1769,  died  at  Glasgow, 
1888.  Brought  up  as  a  weaver,  he  received  the 
ordinary  sound  education  whicn  the  very  poor- 
est can  claim  in  Scotland.  He  bec^ne  a  manu- 
fiicturer  of  cotton  goods  in  Glasgow,  and,  being 
an  indefj&tigable  student,  was  an  able  teacher  of 
the  classics  to  young  men  preparing  for  the 
nniversity.  He  was  author  of  a  well-arranged 
and  copious  ^'System  of  Popular  and  Scientific 
Greography,"  in  6  volumes,  8vo,  which  has  been 
repeatedly  reprinted;  also  of  a  *^ Gazetteer  of 
England  and  Wales." 

BELL,  John,  Scottish  traveller,  born  at  An- 
termony,  in  the  west  of  Scotland,  1691,  died 
July  1,  1780.  At  the  age  of  23,  he  received 
the  degree  of  M.  D.,  and  immediately  after 
(July,  1714)  was  induced  to  repair  to  St 
Petersburg,  where  Peter  the  Great  received 
him  kindly,  and  allowed  him  to  be  engaged  as 
surgeon  to  an  embassy  about  to  proceed  to  Per- 
sia. Leaving  St.  Petersburg  in  July,  1715,  he 
did  not  reach  Ispahan,  where  the  shah  held 
his  court,  until  March,  1717.  He  returned  to 
St.  Petersburg  on  the  last  day  of  1718.  His 
desire  of  adventure  unabated,  he  departed  in 
July,  I719j  attached  to  an  embassy  to  China, 
through  Moscow,  Siberia,  and  the  great  Tartar 
deserts,  to  the  gi^t  wall  of  China,  not  reaching 
Pekin  until  November;  1720 — ^the  *  ioumey  oc- 
cupying 16  months.    He  resided  half  a  year  in 


Pcten,  and  arrived  at  Moscow  early  in  'Jan. 
1722.  The  czar  having  made  him  his  chief 
physician,  he  joined  in  the  expedition  headed 
by  Peter  himself^  to  assist  the  shah  of  Persia 
in  routing  the  rebd  Afghans^  aid  returned 


B£LL 


07 


irlth  bim.    Boon  after  be  reTisited  Scotland, 
bat  waa  at  St.  Petersbnig  in  Dec.  1787,  when, 
nogotaatioiiB  for  peace  between  Russia  and  Tur- 
key baTing  £EdIed,  Dr.  Bell  was  sent  to  Oon- 
aHan&iopie  with  new  proposals,  and  retorned 
to  Bt  Petersburg  in  Ma^r,  1788,  but  finally  set- 
Ued  as  a  merchant  in  Constantinople,  where  he 
married  in  1746,  and  soon  after  returned  to 
Scotland,  fixing  his  residence  on  his  estate  of 
Antermon  J,  in  very  affluent  circumstances,  and 
very  popidar  firom  his  beneyolenoe  and  social- 
ity.   jELe  did  not  publish  any  record  of  his  wan- 
dezings  until  1768,  when  his  *'  Travels  in  Asia** 
appeared  in  2  vols.  4to.    This  work,  which  has 
pissed  Uiroogb  several  editions,  has  had  large 
droulation  througbout  Europe  by  means  of  a 
IVench  translation.  Tbouffh  not  acquainted  with 
the  travels  of  Marco  Polo,  the  Venetian,  Dr. 
Bell  confirms  many  of  his  marvellous  relations. 
His  own  account  of  his  residence  in  Pekin,  is 
described  as  *'  one  of  the  best  and  most  inter- 
esting relations  ever  written  by  any  traveller." 
BMX,  John,  an  English  farmer,  remarkable 
for  his  longevity,  bom  in  1747,  died  at  Hex- 
ham, county  of  Northumberland,  in  1857.    He 
was  below  the  middle  size,  slender  and  wiry- 
looking,  and  W9S   distinguished   during    the 
whole  course  of  his  life  for  his  temperance, 
frugality,  and  industry.    He  married  m  early 
life^  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  had  8  chil- 
dren (2  had  died),  41  grandchildren,  60  great- 
grandchildren, and  2  great-great-grandchildren. 
BELL,  JoHsr,  Scottish  surgeon,  born  at  Edin- 
burgh, May  12, 1768,  died  at  Bome,  April  15. 
1820,  studied  for  his  profession  at  the  medical 
schools  of  his  native  city.    On  taking  his  diplo- 
ma and  commencing  practice,  he  opened  a  pri- 
Tate  school  of  anatomy,  and  gave  lectures  wiUi 
the  view  of  inculcating  the  necessity  of  a  knowl- 
edge of    anatomy  on   surgical  practitioners. 
At  this  time,  incredible  and  inconsistent  as  it 
may  now  appear,  anatomv  was  very  imperfectly 
studied  by  surgeons,  although  it  formed  part 
of    the   physician^s    preparatory  professional 
studies.    Private  teaching  and  private  direc- 
tions were  also  novelties,  and  Mr.  Bellas  ideas 
gave  great  offence  to  the  established  Gamaliels, 
who  considered  them  innovations  and  a  slur 
upon  their  competency.    Notwithstanding  an 
active  opposition^  his  merits  secured  him  a 
Iflffge  daas  of  pupils,  and  enabled  him  to  intro- 
dnce  his  own  coilarged  views  of  professional 
requirements  to  public  notice.    His  career  as  a 
tecuBher  was,  however,  cut  short  by  the  deter- 
mined oppcHsition  of  his  rivals,  who  managed 
to  exdude  him  and  his  class  from  the  public 
infirmary,  in  which  he  had  been  accustomed 
to  practise  gratuitously  for  the  benefit  of  the 
poor,  taking  advantage  of  the  field  thus  open 
to  him  to  instruct  his  pupils.    On  thia,  he  gave 
np  his  lectures  and  demonstrations,  and  ad- 
draased  himself  to  private  practice  only.    He 
passed  the  last  8  years  of  his  life  in  Italy  for 
the  benefit  of  his  health.    His  works  were: 
"Anatomy,"  afterward  completed  by  his  bro- 
ther. Sir  Charles  Bell ;  **  Discourses  on  the  Na- 
vol*  m. — 1 


ture  and  Cure  of  Wounds,"  2  vols.  8vo;  "The 
Principles  of  Surgery,"  8  vols.  4to.  Beside 
these,  ne  wrote  letters  on  professional  educa- 
tion, and  a  posthumous  work  on  ItfiJy. 

B£LL,  Jony,  an  American  statesman,  bom 
near  Nashville,  Tenn.,  Feb.  18,  1797.  He  was 
the  son  of  a  fanner  in  moderate  circumstances^ 
who  was,  however,  able  to  give  him  a  good  educa- 
tion at  Oumberhmd  college,  now  Nashville  uni- 
versity. Choosing  the  law  as  his  profession,  he 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1816,  settled  at 
Franklin,  Williamson  county,  and  was  elected  to 
the  state  senate  in  1817,  when  only  20  years  old. 
He  soon  saw  his  error  in  entering  so  early  into 
public  life,  and  declining  a  reflection,  devoted 
himself  for  the  next  9  years  to  his  profession. 
In  1826  he  became  a  candidate  for  congress 
against  Felix  Grundy,  one  of  the  most  popular 
men  in  the  state,  and  who  had  the  powerful 
support  of  Andrew  Jackson,  then  a  candidate 
for  the  preddency  against  Jonn  Quincy  Adams. 
Nevertheless,  after  a  most  animated  and  excited 
canvass  of  12  months,  Mr.  Bell  was  elected  in 
1827,  by  1,000  minority.  By  successive  elec- 
tions^ he  continued  a  member  of  the  house  of 
representatives  for  14  years.  He  entered  con- 
gress a  warm  admirer  of  Mr.  Oalhoun,  and 
strongly  opposed  to  the  protective  system, 
against  which  he  made  a  speech  in  1882.  Sub- 
sequent investigation  and  reflection  induced  him 
to  change  his  opinions  on  that  subject,  and  he  has 
ever  since  remained  an  earnest  advocate  of  the 
policy  of  protecting  Amerioan  industry.  Though 
opposed  to  tiie  appropriation  of  money  by  the 
general  government  for  roads  and  canals  in  the 
states,  except  in  the  case  of  some  great  road  for 
military  purposes  like  the  Padfic  railroad,  he 
has  always  &vored  the  policy  of  improving  the 
great  rivers  and  lake  harbors.  With  all  his  ad- 
miration for  Mr.  Calhoun,  Mr.  Bell  decidedly  op- 
posed the  South  Carolina  doctrine  of  nullifica- 
tion, and  was  made  chairman  of  the  judiciary 
committee  of  the  house  with  special  reference 
to  the  questions  connected  with  that  subject 
which  might  have  to  be  considered  and  report- 
ed on.  For  10  years  he  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  on  Indian  afiQEurs.  He  was  in  favor 
of  a  United  States  bank,  though  he  voted  against 
tiie  bill  for  its  recharter  in  1832,  because  he 
believed  that  the  subject  was  brought  up  at 
that  time,  4  years  before  the  expiration  of  the 
old  charter,  merely  to  defeat  Gen.  Jackson  in 
the  ensuing  presidential  election ;  and  because 
he  was  convinced  the  president  would  veto  the 
bill,  which  proved  to  be  the  case.  He  protested 
against  the  removal  of  the  depoats,  and  refused 
to  vote  for  a  resolution  approving  that  measure. 
This  refusal  was  one  of  tne  causes  which  led  to 
the  subsequent  breach  between  himself  sCad 
President  Jackson  and  the  democratic  party, 
and  finally  to  his  cooperation  with  the  whigs. 
This  change  of  party  relations  was  much  accel- 
erated by  his  election  to  the  speakership  of 
the  house  of  representatives  in  1884.  In  June 
of  that  year,  the  speaker,  Mr.  Stevenson,  resign- 
ed the  chair  upon  being  nominated  noLaister  to 


"RTgT.T. 


Greftt  Britain,  and  Mr.  Bell  was  elected  to  sno- 
oeed  him  in  opposition  to  James  K.  Polk,  after- 
ward president  of  the  United  States,  who  was 
the  candidate  of  the  administration  and  of  the 
democratic  party.  Mr.  Bell  was  supported  hy 
the  whigs  and  hy  a  portion  of  the  democratic 
party  who  were  oppoeed  to  the  intended  nomi- 
nation of  Martin  V  an  Bnren  as  successor  to 
President  Jackson.  The  principal  gronnd  of 
Mr.  Bell's  opposition  to  Mr.  Yan  Buren  was  his 
strong  disapproval  of  the  system  of  removals 
from  BuhoiH^nate  offices  for  merely  political 
reasons — ^a  system  which  Mr.  Yan  Boren  had 
zealously  promoted  in  the  party  conflicts  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  which  it  was  supposed 
he  intended  to  carrv  out  to  its  full  extent  m  the 
administration  of  the  federal  government.  The 
tendencies  of  such  a  use  of  executive  patron- 
age had  heen  vividly  portrayed  hy  Mr.  Bell  in 
a  speech  in  the  house  on  the  freedom  of  eleo- 
tiona ;  and  he  had  made  repeated,  though  ineffec- 
tual, efforts  in  successive  congresses  to  procure 
the  enactment  of  laws  calculated  to  check  the  pol- 
icy. The  final  separation  hetween  Mr.  BeU  and 
Gen.  Jackson  took  place  in  1835,  when  Mr.  Bell 
declared  himself  in  fkvor  of  Judge  White  for  the 
presidency,  in  opposition  to  Mr.  Yan  Buren« 
up  to  that  time  there  had  heen  no  opposition 
in  Tennessee  to  Gen.  Jackson's  administration, 
and  it  was  g^erally  supposed  that  his  personal 
and  political  influence  could  not  faO  to  suhdue 
the  opposition  raised  hy  Judge  White  and  his 
friends.  The  whole  force  of  the  administra- 
tion, and  of  Jadcson's  personal  popularity, 
was  exerted  to  this  end.  But  Juoge  White 
carried  the  state  hy  a  large  mcyority ;  Mr.  Bell 
was  reelected  to  congress  from  the  Hermitage 
district  itself  hy  as  great  a  vote  as  ever ;  and  an 
impulse  was  given  to  the  political  character  of 
Tennessee  which  arrayed  it  in  opposition  to  the 
democracy  during  the  four  succeeding  presi- 
dential elections  of  1840-'44-'48-'52.  When 
the  reception  of  petitions  for  the  aholition  of 
slavery  in  the  district  of  Oolumhia  was  agitated 
in  the  house  of  representatives  in  1886,  Mr. 
Bell  alone  of  the  Tennessee  delegation  flavored 
their  reception,  and  though  assailed  at  home, 
was  sustained  hy  the  people.  And  suhsequently, 
in  1838,  when  Atherton's  resolutions  were  intro- 
duced, proposing  to  receive  and  lay  these  peti- 
tions on  the  tahle,  he  maintained  his  consistency 
hy  voting  in  the  negative,  in  order  that  they 
might  he  referred  and  reported  upon.  When 
President  Harrison  formed  his  administration 
hi  1841,  he  invited  Mr.  BeU  to  accept  the  war 
department,  which  he  did.  With  the  rest  of 
the  cahinet,  Mr.  Wehster  only  excepted,  he 
resigned  office  on  the  separation  of  rresident 
Tyler  from  the  whig  party,  in  the  autumn  of  that 
year.  The  whig  m^^ority  in  the  next  Tennessee 
legislature  which  met  after  his  withdrawal  from 
the  cahinet  offered  him  the  office  of  United 
States  senator,  which,  however,  he  declined  in 
favor  of  Ephraim  H.  Foster,  who  had  rendered 
services  to  the  whig  party  which  Mr.  BeU 
.thought  deserving  that  recognition.   Mr.  Foster 


was  accordingly  elected,  and  Mr.  BeU  remained 
in  voluntary  retirement  until  caUed  hy  the  people 
of  his  county,  in  1847.  to  represent  them  in  the 
state  senate ;  in  whicn  year,  on  the  occurrence 
of  a  vacancy,  he  was  elected  to  the  United  States 
senate,  to  which  he  was  reelected  in  1858  for 
his  present  term  of  service,  which  wiU  expire 
March  4, 1859.— In  the  senate  Mr.  Bell  has  stead- 
fastly opposed  the  policy  of  annexing  Mexico 
and  other  Spanish- American  states  to  the  union. 
He  was  in  &vor  of  the  compromise  measures  of 
1850,  hut  desired  to  see  the  issues  then  made 
fuUy  settied  at  the  time  hy  the  division  of  Texas 
into  states,  as  provided  hy  the  act  of  annexa- 
tion, hecause  he  apprehended,  whenever  that 
question  came  up,  the  harmony  of  the  nnion 
might  he  again  disturhed.  In  1854,  when  the 
Nebraska  hiU  was  presented  to  the  senate,  M>. 
Bell  protested  against  its  passing,  as  a  violation  of 
the  Missouri  compact,  as  unsettling  the  prindplea 
established  hy  the  compromise  of  1850,  and  as 
reopening  a  sectional  controversy  which  might 
imperil  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  union.  In 
the  controversy  on  the  admission  of  Kansas,  in 
March,  1858,  Mr.  BeU  took  decided  ground 
against  the  so-caUed  Lecompton  constitution, 
and  made  an  elaborate  speech,  charging  that 
that  measure  tended  directiy  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  union. 

BELL,  John,  British  sculptor,  horn  in  Nor- 
folk in  1800.  After  having  followed  the  rou- 
tine of  the  antique  school,  as  it  is  called,  he 
devoted  himself  to  subjects  from  the  Scriptures^ 
and  from  modem  literature.  Thence  came  his 
"  John  the  Baptist,"  "  David  with  the  slinff,"  the 
^*  Madonna  and  ChUd,"  &c.  For  the  new  houses 
of  parliament,  Mr.  BeU  has  executed  historical 
portraits  of  Shakespeare,  Lord  Falkland,  and 
Sir  Robert  Walpole.  Mr.  BeU  has  worked  a 
good  deal  for  decorative  manufacturers. 

BELL,  Luther  V.,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  Ameri* 
can  physician,  born  at  Chester,  N.  H.,  Dec.  20, 
1806,  son  of  the  late  Gov.  Samuel  BeU,  of  that 
state.    He  entered  Bowdoin  coUege  at  the  age 
of  12,  and  ^aduated  with  distinction  in  1821, 
before  he  had  completed  his  16th  year.  He  com- 
menced the  study  of  medicine  with  an  elder  bro* 
ther  in  the  city  of  New  York,  and  received  his 
degree  from  the  Hanover  medical  sdiool  while 
VQt  under  20.  and  commenced  practice  in  New 
York.    His  mends  afberwcurd  urged  his  return 
to  New  Hampshire  and  he  established  himself 
in  his  native  town.    He  soon  adiieved  distino- 
tion,  particularly  in  surgery.    One  of  his  ear- 
lier operations,  the  amputation  of  the  femur, 
was  performed,  in  defeiult  of  enj  other  accessi- 
ble instruments,  with  the  patient's  razor,  a 
tenor  saw,  and  a  darning  needle  for  a  tenacu- 
lum, and  the  patient  had  a  speedy  recovery. 
Dr.  BeU  early  acquured  reputation  from  his  abil- 
ity as  a  writer  on  medical  subjects.  For  2  years 
in  succession,  whUe  stiU  under  80  years  of  age, 
he  won  the  Oambridge  Boylston  prize  medal 
by  medical  essays  of  such  merit,  that  they  stiU 
form  a  part  of  tiie  standard  medical  literature 
of  the  country.    It  was  about  this  period  that 


ineTJ^ 


BELL  BOOK 


tiie  sacoesB  of  the  state  Innatio  boepital  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  began  to  attract  the  atten« 
tion  of  the  philanthropio  in  New  Hampshire  to 
the  neoessitj  of  a  similar  institution  in  their 
own  state.  Dr.  Bell  devoted  himself  with 
great  zesl  to  the  promotion  of  this  enterprise. 
Twice  he  was  elected  to  the  leffislatu^  for  the 
defence  of  his  &vorite  plan,  bnt,  though  his 
efforts  were  not  immediately  saecessfol,  the 
abili^  he  had  displayed  in  we  discussion  of 
the  sntrject,  led  to  his  election,  entirely  without 
his  knowledge,  to  the  snperintendenoy  of  the 
McLean  insane  asylum,  at  Oharlestown,  Mass. 
He  entered  upon  his  duties  in  Jan.  1887,  and  for 
nearly  20  years  conducted  the  institution  with 
rare  ability  and  success.  In  1845,  the  trustees 
of  the  Butler  hospital  for  the  insane  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  L,  procured  his  services  to  visit 
Europe^  and  ascertain  what  improvements  had 
there  beoi  made  in  the  construction  and  venti- 
lation of  insane  hospitals.  His  absence  of  only 
three  months  was  devoted  entirely  to  the  work 
assigned  him,  and  on  arriving  at  New  York, 
he  had  already  completed  pluis  for  the  con- 
struction of  a  hospital,  which,  for  its  size,  has 
no  superior  in  the  oountiy  in  its  adaptation. 
Within  the  last  few  years,  Dr.  Bell  has  mingled 
somewhat  in  political  life.  He  has  been  one  of 
the  executive  eoundl  of  Massachusetts ;  a  mem- 
ber g(  the  constitutional  convention  of  1852 ; 
the  nominee  of  his  party  for  congress^  and  for 
the  governorship^  In  1856  he  resigned  his 
portion  as  superintendent  of  the  McLean 
asylum. 

BELL,  BoBEBT,  an  Irish  man  of  letters,  bom 
at  Cork,  Jan.  10. 1800.  After  receiving  his  edu- 
cation at  Dublin^  he  followed  successively  a 
military  and  a  civU  career,  but  quickly  aban- 
doned both  for  literary  occupations,  ne  pub- 
lished articles  in  a  Dublin  magazine,  and  wrote 
2  comedies,  the  ^^  Double  Disguise."  and  *^Ck)m- 
ic  Lectures,^  which  were  sucoessrully  produced 
iiX>on  the  stage.  He  went  to  London,  where  he 
contributed  a  series  of  ^^  Beminiscences"  to  the 
^*New  Monthly  Magazine,"  and  wrote  for  the 
weekly  *^  Atlas,' Vhich  was  one  of  the  chief  min- 

ged  literary  and  political  Journals  published  in 
>ndon.  One  of  his  articles  in  the  latter  paper 
having  provoked  Lord  Lyndhurst  to  bnng  a 
suit  against  him,  he  conducted  his  own  defence, 
and  was  acquitted.  He  wrote,  for  Lardner's 
"Cabinet  Cydopodia,"  the  "BQstory  of  Bus- 


sia,"  and  the  "lives  of  the  English  Poets;'* 
and  he  was  the  author  of  the  last  volume  both 
of  Southey's  "  Naval  History  of  England,"  and 
of  Mackintosh's  "History  of  England.''  He 
founded  in  1840,  in  connection  with  Bulwer 
and  Lardner,  the  "Monthly  Chronicle,"  to 
which  he  was  a  principal  contributor.  He  has 
written  several  theatncal  pieces,  among  which 
are  ''Marriage*'*  "Mothers  and  Daughters," 
and  "  Temper,"  and  has  also  published  a  ^'I^e 
of  Canning."  "  Outiines  of  China,"  "Memorials 
of  the  Civd  War,"  "  Wayside  Pictures  through 
France,  Belgium,  and  HoUand,"  and  the  "Lad- 
der of  Gold."    Mr.  Bell  is  of  an  amiable  char- 


aoter,  and  though  he  has  written  many  criti- 
cisms he  has  made  few  enemies. 

BELL,  Samukl,  an  American  statesman, 
bom  at  Londonderry,  N.  H.,  Feb.  0,  1770, 
died  at  Chester,  Dec.  28, 1850.  He  passed  his 
boyhood  upon  his  father's  farm,  graduated  at 
Dartmouth  coUege  in  1798,  and  was  admitted 
to  practise  law  in  1796.  He  rapidly  achieved 
distinction  in  his  profession,  and  in  1804  was 
elected  a  representative  to  the  state  legislature, 
an  office  to  which  he  was  twice  reelected;  and 
during  his  last  2  terms  he  held  the  position  of 
speaker  of  the  house.  He  declined  the  attor- 
ney-generalship in  1807,  after  which  he  was 
successively  a  member  of  the  state  senate,  and 
of  the  executive  council,  a  Judge  of  the  supreme 
court,  and  in  1819  governor  of  the  state.  To 
the  latter  office  he  was  reelected  4  times  in 
succession,  till  in  1828  he  was  elected  to  the 
senate  of  the  United  States,  an  office  to  which 
he  was  also  reelected.  He  retired  from  public 
life  upon  the  expiration  of  his  second  term  in 
1885,  and  upon  a  farm  in  Chester  devoted  him- 
self to  rural  and  literary  pursuits,  and  ei\joyed 
the  society  of  his  family  and  friends. 

BELL,  Thomas,  an  English  naturalist,  bom 
at  Poole,  in  Dorsetshire,  Oct  11,  1792.  His 
&vorite  study  from  boyhood  was  natural  his- 
tory, and  at  an  early  age  he  became  a  member 
of  tne  London  college  of  surgeons,  and  of  the 
linnfldan  society.  In  1817  he  be^pui  a  course 
of  lectures  in  Guy's  hospital,  where  he  had 
been  for  8  years  a  student,  and  where  he  has  con- 
tinued to  lecture  either  upon  natural  history  or 
comparative  anatomy  to  the  present  time.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Zoological  Jour- 

a"  and  one  of  the  earliest  fellows  of  tiie  geolog- 
and  zoological  societies.  In  1827  he  com- 
municated to  the  "  Philosophical  Transactions  " 
a  paper  on  the  use  of  the  submaxillary  gland  in 
the  genus  croeodUus^  suggesting  that  the  gland 
being  odoriferous  had  the  effect  of  attracting 
toward  it  small  fish,  which  became  the  animal's 
prey.  The  next  year  he  was  elected  a  fellow 
of  the  royal  society,  snd  in  1836  he  became 
professor  of  zoology  in  King's  college.  He  was 
a  long  time  secretary  of  the  royal  society,  snd 
haa  l^en  president  of  the  Linniean  society  since 
1858,  and  of  the  Ray  society  from  its  establish- 
ment. He  has  written  largely  upon  his  &vor- 
ite  science,  having  published,  beside  many 
papers  in  the  transactions  of  learned  societies, 
histories  of  British  quadrupeds  and  reptiles,  and 
treatises  on  the  tetPudinatOy  and  on  the  British 
stalk-eyed  emstaeea, 

BELL  BOCE!,  or  Ikoh  Cxfb,  a  dangerous 
reef  of  rocks  in  the  German  ocean,  off  the  E* 
coast  of  Scotland,  nearly  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Tay ;  lat  56^  26'  K,  long.  2^  28' 
W.  During  high  tide  it  is  entirely  covered 
by  the  sea.  The  reef  is  about  850  yards  in 
length,  and  110  in  breadth.  A  light-house  is 
erected  upon  it  The  light  is  108  feet  above 
the  medium  level  of  the  sea.  A  bright  and 
red  light  are  exhibited  every  four  minutes. 
Upon  the  rook  there  are  also  2  beUS|  which  in 


100 


BELL  TOWF 


HBLLAMT 


thick  ioggf  wealiher  are  tolled  by  machinery 
night  anSTdsj,  at  interrals  of  half  a  minate. 
Fnor  to  the  ereotion  of  these  bells  this  rock 
was  the  canse  of  many  shipwrecks. 

BELL  TOWN,  a  large  townon  the  Oameroons 
liyer,  in  Goinea.  It  is  the  rendence  of  a  na- 
tive chie^  and  is  accessible  by  merchant  vessels, 
which  anchor  in  the  Oameroons  river,  close  to 
the  town«  The  hoosee  are  regularly  and  neatly 
built  of  bamboo. 

BEIJJlO,  a  town  in  the  department  of  Hante- 
Belle,  Yienne,  France ;  pop.  4^000.  It  has  tan- 
yards,  paper-mills,  and  a  foondery,  doth,  linen, 
and  hat  mannlkotories. 

BELLADONNA,  HteraUy,  beantifnl  lady,  a 
name  given  to  several  different  plants,  as  to  the 
cMpm  hortenm^  CMwryUU  IkUadonna^  and  the 
atr^  helladanna.  The  amaryllis  is  a  lily  of 
great  beanty  and  blnahing  appearance.  It 
grows  wild  at  the  Oape  of  Good  Hope,  and  is 
well  known  in  cultivated  gardens  in  England 
and  France.  The  name  is  also  in  common  nse 
for  the  medicinal  extract  of  the  atropa,  and  in 
the  pharmacopoeias  for  the  leaves,  and  also  for 
4he  root  and  leaves,  from  which  the  extract 
is  obtained*  This  is  a  plant  of  the  iola- 
naeea  family,  the  qni^ities  of  which  are  better 
described  by  the  name  of  Atropa,  one  of  the 
Fates,  whose  ofiBice  was  to  clip  the  thread  of 
fife,  than  by  the  i^eoific  name  of  belladonmL 
notwithstanding  from  it  the  Italians  extracted 
a  cosmetic  for  preserving  the  freshness  of  the 
ridn.  It  is  known  by  tiie  common  name  of 
deadly  nightshade.  In  En^and,  Germany,  and 
northern  France,  it  is   met  with   in  snady 

5 laces  along  the  sides  of  the  walk,  flowering  in 
one  and  July,  and  ripening  its  frait  in  Septem- 
ber. In  this  country  it  is  sncoessftally  cultiva- 
ted in  gardens.  It  grows  from  8  to  4  feet  in 
height,  with  straight  and  strong  stems.  The 
leaves,  of  oval  shape  and  pointed,  are  in  pairs 
cf  unequal  size;  the  flowers  are  large,  bell- 
ahaped,  and  of  a  dull  violet-brown  color.  The 
fruit  resembles  a  cherry,  for  which  it  is  some- 
times mistaken  by  children,  with  fatal  conse- 
quences: it  contains  numerous  seeds,  and  yields 
a  violet-colored  juice,  of  sweetish  taste.  All 
jMtrts  of  the  plant  are  highly  poisonous.  The 
leaves  are  most  usually  employed  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  alkaloid  principle,  though  the 
root  and  berries  also  yield  it  to  alcohol  and 
water.  For  description  of  this  substance,  see 
Atbopia.  The  juicy  extract  of  the  leaves  ex- 
pressed by  trituration,  and  mixed  with  water, 
la  the  common  medicinal  preparation,  known 
by  the  name  of  belladonna  in  this  country ;  by 
the  Dublin  medical  college  the  root  is  also  used 
for  the  preparation.  This  extract  is  preferred 
to  the  alkali  on  account  of  the  dangerously 
powerful  properties  of  the  latter.  It  is  estima- 
ted that  one  hundred  weight  of  fresh  leaves  will 
vield  from  four  to  six  pounds  of  extract  It  has 
been  employed  in  medicine  from  early  times, 
the  leaves  themselves  being  applied  to' heal 
tumors  and  ulcers.  At  present  it  is  adminis- 
tered internally  in  preference,  and  is  found  to 


be  apowerftil  remedy  in  nervous  diseases,  neu- 
ralgia, hooping-cough,  paralysis,  rheumatism, 
imd  many  other  diseases.  By  the  homoeopa- 
tiiists  it  is  hiffhly  esteemed  as  a  preventive  medi- 
ctne  to  attacucs  of  scarlatina,  it  has  a  powerfhl 
effect  npon  the  eye,  a  few  drops  causing  dila- 
tation of  the  pupil,  a  property  which  renders  it 
a  highly  usdhi  application  previous  to  the 
operation  for  the  cataract  Dilatation  usufdly 
comes  on  in  about  an  hour;  and  increases  for 
8  or  4  hours,  after  which  it  continues  for  a  day 
or  two.  It  is  also  applied  in  cases  of  inflamma- 
tion of  the  iris  and  opacity  of  the  crystalline 
lens.  The  poisonous  effects  of  the  plant  when 
taken  by  mistake,  which  is  not  an  uncommon 
occurrence  where  it  grows  wild,  are  described 
as  very  distressing  and  terrible.  They  com« 
mence  in  about  half  an  hour;  but  when  the  al- 
kali is  taken,  in  fifteen  minutes.  The  throat 
becomes  dry  and  parched,  the  power  of  swal« 
lowing  is  lost,  nausea  and  ineffectual  attempts 
to  vomit  succeed,  tiie  aght  becomes  dim,  and 
the  sufferer  is  thrown  into  a  condition  of  verti- 
go and  delirium  like  that  of  intoxication, 
making  wild  gestures,  and  uttering  shouts  of 
laughter,  and  at  last  falling  into  a  state  of  leth- 
argy. The  pupil  of  the  eye  is  dilated  and  slght- 
lesB,  the  face  red  and  swollen,  and  the  mouth 
and  jaws  spasmodically  affected.  The  most 
effectual  antidote  is  the  speedy  use  of  the  stom* 
ach-pump  or  emetics,  followed  by  pur^pitives 
and  iijection.  The  infrision  of  gaUs  is  also 
recommended,  and  lime-water  or  the  alkaline 
solutions  are  said  to  render  the  poisonous  mat- 
ter remaining  in  the  stomach  inert. 

BELLAMONTJSiOHABD,  earl  of;  royal  gov- 
ernor of  New  York  and  Massachusetts,  to 
which  offices  he  was  appointed  in  May.  1695, 
but  did  not  arrive  in  New  York  until  May, 

1698.  He  died  in  Kew  York,  March  5, 1701. 
He  went  from  New  York  to  Boston  in  May; 

1699,  and  was  received  by  20  companies  of 
soldiers  and  a  vast  concourse  of  people.  He 
took  every  means  to  ingratiate  himself  with 
the  people,  and  one  of  his  biographies  says  by 
this  means  he  obtained  a  larger  salary  than 
any  of  his  predecessors  had  been  able  to  get. 
Though  but  14  months  in  the  colony,  the 
grants  made  to  him  were  £1,875.  His  admin- 
istration was  uneventful,  his  time  having  been 
occupied  in  the  pursuit  of  the  pirates  who  in- 
fested the  coast,  one  of  whom,  the  notorious 
Kidd,  he  secured  and  sent  to  England  in  1700. 
In  the  latter  part  of  that  year  he  returned  to 
New  York,  where  he  contracted  the  disease  of 
which  he  died.  Hutchinson  speaks  of  Bella- 
mont  as  being  a  hypocrite  in  a  pretended  devo- 
tion to  religion.  It  appears,  however,  that 
while  living  at  Fort  George,  m  New  York,  he 
passed  much  time  in  meditation  and  contrition 
for  his  youthful  excesses.  He  was  accompanied 
to  America  by  his  countess.  New  Hampshire 
he  does  not  appear  to  have  visited,  though  it 
was  one  of  his  governments. 

BELLAMY,    Mbs.    Gbobob   Akn,    Englisli 
actress,  born  in  London,  April  28, 1788,  died 


BELLAMY 


BELLATRIS 


101 


iBt  Edinburgh,  Feb.  16,  1788.  Her  mother, 
who  had  h^a  Lord  Tyrawley's  mistreaa,  mar- 
ried Gapt.  Bellamy,  who  abandoned  her  on  the 
birth  cf  this  child,  which  was  bom  some 
months  too  soon  to  claim  consangninity  with 
him.  She  was  educated  at  a  convent  in  Bou- 
logne, from  the  age  of  4  to  11,  when  she  re- 
torned  to  England.  Lord  Tyrawley,  her  actual 
fiither,  to<^  notice  of  her,  gave  her  a  house 
near  London,  and  introduced  her  to  his  own 
gay  friends,  whose  conversation  and  example 
vitiated  her  mind.  When  Lord  Tyrawley  went 
on  an  embassy  to  Bussia,  he  left  her  under  the 
protection  of  a  lady  of  rank,  with  an  annuity 
of  £100,  so  long  as  she  held  no  intercourse 
with  her  mother,  who  had  seriously  offended 
him.  Having  gone  to  reside  with  her  mother, 
die  lost  her  annuity,  and  was  renounced  by  her 
father.  Having  derived  an  inclination  for  the 
stage  fhmi  her  mother,  who  was  an  actress 
she  was  introduced  to  Mr.  Bich,  manager  or 
Covent  Garden  theatre,  who,  on  hearing  her 
recite  some  passages  in  Otiiello,  engaged  her 
as  a  performer.  At  this  time  she  was  14^ 
with  a  good  figure,  fine  voice,  graceful  action, 
Uvely  spirits,  and  handsome  fSaoe.  She  ap- 
peared as  Monimia,  in  the  tragedy  of  *^  The 
Orphan,''  and  her  performance  during  8  acts 
was  dnii  and  spiritlesa.  In  the  4th  act  (to  use 
her  own  words)  she  '^  blazed  out  at  once  in 
meridian  ^lender.''  From  that  time  her  pro- 
£96Bional  career  was  briUiant.  In  1759,  when 
Dodsley's  ^^  Qeone'^  was  produced.  Dr.  Johnson 
attended,  and  wrote  to  Bennet  Langton  that  it 
^  was  w^  acted  by  all  the  company,  but  Bellamy 
left  nothing  to  be  desired."  After  many  alter- 
nations of  fortune,  a  free  benefit,  given  her  by 
the  pUiyers,  in  1785,  took  her  out  of  prison, 
to  wm<^  she  was  remanded,  for  debt,  in  the 
following  year.  She  died  in  want  She  publish- 
ed an  ^  Apology  for  her  Life,"  in  0  volumes. 

BELLAMY,  Jacobus,  a  poet  of  Holland,  bom 
at  Flushing,  Nov.  12,  1757,  died  March  11, 
1786.  He  was  bred  in  the  trade  of  a  baker, 
but  his  patriotic  productions  were  so  much  ad- 
mired that  he  was  pLiced  by  a  company  of  gen* 
tiemen  at  Utrecht,  for  education  and  to  be  pro- 
vided for  in  the  church ;  his  genius,  however, 
led  him  to  continued  poetical  compodtion,  im- 
aginative and  amatory.  The  Vaderlandaehe 
wtanaen  were  collected  and  published  in  1785. 

BELLAMY,  Josxph,  D.  D.,  a  celebrated  di- 
vine of  New  England,  bom  in  1719,  died 
March  6, 1790.  He  graduated  at  Yale  oolleffe 
in  1785,  and  was  (Kdained  at  Bethlehem,  m 
IToodbuiy,  Ot,  in  1740.  He  remained  in  stu- 
dious retirement  until  the  famous  revival  of 
1742,  when,  leaving  his  charge,  he  began,  in 
the  manner  of  the  time^  a  constant  and  ezten- 
aire  course  of  preaching.  A  more  than  ordi- 
nary share  of  controversial  learning,  direct 
conviction,  a  ready  delivery,  and  powerful 
Y<»ce,  peculiarly  fitted  him  for  this  office.  After 
the  religious  interest  had  passed  over,  he  re- 
turned to  his  parish  and  established  a  school 
cf  theological  instruction,  in  which  for  many 


^ears  he  educated  numbers  of  attached  pupils 
in  the  theory,  and  practice  of  the  ministry. 
Several  sermons  ana  treatises  were  published 
by  him  from  1750  to  1762,  which,  in  1811, 
were  collected  in  8  volumes,  with  a  sketch  or 
his  life.  His  system  of  divinity  coincides  gen- 
erally with  that  of  President  Edwards,  with 
whom  he  was  intimate. 

BELLAMY,  Samubl,  a  noted  pirate,  was 
wrecked  in  his  ship,  the  Whidah,  of  23  guns 
and  ISO  men,  off  Wellfleet,  on  Oape  Ood,  in 
April  1717,  after  having  ciqptured  several 
vessels  on  the  coast.  Only  1  Indian  and  1 
Englishman  escaped  of  his  crew.  Six  of  the 
pirates,  who  had  been  run  ashore  when  drunk 
a  few  days  previous,  by  the  captain  of  a  c^ 
tured  vessel  were  hung  in  noston  in  Nov. 
1717. 

BELLAKMIN  (Bbllabuxno  Robxbto'),  car- 
dinalborn  of  a  noble  fSamily  at  Monte  Pulciano^ 
near  Florence,  Oct.  5, 1542,  died  at  Rome,  Sept» 
17, 1621.  He  was  the  nephew  of  Pope  Marceilus 
n.,  and  manifested  the  bright  promise  of  his  fu- 
ture greatness  in  childhood.  It  is  said  that  once, 
when  his  mother  took  him  to  a  church  orna- 
mented with  paintings,  representing  the  fathers 
and  doctors  of  the  church,  he  ezcmmed,  ^*  One 
day  I  shall  be  one  of  these.'*  Great  care  was 
tsken  with  his  early  education,  and  at  18 
he  entered  the  society  of  the  Jesuits.  For 
several  years  he  was  occupied  chiefly  with 
study  and  instruction.  The  celebrated  St.  Fran- 
cis ^rgia,  formerly  duke  of  Oandia,  who 
succeeded  Lavnez  as  ^neral,  sent  mm  to 
Louvain,  to  labor  against  the  extension  of 
Protestantism,  by  preaching  and  teaching  the- 
ology. From  this  time,  he  became  the  most 
powerful  and  celebrated  champion  and  contro- 
versial writer  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church. 
Siztus  y.  sent  him  with  his  legate  to  France, 
during  the  wars  of  the  league,  and  after  his 
recall  he  was  emplc^ed  in  different  offices  at 
Bome.  Olement  VUI.  decorated  him  with 
the  Roman  purple  in  1599.  During  his  bril- 
liant career  as  the  first  theologian  of  the  church, 
and  as  cardinal,  Bellarmin  continued  to  live 
a  most  simple,  strict^  and  ascetic  life.  In  160S 
he  was  made  archbishop  of  Capua,  where  he 
resided  and  administered  that  see  for  a  few 
years,  after  which  he  resigned  it,  and  remained 
at  Rome  during  the  last  15  years  of  his  lif& 
wholly  devoted  to  his  duties  as  cardinal,  and 
to  the  study  of  theology.  At  the  condave 
which  followed  the  death  of  Olement  YIIL,  he 
was  a  candidate  for  the  tiara,  and,  at  the  sub- 
sequent conclave  after  the  short  reign  of  Leo 
XL,  came  within  a  few  votes  of  the  number 
requisite  for  an  election.  He  exerted  himseU( 
however,  to  prevent  it,  and  Cardinal  Aldo- 
brandini  did  tne  same,  on  the  ground  that  the 
election  of  a  Jesuit  would  offend  the  sovereigns. 
Cardinal  Bellarmin  remained,  however,  dur- 
ing his  life,  the  most  esteemed  counsellor  of 
th^popes,  and  tiie  ruling  spirit  of  the  college 
of  cardinals. 

BELLATRIX,  the  name  of  the  smaller  of  the 


102 


BELLAT 


BXLLENDEN 


2  bright  stars  in  the  shoulder  of  Orion.  It  is 
of  the  second  magnitade.  The  name,  Warrior- 
esB,  is  indicative  of  the  sapposed  qoalities  of 
the  spirit  animating  the  star. 

BELLAY,  JoAOHDc  du,  a  French  poet,  canon 
of  Notre  Dame  of  Paris,  born  near  Angers,  in 
1524^  died  Jan.  1,  1560.  He  was  a  uvorite 
with  Francis  L,  with  the  qneen  of  Navarre,  and 
with  Henrj  11.  Though  a  pries^  the  license  of 
the  times  allowed  him  to  devote  himself  to  a  lady 
named  Olive,  on  whom  he  wrote  a  collection  of 
116  sonnets,  bearing  her  name,  which  he  called 
his  canticles.  Thej  were  very  saccessfoL  Da 
Bellay  was  calM  the  French  Ovid;  and  when 
afterward  he  published  183  sonnets  entitied 
Eearets,  and  47  on  the  antiquities  of  Bome,  the 
public  admiration  extended  across  the  channel, 
and  was  shared  by  the  English  Spenser.  Els 
oontemDorary  Ronsard  being  known  as  the 
princs  as  Vode^  Du  Bellay  was  spoken  of  as  the 
princs  du  wnneU 

BELLE,  JsAH  Frakqois  Joseph  db,  a  French 
ffeneral,  bom  at  Yoreppe,  May  27,  1767,  died 
m  St.  Domingo  in  June,  1802.  He  was  made 
general  in  1796 ;  was  in  the  Italian  campaign 
of  1799,  and  on  the  fatal  day  of  Novi,  when, 
Joubert  having  fallen,  the  French  army  was 
forced  to  retreat,  he  durected  the  artillery.  In 
1801  he  was  in  the  army  which  sailed  under 
oommand  of  Lederc  to  reduce  St.  Domingo; 
lie  participated  in  the  action  which  compelled 
Maurepas  to  capitulate ;  he  soon  after  attacked 
the  army  of  Dessalines,  forced  him  to  retreat 
and  pursued  the  fugitives  into  the  fort  oif 
Gr6te-&-Pierrot.  Many  of  the  French  perished 
under  the  artillery  of  this  fortification,  and  De 
Belle  himself  while  advancing  at  the  head  of 
his  column,  was  dangerously  wounded,  obliged 
to  be  carried  from  the  field  of  battie,  and  sur- 
vived but  a  short  time. 

BELLEOHASSE,  a  countv  in  the  eastern 
part  of  Canada  East,  situated  between  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  the  state  of  Maine,  and  embrac- 
ing an  area  of  1^088  sq.  miles.  Flax,  hay,  and 
oats  are  raised  m  considerable  quantities,  and 
the  sugar-maple  abounds  in  the  forests.  Wool- 
len goods  and  leather  are  the  chief  manufac^ 
tures.  Pop.  17,982.  Chief  town,  Berthier-en- 
bas. 

BELLE-ISLE,  or  Bsllisle,  Straits  of,  an 
outiet  of  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  between  the 
coasts  of  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  lat.  62® 
N.;  length,  about  80  miles;  breadth,  12  miles. 
Its  navigation  is  considered  to  be  hazardous. 
The  Labrador  side  of  this  strait  is  indented 
with  bays— Temple  bay.  Wreck  cove,  Green 
bay.  Bed.  bay,  and  Black  bay.  The  oppodte 
coast  is  devoid  of  indentations. 

BELLE-ISLE,  North,  an  island  at  the  mouth 
of  the  straits  of  tiie  same  name,  between  New 
Britain  and  the  northern  extremity  of  New- 
foundland, 10  miles  distant  firom  the  nearest 
part  of  the  coast  of  Labrador.  Its  circumfer- 
ence is  about  21  miles.  On  the  N.  W.  sid^fls  a 
harbor  for  small  fishing  vessels,  and  a  cove  on 
the  £,  side  a£Ebrds  shelter  for  shfUlops.— South 


Bbllb-Islb  is  an  island  off  the  N.  E.  coast  of 
Newfoundland,  near  the  entrance  to  White 
bay. 

BELLE-ISLE-EN-MEB,  an  island  in  the  bay 
of  Biscay  on  the  west  coast  of  France,  a  littie 
north-west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Loire,  depart- 
ment of  Morbihan.  8  ms.  S.  of  Quiberon  point. 
It  is  of  an  oblong  rorm ;  length,  about  11  miles ; 
breadth,  6  miles.  Its  surface  is  about  160  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  treeless.  The  island  is  noted 
for  its  fine  breed  of  draught  horses.  It  has 
several  druidical  monuments.    Pop.  10,000. 

BELLENDEN.  Sm  Johk,  a  Scotch  states- 
man, bom  near  tne  beginning  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury, died  in  1577.  The  name  of  his  fiunily  is 
also  spelled  Ballendeh  and  Bannatyne.  The 
fact  tnat  he  was  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne 
makes  it  probable  that  he  was  educated  in 
France.  When  the  earl  of  Angus,  prime  mimster 
of  Scotland,  was  attainted  in  1528.  Bellenden 
was  one  of  the  few  who  adhered  faithfully  to 
him,  and  he  drew  up  the  defence^  on  the  grounds 
taken  in  which  the  attainder  was  afterward  re- 
versed. He  received  the  honor  of  knighthood 
in  1547,  when  he  was  made  lord  of  sessions 
and  director  of  the  chancery,  and  upon  the  ar- 
rival of  Queen  Mary  in  Scotland  in  1561  he  was 
appointed  one  of  the  privy  council.  A  zealous 
Catholic,  he  was  one  of  those  who  sought  to 
check  the  reformation  by  allowing  smaller 
stipends  to  the  Protestant  clergy.  He  was  in- 
volved in  the  commotions  attending  the  murder 
of  Rizzio,  but  obtained  the  flavor  of  Mary  and 
Damley,  and  afterward  joined  the  association 
against  them.  The  troubles  of  the  kingdom 
induced  him  to  leave  it  for  a  time,  and  he 
made  a  visit  to  Bome,  but  returned  and  took 
part,  1578,  in  framing  the  pacification  of  Perth. 
He  wrote  a  few  poems,  and  translated  into 
the  vernacular  tongue  the  Scottish  history  of 
Bodthius. 

BELLENDEN,  Wiluau,  a  Scottish  writer 
of  the  17th  century,  the  time  of  whose  birth  and 
death  is  uncertain.  He  is  famous  for  pure  Latin- 
ity,  and  was  educated  at  Paris,  where  he  be- 
came professor  of  belles-lettres,  and  continued 
to  reside,  though  he  was  invited  to  Scotiand 
by  James  I.  before  the  latter  succeeded  to  t^e 
English  crown.  He  collected  in  1616  three 
treatises,  which  he  had  published  before  sep- 
arately, under  the  titie  of  BeUmoUnut  de  Statu. 
The  first  of  these  was  entitied  Oie&ronU  JPrin- 
ceps^  &C.,  or  De  Statu  PHneipie  et  Imperii; 
the  second  was  Oieeronie  Oensul,  Senator^  Sen- 
atueque  JSomanui^  or  De  Statu  JSeiptibUea; 
and  the  tiiird  was  De  Statu  Ftieei  Om$,  In 
the  first  2  portions  he  collected  from  the 
writings  of  Cicero  all  the  passages  which 
had  reference  to  the  nature  of  political  gov- 
ernment, the  authority  of  oonsuls,  and  the 
constitution  of  the  senate  among  the  Romans, 
and  the  last  portion  was  a  condensed  hietory  of 
the  progress  of  religion,  philosophy,  and  civil 
polity  from  the  times  before  the  fiood,  under 
the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Bomans,  to  the  age  of 
Cicero.    This  work  was  republished  in  1787  by 


EELLEROPHOIT 


BELUCY 


108 


Dr.  Parr,  -who  prefixed  to  it  a  long  introdnction 
in  a  style  of  elegant  and  powerful  Latinit7 
which  could  be  equalled  by  few  modem  schol- 
BTB,  and  which  was  remarkable  for  its  fierce 
invectiTe  against  eminent  contemporary  states- 
men. The  greatest  labor  of  his  life  was  an 
elaborate  and  learned  work.  Be  tribus  Lwrnini- 
his  Bamanorum,  in  which  he  designed  to  treat 
of  the  character,  literary  merits,  and  philo- 
sophical opinions  of  Oioero,  Seneca,  and  Pliny. 
Only  ibe  first  part  was  finished,  in  which  he 
oombines  in  a  historical  form  aU  the  state- 
ments and  reflections  of  Cicero  which  relate  to 
the  civil  and  religions  affairs  of  Home ;  and  he 
intersperses  observations  in  snch  a  way  as  to 
make  the  whole  a  careful  display  of  the  original 
Bonroes  of  Roman  history  m>m  the  foundation 
of  the  city  to  the  beginning  of  the  empire. 
This  work  was  precisely  such  a  digest  as  Dr. 
Middleton  in  his  *'  Life  of  Oioero''  professed  to 
have  formed  by  his  own  nnaided  industry. 
But  few  copies  of  Bellenden*s  work  existed  in 
England,  yet  it  is  hardly  probable  that  so  well 
read  a  scholar  as  Middleton,  who  was  fiuniliar 
with  public  libraries,  oonld  nave  avoided  see- 
ing it,  and  therefore  knowing  that  his  own 
labor  of  collectmg  and  digesting  would  be  en- 
tirely superfluous.  Dr.  Middleton  was^  there- 
fore, repeatedly  accused  of  plagiarism,  among 
others  by  Dr.  Warton  and  Dr.  Parr. 

BELLEROPHOK,  a  hero  of  Grecian  my- 
thology, whose  real  name  was  Hipponous. 
was  a  son  of  Glauous,  king  of  Oorinth,  and 
Eurymede.  He  received  the  eponym  of  Bel- 
lerophon  in  consequence  of  having  slain  a 
Corinthian  eupatria  named  Bellerus.  After 
tills  crime  he  fled  to  ProBtus,  king  of  Argos,  to 
get  himself  deansed  from  the  pollution  of  blood. 
The  wife  of  Proetus  became  desperately  enam- 
ored of  him,  but  BeUerophon  received  her  ad- 
-vances  so  coldly  that  sne  grew  exasperated, 
and,  accusing  mm  to  her  husband  of  having 
made  insulting  offers  to  her,  she  insisted  that 
he  should  be  put  to  death.  ProBtus  not  wish- 
ing to  violate  the  laws  of  hospitality  by  slay- 
ing a  man  who  was  his  guest,  despatched  him 
with  a  letter  to  lobates,  king  of  Lycia,  in  which 
tiiat  potentate  was  charged  to  have  BeUerophon 
killed.  lobates' hereupon  sent  him  to  combat 
the  monster  Ohimtera.  BeUerophon  first  caught 
the  winged  horse,  Pegasus,  with  the  aid  of 
Minerva,  and  then  mounting  him,  soared  into 
the  air  and  slew  the  monster  from  on  high, 
lobates  next  sent  him  to  encounter  the  Solymi 
and  the  Amazons,  but  the  hero  stiU  proved  vic- 
torious. Lastly,  lobates  placed  a  band  of  the 
hravest  I^cians  in  ambush  to  attack  him  on  his 
return.  This  device,  however,  was  fruitiess, 
fw  BeUerophon  slew  them  aU.  The  Lydan 
monarch  now  perceiving  that  he  was  invincible, 
revealed  to  him  the  contents  of  the  letter  which 
he  had  brought  from  Prostus,  gave  him  his 
cbinghter  Oassandra  in  marriage,  and  made  him 
heir  to  the  throne  of  his  kingdom.  The  latter 
days  of  BeUerophon  were  unfortunate.  At- 
tempthig  to  soar  to  heaven  on  the  back  of  Pe- 


gasus, Zeus  sent  a  hornet  which  so  stung  his 
winged  steed,  that  he  oast  his  rider  to  the 
earth,  where  lame  and  blind  he  wandered  lonely 
in  the  Alelan  fields,  a  prey  to  corroding  ffri^ 
and  mdancholy,  shunmng  men,  and  hated  by 
the  gods.  

BELLES-LETTRES  rPr.),  beautiftd  or  poUte 
Hterature,  a  term  of  meoieeval  origin  and  vague 
import.  Letters  were  revived  in  the  flmtastio 
age  of  chivalry,  and  the  knights  and  princes  of 
that  time  looked  upon  learning  with  something 
of  the  haUudnation  with  which  thev  regarded 
women,  adventures,  the  Turks,  and  the  dragon. 
Of  science  or  of  erudition  they  had  no  proper 
conception,  and  the^  thought  that  the  whole 
array  of  learning,  history,  phUosophy,  mathe- 
matics, languages,  geographv,  and  astronomy, 
was  designed  only  as  an  aid  in  writing  a  sonnet 
or  a  song.  Literature  was  thus  associated  with 
the  wUd  romance  of  the  period,  and  the  ro- 
mantic epithet  of  beautifbl,  tnen  much  in 
vogue,  was  applied  to  it^  making  it  in  Italian 
helU  tetters,  and  in  French  hsUi  Isttrss.  Ec- 
dedastical  learning,  however,  which  had  never 
quite  departed  from  the  cloisters,  did  not  Join 
tne  general  revelry  of  letters  in  celebrating  the 
ideas  and  deeds  of  chivalry,  but  kept  its  pris- 
tine dignity,  and  amid  songs,  and  ballads,  and 
romances,  gravely  discussed  exegesis  and  his- 
tory. Thus  literature  was  divided  into  the- 
ology and  beUes-lettres.  The  latter  term,  after 
the  attainment  of  sounder  views  of  the  uses  of 
learning,  received  a  less  comprehensive  mean- 
ing, and  was  applied  indefinitely  to  those  de- 
partments of  Uterature  which  minister  to  the 
taste  and  the  &ncy  in  distinction  f^om  tiiose 
which  are  more  palpably  useful.  It  was  used 
as  descriptive  of  the  attainments  of  a  person 
who  pursued  learning,  not  thoroughly  and  with 
a  scientific  spirit,  but  with  ideas  resembUng 
those  which  were  prevalent  at  the  period  of  the 
renaissance.  In  tins  sense  it  has  retained  a  pre- 
carious existence  in  the  English  language,  in 
which  it  was  borrowed  from  the  Erenoh,  but 
the  fact  that  the  term  now  conveys  no  definite 
meaning  has  rendered  its  use  nearly  obsolete. 
The  topics  which  it  once  embraced  faU  now 
under  me  heads  of  poetnr  and  Uterature. 

BELLEYAL,  Pibbbb  Kiobeb  db,  a  Frendi 
botanist  bom  at  Oh&lons-sur-Mame^  in  1658, 
died  at  MontpeUier,  in  1628.  Henry  lY.,  learn- 
ing that  the  medical  students  of  France  were 
accustomed  to  complete  their  education  in  the 
oniversities  of  Italy,  where  the  professors  had 
botanical  gardens  under  their  charge,  founded 
by  royal  edict  in  1698  a  botanical  garden  at 
MontpeUier,  in  which  he  appointed  Belleval  a 
professor.  BeUeval  published  manv  botanical 
treatises,  and  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  founders 
of  the  sdence  of  botany,  since  he  was  among 
the  first  to  oonsider  plants  according  to  their 
general  characteristics  without  regard  to  their 
medicinal  properties.    He  had  400  plates  en- 

Saved,  which  were  praised  by  Toumefort  and 
nnnus,  but  have  been  nearly  aU  lost. 
BELLET,  a  town  <^  Enuioe,in  the  depart* 


104 


BELLIKGHAM 


BEXLINI 


ment  of  Ain;  pop.  4,879 ;  88  mUes  S.  W.  from 
Gteneva,  agreeably  situated  in  a  fertile  vallej 
near  the  Rhone,  whioh  is  here  crossed  b^  a  sos- 
pension-bridge.  It  is  the  ancient  BeUtca^  was 
a  place  of  note  in  tiie  time  of  Jnlios  Oessar, 
and  is  now  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  whioh  was 
fonnded  in  412.  It  was  bnmed  by  Alario  in 
890,  was  possessed  by  the  dokes  of  Savoy  dur- 
ing the  middle  ages,  and  was  ceded  to  France 
in  1621.  Its  episcopal  palace,  tlie  belfiy  of  the 
cathedral,  and  its  cabinet  of  medals  and  an- 
tiquities, are  now  its  most  remarkable  objects. 
Iithogrc4[>hic  stones,  esteemed  the  best  in 
France,  are  obtained  from  neighboring  quarries. 

BELUNGHAM,  Riohabd,  royal  governor  of 
Massachusetts,  born  in  1692,  came  to  the  col- 
ony in  1684,  and  died  Dec.  7,  1672.  In 
1685  he  was  made  deputy-^vemor,  and  in 
1641  was  elected  governor  m  opposition  to 
Winthrop  by  a  mfyority  of  6  votes.  The  elec- 
tion, however,  appears  to  have  displeased  the 
general  court.  He  was  reelected  in  1654,  and 
after  the  death  of  Endioottwas  chosen  again  in 
May,  1665,  and  continued  in  the  executive  diair 
of  tiie  colony  as  long  as  he  lived,  having  been 
deputy-governor  18  and  governor  10  years. 
He  was  chosen  m^or-geneiral  in  1664,  in  which 
year  the  king  sent  Nichols,  Oortright^  Goon,  and 
Moresick  as  commissioners,  to  inquire  into  the 
state  of  the  colony,  when,  according  to  Hutch* 
inson,  BeUingham,  and  others  obnoxious  to 
James  H.,  were  required  to  go  to  England  to 
account  for  their  conduct.  The  general  court, 
however,  refused  obedience^  and  maintslned  the 
authority  of  the  charter.  His  wife  having  died, 
in  1641  he  married  a  second  time^  of  which  a 
contemporary  speaks  thus:  ^' A  young  gentle- 
man  was  about  to  be  contracted  to  a  friend  of 
his,  when  on  a  sudden  the  governor  treated 
with  her,  and  obtained  her  for  himselfl"  The 
banns  were  not  properly  published,  and  he  per* 
formed  the  marrisge  ceremony  himself  He 
was  prosecuted  for  a  violation  of  the  law,  but 
at  the  trial  he  refused  to  leave  the  bench,  but 
sat  and  tried  himself,  and  thus  escaped  all 
punishment  In  his  last  will  he  provided  that 
after  the  decease  of  bis  wife  and  of  his  son  by  a 
former  wife,  and  his  granddaughter,  the  bulk 
of  his  estate  should  be  spent  for  tiie  yearly 
maintenance  "  of  goodly  ministers  and  preach- 
ers*^ of  the  true  church,  which  he  considered  to 
be  that  of  the  Gongregationalists.  This  will 
the  general  court  set  aside  on  the  ground  that 
it  interfered  with  the  rights  of  his  family.  A 
sister  of  his,  Anne  Hibbens,  was  executed  at 
Salem  in  June,  1656,  during  the  witchcraft  per- 
secution. 

BELLINI.  I.  Jaoopo,  one  of  the  early 
painters  of  the  Y enetiaii  school,  bom  in  Venice 
about  1405,  died  in  1470.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Gentile  da  Fabriano,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
taught  oil  painting,  which  was  then  a  secret, 
by  Andrea  dal  Gastagno,  and  in  turn,  taught  it 
to  his  sons,  Gentile  and  Giovanni  The  first 
works  by  which  he  acquired  fame  were  por- 
traits of  Catharine  Gomaro,  the  beautiful  queen 


of  Cyprus,  and  one  of  her  brothers ;  a  pictnrs 
representing  the  passion  of  Christ,  in  which 
many  figures  were  introduced,  himself  among 
the  number ;  and  a  historical  picture  represent- 
ing a  Venetian  legend  of  the  miracle  of  the 
cross.  This  cross,  containing  a  piece  of  the 
true  one.  on  which  the  Saviour  died,  was  by 
some  accident  thrown  into  the  grand  canal  at 
Venice,  and  slthough  many  persons  plunged  in 
after  it^  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  only  the 
guardian  of  the  brotherhood  to  whom  the  cross 
belonged,  Andrea  Vindramino,  could  take  it 
out  again.  This  event  was  represented  in  the 
painting.  Almost  all  of  Jacopo^s  works  have 
nerisheid ;  one  supposed  to  be  authentic  is  in  the 
Manfrini  palace  at  Venice,  and  represents  the 
portraits  of  Petrardi  and  Laura.  II.  Gsnthj^ 
the  elder  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  1421, 
died  in  1501.  He  became  much  more  distin- 
guished than  his  father,  but  did  not  rival  his 
younger  brother,  Giovanni.  The  most  affectioa- 
ate  intercourse  existed  between  the  brothers, 
who  mutually  aided  each  other.  Gentile  was 
employed  by  the  Venetian  govemment  on  an 
equal  footing  with  his  bro&er,  in  decorating 
the  hall  of  the  grand  council  in  the  doge^s  pal- 
ace, and  was  also  celebrated  for  his  portruts, 
although  his  manner  was  rather  hard.  His 
fame  attracted  the  notice  of  Mohammed  IL, 
conqueror  of  Constantinople,  and  Bellini  visited 
the  grand  seignor,  being  sent  by  the  senate. 
He  painted  a  number  of  pictures  for  Mohammed, 
and  also  strack  a  medal  for  him,  with  all  of 
which  he  was  greatiy  pleased,  and  rewarded  the 
painter  by  presenting  him  with  a  gold  chain 
and  8,000  ducats.  A  story  is  told  of  his  exhib- 
iting to  Mohammed  a  picture  he  had  punted  of 
the  head  of  John  the  Baptist  in  a  charger,  and 
the  emperor^  who  had  certainly  great  experienoe 
in  decapitation,  observing  that  the  muscles  of 
the  neck  were  not  correctly  drawn,  sent  for  a 
slave  and  had  his  head  cut  off  in  the  presence 
of  the  artist,  to  convince  him  of  his  mistake. 
Voltaire  ridicules  this  tsle,  and  Gibbon  alto- 
gether rejects  it  There  is  a  very  fine  pen  and 
ink  drawmg  by  Bellini  in  the  British  museum, 
representing  Mohammed  and  the  sultana 
mother,  in  whole  length  figures  in  a  sitting 
position.  After  Gentile^  retum  to  Venice, 
he  continued  to  paint  honored  by  the  patron- 
age of  the  state  and  of  private  individuals, 
until  his  death.  UI.  Giovanni,  second  son 
of  Jacopo,  and  generallv  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  Venetian  school,  bom  in  1426,  died  in 
1516.  Some  of  his  earliest  works  were  por- 
traits, among  them  that  of  the  doge  Loredano. 
Having  attracted  the  notice  of  the  government^ 
he  was  employed  by  the  republic  to  deco- 
rate the  great  hall  of  the  council  with  a  series  of 
miu^cent  paintings,  covering  the  entire  waUs^ 
and  deeijpcd  to  represent  the  proudest  his- 
toric glories  of  Vemce.  These  were  worthily 
accomplished,  but  were  destroyed  by  a  great 
fire^  in  1577.  Beside  these  noble  works  of  art, 
which  occupied  many  years  of  Giovanni's  life, 
he  painted  a  picture  of  the  Virgin  Maiy,  sur- 


BKLLICAK 


BELLOT 


106 


rounded  by  Bunts,  for  the  ohiirch  of  San  Zao* 
cheria^  in  Veoioe,  whioh  is  still  in  its  plaoe  and 
in  good  preaoration,  having  been  carried  off 
to  Paria,  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  and  returned 
in  1816.  There  is  another  of  the  same  snbieot 
at  Castle  Hownd,  the  seat  of  the  eari  of  Oar- 
liale,  and  this  Dr.  Waagen  declares  to  be  the 
original  work,  in  his  ^^  Art  Treasures  of  Great 
Britain.*'  Many  more  of  his  paintings  are  pre- 
■erred  in  Yenioe,  and  other  cities,  several  of 
whieh  are  in  the  galleries  of  Berlin.  One  of 
his  last  works  was  a  Bacchanal ;  this  he  left 
incomplete,  and  it  was  finished  by  Titian.  He 
has  the  honor  of  having  taught  2  of  the  greatest 
of  the  Venetian  paintcors,  Titian,  already  named, 
and  Giorgione.  His  coloring  was  of  the  same 
Xioh  aod  voloptnoos  character;  they  only  ex- 
celled him  in  grace  and  freedom  of  drawing. 
CKoyanni  Bellini  died  of  old  age,  at  the  age 
cf  90,  and  was  buried  in  the  same  tomb  with 
his  brother  Genlale,  in  the  church  of  San  Gk>* 
wmi  e  Paolo.  IV.  Laubbhtio,  an  Italian 
anatomist,  bom  at  Florence,  Sept  8, 1648,  died 
Jan.  8, 1704.  He  was  patronized  by  the  grand 
duke  Ferdinand  II.,  by  whose  ^aid  he  repaired 
to  the  univeraty  of  Pisa,  where  he  studied 
under  the  most  distinguished  masters  of  the 
time,  being  instructed  in  mechanics  by  Borelli, 
ndioae  teachings  he  subsequently  made  great 
nae  ot,  in  expuuning,  by  mechanics,  the  phe- 
nomena of  the  living  body.  His  acquirements 
were  such  that  at  22  he  gained  the  chair  of 
philosophy  and  theoretical  medicine.  He  held 
the  chair  of  anatomy  for  over  80  years,  and  was 
regardedas  a  very  brilliant  professor,  his  lectures 
finMjuently  securing  the  attendance  oi  the  grand 
duke.  When  60  years  of  age,  he  abandoned 
his  proliBssorship,  and  returaod  to  Florence. 
He  made  several  valuable  discoveries  in  an* 
atomy,  and  wrote  many  works  on  medical 
subjects,  as  well  as  poems  and  discourses, 
v.  ViNOBHzo,  one  of  the  most  popular  com- 
posers of  modem  tames^  bom  at  Catania,  in 
8ioUy,  Nov.  1  or  8, 1806,  died  Sept  28,  1886. 
Before  he  was  20  yesrs  of  age,  he  produced  an 
opera  at  San  Carlo,  entitled  JSianea  e  Fernando* 
In  the  following  year,  he  wrote  for  La  Scala,  at 
Milan,  H  FiratOy  which  had  immediate  success, 
and  La  Straniera,  He  produced  La  Shmnam- 
5u2a  at  Naples,  and  this  opera  still  maintains 
its  great  popularity.  He  succesBiyely  wrote 
I  Captdettiedi  M^mUcehij  which  was  first  per- 
.  formed  in  Venice ;  Norma^  which  appeared  at 
Milan,  and  I  Puritanic  for  the  Theatre  Italien, 
in  Paris.  Nearly  all  his  works  are  still  fre- 
quently performed,  and  are  of  a  character  to 
oharm  a  wide  variety  of  the  lovers  of  music. 
There  is  an  exquisite  sweetness  and  pathos  in 
Ilia  compositions,  which  win  upon  the  great 
mass  of  listeners. 

BELLMAN,  Kabl  Mickkl,  a  Swedish  poet, 
oslled  the  Anacreon  of  Sweden,  bom  at  Stock- 
|M>lm,  Feb.  4^  1740,  died  Feb.  11,  1796.  He 
published  religious  poems,  and  a  translation  of 
the  fables  of  Gellert,  but  acquired  renown  only 
1^  the  songs  whieh  he  waa  aconstCMned  to  irn* 


proviso  at  banquet-tables.  Associated  with  the 
most  brilliant  and  dissipated  young  men  of  the 
capital,  he  would  pass  the  entire  night  singing 
improvisations  to  his  friends,  accompanying 
himself  with  the  guitar,  till  he  would  fall  down 
fainting.  The  best  of  his  verses  are  thought 
never  to  have  been  written,  but  to  have  paaaed 
away  with  the  joyous  moment  which  gave  them 
birth.  The  songs  and  idyls,  whioh  he  published 
under  the  title  of  "Letters  to  Fredman,"  are 
peculiarly  nMve,  tender,  and  charming.  His 
longest  poem,  the  "  Temple  of  Bacchus,''  is  of 
an  ele^ac  character,  and  marked  by  d^th 
and  brillianpy  of  thought.  In  1829,  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  at  Stockholm,  in  honor  of  his 
genius,  and  a  society  named  after  him,  the 
"Bellman,"  celebrates  there  an  annual  festiTal 
in  his  memory. 

BELLOC,  Amne  Louibb  Swastok,  a  French* 
woman  of  letters,  bom  at  La  Roohelle,  Oct 
1, 1799,  Ihe  daughter  of  an  Irish  officer  in 
the  French  service,  named  O'Keefe.  She  has 
earned  an  honorable  livelihood  by  translating 
English  and  American  works  into  French,  and 
by  writing  educational  worin  for  the  young,  in 
whioh  she  is  assisted  by  Mile.  Montgolfier,  the 
daughter  of  the  celebrated  aeronaut,  ^e  has 
introduced  to  French  readers  the  moral  tales 
of  IGss  Edgeworth,  several  of  Thomas  Moore's 
poems,  the  travels  of  the  two  Landers  in  search 
of  the  course  of  the  Niger,  Goldsmith's  ^^Yicar 
of  Wakefield,"  Miss  Sedgwick's  writings,  and  an 
essay  of  Dr.  Channing,  to  which  she  prefixed 
an  original  life  of  tiie  author.  Her  last  work 
of  which  we  have  information,  is  a  translation 
of  Mrs.  Stowe's  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

BELLONA,  the  Roman  goddess  of  war.  She 
is  sometimes  styled  the  colleague,  sometimes 
the  rister,  sometimes  the  wife,  of  Mars.  She 
was  worshipped  as  the  deity  whose  peculiar 
province  it  was  to  inspire  mortals  with  invinci- 
Die  valor  and  enthusiasm.  Her  temple  stood 
in  the  Campus  Martins^  near  the  drcus  of  Fla> 
minius,  and  was  of  great  political  importance  in 
the  days  of  the  republic.  The  priests  of  Bello> 
na  were  CHEdled  Beuonarii,  and  as  often  as  they 
sacrificed  to  their  goddess  they  were  obliged  to 
lacerate  their  arms  or  legs,  that  they  might  be 
able  to  offer  upon  her  altar  a  portion  of  their 
own  blood.  The  humanity  of  later  times,  how« 
ever,  did  away,  in  a  great  measure,  with  this 
practice.  The  24th  day  of  March  in  e verr  year 
was  the  principal  day  of  her  worship,  and  that 
day  was  distinguished  in  the  Roman  Fasti  by 
the  title  of  die»  BonguinU, 

BELLOT,  Joseph  RsNi,  a  French  naral  offi- 
cer, bom  in  Paris,  March,  1826,  lost  off  Cape 
Bowden,  Aug.  18,  1868.  He  was  a  midship- 
man in  the  siege  of  Yera  Cruz  in  1888,  and  a 
lieutenant  in  1851,  when  he  obtained  permission 
to  serve  as  a  volunteer  in  the  English  expedition 
sent  out  in  search  of  Sir  John  Franklin,  and 
c(xnmanded  by  Captain  Belcher,  R.  N.  The 
bravery  and  good  conduct  of  the  young  man 
were  remarku^le^  and  a  strait  which  he  disooy- 
ered  has  been  named  after  him.    Onhisretom 


106 


BELLOWS 


BELLOWS 


home  he  again  sought  and  ohtained  leave  to 
join  the  Inglefield  expedition.  On  one  ocoasion, 
when  Liglefield  was  ahsent,  he  offered  to  carry 
some  despatches  to  Sir  Edward  Belcher,  bj  a 
jonmej  over  the  ice.  Being  overtaken  by  a 
storm,  the  ice  on  which  he  was,  with  2  of  his 
oompanions,  was  severed  from  the  land.  He 
went  to  the  other  side  of  the  hummock  to  re- 
connoitre, and  was  never  seen  again.  A 
monument  to  his  memory  has  been  erected  at 
Greenwich  hospital  His  own  diary,  which 
was  published  in  1855,  Airnishes  the  best  narra- 
tive of  his  adventures  and  enterprises. 

BELLOWS,  an  instrument  contrived  for  pro- 
pelling air  through  a  pipe.  It  is  employed  for 
blowing  fires,  supplying  air  to  ventilate  mines, 
filling  the  pipes  of  an  organ  with  wind,  and  for 
other  purposes.  The  use  of  this  apparatus  may 
be  traced  back  to  a  very  early  period.  It  is 
spoken  of  by  Jeremiah,  vi.  29,  and  by  Eze- 
Idel,  xxii.  20.  When  Homer  describes  the 
forging  of  the  iron  shield  of  Achilles,  he 
speaks  of  the  furnace  into  which  the  materials 
were  thrown  being  blown  by  20  pairs  oi  bellows 
(d^irai).  From  the  remarks  of  Plautus  in  his 
FragmerUOy  and  of  Virgil  in  the  Georgics,  it 
would  appear  that  bellows  of  the  ancients  were 
made  wholly  of  leather.  The  first  account  we 
have  of  wooden  bellows  is  by  Henry,  bishop  of 
Bamberg,  in  Bavaria,  in  1620,  when  one  named 
Pfannenschmidt  (bellows  smith)  commenced 
the  manufacture  of  them  in  the  Hurtz  forest, 
and  by  his  success  excited  the  jealousy  of  those 
of  the  same  trade  in  the  place.  His  art  was 
disclosed  only  to  his  son,  and  during  the  present 
century  his  great-grandson  had  still  the  monop- 
oly of  the  forest.  These  data  are  furnished  by 
Professor  Alexander,  of  Baltimore,  in  his  report 
upon  the  manufacture  of  iron.  He  is  disposed, 
however,  on  the  authority  of  Beckmann,  to 
give  the  credit  of  their  invention  to  Hans  Lo- 
singer,  an  organist,  of  Nuremberg,  in  1550. 
Among  many  primitive  nations  of  Asia  and 
Africa,  this  machine  is  still  employed  in  its 
simplest  form  for  blowing  by  hand  the  fires  of 
rudely  constructed  furnaces,  probably  of  the 
same  form  as  those  in  use  in  the  times  of  Ho- 
mer and  of  the  Jewish  prophets.  As  ordinarily 
constructed,  the  instrument  consists  of  two  sim- 
ilar plates  of  wood  connected  by  a  strip  of  leath- 
er fastened  around  their  edges,  whidi  with  the 
plates  completely  encloses  a  chamber  for  air,  and 
IS  so  made  tbat  the  plates  may  be  made  to  ap- 

I)roach  and  recede  by  folding  and  unfolding  the 
eather.  In  the  lower  plate  is  fixed  a  valve 
opening  inward,  through  which  the  air  enters 
as  the  plates  are  separated,  and  which  closes 
as  they  are  brought  together,  forcing  the  air  to 
seek  some  other  outlet  This  is  provided  in  a 
tube  of  small  area  compared  to  that  of  the 
valve,  so  tlTat  the  air  is  made  to  rush  outward 
with  great  velocity.  As  the  action  of  this 
machine  is  to  give  an  intermittent  blast,  it  has 
been  improved  by  introducing  a  third  plate,  at- 
tached to  the  lower  one  as  uiis  was  to  the  up- 
per, thus  making  a  double  bellows.    The  two 


lower  plates  have  valves  opening  upward,  and 
the  pipe  or  nozzle  for  the  exit  of  the  air  is  in 
the  upper  of  the  two  chambers.  The  middle 
plate  is  worked  up  and  down  by  a  lever  arm, 
and  weights  are  placed  upon  the  top  of  tiie 
bellows  to  force  out  the  air  continuously,  and 
others  are  suspended  from  the  bottom  board  to 
keep  the  lower  chamber  distended  with  air. 
A  circular  form  is  sometimes  given  to  the 
plates  or  boards,  and  the  air  chamber  sur- 
rounded by  the  leather  is  cylindrical.  When 
shut  together,  it  is  very  compact  and  portable^ 
which  renders  it  a  convenient  form  for  porta- 
ble forges.  The  inhabitants  of  Hindostan  make 
use  of  sudi  bellows  for  blowing  their  small  iron 
furnaces.  A  man  sits  down  between  two  of 
them,  and  with  one  hand  upon  each  works 
them  alternately  up  and  down,  producing  a  tol- 
erably continuous  blast,  but  of  small  capacity 
and  force.  The  Ohinese  bellows  is  a  simple 
contrivance  for  forcing  air  with  any  desired 
pressure,  and  is  upon  the  same  principle  with 
the  large  blowing  machines  now  in  general  osa 
It  is  a  square  wooden  box  or  pipe,  with  a  pi»- 
ton-rod  working  in  one  end,  and  carrying;  a 
dosely  fitting  piston,  by  the  movement  of 
which  the  air  is  pushed  through  a  smaller  pipe 
in  the  other  end.  On  the  reverse  motion  the 
air  enters  through  valves  and  refills  the  box* — 
The  usefid  effect  of  the  bellows  is  in  exciting 
combustion,  by  furnishing  a  continuous  stream 
of  oxygen  in  the  fresh  supplies  of  air,  and  in 
removing  by  the  force  of  the  blast  those  pro^ 
ducts  of  combustion  which  ordinarily  exdade 
the  approach  of  the  air  and  impede  the  contin- 
uation of  the  process.  Its  power  of  rapidly 
exciting  vivid  combustion  and  intense  heat  is 
well  seen  in  the  action  of  the  smithes  bellows  in 
common  use.  Excepting  for  some  small  opera- 
tions for  metallurgic  purposes,  and  for  other 
objects  not  requiring  either  a  large  volume  or 
great  pressure  of  air,  the  ancient  bellows  is 
now  for  the  most  part  replaced  by  more  effi- 
cient apparatus,  as  the  so-called  blowing  ma- 
chines and  fan-blowers,  descriptions  of  which 
will  be  found  under  Blowing  Maohines. 

BELLOWS,  Hbnbt  Whitney,  D.  D.,  an 
American  clergyman,  pastor  of  All  Souls'  church 
in  New  York,  born  in  Boston,  June  11,  1814^ 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1832,  entered 
Slie  divinity  school  at  Cambridge  m  1834,  where 
he  completed  his  course  in  1837.  He  was  or- 
dained pastor  of  the  first  Congregational  church 
in  New  York,  Jan,  2. 1888.  He  was  the  prin- 
cipal originator  of  tne  "  Christian  Inquirer," 
a  Unitarian  newspaper  of  New  York,  in  the 
year  1846,  and  was  the  principal  writer  for  its 
columns  until  the  middle  of  1850.  His  publi- 
cations consist  chiefly  of  pamphlets  and  dis^ 
courses,  perhaps  25  in  number,  the  most  con- 
spicuous of  which  are  his  ^^Phi  Beta  Kappa 
Oration,"  1853,  and  his  noted  defence  of  the 
drama,  186T.  In  1854  he  received  the  degree 
of  D.  D.  from  Harvard  university.  He  contin- 
ues pastor  of  the  pari^  over  which  he  was  first 
ordained,  although  his  people  have  twice  chang- 


BELLOWS  FATJfl 


BXLOS 


107 


ed  their  place  of  worship^  aiid  nov  oooopy  the 
edifice  Imown  as  All  Souls'  church.  He  is  a 
ready  extempore  speaker  and  a  popular  lecturer. 
His  tastes  and  convictions  lead  him  to  intimate 
relations  with  artists,  and  engage  him  often  in 
questions  of  a  social  and  philantfaropio  char- 
acter. He  has  spoken  and  puhlished  nis  views 
freely  upon  the  prominent  topics  of  the  day,  and 
inclines  to  deal  with  current  interests  rather 
than  with  scholastic  studies.  His  occasional 
contrihutions  to  the  reviews,  and  especially  the 
^'Christian  Examiner,"  are  marked  hy  inde- 
pendence of  thought  and  boldness  of  expreasion. 
The  latest  work  which  has  brought  him  promi- 
nently before  the  public  is  his  course  of  lec- 
tures on  the  *'  Treatment  of  Social  Diseases," 
delivered  before  the  Lowell  institute  in  BostoUi 
in  1867. 

BELLOWS  FALLS,  a  village  in  Bockingw 
ham  townahip,  Windham  co.,  Yt.,  on  the 
Connecticut  river,  so  called  from  several 
rapids  and  cataracts  occurring  there.  The 
whole  descent  is  about  4A  feet.  These 
are  the  falls  concerning  which  Peters,  in 
his  history,  relates  that  the  water  becomes 
so  l^dened  by  pressure  between  the  rocks, 
that  it  is  impossible  to  penetrate  it  with  an 
iron  bar.  It  was  formerly  a  fiimous  place  for 
spearing  salmon  from  the  rocks,  as  they  at- 
tempted to  force  a  passage.  A  canal  with 
locl^  has  been  cut  around  the  falls,  through 
the  solid  rock.  The  river  is  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge,  212  feet  long,  built  in  1812.  The  scenery 
is  romantic,  and  various  interesting  minerals  are 
found  in  the  vicinity.  The  village  contains  sev- 
eral miUs  and  manuflftctories,  and  is  remarkable 
fbr  its  handsome  dwellings. 
^  BELLOT,  PiiEBBB  DB,  a  French  jurist  and 
•  politician,  was  bom  at  Montauban,  in  Brittany, 
about  1540;  the  date  of  his  death  is  unknown. 
He  espoused  the  cause  of  Henry  iy„  against  the 
league ;  and  having  given  great  offence  to  the 
Ouises  by  a  work  which  he  published  in  1584, 
asserting  the  king's  independence  of  the  pope, 
he  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  the  Bastile, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  2  years,  when  Henry 
ly.  appointed  him  advocate-general  to  the  par- 
liament of  Toulouse. 

BELLUNO  (anc.  BeUunum,  or  Belumwn),  a 
walled  city  in  the  north  of  Italy,  on  the  river 
Piave ;  pop.  10,700.  It  contains  a  cathedral 
planned  by  Palladio,  several  churches,  a  hospi- 
tal, schools,  and  a  public  library,  and  is  supplied 
with  water  through  a  fine  aqueduct  Large 
fiiirs  are  held  here  in  February  and  April,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  extensively  engaged  in  the 
manofiictnre  of  silk,  leather,  eurthenware,  and 
hats,  and  in  the  timber  trade  with  Venice. 
The  title  of  duke  of  Belluno  was  conferred  by 
Napoleon  on  Marshal  Victor. 

BELMAS,  Loma,  bishop  of  Cambnd,  France, 
bom  Aug.  11,  1757,  at  Montreal,  in  Aude,  died 
July  21,  1841,  at  Oambrai.  By  rendering  aUe- 
gianco  to  the  civil  power  he  drew  upon  himself 
the  condemnation  of  Borne,  and  even  after  re- 
tracting, on  oooasion  of  the  oonHiation  of  Na^ 


poleon,  his  oath  to  the  constitution,  he  failed  to 
regain  the  confidence  of  the  Vatican.  On  this 
account  Oambrai  did  not  become  an  archbishop- 
ric during  his  life.  In  1841  he  created  a  sensa- 
tion among  the  journalists  of  Paris,  by  his 
charge  to  the  clergy  on  the  question  of  the  ob- 
li^tionsdue  to  political  authorities.  He  was 
the  hist  bishop  of  France,  previous  to  the  now 
existing  concordat. 

BELMONT,  an  eastern  county  of  Ohio,  sep- 
arated from  Yir^^ia  by  the  Ohio  river,  and 
covering  an  area  of  520  souare  mUes.  Indian, 
Wheeling,  Oaptina,  and  McMahon  creeks  are 
Ihe  principal  streams.  The  surfi9u>e  is  uneven, 
frequenUy  rising  into  hills*  and  the  soil  is  ex- 
cellent. Ooal  is  found  m  large  quantities. 
Oattle  and  horses  are  raised  in  great  number. 
In  1850  the  agricultmtd  products  amounted  to 
854^771  bushels  of  corn,  859,889  of  wheat, 
860,040  of  oats,  16,897  tons  of  hay,  1,652,598 
lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  612,288  of  butter.  There 
were  74  churches,  8  newspaper  offices,  and 
4008  pupils  in  the  public  schools.  Pop.  84,600. 
Oapitd,  St.  Okdrs^e. 

BELMONTE,  or  Bblbcont,  a  village  hi  La 
Fayette  county,  Wisconsin,  and  formerly  the 
seat  of  the  territorial  government.  In  the 
vicinity  of  this  place  8  mounds,  about  100  feet 
in  height,  rise  up  from  the  prairie ;  one  of  them 
is  called  the  Belmont  mound. 

BELMONTE,  or  Rio  Jbqt7itimhokha,  a  river 
in  the  province  of  Bahia,  Brazil.  It  is  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Araguahi  and  Jequi- 
tinhonha»  flows  N.  E.,  and  empties  into  the 
Atlantic.     

BELMONTET,  Loma,  a  French  literary  man. 
bom  at  Montauban  in  1799.  In  1880  he  edited 
the  IHbuns  newspaper,  opposed  the  accession  of 
Louis  Philippe,  and  predicted  his  downfall  and 
a  second  revolution  in  a  bold  pamphlet  address- 
ed to  Ohateaubriand,  for  which  he  was  arrested. 
In  1889  be  established,  together  with  Messrs. 
Laffitte  and  Maugnin,  a  manufactory,  in  which 
the  men  were  to  share  the  benefits  with  the  em- 
ployers. In  Feb.  1861,  he  was  accused  of  hav- 
ing planned  a  Bonapartist  movement  against  the 
legislative  assembly,  but  the  charge  was  aban- 
doned. He  occupied  the  position  of  superin- 
tendent of  the  Tontine  from  1842  to  1852, 
when  he  became  a  member  of  the  legislative 
assembly.  He  is  the  author  of  many  fiery  re- 
publican odea,  and  a  volume  of  philosophical 
poems  entitled  La  nombreB  d^or  (1846)  was 
characterized  by  B^ranger  and  Lamennais  as  a 
hrMaire  de$  belles  dmee.  In  his  youth  he  be- 
came a  member  of  the  carbonari  association. 
When  Napoleon's  remains  arrived  at  Paris,  he 
received  from  the  prince  de  Joinville  a  piece  of 
the  coffin,  in  acknowledgment  of  the  verses  ad- 
dressed to  him  on  that  occasion.  In  1886  Louis 
Napoleon  stood  godfather  to  his  first-born  son, 
and  among  his  latest  productions  is  aeantoto 
IfapoUanienne, 

BELOE,  WiLUAif,  an  English  clergyman  and 
author,  bom  at  Norwich,  in  1756,  died  April 
11, 1817.    His  friends  discovering  in  him  evi- 


108 


BELOir 


BELP 


denoes  of  superior  talent,  he  was  sent  to  Dr. 
Samnel  Parr,  then  principal  of  an  academy  in 
Middlesex,  and  gradoated  at  Cambridge  in  1779. 
He  then  asBisted  Dr.  Parr  in  a  school  at  Nor- 
wich. Soon  after  he  obtained  the  coracy  of 
Earlham,  and  afterward  became  vicar.  End- 
ing the  income  derived  from  his  employment 
insufficient,  he  removed  to  London,  and  for 
several  years  occupied  himself  by  writing  for 
the  periodicals  of  tne  day.  During  the  Ameri- 
can revolution  he  used  his  pen  freely  in  the 
cause  of  the  colonies ;  but  in  the  French  revo- 
lution he  advocated  other  views.  In  company 
with  Archdeacon  Kares,  he  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  the  ^*  British  Critic,"  in  which  he 
acknowledged  the  fidlaoy  of  his  previous  opin- 
ions. In  1804  he  accepted  the  assistant  libra- 
rianship  of  the  British  museom,  which  he  held 
but  a  short  time,  being  deprived  of  it  on  account 
of  a  loss  sust^ed  by  the  institution  through 
his  mistaken  kmdness  to  an  unworthy  appli- 
cant He  published  several  translations  m>m 
the  Greek  and  Latin,  beside  a  great  variety  of 
miscellaneous  productions.  His  translation  of 
Herodotus  (4  vols.  8vo,  1791)  retains  its  rep- 
utation to  the  present  day. 

B£LOrr,  a  township  and  village  of  Bock 
county,  Wiscon^n.  The  village  of  Beloit,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  Bock  river,  and  very 
near  the  southern  boundary  of  the  state,  was 
settled  about  the  year  1887,  and  incorporated 
in  1845.  It  is  built  on  a  beautiftd  plain,  from 
which  the  ground  rises  abrimtiy  to  a  height  of 
60  or  60  feet,  ofEbrding  excellent  sites  for  resi- 
dences. It  is  the  seat  of  Beloit  college,  founded 
in  1846,  and  is  noted  for  its  broad,  handsome 
rtreets,  and  for  its  fine  churdies ;  the  Congrega- 
tional church,  constructed  of  gray  limestone,  is 
said  to  be  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  state. 
The  village  is  well  supplied  with  water  power, 
has  a  flourishing  tiaae,  and,  in  1855,  con- 
tained several  manufactories  of  woollen  goods, 
of  reapers  and  fanning  mills,  of  scales,  of 
^sarriages,  an  iron  foundery  and  machine 
iihop,  8  flouring  nulls,  beside  1  or  2  news- 
paper offices,  several  seminaries,  8  hot^ 
a  bank,  and  more  than  40  stores.  It  is  the 
point  of  intersection  of  2  railroads,  the  Badne 
and  Mississippi,  and  the  Beloit  and  Madison, 
the  former  of  which  extends  from  Lake  Michi- 
gan to  Bockton  in  Illinois,  and  the  latter  from 
Stadison,  the  capital  of  Wisconsin,  to  the  Gale- 
na and  Chici^  railroad,  18  miles  beyond  Beloit 
A  fertile  prairie,  the  largest  in  the  state,  lies  on 
the  eastern  side  of  Bock  river.  Pop.  in  1855, 
4,247. 

B£LOOCHISTAK,  or  Biludshistah  (anc. 
Oedrona  and  Drangiana),  a  country  of  Asia, 
between  lat.  24^  50'  and  80^  20'  K,  longTcr 
40'  and  69^  18'  £. ;  bounded  N.  by  A^hanistan, 
£.  by  Sinde,  &  by  the  Indian  ocean,  and  W.  by 
the  Persian  desert;  area  about  160,000  sq.  m. ; 
ciq>ital  Eelat ;  pop.  2,700,000.  The  general  as- 
pect of  the  countiy  is  mountainous ;  but  toward 
the  shore  of  the  Arabian  sea  on  the  south,  and 
towardPecsia  on  the  wesl^  there  are  extensive 


districts  of  barren  plahi.  The  Hala  mountains 
on  the  £.  and  N.  £.,  running  fh>m  the  mouths  of 
tiie  Indus  to  the  6olyman  juountains,  include  a 
quantity  of  comparatively  fertile  land,  of  valley 
and  upland  plain,  in  which  the  inhabitanta 
raise  the  grains  and  fruits  of  a  tropical  climate ; 
but  the  remainder  of  the  country  is  a  wilderness, 
unflt  for  habitation.  A  strip  of  land  to  the  east 
of  the  Hala  chain,  which,  although  witiiin  the 
Indus  valley,  belongs  to  Beloocustan,  is  very 
fertile,gro¥nng  cereals  and  rich  crops  of  jowarree 
(a  ffrain  much  in  demand  in  northern  India), 
and  various  tropical  productions.  But  the  land 
here  is  low  and  swampy,  to  which  indeed  it 
owes  its  fertility,  and  though  more  numeronsly 
inhabited  than  the  other  regions,  is  the  most  un- 
healthy of  the  whole.  On  the  1^.  £.  boundary 
are  situated  the  famous  mountain  passes^  the 
Bolan  and  the  Molan  or  Gundwana  pass.  These 
are  the  direct  road  to  Kelatand  the  only  means 
of  communicating  with  the  interior  of  the  coun> 
try  from  the  plams  of  N.  W.  India.  The  east- 
em  provinces  or  districts  are  Sarawan,  Kelat, 
Cutch-Gundava,  and  Jhalawan.  On  the  south 
along  the  seashore  is  the  district  of  Loofl^ 
and  on  the  west  Mekran,  the  ancient  Gedrosia. 
The  inhabitants  of  Beloochistan  consist  of  2 
great  varieties,  the  Belooches  and  the  Brahooeea 
which  are  subdivided  into  other  tribes,  ana 
these  again  into  families.  Their  origin  is  un- 
certain, but  they  are  probably  a  race  of  mixed 
Tartar  and  Persian  descent  They  themselves 
claim  to  belong  to  the  earliest  Mohammedan 
conquerors  of  central  Asia,  and  are  zealous 
Soonnees,  tolerating  an  unbeliever,  rather  than 
a  Sheeah.  Polygamy  is  allowed.  In  their 
nomade  habits  they  closely  resemble  Tartars 
or  Bedouins,  living  in  tents  of  felt  or  canva% 
and  wearing  a  woollen  cloth  on  their  heads,  ^ 
with  woollen  or  linen  outer  coats.  Their  wo- 
men enjoy  a  share  of  freedom.  They  are  of 
Sare  but  active  forms,  practise  arms  and  war- 
[e  exercises  for  amusement.  The  Brahooees 
roeak  a  dialect  more  resembling  those  of  the 
Pu^iaub,  and  are  shorter  and  stouter  built  than 
tiie  Beloochea.  They  have  a  somewhat  better 
character  in  the  matter  of  rapine  and  plunder 
than  the  others.  They  are  said  to  be  hospitable 
and  observant  of  pledges  and  promises.  The 
government  is  under  various  heads,  of  which 
tiie  khan  of  Kelat  is  leader  in  time  of  war,  and 
a  kind  of  feudal  chief  in  peace.  Formerly  Be- 
loodustan  was  sul^t  to  Persia  and  afterward 
to  Aljjhanistan,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  hist 
century  the  tribes  shook  off  their  dependenceon 
the  A&hans.  At  the  time  of  the  British  expe- 
dition mtoA^hanistan  the  British  forced  the 
Boknpass.  The  Belooches  harassed  the  troops 
considerably;  and  in  1840  an  expedition  was 
sent  against  Kelat  to  chastise  them,  which  waa 
done  effectually,  but  no  permanent  occupation 
was  made. 

B£LP,  a  Swiss  village,  canton  of  Bern.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  village  is  the  Belpberg, 
a  mountain  2,940  feet  high,  remarkable  for  its 
numeroos  petinbbotiona. 


BEL8HAM 


BELTB 


109 


BELSHAlf,  Thomab,  an  Endiah  Unitarian 
diyine  and  author,  bom  in  Sedford,  April, 
1750,  died  at  Hampetead,  Noy.  11,  1829.  His 
lather,  who  was  a  dissenting  minister,  edu- 
cated him  at  the  dissenters*  aoademy,  at  Daven- 
try,  of  which  institotionhe  became  principal  in 
1781,  holding  the  office  for  8  years,  ana  also 
preaching  at  Daventrj.  In  1789,  abandoning 
the  GalTinistio  belief^  he  became  minister  of 
a  Unitarian  congregation,  and  settled  in 
1806  as  pastor  of  Essex-street  chapel,  London, 
where  the  remaining  24  years  of  his  life  were 
ep&at.  Mr.  Belsham  wrote  a  great  deal  in  as- 
sertaon  and  vindication  of  Unitariaoism,  inolnd- 
ing  a  reply  to  Mr.  Wilberforoe's  **  Practical 
View;"  "Eyidenoes  of  the  Ohristian  Bevela- 
tion;"  and  a  "Translation  of  the  Epistles  of 
Paol  the  Apostle,  with  an  Expoeition  and 
Notes."  Among  his  contributions  to  general 
literature,  his  ""  Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of 
the  Human  Mind  and  of  Moral  Philosophy'' 
Qn  which,  with  David  Hartley,  he  reeolyes  all 
mental  phenomena  into  the  association  of 
ideas),  is  best  known. — Wtlllam^  a  histori- 
oal  writer,  and  brother  of  the  above,  was  bom 
in  1752,  and  died  Nov.  17,  1827,  at  Hammer- 
amith.  He  was  a  whig  in  politics,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  leaders  of  that  party.  In 
1789  he  commenced  his  literary  course  by  pub- 
lishing; in  2  vols.,  "Essays,  Historical,  Politi- 
eal,  and  literary."  To  these  succeeded  essays 
on  various  subjects,  chiefly  political,  and  several 
works  which  appeared  between  1798  and  1801, 
and  were  finally  reproduced  in  a  collective 
edition  of  12  vols,  octavo,  in  1806,  as  a  "  History 
of  Qreat  Britain  to  the  Conclusion  of  the  Peace 
of  Amiens."  This  large  work,  tinged  through- 
out with  a  liberal  spirit,  somewhat  rare  at  the 
period  it  appeared  m,  abounds  in  facts  indus- 
tariousLy  ooUeeted,  though  not  very  felidtoujdy 
remoduced  in  the  author's  own  words. 

BELfiHAZZAB,  the  last  king  of  the  Ohal- 
dean  dynasty.  At  his  court  the  prophet  Daniel 
vras  a  &vorite  during  the  captivity.  His 
dreams  and  the  hand-writing  on  the  walls  of 
his  palace,  interpreted  by  Daniel,  are  familiar, 
as  well  as  the  tragic  end  of  his  kingdom  (B.  0. 
5d8),  conquered  by  the  Medes  and  Persians 
under  Cym& 

BELBUNGE,  Hksbi  FnAKgois  Xayikb  nx,  a 
celebrated  iVench  Jesuit,  bom  in  Perigord, 
Dec  4, 1671,  died  at  Marseilles,  June  4^  1756. 
At  an  eariy  age  he  became  a  member  of  the 
order  of  Jesuits,  was  made  grand  vicar  of 
Agen,  and  in  1709  bishop  of  Marseilles.  During 
the  pestilence  which  devastated  his  see  in 
1720-*21,  Belsnnoe  was  untiring  in  his  devotion, 
and  displayed  charity  and  unsdfishness  to  a  de« 
^ee  that  drew  upon  him  the  encomiums  of  all 
Bnrope.  He  is  eqiecially  referred  to  in  Pope's 
^  Essay  on  Man.'*  In  consideration  of  his  ser- 
vices at  this  period,  he  was  offered  the  bishop- 
ric of  Laon,  and  also  the  ardibishopric  of 
Bordeaux,  bat  refused  both,  preferring  to  re- 
main with  those  to  whom  he  had  so  long  ren- 
dered himself  neoesaary.    In  his  later  years  he 


became  involved  in  disputes  witii  the  Jansenists, 
whom  he  attacked  with  much  zeaL  He  found- 
ed a  Jesuit  college  which  bears  his  name;  he 
published  several  writings  against  Jansenism. 

BELTEIN,  or  Bbltanb,  a  kind  of  festival, 
still  celebrated  in  parts  of  Ireland  and  Scotiand 
on  the  1st  of  May,  and  supposed  to  be  as  old  as 
the  remotest  period  of  druidioal  supremacy. 
The  name  dgnifies  the  fire  of  Bel  or  Baal,  and 
the  custom  was  probably  an  offidioot  and  rem- 
nant from  the  oriental  worship  of  Baal,  or  the 
sun.  To  the  beltem  may  be  referred  the  prac- 
tice of  lighting  fires  on  midsummer  eve  in  Eng- 
land, in  honor  of  the  summer  solstice. 

BELTIRS,  a  small  tribe  of  Tartars,  dwell- 
ing in  Siberia,  along  the  banks  of  the  Abakan. 
They  are  a  barbarous  and  heathen  race,  never 
burying  their  dead,  but  suspending  them  from 
trees  in  secluded  places.  Tneir  practice  of  po- 
lygamy, and  their  reftisal  to  abandon  it,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  chief  obstacle  to  their  con- 
version to  Christianity. 

BELTS.  In  machinery,  belts  of  curried  lea- 
ther pasunff  over  metal  or  wooden  pulleys  are 
used  msteaa  of  gearing,  when  the  shafts  to  be 
connected  are  £ar  apart  Belts  are  in  general 
used  between  parallel  shafts,  and  when  it  is 
requisite  that  the  shafts  should  turn  in  opposite 
dii^ctions  tiie  belt  is  crossed.  The  diiunetera 
of  the  pidleys  are  made  in  the  inverse  ratio  to 
the  number  of  revolutions  desired.  In  some 
machines  it  is  necessary  to  modify  the  velocity 
of  a  shaft  without  stopping  the  motion ;  in  ewk 
cases  conical  drums  are  substituted  for  pulleys, 
the  apex  of  each  drum  being  opposed  to  tilie 
bads  of  the  other,  so  that  the  belt  once  cut  of 
the  proper  length  to  embrace  both  drums  in 
their  central  parts  answers  for  all  the  other 
portions  of  the  drum.  The  belt  in  this  arrange- 
ment has  to  be  guided  by  a  fork.  When  the 
shafts  are  not  parallel,  and  their  axes  produced 
intersect  each  other,  the  only  way  to  connect 
them  by  belts  is  to  use  a  third  shaft,  with  which 
both  are  connected.  When  the  shafts  are 
neither  parallel  nor  in  the  same  plane,  they  can 
be  connected  by  a  belt,  but  there  is  only  one 
place  on  each  shaft  for  the  pulleys.  These 
must  be  at  the  ends  of  a  straight  line  perpen- 
dicular at  the  same  time  to  both  axes^  There 
is  only  one  such  line.  This  theoretical  place 
has  to  be  corrected  in  each  particular  case 
according  to  the  diameters  of  the  pulleys,  bv 
taking  care  that  the  belt  arrives  square  on  earn 
ptdley,  no  matter  how  obliquely  it  leaves  the 
other.  As  a  consequence  of  this  unavoidable 
correction,  the  motion  of  the  shafts  cannot  ba 
reversed  without  keying  the  pulleys  in  other 
places. — ^Ealta  are  made  of  leather,  India-rub- 
ber, iron  wire,  or  gutta  percha.  Leather  is  in 
general  use,  and  considered  the  most  economi- 
ca],  but  it  must  be  well  protected  against  wa- 
ter and  even  moisture.  A  careful  attendant 
will  make  a  belt  last  6  years,  which  otherwise 
would  last  but  1  or  2.  Millions  are  yearly 
wasted  in  this  way  by  carelessness.  India-rub- 
ber is  praised  by  a  few  manufacturers  and  oon^ 


110 


BELTS 


BELUS 


demned  by  a  larger  nmnber,  but  it  la  evidenily 
the  proper  sabstance  for  belta  ezpoeed  to  the 
weather,  as  it  does  not  absorb  moisture,  and 
oonseqnently  does  not  stretch  and  decay.  Iron 
wire  has  been  experimented  n^n,  and  promises 
wcdl,  but  it  reqnires  a  pecaliar  constmction  of 
pulleys,  which  has  not  as  yet  been  perfected. 
Gntta  percha  has  been  nsea  darinff  the  last  4 
years  at  the  zinc  factory  of  Za  VieilUMotUa^n&j 
m  Belginm,  and  is  spoken  of  very  favorably. 
A  company  is  now  introdacing  the  mannfao- 
tore  of  gntta  percha  belts  into  the  United 
Btatea  The  2  ends  of  a  belt  may  be  nnited 
together  by  riveting,  or  by  clamps  of  various 
constmction,  bnt  the  best  way  is  to  cut  small 
holes  through  the  ends,  and  to  lace  them  to- 
gether with  a  strap  of  leather. — ^In  design- 
ing a  machine,  the  width  of  the  belt,  the 
diameter  of  the  drums  or  pulleys,  and  the  ve- 
locity, have  to  be  determined,  and  there  is  no 
generally  admitted  rule  for  doing  this.  Some 
engineers  believe  that  the  friction  of  a  belt  on 
a  pulley  follows  the  general  laws  of  friction, 
and  depends  only  upon  the  tenaon  of  the  belt; 
accordmg  to  their  view,  a  belt  will  not  slide 
more  easily  on  a  small  pulley  than  on  a  large 
one.  Others,  having  remarked  that  a  belt 
slides  more  easily  on  a  rough  cast  than  on  a 
tamed  pulley,  think  that  in  xhe  latter  case  the 
air  is  excluded,  and  that  the  belt  is  pressed 
against  the  pulleys  by  atmoi^heric  pressure  to 
the  amount  of  about  8  lbs.  to  the  square  inch, 
and  thence  it  follows  that  the  adhesion  is  pro- 
portional to  the  extent  of  the  surfaces  in  con- 
tact, or  to  the  diameter  of  tiie  pulley.  Accord- 
ing to  the  first  theory,  the  tighter  a  belt  the 
greater  the  fHction ;  accordins  to  the  second, 
tightness  has  little  effect  beyond  a  certain  point. 
It  has  been  found  in  practice  tiiat  belts  must 
not  be  run  faster  than  80  feet  per  second,  nor 
have  a  tension  of  above  800  lbs.  per  square  inch 
of  section.  The  friction  of  a  belt  on  a  pulley  is 
proportional  to  the  arc  in  contact  with  the  belt. 
Tins  frictioa  depends  also  on  the  material  of 
the  pulley,  and  is  nearly  as  much  again  on  wood 
as  on  cast-iron.  When  a  machine  has  to  be 
driven  very  &st,  as  is  the  case  with  wood-turn- 
ers' lathee,  the  fHction  on  the  bearings  has  to 
be  reduced  as  much  as  possible  to  prevent  heat- 
ing, by  leaving  the  belt  loose  on  the  pulleys. 
The  proper  friction  is  then  obtained  by  sprin- 
kling chalk  or  powdered  rosin  on  the  belt!  but 
this  treatment  figures  it,  and  is  only  resorted  to 
for  small  belts,  the  price  of  which  is  inrifi^cant 
when  compared  wil^  tiie  value  of  the  work 
performed.  The  friction  of  a  belt  or  of  a  rope 
on  a  standdng  cylinder  is  accurately  Imown,  and 
is  found  in  the  following  manner:  a  belt  is 
passed  over  a  horizontal  cylinder,  a  known 
weight  is  suspended  at  one  end,  ana  the  other 
is  attached  to  a  spring-balance,  and  gradually 
let  go  tin  the  belt  or  rope  begins  to  slide;  the 
suspended  weight  mintu  the  one  indicated  is  the 
friction.  It  has  thus  been  found  that  by  tak- 
ing a  turn  and  a  half  around  a  rough  cyundri- 
cal  post,  1  lb.  will  hold  110  lbs.  in  check,  and 


that  by  taMng  2i  turns  1  lb.  will  hold  2,600 
lbs.  As  data  to  start  from  in  designing  a  belt, 
the  following  is  a  good  example:  a  12  inch 
belt  over  a  pulley  of  4  feet  in  diameter,  mnning 
80  feet  a  second,  wiU  transmit  the  power  from 
a  6  inch  cylinder,  1  foot  stroke,  60  lbs.  press- 
ure, making  125  revolutions  per  minute. 

BELTS,  Gbeat  and  LrrrLs,  the  name  given 
to  2  narrow  channels  which  connect  the  Baldo 
with  the  Oattegat  The  Great  Belt  is  87  miles 
long,  18  miles  in  medium  width,  and  from  6  to 
26  fathoms  deep.  It  lies  between  the  islands  of 
Seeland  and  Funen,  the  shores  of  which  pre- 
sent no  striking  features,  but  are  lined  widi 
safe  harbors.  Navigation  is  difficult  at  all  sea- 
sons on  account  of  many  dangerous  shoals  and 
sand-baoks,  and  in  winter  is  still  further  ob- 
etmcted  by  floating  ice,  thou^  the  swiftneas  of 
the  current  prevents  the  strait  from  being  often 
f^zen  over.  Light-houses  have  been  erected  on 
the  shores,  and  on  the  small  island  of  Sprog5, 
which  lies  in  the  middle  of  the  channel,  and 
which  the  action  of  the  waves  is  gradually 
wearing  away. — ^The  Little  Belt  separates 
Funen  from  Jutland.  It  is  80  miles  long 
from  1,000  yards  to  12  miles  wide,  and 
from  6  to  80  fathoms  deep.  The  shores  are 
low  and  regular,  and  the  current  rapid.  It  is 
frozen  over  from  December  to  April,  and  navi- 
gation at  other  seasons  is  attended  with  tJie 
same  dangers  as  in  the  Great  Belt  Large  ves- 
sels usually  pass  through  the  sound,  wluch  is  the 
only  channel  except  the  Belts  between  the  Oat- 
te^t  and  the  Baltic. 

BELUS,  a  river  about  6  miles  long,  which, 
rises  iu  the  slopes  of  that  range  of  hills  ancient- 
ly known  as  Oarmel,  and  empties  into  tho 
Mediterranean.  It  lies  in  the  present  Syrian 
pashalic  of  Acre,  near  the  bay  of  the  same 
name.  It  is  noted  as  the  source  of  the  sand 
out  of  which,  Pliny  says,  glass  was  first  made. 
The  story  of  the  aoddentBl  discovery  of  its  vit- 
reous properties  is  familiar.  As  late  as  the  mid* 
die  of  the  17th  century,  it  furnished  the  supply  of 
the  principal  glass  manu&ctories  of  Italy.  The 
Greek  name  for  glass  (vtkos)  was  perhaps  oor- 
rapted  fh)m  Belus.  The  present  name  of  this 
river  is  ITaman. 

BELUS,  the  name  of  the  national  god  of 
the  Babylonians,  and  perhaps  the  same  as  Baal, 
whose  worship  became  so  general  in  the  East» 
and  so  often  incorporated  into  Judaism,  or  at 
least  adopted  and  practised  by  the  Jews.  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  from  the  accounts 
given  by  Herodotus  and  Diodorus,  that  Belua 
was  worshipped  by  human  sacrifices,  while 
Baal  very  plamly  was.  But  if  the  worship  of 
Belus  was  of  later  date  than  that  of  Baal,  this 
difference  in  the  rites  may  be  accounted  for. 
K  there  were  two  temples  or  towers  at  Baby- 
lon, as  some  antiquaries  and  critics  have  main- 
tained'-first,  the  temple  of  Baal,  or  tower  of 
Babel,  and  secondly,  the  tower  of  Belus,  built 
later  on  the  site  of  the  former,  after  the  long 
desertion  of  Babylon  for  the  rival  dty  and  em- 
pire of  Kineveh,  and  at  the  return  of  the  seep* 


BELUS 


BELZONI 


111 


tre  to  Babylon  under  Nabopolassar— then  the 
worship  may  have  been  bo  modified  by  time 
and  cnltnre  as  to  acoonnt  for  all  this  apparent 
difference  between  Baal  and  Belns,  and  make 
the  latter  only  the  reappearance,  after  the  lapse 
of  agea,  of  tiie  former.  At  any  rate,  in  the 
worSiip  of  Belna,  appears  ih^fsme  general 
oonception  which  characterized  that  of  Baal, 
▼isL,  that  of  male  and  female  divinities;  for  in 
the  ancient  representations  of  Belus,  like  Baal, 
he  is  represented  as  the  son,  and  the  moon  is 
always  present^  and  so  the  worship  of  both 
Baal  and  Belos  is  the  worship  of  the  prolific 
power  of  nature. 

BELUS,  Tbvflb  of.  The  hnge  and  barren 
monnd  of  yellow  earth  and  bricks  known  to 
modem  travellers  as  Birs  Nimrond,  was  by  the 
early  eastern  explorer,  Bei^amin  of  Tadela, 
legwded  as  the  identical  tower  of  Babel^  ar- 
reted in  its  erection  by  the  divine  interpoei- 
tion,  as  recorded  in  Genesis.  Later  explora- 
ticms  resulted  in  the  opinion  that  the  present 
tower  was  the  one  bnilt  by  Nebuchadnezzar  in 
the  redstablishment  of  the  Ohaldean  dynasty  in 
Babylon  (B.  0.  62{n,  and  that  it  occupied  the 
site  of  the  tower  of  Babel^  which  had  become 
more  or  less  dilapidated  or  completely  removed 
during  the  16  or  17  centuries  that  had  elapsed 
since  its  erection.  Still  more  modem  examina- 
tions have^  however,  resulted  in  the  suggestion 
(by  Sir  Henry  Bawlinson,  1854)  that  t£^  pres- 
ent structore  by  Nebuchadnezzar  occupies  the 
site  of  a  former  temple  or  tower  erected  by  a 
fomer  king,  during  the  period  when  the  Ohal- 
dean power  was  partially  humbled  under  the 
Assyrian.  A  cuneiform  record  found  on  the 
cylinders  buOt  into  the  comers  of  the  present 
structure,  attributes  the  previous  temple  to 
Tiglath-Illeser  I.,  who  dates  back  604  years 
before  Nebuchadnezzar.  If,  therefore^  the  pres- 
ent site  (Birs  Nimroud)  be  the  site  of  the 
tower  of  Babel,  it  must  have  been  twice  re- 
built. The  renudns^  so  far  as  yet  discovered, 
belong  to  the  Ume  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The 
bricks  taken  from  it  all  bear  his  name.  The 
temple  of  Belus  is  described  by  Herodotus  as  a 
square  building  or  platform  on  which  rise  suc- 
oessively  eight  terraces ;  on  the  top  of  the  last 
a  temple  crowns  the  stracture.  These  terraces, 
he  says,  were  ascended  on  the  outside.  The 
ruin  of  Birs  Nimroud  is  described  by  modem 
travellers  as  a  huge  and  irregular  mound  of 
barren  yellow  sand,  underneath  which  explora- 
tions have  laid  bare  a  mass  of  brickwork  show- 
ing the  evidences  of  a  subjection  to  the  agency 
of  fire  after  the  erection,  and  still  preserving  in 
many  parts  a  terraced  stmcture,  but  not  so 
complete  as  to  afford  any  determination  of  the 
Aumber  of  the  terraces.  Layard,  in  his  "  Dis- 
coveries among  the  Buins  of  Nineveh  and 
Babylon,'^  gives  the  height  of  the  entire  mound 
as  335  feet^  and  proposes  a  restoration  of  the 
original  form,  in  a  conjectural  number  of  ter- 
races, on  the  eastern  side,  but  perpendicularly 
rising  on  the  west  in  a  solid  wall.  This  mound 
BtaaioB  about  6  miles  S.  W.  of  Hillah,  and  be- 


tween BHah  and  Birs  Nimroud  are  frequent 
remains  of  ancient  buildings  or  fortifications, 
giving  rise  to  the  coi^ecture  that  this  may  be 
the  lost  western  half  of  the  ancient  city  of 
Babylon,  through  which  the  Euphrates  made  a 
nearly  diagonal  course  from  north  to  south. 

BELVEDERE.  In  Italian  architecture,  the 
name  Belvedere  is  applied  to  a  pavilion  on  the 
top  of  a  building ;  also  to  an  artificial  eminence 
ina  garden.  With  the  continental  £uropeanS| 
this  name  is  a  great  favorite  for  tiie  designation 
of  villas,  palaces,  villages,  and  streets.  Ibere 
is  the  palace  Belvedere,  in  Borne,  for  instance, 
which  contains,  among  other  wonderful  works 
of  art  and  antiquity,  the  world-renowned  statue, 
known  as  the  Apollo  Belvedere;  also  the 
imperial  villa  of  Belvedere,  in  Vienna,  formerly 
the  property  of  Eugene  of  Savoy,  with  a  gallery 
of  paintings,  and  tne  Ambrosian  collection  gc 
andent  weapons ;  also  the  chateau  of  Belvedere, 
near  Weimar,  immortalized  by  Goethe,  who 
loved  to  roam  in  the  park  and  the  surrounding 
promenades.  In  Saxon  Switzerland,  near  the 
village  of  Himiskutschen,  there  is  a  fine  castle 
of  Belvedere;  there  is  one  also  near  Neu-Strelitz 
in  Kecklenbuig.  The  French  for  Belvedere  is 
Bellevue ;  this  is  also  a  popular  name  for  villas 
and  castles.  The  most  celebrated  was  that 
built  for  Madame  de  Pompadour,  in  1748,  on  a 
mountain  ridse,  between  St.  Cloud  and  Meudon, 
and  decorated  by  the  most  eminent  artists  of  her 
day.  Louis  XV.  was  so  enchanted  with  the 
chateau,  that  he  purchased  it.  After  his  death, 
the  aunts  of  Louis  XVI.  lived  there. 

BELVOIB,  an  extra-parochial  district*  of 
England.  On  an  isolated  eminence,  overlooking 
a  beautiful  and  fertile  vale,  stands  Belvoir  castle, 
tbe  seat  of  the  duke  of  Rutland.  This  mansion 
was  erected  by  William  de  Todenei,  standard- 
bearer  of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  despite 
many  modem  additions,  still  preserves  the 
appearance  of  an  old  baronial  residence.  In 
the  time  of  Henry  VIH.,  it  passed,  with  its 
numerous  dependencies,  into  the  hands  of  the 
Manners  family. 

BELZONI,  GiovAifTNi  Battista,  a  traveller 
and  explorer  in  Egypt,  the  son  of  an  Italian  bar- 
ber, bom  at  Padua  about  1778,  died  Deo.  8, 1828. 
He  was  educated  for  a  monastic  life  at  Rome. 
This  plan  was  interrapted  by  the  French  revolu- 
tion, and  after  wandering  for  some  time  about 
the  continent,  he  went  toEngland  in  1808.  Here 
he  at  first  gained  a  precarious  subsistence  by 
exhibiting  as  an  athlete,  at  Astley 's  circus,  being 
endowed  with  prodigious  strex^^.  To  these 
feats  were  added  scientific  experiments,  as  he 
had  paid  much  attention  to  natural  philosophy, 
particularly  to  the  branch  of  hydraulics.  He 
married  in  England,  and  after  residing  there  for 
0  years,  conceived  a  strong  desire  to  travel  in 
the  south  of  Europe.  Accordingly,  he  set  out 
with  his  wife,  and  visited  Portugal,  Spain,  and 
Malta.  While  in  that  island,  it  is  supposed  that 
he  thought  of  turning  his  knowledge  of  hy- 
draulics to  good  account,  by  ofiTering  his  ser- 
vices to  the  pasha  of  Egypt  in  oonstmcting  wa- 


112 


BELZONI 


BEM 


tor  wheels  to  irrigate  the  fields  contigaoaB  to 
the  river  Nile.  Me  arrived  in  Egypt  June  9, 
1815.  and  constructed  for  the  pasha  one  of 
his  hydraulic  machines^  at  the  gardens  of 
Boobra,  8  miles  from  Oairo.  Mehemet  All 
himself  appears  to  have  been  satisfied  with 
its  powers,  bat  the  Turkish  and  Arab  cultiva- 
tors regarded  it  as  an  innovation,  and  as  their 
narrow  prejudices  were  not  to  be  overcome, 
Belzoni  abandoned  his  scheme  without  even 
being  rewarded  by  the  pasha  for  what  he  had 
undertaken.  His  curiosity  being  now  strongly 
excited  on  the  subject  of  Egyptian  antiquities, 
at  the  recommendation  of  Burokhardt,  he  was 
employed  by  Mr.  Salt^  the  English  consul,  to 
remove  the  colossal  head^  generally  but  incor- 
rectly styled  the  young  Memnon.  This  Belzoni 
succeasfnlly  accompli^ed,  transporting  it  to 
Alexandria,  and  thence  shipping  it  for  England. 
For  tills  purpose,  Belzom  went  to  Thebes,  and 
then  crossing  to  the  west  bank  of  the  NUe^  vis- 
ited Uxe  Memnonium,  where  was  the  mighty 
head  he  was  to  remove.  He  found  it,  as  he 
narrates,  near  the  renuiins  of  its  body  and  chai^ 
apparently  smiling  upon  him  at  the  thought  or 
bemg  carried  to  ^iglimd.  After  incredible  toil 
and  perseverance,  in  the  face  of  vexatious  de- 
lays, the  head  was  brought  to  the  edge  of  the 
Kile,  Aug.  12, 1816,  placed  on  board  of  a  boat^ 
Kov.  17,  and  safely  landed  at  Oairo,  Dec.  15 
foUowing.  In  the  mean  time,  he  made  excur- 
sions witib  his  wife,  who  was  as  much  interested 
in  Egyptian  antiquities  as  himself^  and  who  ren- 
dered essential  service,  to  the  mountain  of  Gor- 
noo,  celebrated  for  its  vast  sepulchral  excava- 
tions, and  the  number  of  mummies  contained 
in  them.  He  proceeded  also  to  Asswan,  and 
the  beautiful  island  of  Philss,  renowned  for  its 
mi^estic  ruins,  and  on  arriving  at  Ipsambool,  he 
saw  with  amazement  l^e  mighty  rock-cut  tem- 
ple which  had  been  discovered  *by  Burckhardt 
This  temple  he  was  the  first  to  open,  its  en- 
trance having  been  completely  choked  with 
sand.  In  1817  he  made  a  second  journey  to 
upper  Egypt,  and  became  involved,  greatly 
against  his  will,  in  some  very  unpleasant  sauab- 
bles  with  Drovetti,  the  French  consul,  ana  his 
ooadjutor  the  count  de  Forbin.  He  visited  the 
necropolis  of  Thebes,  and  made  excavations  at 
EJamac  Among  the  catacombs  at  the  moun- 
tain of  (>ornoo,  which  was  the  burial-place  of 
Thebes,  he  made  diligent  search  for  j^apyri, 
which  are  sometimes  found  wrapped  in  the 
awathings  of  the  mummy,  about  the  breast^ 
anus,  or  legs.  It  is  impossible,  as  Belzoni  ob- 
serves, to  form  an  adequate  idea  by  any  descrip- 
tion of  these  awM  repositories  of  the  Egypti^ 
dead.  The  necropolis  is  a  tract  of  about  two 
miles  ui  length,  at  the  foot  of  the  Libyan  range, 
and  every  part  of  these  rocks  is  scooped  out  into 
a  sepulchre.  ^*In  some  places  there  is  not 
more  than  the  vacancy  of  a  foot  left,  which  you 
must  contrive  to  pass  through  in  a  creepiag 
posture,  like  a  snail,  on  pointed  and  keen  stones, 
that  cut  like  glass.  After  getting  through  these 
passages,  some  of  them  200  or  800  yards  long, 


yon  generally  find  a  more  commodious  place, 
perhaps  high  enough  to  sit.  But  what  a  place 
of  rest  I  surrounded  by  bodies,  by  heaps  of  mum- 
mies in  all  directions,  which,  previous  to  my 
being  accustomed  to  the  sight,  impressed  me 
with  horror.  The  blackness  of  the  watt ;  the 
fiunt  light  gi^n  by  the  candles  or  torches,  for 
want  of  air ;  the  different  objects  that  sur- 
rounded me,  seeming  to  converse  with  each 
other;  and  the  Arabs,  with  the  candles^ 
torches  in  their  hands,  naked  and  covered  with 
dust,  themselves  resembling  living  mummies — 
absolutely  formed  a  scene  that  cannot  be  de- 
scribed. After  the  exertion  of  entering  into  such 
a  place,  through  a  passage  of  50,  100,  800,  or 
perhaps  600  yards,  nearly  overcome,  I  sought  a 
resting  place,  found  one,  and  contrived  to  sit; 
but  when  my  weight  bore  on  the  body  of  an 
Egyptian,  it  crushed  it  like  a  bandbox.  Once 
I  was  conducted  from  such  a  place  to  another 
resembling  it^  through  a  passage  of  aboat  20 
feet  in  length,  and  no  wider  than  the  body  oould 
be  forced  through.  It  was  choked  with  mum- 
mies, and  I  could  not  pass  without  putting  my 
fiice  in  contact  with  that  of  some  decayed  Egyp- 
tian; but  as  the  passage  inclined  downwara, 
m^  own  weight  helped  me  on.  I  could  not  help 
being  covered  with  bones,  legs,  arms,  and 
hea^  rolling  from  above.  Thus  I  pnxMseded 
from  one  cave  to  another,  all  full  of  mummies, 
piled  in  various  ways,  some  standing,  some  ly- 
ing, and  some  on  their  heads.^'  Belzoni  also 
discovered  another  colossal  head  of  granite, 
which  is  now  in  the  British  museum,  and,  in  tiie 
valley  of  Behan-el-Molouk,  the  most  perfect  of 
known  Egyptian  tombs.  It  contained  several 
chambers,  sculptured  and  painted  in  the  most 
magnificent  manner,  and  a  sarcophagus  of  the 
finest  oriental  alabaster,  9  feet  5  inches  long, 
and  8  feet  7  inches  wide.  Having  taken  draw- 
ings of  the  tomb  and  its  paintings,  Belzoni  ex- 
hibited a  model  of  it  in  London,  in  1821,  which 
attracted  crowds  of  visitors.  Before  leaving 
Egypt,  he  succeeded,  in  1818,  after  much  trou- 
ble, in  discovering  the  entrance  to  the  second  of 
the  great  pyramids  of  Ghizeh,  that  of  Oephre- 
nes.  This»  ever  since  the  time  of  Herodotus, 
was  believed  to  be  without  internal  chambers. 
After  80  days  of  persevering  labor,  Belzoni 
found  the  entrance,  and  penetrated  to  the  cen- 
tral chamber.  He  also  visited  the  district  of 
Fayoom,  and  the  so-called  oasis  of  Jupiter  Am- 
mon,  Lake  Mosris,  and  discovered  the  ruins  of 
Berenice.  He  left  Egypt  in  Sept  1819, 
and  visited  his  native  city  of  Padua,  where  a 
medal  was  struck  in  his  honor;  and  on  his  re- 
turn to  Enghmd,  he  published  an  interesting 
narrative  of  his  travels  and  operations  amid 
the  monuments  of  the  Nile.  In  1828  he  form- 
ed the  design  of  penetrating  to  Timbuctoo,  in 
Africa,  and  had  reached  the  Bight  of  Benin, 
but  was  attacked  with  dysentery,  which  car- 
ried him  of^  at  a  small  place  in  Benin. 

BEM,  JozBF,  a  Polish  general,  bom  at 
Tamow,  in  Galicia,  in  1795,  died  Dec.  10, 1850. 
The  passion  of  his  life  was  hatred  of  Ba 


BEM 


lis 


At  the  epoch  when  Napoleon,  hy  victories 
and  proclamatioAs,  was  exciting  a  belief  in  the 
resarrection  of  Poland,  Bern  entered  the  corps 
of  cadets  at  Warsaw,  and  received  his  military 
trainiDg  at  the  artillery-school  directed  by  Gen. 
Pelletier.    On  leaving  this  school,  he  was  ap- 
pointed lieutenant  of  the  horse-artillery ;  served 
in  that  capacity  under  Davoost  and  Macdonald 
in  the  campaign  of  1812 ;  won  the  cross  of  the 
legion  of  honor  by  his  cooperation  in  the  defence 
of  Dantzic ;  and,  after  the  surrender  of  that  for- 
tress, returned  to  Poland.  As  the  czar  Alexander, 
affecting  a  great  predilection  for  the  Polish  na- 
tion, now  reoxganized  the  Polish  army,  Bern  en- 
tered the  latter  in  1815,  as  an  officer  of  artillery, 
but  was  soon  dismissed  for  fighting  a  duel  with 
his  superior.  However,  he  was  subsequently  ap- 
pointed military  teacher  at  the  artillery-school 
of  Warsaw  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  cap- 
tain. He  now  introduced  the  use  of  the  Oongreve 
rocket  into  the  Polish  army,  recording  the  ex- 
periments made  on  this  occasion  in  a  volume 
origini^y  published  in  French  and  then  trans- 
lated into  German.     He  was  querulous  and 
insubordinate,  and^  from  1820  to  1825,  was 
several  times  arraigned  before  courts-martial, 
punished  with  imprisonment,  released,  impris- 
oned again,  and  at  last  sent  to  Kock,  a  remote 
Polish  village,  there  to  vegetate  under  strict 
police  surveillance.    He  did  not  obtain  his  dis- 
charge from  the  Polish  army  until  the  death  of 
Alexander,  and  the  Petersburg   insurrection 
made  Oonstantine  lose  sight  of  him.    Leaving 
Russian  Poland,  Bern  now  retired  to  Lemberg, 
where  he  became  an  overseer  in  a  large  distil- 
lery, and  elaborated  a  book  on  steam  applied  to 
the  distillation  of  alcohol.    When  the  Warsaw 
insurrection  of  1830  broke  out  he  joined  it,  af- 
ter a  few  months  was  made  amiyor  of  artillery, 
and  fought,  in  June,  1881,  at  the  battle  of  Os- 
trolenk,  where  he  was  noticed  for  the  skill 
and'perseveranoe  with  which  he  fought  against 
the  superior  Russian  batteries.    When  the  Po- 
lish army  had  been  finally  repulsed  in  its  attacks 
against  the  Russians  who  had  passed  the  Narev, 
he  covered  the  retreat  by  a  bold  advance  with 
the  whole  of  his  gons.  He  was  now  created  col- 
onel, soon  after  general,  and  called  to  the  com- 
mand-in-chief of  the  Polish  artillery.    At  the 
storming  of  Warsaw  by  the  Russians  he  fought 
bravely,  but,  as  a  commander,  committed  the 
£BinU  of  not  using  his  40  guns,  and  allowing  the 
Bna^ns  to  take  Yola,  the  principal  point  of 
defence.    After  the  flail  of  Warsaw  he  emi- 
grated to  Pm&qa  with  the  rest  of  the  army, 
ni;ged  the  men  not  to  lay  down  their  arms  be- 
fon  the  Prussians,  and  thus  provoked  a  bloody 
and  unnecessary  struggle,  called  at  that  time 
the  battle  of  Fischau.    He  then  abandoned  the 
army  and  organized  in  Germany  committees 
for  Uie  support  of  Polish  emigrants,  after  which 
he  went  to  Paris.    His  extraordinary  charac- 
ter, in  which  a  laborious  fondness  for  the  exact 
sciences  was  blended  with  restless  impulses  for 
action,  caused  him  to  readily  embark  in  adven- 
taroaa  enterprises,  whoee  figure  gave  an  advan- 
VOL.  m. — 8 


tage  to  his  enemies.  Thus  having  in  1883,  on 
his  own  responsibility,  undertaken  withoiit  suc- 
cess to  raise  a  Polish  legion  for  Don  Pedro,  he 
was  denounced  as  a  traitor,  and  was  fired  at  by 
one  of  his  disappointed  countrymen,  in  BourgeS| 
where  he  came  to  engage  tiie  roles  for  his 
legion.  Travels  through  Portugal,  Spain,  Hol- 
land, Belgium,  and  France,  absorbed  his  time 
during  the  period  from  1834  to  1848.  In  1848, 
on  the  first  appearance  of  revolutionary  symp- 
toms in  Austrian  Poland,  he  hastened  to  Lem- 
berg and  thence,  Oct  14.  to  Vienna,  where  all 
that  was  done  to  strengtnen  the  works  of  de- 
fence and  organize  the  revolutionary  forces,  was 
due  to  his  personal  exertions.  The  disorderly 
flight  in  which,  Oct.  25,  a  sally  of  the  Yieunese 
mobile  guard,  headed  by  himself,  had  resulted, 
wrung  from  him  stem  expressions  of  reproof, 
repli^  to  by  noisy  accusations  of  treason,  which, 
in  spite  of  their  absurdity,  gained  such  influence 
that^  but  for  fear  of  an  insurrection  on  the  part 
of  the  Polish  legion,  he  would  have  been  dragged 
before  a  court-martial.  After  his  remarkable 
defence,  Oct  28,  of  the  great  barricade  erected 
in  the  JSgemzeile,  and  after  the  opening  of  ne- 
gotiations between  the  Vienna  magistrates  and 
PrinceWindischgr&tz,  he  disappeared.  SuspicioiL 
heightened  by  his  mysterious  escape,  dogged 
him  from  Vienna  to  Pesth,  where,  on  account 
of  his  prndent  advice  to  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment not  to  allow  the  establishment  of  a  special 
Polisn  legion,  a  Pole  named  Kolo^jecld  nred  a 
pistol  on  the  pretended  traitor  and  severely 
wounded  him.  The  war  in  Ttunsylvania,  wim 
the  command  of  which  the  Hungarian  govern- 
ment intrusted  Bem,  leaving  it,  however,  to  his 
own  ingefiuity  to  find  the  armies  with  whidli  to 
carry  it  on,  forms  the  most  important  portion  of 
his  military  life,  and  throws  a  great  light  upon 
the  peculiar  character  of  his  generalship.  Open- 
ing the  first  campaign  towara  the  end  of  Dec 
1848,  with  a  force  of  about  8,000  men,  badly 
armed,  hastily  collected,  and  consisting  of  most 
heterogeneous  elements — raw  Magyar  levies, 
Honveds,  Viennese  refugees,  and  a  small  knot 
of  Poles,  a  motley  crew  reinforced  in  his  pro- 
gress through  Transylvania  by  successive  drafts 
from  Szeklers,  Saxons,  Slaves  and  Roumanians — 
Bem  had  about  2  months  later  ended  his  cam- 
paign, vanquished  Puchner  with  an  Austrian 
army  of  20,000  men,  Engelhardt  with  the  auxil- 
iary force  of  6,000  Russians,  and  Urban  with 
his  freebooters.  Compelling  the  latter  to  take 
refuge  in  the  Bukovina,  and  the  two  former  to 
withdraw  to  Wallachia,  he  kept  the  whole  of 
Transylvania  save  the  small  fortress  of  Karls- 
burg.  Bold  surprises,  audacious  mancBuvrea, 
forced  marches^  and  the  great  confidencehe  knew 
how  to  inspire  m  his  troops  by  his  own  example, 
by  the  skilful  selection  of  covered  localities^  and 
by  always  affording  artillery  support  at  the  de- 
cisive moment,  proved  him  to  be  a  first-rate 
general  for  the  partisan  and  small  mountain 
warfare  of  this  first  campaign.  He  also  showed 
himself  a  master  in  the  art  of  suddenly  creating 
and  disciplining  an  army;  but  being  content 


114 


BEIC 


BEMBO* 


with  the  first  roDgb  aketoli  of  organintioiif  and 
negiecting  to  form  a  nudena  of  choice  troops^ 
wmoh  was  a  matter  of  prime  necessity,  his  ex- 
temporized anny  was  smre  to  vanish  like  a 
dreun  on  the  first  serions  disasters.  Daring 
his  hold  of  Transylvania  he  did  himself 
honor  by  preventing  the  nseless  and  impolitic 
omelties  contemplated  by  the  Magyar  com* 
missioners.  The  policy  of  condliation  between 
the  antagonist  naaonauties  aided  him  in  swell- 
ing his  force,  in  a  few  months^  to  40,000  or 
60,000  men,  well  provided  with  cavalry  and 
artillery.  If^  notwithstanding,  some  adnurable 
mancsnvresL  the  expedition  to  the  Banat,  which 
he  engaged  m  with  this  numerically  strong  army: 
prodoc^  no  lasting  effect,  the  circumstance  m 
ms  hands  being  tied  by  the  cooperation  of  the 
incapable  Hungarian  general,  must  be  taken 
into  account.  The  irraption  mto  Tran^lvania 
of  huge  Russian  forces,  and  the  defeats  conse- 

Sently  sustained  by  the  Magyars,  called  Bem 
ck  to  the  theatre  of  his  first  campaign. 
After  a  vain  attempt  to  create  a  diversion  in 
the  rear  cf  the  enemy,  by  the  invasion  of  Mol- 
davia, he  returned  to  Transylvania,  there  to  be 
completely  routed,  July  29,  at  Schassbnrg,  by 
the  8  times  stronger  Russian  forces  under  La- 
ders^  escaping  c^>tivity  himself  only  by  a  phinge 
into  a  morass  firom  which  some  dispersed  Mag- 
yar hussars  happened  to  pick  him  up.  Having 
collected  the  remainder  of  his  forces,  he  storm- 
ed Hermannstadt  for  the  second  time,  Aug.  5, 
but  for  want  of  reenforcements  soon  had  .to 
leave  it^  and  after  an  unfortunate  fight,  Aug. 
7,  he  retraced  his  stq^  to  Hungary,  where  he 
arrived  in  time  to  witness  the  loss  of  the  deciave 
battle  at  Temesvar.  After  a  vain  alftempt  to 
make  a  last  stand  at  Luges  with  what  remained 
of  the  Magyar  forces,  he  reentered  Transylva- 
nia, kept  his  ground  there  against  over- 
whelming forces,  until  Aug.  19,  when  he  was 
compelled  to  take  refdge  in  the  Turkish  terri- 
tory. With  the  purpose  of  opening  to  himself 
a  new  field  of  activity  against  Bnssu^  Bem  em- 
braced the  Mussulman  &ith,  and  was  raised  by 
the  sultan  to  the  dignity  of  a  pasha,  under  the 
name  of  Amurath,  with  a  command  in  the 
Turkish  army;  but,  on  the  remonstrances  of 
the  European  powers,  he  was  relegated  to 
Aleppo.  Having  there  succeeded  in  repressing 
some  sanguinary  excesses  committed  during 
Nov.  1850,  on  the  Ohristian  residents  by  the 
Mussulman  populace,  he  died  about  a  month 
later,  of  a  violent  fever,  for  which  he  would 
allow  no  medical  aid. 

BEM,  Maoitcts  tok,  a  Busman  traveller, 
lived  in  the  second  half  of  the  18th  centu- 
ry, was  governor  of  Kamtchatka  fh>m  1772 
to  1799,  was  honored  for  his  efforts  to  ame- 
liorate the  condition  of  that  country,  and 
for  his  philanthropic  exertions  to  succor  the 
companions  of  Oapt.  Oook  in  1775,  and  ask- 
ed to  be  recalled  from  his  office  by  reason  of 
m  health. 

BEMBATOOKA,  Bsmbatook,  or  Bombktok, 
a  bay  and  town  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  Mada- 


The  town  is  small,  and  of  no  impor- 
tance, but  the  bay  is  commodious  enough  to  re- 
ceive the  laigest  fleet 

BEMBO,  BomFAzio,  an  Italian  painter,  bom 
at  Yaldarno,  was  employed  by  the  court  of  Mi- 
lan about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  He 
assisted  in  the  decoration  of  the  cathedral  of 
Oremona,  where  he  painted  the  *'  Purification^' 
and  the  ^  Adoration  of  the  Magi.''  His  works 
are  esteemed  for  their  brilliant  coloring,  bold 
attitudes,  and  splendid  drapery. — Giovanni 
Francbsoo,  brother  and  pupU  of  tiie  preceding, 
a  painter  of  the  Oremonese  school,  who  of  m 
his  contemporaries  departed  farthest  from  the 
antique  manner,  and  resembles  Fra  Bartolommeo 
in  coloring,  though  inferior  to  that  master  in 
di^i^  and  energy  of  expression. 

iBEMBO,  PiETRo,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
author,  bom  at  Venice,  May  20, 1470,  died  at 
Rome,  Jan.  18, 1547.  He  was  of  a  noble  £mi- 
ily,  and  at  an  early  age  studied  at  Florence, 
whither  his  father  was  sent  as  ambassador. 
To  his  2  years'  remdence  in  that  city  the  Flor- 
entine authors  attribute  his  perfect  command 
of  the  Tuscan  dialect.  Master  of  an  elegant 
Latin  style,  he  went  in  1492  to  Messina,  in 
Sicily,  to  stady  Greek  under  the  learned  exile 
firom  Constantinople,  Lascaris.  Returning  2 
years  later  to  his  native  ci^,  he  was  so  be- 
neged  with  questions  about  Etna,  that  to  sat- 
isfy all  at  once  he  wrote  his  treatise  upon  that 
mountdn,  which  was  his  first  publication.  He 
tiien  frequented  the  courts  of  Ferrara  and  Ur- 
bino,  pursuing  philosophical  and  literary  stadies^ 
and  admired  for  his  wit  and  graceful  manners. 
Learning  and  letters  were  then  in  the  highest 
esteem  in  the  noble  fiunilies  of  Italy,  and  Bembo 
had  many  powerful  patrons,  received  favors 
from  Pope  Julius  H.,  and  accompanied  his 
friend,  Giovanni  de'  Medici,  on  his  way  to 
Rome,  to  be  crowned  Pope  Leo  X.  He  was 
made  secretary  to  the  new  pope,  enjoyed  the 
acquaintance  of  the  many  distinguished  men 
in  that  age  of  the  Medici,  and  buded  himself 
in  tiie  lalwrs  of  composition.  The  young  and 
beantifnl  Morosina,  whom  he  tenderly  lov- 
ed, persuaded  him  upon  the  death  of  Leo  X. 
in  1521  to  retire  from  public  affiurs,  and  to 
spend  the  rest  of  his  life  m  literary  elegance  at 
Padua.  Here  he  formed  an  extensive  library 
and  collection  of  medals,  eijjoyed  the  societv  of 
his  learned  friends,  and  his  house  was  csLlled 
the  temple  of  the  muses.  He  sometimes  visited 
Rome,  and  ht^vinff  become  a  cardinal  after  the 
accession  of  Paul  UL^  he  determined  to  em- 
brace another  manner  of  hfe.  He  renounced 
profane  letters,  studied  the  fathers  and  theolo- 

S'ans,  was  advanced  to  several  bishoprics,  and 
ed  in  sentiments  worthy  of  a  prince  of  the 
church.  His  writings,  consisting  of  letters, 
poems,  dialogues,  criticisms^  fragments,  and  a 
history  of  Venice,  are  distinguished  for  thdr 
elegance  and  gracefulness  of  style.  Without 
either  imagination  or  force  of  thought,  he  was 
yet  a  consummate  imitator  of  Oicero  in  Latin, 
and  of  Petrarch  in  Italian.    His  works  were 


BENABES 


116 


the  fttvorite  rea^ng  among  the  superior  ranks 
of  Italy,  and  an  acqaaintanoe  with  them  -was 
necessary  in  order  to  mingling  in  polished  soci- 
6^.  It  is  his  chief  merit  that  he  was  one  of 
the  first  to  reviye  the  beoaties  of  the  Italian 
tongue^  after  the  invasions  of  classical  learn* 
ingliad  made  the  language  of  Dante  yulgar. 

BEN.    Bee  Abxn. 

BEIfALOAZAB,  Sbbastiak  dx,  the  first  oon- 
qneror  of  Popayan,  New  Granada,  bom  about 
me  end  of  the  16th  century,  at  Benalcaz,  in  Es- 
tremadnra,  Spain,  died  in  1650.  He  set  out  as  a 
common  nulor  in  the  train  of  Pedrarias,  the 
newly  appointed  governor  of  Darien,  1614. 
The  abitity  and  daring  of  young  Sebastian 
gained  for  him  the  confidence  of  Pizarro.  This 
conqueror  sent  him  against  the  Indian  leader, 
BominahuL  Sebastian  was  favored  at  the 
moment  of  engagement  by  a  happy  accident; 
the  volcano  of  Oochabamba  8u£fei^  an  erup- 
tion. The  Peruvian  army  was  more  frightened 
at  it  than  the  Spaniards,  and  fled  to  Quito. 
Sebastian  then  possessed  himself  of  tiie  smok- 
ing ruins  of  thn  city.  From  here  he  passed 
northward  and  conquered  the  territory  possess- 
ed by  a  chief  named  Popayan,  whose  name  he 
preserved  to  designate  the  territory  over  which 
the  former  had  held  sway.  Inflamed  by  the 
speeches  of  an  Indian  captive,  who  spake 
strange  words  about  a  chief  furliier  north,  who 
was  anointed  with  gold*powder,  Benalcazar  and 
his  band  determined  to  visit  and  conquer  this 
El  DoradOf  or  chief  of  gold.  After  traversing 
vast  forests,  in  1684,  he  arrived  at  the  country 
which  afterward  received  the  name  of  New 
Granada.  Arrived  thereu  he  found  himself 
forestalled  by  two  other  Spanish  adventurers, 
or  eonquiatadores.  He  returned  to  Popayan, 
and  was  made  governor  of  this  province  by  a 
decree  dated  1638.  When  La  Gasca  succeeded 
in  supplanting  Diego  Pizarro,  he  deprived  Se- 
bastian of  his  governorship.  The  conqueror 
of  Popayan  died  heart-broken  at  this  result  of 
a  life  spent  in  adventure  and  in  the  service  of 
the  Spanish  crown. 

BENAOOAZ,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  a  moun- 
tainous district  of  Andalusia,  60  miles  N.  £. 
fh>m  Cadiz.  It  has  a  parish  church  and 
town-house,  and  a  promenade  and  avenue,  with 
beautifnl  gardens  and  fountains. 

BENABES,  a  large  and  Dunous  city  of 
ffindoetan,  the  capital  of  a  dividon  of  the  ben- 
gal presidency,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges, 
890  miles  N.  W.  of  Calcutta^  and  420  miles 
8.  E.  of  Delhi.  It  is  famous  as  having  been,  in 
andenl^times,  the  seat  of  Braminical  learning 
and  q>ecu]ation.  It  is  entitled  to  the  distinc- 
tion of  being  r^rarded  as  the  Hindoo  Borne,  or 
the  ecdesiasticar  metropolis  mt  Hindostan.  It 
has  been  styled  the  Athens  of  India.  The  city 
is  regarded  as  a  sacred  place  by  the  Hindoos, 
who  resort  to  it  in  nreat  numbers  from  everv 
part  of  Hindostan.  It  is  always  thronged  with 
mendicant  priests.  Its  external  appearance  is 
higjhly  imjxMing.  It  stretches  for  several  miles 
alopg  the  edge  of  the  river,  from  which  ascend 


numerous  flights  of  stone  steps.  The  streets 
are  only  a  few  feet  wide,  and  the  buildings, 
which  are  principally  stone,  are  very  lofty. 
They  are  built  to  endoee  a  circular  'space,  and 
firequently  contain  200  inhabitants  eaioh.  The 
wealthy  Hindoos  live  in  detached  houses,  sur- 
rounded by  walls  with  open  courts.  The 
poorer  live  in  mud-built  dwellings,  of  which 
there  are  16,000.  In  the  centre  of  the  city 
is  a  large  mosque,  with  2  minarets  282  feet 
high,  built  by  Aumngzebe  on  the  site  of  a  mag- 
nificent Hindoo  temple,  which  he  destroyed  for 
the  purpose  of  erecting  the  present  building. 
There  are  numerous  other  mosc^ues,  a  great 
number  of  Hindoo  temples,  an  ancient  observa- 
tory, and  the  Hindoo  Sanscrit  college,  the  chief 
institution  of  native  learning  in  India.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  from  200,000  to 
600,000 ;  but  at  certain  times  the  number  is 
immensely  increased.  Nine-tenths  of  these  are 
Hindoos,  and  the  remainder  MohammeduM.  . 
Among  its  inhabitants  are  many  wealthy  native 
bankers  and  dealers  in  diamonds,  for  which 

Sim  the  city  is  famoua.  It  is  the  seat  of  a ' 
ritish  court  of  circuit  and  i^peal,  an  English 
college,  numerous  Ohristian  missions,  and  Mo- 
hammedan and  Hindoo  schools.  Benares  has 
a  very  extensive  trade  in  shawls,  muslins,  silks^ 
cottons,  and  fine  woollens^  of  its  own  manufac- 
ture, and  in  European  goods,  salt,  indigo,  and 
opium. — ^A  mutiny  of  native  troops  took  place 
here  June  4, 1867.  The  military  authorities  of 
the  city,  apprehending  the  spread  of  disaffec- 
tion in  the  87th  regiment  or  native  infantry, 
stationed  at  Benares^  determined  to  disarm 
them.  But  the  promulgation  of  an  order  to 
this  effect  only  hastened  an  outbreak.  The  in- 
fantry immediately  fired  upon  their  officers^ 
killing  2  or  8,  and  woundiiu^  otiiers,  while  the 
greater  part  of  a  body  of  Sikhs  and  the  Idth 
irregular  cavalry,  upon  whom  the  Europeans 
chi^v  relied,  sided  with  the  mutineers  and 
johied  in  the  attack.  A  few  buildings  were 
burnt,  but  a  small  detachment  of  the  Madras 
furileers  arriving  opportunely  that  same  day, 
the  rising  was  speedily  put  down. — ^Tbe  district 
of  Benares  is  situated  between  lat.  24®  and  26^ 
N.,  and  between  the  rivers  Ganges  and  Sye 
(which  on  8  sides  separate  it  from  GhazmoorX 
having  west  the  districts  Mirzapoor  and  Juan- 
poor.  It  was  ceded  in  1776  to  the  East  India 
company,  by  the  king  of  Oude.  In  1776,  the 
district  was  granted  to  the  ri^ah  Oheyt  Singh,  of 
Benares,  suqject  to  the  payment  of  an  annual 
tribute  to  the  company.  The  violation  of  this 
agreement  by  Mr.  Hastings,  governor-general  of 
India,  formed  one  of  the  charges  against  him  in 
the  case  of  his  impeachment  by  the  house  of 
commons.  The  area  of  Benares  is  994  square 
miles.  It  is  well  watered  by  the  Ganges  and 
the  Goovoij  rivers^  and  by  several  tributaries 
of  these  streams.  The  limd  is  mostiy  fertile 
and  well  cultivated.  The  native  products  are 
barley,  wheat,  peas,  flax,  and  sugar.  The 
most  profitable  productions  are  indigo  and 
optuoDu    Doting  9  montha  of  the  year  the 


116 


BENBOW 


BENDA 


dimate  is  temperate,  but  during  the  8 
months  from  April  to  June,  hot  winds  pre- 
vail, and  destroy  the  verdure,  fop.  in  1858, 
861,757. 

BENBOW,  John,  an  English  admiral,  born 
in  Bhrewabury  in  1650,  died  in  Jamaica,  2Tor.  4, 
1702.  He  was  reared  in  the  merchant  service, 
and  in  one  of  his  trips  to  the  Mediterranean  in 
1686,  he  conducted  an  engagement  so  despe- 
rately against  an  African  corsair,  that  he  was 
invited  to  the  Spanish  court  by  Charles  IL,  who 
recommended  him  to  James  IL  of  England. 
The  latter  gave  him  the  command  of  a  ship  of 
war  to  protect  British  interests  in  the  English 
channel,  and  subsequently  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  rear-admiral,  and  employed  In 
blockading  and  bombarding  the  French  ports. 
In  1701,  with  a  squadron  under  his  command, 
he  sailed  to  the  West  Indies.  This  command 
had  been  previously  declined  by  several  of  his 
seniors,  as  an  extra-hazardous  expedition.  But 
in  the  conduct  of  it,  Benbow*s  courage  and 
energy  were  so  conspicuous  as  to  elicit  the 
commendation  of  the  commons.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year,  and  on  a  second  expedition  to  the 
Indies,  he  encountered  the  French  fleet  under 
Duoasse,  and  for  5  days  maintained  a  running 
fight  with  them.  He  succeeded  in  bringing  the 
enemy*s  stemmost  ship  to  dose  quarters,  but 
his  chief  officers  refused  to  second  his  efforts. 
Here  he  lost  a  leg  by  a  chain-shot,  an  event, 
which,  though  it  did  not  abate  his  ardor,  gave 
oocasion  for  some  of  his  captains  to  ^ee  '*  that 
nothing  more  was  to  be  done."  On  his  re- 
turn to  Jamaica,  he  brought  the  delinquents 
to  court-martial,  which  convicted  them  of 
disobedience  and  cowardice,  and  caused  them 
to  be  shot.  His  wound,  and  the  emotion  caused 
by  these  events,  concurred  with  a  pulmonary 
disease  to  hasten  his  death  at  the  age  of  52. 
Benbow  was  not  a  very  successful  commander, 
but  was  distinguished  for  his  bravery  and  pro- 
fessional enterprise.  His  whole  life  was  spent 
in  active  service  at  sea. 

,  BENOOOLEN  (Malay.  BangJca  Ulu^  rolling 
uplands),  a  Dutch  residency  on  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  Sumatra;  bounded  N.  by  Maiguta  riv- 
er ;  E.  by  the  mountain  chain  extending  from 
Qunung  B^a,  ta  the  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula, forming  the  W.  side  of  Samangka  bay ; 
and  W.  by  the  Indian  ocean.  Area,  including  the 
island  of  Engano,  which  belongs  to  this  resi- 
dency, 8,786  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1849,  93,876.  This 
long  narrow  strip  of  territory,  lying  between  a 
mountain-chain  and  the  sea-board,  very  much 
resembles  Ohili  in  South  America,  in  form. 
The  soil  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  eastern  dope 
of  the  island ;  it  is  for  the  most  part  a  stiff,  red 
clay,  burnt  nearly  to  the  sttite  or  a  brick  where 
it  is  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  cliief  culture  was 
pepper,  during  the  first  intercourse  of  Euro- 
peans with  this  country.  In  1798,  the  clove 
and  nutmeg  were  introduced  from  the  Moluc- 
cas; but  the  latter  alone  has  succeeded,  and 
that  only  by  manuring,  and  much  labor  and 
care,  not  required  in  the  parent  country.    The 


forests  between  Oawoor  and  Oro6  abound  in 
guttapercha  and  gutta  tdban  trees,  which  pro- 
duce a  gum  of  excellent  quality.  Coffee  is  be- 
ginning to  be  cultivated,  even  by  the  natives  on 
their  own  account,  to  considerable  extent.  The 
styrax  lenzoin  tree,  from  which  the  gum  ben- 
jamin of  commerce  is  obtained,  are  grown  in 
plantations.  The  bufialo  and  goat  are  the  onl^- 
large  animals  domesticated;  the  use  of  the 
horse  as  a  beast  of  burden  is  not  known  to  the 
natives  of  this  territonr,  or  even  in  any  portion 
of  the  southern  half  of  the  island,  and  it  is  only 
rarely  imported  for  the  saddle,  by  Europeans. 
Tigers  are  very  numerous  in  this  part  of  the 
island,  and  materially  impede  the  prosperity  of 
the  country;  it  is  impossible  to  raise  small 
stock,  except  in  the  well-defended  enclosures  of 
large  villages.  The  Bejangs,  one  of  the  most 
civilized  races  of  Sumatra,  compose  the  greater 
portion  of  the  population  of  this  territory. — 
The  chief  town  of  the  above  territory,  also 
named  Bencoolen,  is  inlat.  8°  47'  80"  S.,  long. 
102°  48'  E. ;  pop.  7,600.  The  British  East 
India  company  established  a  factory  at  this 
point,  for  the  pepper  trade,  June  26, 1685.  In 
1714,  Fort  Marlborough  was  founded,  8  miles 
distant.  In  1760,  the  French  under  Count 
B^Esttung  captured  and  took  possession  of  the 
fort  and  factory ;  but  they  were  restored  to  the 
company  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  1768.  By 
the  treaty  of  London  in  1824,  the  English  gov- 
ernment ceded  the  fort  and  factory,  and  estab- 
lishments dependent  on  them,  which  then  em- 
braced a  territory  of  about  12  square  miles,  to 
the  Dutch,  in  exchange  for  Malacca  and  its 
territory,  and  Oinsura,  in  Hindostan,  after  bein^ 
in  possession  140  years.  Bencoolen  was  an  un- 
profitable dependency  of  the  Bengal  presidency, 
and  cost  the  East  India  company^  on  an  aver- 
age, about  $60,000  per  annmn,  dunng  the  whole 
period  of  its  possession;  it  was  maintained 
partly  from  a  point  of  honor,  but  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  an  infatuated  over-estimate  of  the  ad- 
vantages expected  to  grow  out  of  the  pepper 
trade.  Dunng  the  English  possession,  the  town 
contained  20,000  inhabitants,  which  have  now 
dwindled  to  one-third  that  number,  composed 
of  Bhangs,  Malays,  Bughis,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  Arabs  and  Chinese.  A  Dutch  assistant- 
resident  resides  here. 

BENDA,  Franz,  a  German  violinist,  bom  in 
Bohemia,  in  1709,  died  at  Potsdam,  in  1786. 
He  exhibited,  while  a  boy,  a  great  desire  to 
learn  the  violin,  which  he  could  gratify  in  no 
other  way  than  by  joining  a  band  of  strolling 
musicians.  He  found  means,  however,  to  ac- 
quire an  extraordinary  mastery  of  the  instru- 
ment, and  in  1782  entered  the  service  of  Fred- 
eric the  Great^  tiyn  prince-royal,  with  whom 
he  remained  the  r^st'of  his  long  life.  He 
founded  a  school  of  violinists,  whose  method  of 
playing  was  entirely  original  and  quite  effective. 
He  also  published  some  excellent  solos  for  tho 
violin. —  Geobo,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
and  a  composer  of  music,  born  in  Bohemia, 
in  1722,  died  at  KOstritz,  in  1795.    He  pass- 


BENDALOU 


BENDING  MACHINE 


117 


ed  many  years  of  his  life  as  musiciaii  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  ecfl^rts  of  Prussia  and  Gotha,  and 
perfected  his  style  by  a  visit  to  Italy  in  1760. 
He  oomposed  a  number  of  comio  operas,  and  2 
of  a  serious  character  entitled  "  Ariadne  in 
Naxos"  and  "Medea,"  which  are  written  with 
much  feeling  and  taste.  His  music,  according 
to  Dr.  Burney,  is  new,  profound,  and  worthy 
of  a  great  master,  and  the  best  of  it  was  com- 
posed after  his  return  from  Italy.  Beside  his 
operas,  Benda  wrote  some  excellent  sonatas  for 
the  harpsichord. 

BENDALOU,  Paul,  a  gallant  soldier  of  the 
American  revolutionary  army,  bom  at  Montau- 
ban,  in  France,  Aug.  15,  1766,  died  in  Balti- 
more, in  Marykind,  Dec.  10, 1826.  In  Oct.  1776, 
he  embarked  at  Bordeaux  for  the  United  States, 
as  a  volunteer  in  the  cause  of  liberty,  and,  on 
reaching  the  head-quarters  of  Washington,  he 
received  a  lieutenant^s  commission.  Transferred 
to  the  command  of  Pulaski,  he  was  captain  of 
the  first  company  in  his  famous  legion  at  the 
siege  of  Savannah.  There  he  carried  off  the 
field  the  body  of  the  generous  Po^  and  pre- 
served, also,  the  standard  of  the  legion,  which 
had  been  wrou^t  and  presented  by  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  Maryland.  He  was  quarter- 
master-general, with  the  rank  of  colonel^  in  the 
Maryland  militia  during  the  war  of  1812,  and 
for  many  years  IT.  S.  marshal  for  the  circuit 
and  district  courts  of  Maryland,  his  official  con- 
duct, from  first  to  last,  being  marked  with 
exactness  and  integrity. 

BENDAYID,  Lazarus,  a  German  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  born  of  Hebrew  parents  at 
Berlin,  Oct.  18,  1762,  died  March  28, 1832.  A 
glass-grinder  by  trade,  he  attained  by  his  own  un- 
aided efforts  such  a  degree  of  learning,  that  he 
was  admitted  as  student  in  the  university  of 
Gottingen,  although  he  never  went  through 
the  xisasl  preparatory  course  of  studies.  He 
graduated  with  much  distinction  at  GOttingen, 
and  on  his  return  to  Berlin  devoted  himself 
to  the  study  of  Kant  He  remained  throughout 
his  life  a  faithful  disciple  of  this  philosopher,  and 
prepared  a  course  of  lectures  upon  his  theory, 
which  he  first  delivered  at  Berlin,  and  subse- 
quently at  Vienna,  where  he  resided  for  several 
years,  untfl  the  persecutions  to  which  he  was 
subjected  there  induced  him  to  return  to  his 
native  city.  He  continued  to  lecture  in  Berlin, 
and  displayed  at  the  same  time  a  laudable  ac- 
tivity in  many  other  literary  and  beneficent  di- 
rections. During  the  sway  of  Napoleon  in  Ger- 
many, he  edited  the  Maude  und  Spener*9cfi6 
Zeitung. 

BENDEMANN,  Edvabd,  a  German  painter, 
bom  of  Jewish  parents,  at  Berlin.  Dec.  8, 1811. 
He  studied  at  DOsseldorf.  His  first  work  that 
attracted  much  notice  was  **  Boaz  and  Ruth.^* 
In  1832  he  gained  a  wide  refutation  by  his  pic- 
ture of  the  *^  Jews  by  the  nvers  of  Babylon.'* 
Among  his  other  puntings  may  be  mentioned 
^*  Jeremiah  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem,"  the 
*'  Harvest,**  and  other  smaller  pictures.  Bende- 
mann  has  also  distinguished  himself  as  a  portrait 


and  fresco  painter.    In  1688  he  was  appointed 

Srofessor  at  the  academy  of  fine  arts  at  Dres- 
en,  and  intrusted  with  the  execution  of  some 
important  works  in  fresco  in  one  of  the  royal 
palaces  of  that  city. 

BENDER,  a  fortified  town  in  Bessarabia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Dniester,  48  miles  from 
its  mouth.  It  has  a  citadel  with  600  artillery- 
men. Near  it  is  Yamitza,  the  retreat  of 
Charles  XII.,  after  the  battle  of  Poltava.  Ben- 
der was  taken  by  storm  by  the  Russians  in 
1809,  but  was  restored  to  Turkey  at  the  peace  of 
Jassy.  In  1812  it  was  ceded  to  Russia.  It  has 
7  gates,  12  mosques,  and  an  Armenian  and 
Greek  church.    Pop.  6,000. 

BENDING  MACHINE.  One  of  the  greatest 
difficulties  that  shipbuilders  have  to  contend 
with,  is  procuring  timber  of  the  proper  shape. 
In  some  parts  of  Europe  officers  are  appointed 
to  find  out  and  mark  the  trees  which  are  fit  for 
the  use  of  the  navy,  whether  they  stand  on  pub- 
lic or  on  private  ground,  and  henceforward  it 
becomes  an  offence,  pumshable  by  fine,  for  the 
proprietor  to  fell  them.  The  knees  are  partic- 
nlarly  difficult  to  procure,  for  a  great  number 
are  wanted,  nearly  all  of  them  of  different 
angles,  and  each  has  to  be  cut  from  a  tree  at  the 
Jnnction  of  2  branches  forming  the  angle  want- 
ed. The  ribs  are  seldom  found  in  nature,  and 
are  made  of  several  pieces  joined  together  at 
a  considerable  expense.  Efforts  have  been 
made  at  various  times  to  substitute  artificially 
curved  wood  for  that  grown  with  the  proper 
shape.  The  following  titles  of  patents  are  found 
in  the  records  of  the  U.  8.  patent  office :  Tim- 
ber bending  for  boats,  J.  Orbison,  Piqua,  O., 
1820 ;  the  same.  Green  and  Blakesley,  Litch- 
field, Conn.,  1822 ; '  Bending  masts  and  truss 
hoops,  J.  Milford,  Northern  Liberties,  Penn.,, 
1835 ;  Bent  timber  for  ships  and  for  knees,  in 
2  patents,  W.  Ballard,  New  York,  1864;  Ma- 
chine for  bending  wood,  E.  Updegraffi  York, 
Penn.,  1856 ;  the  same,  T.  Blanchfud,  JBoston, 
Mass^l856;  the  sam^  Edwin  and  Artemas 
and  Cheney  Eillbum,  Burlington,  Yt,  1856. 
Several  of  these  patented  machines  are  intended 
for  small  pieces  of  wood,  others  for  large  tim- 
ber. In  all,  the  wood  is  first  rendered  soft  by 
wetting  and  warming  it  over  a  fire,  or  by 
warming  it  in  steam.  It  is  then  placed  in  the 
machine,  which  bends  it  into  a  shape  that  the 
wood  retains  after  cooling.  When  the  timber 
is  large  the  fibres  on  the  convex  part  of  t^e 
curve  are  much  extended,  and  those  in  the  con- 
cave are  much  compressed  ;  the  result  is  a  ten- 
dency to  split;  this  is  prevented  by  so  con- 
structing the  machine  that  the  wood  is  com- 
pressed on  all  sides  and  at  both  ends  during 
the  operation.  A  company  has  been  formed  in 
New  York,  under  the  title  of  the  ^*  American 
Timber-bending  Co.,"  with  workshops  near  the 
city.  They  have  been  at  work  but  a  short 
time,  and  are  now  engaged  in  putting  up  ma- 
chines of  an  increased  size.  Timbers  bent  by 
the  company  have  been  submitted  to  experi- 
ments to  test  their  strength,  and  it  is  claimed 


118 


BENDISH 


BENEDIOT 


that  they  hare  been  fonnd  maoh  stronger  than 
similar  pieces  of  natural  growth.  This  r^nlt  is 
not  improbable,  and  is  mnch  to  be  desired,  but 
it  is  not  yet  accepted  by  all  naval  engineers. 

BENDISH,  Bbidobt,  the  granddaughter  of 
OllTer  Cromwell,  of  England,  and  the  danghter 
of  Gen.  Ireton,  bom  about  1G50,  died  1727. 
In  her  early  years  ^e  was  brought  up  at 
Oromwell's  court,  and  was  present  at  the  au- 
diences he  gave  to  foreign  ambassadors.  She 
bore  awonderfhl  resembknoe  to  the  protector, 
physically  and  morally ;  her  energy  was  im- 
mense ;  ^e  would  work  for  days  together  with- 
out sleeping;  had  uncommon  conversational 
powers ;  was  liable  to  periodic  attacks  of  reli- 
ffious  ecstasy;  and  managed  her  salt-works  at 
Southtown,  in  Norfolk,  with  great  exactness. 
By  her  open-handed  benevolence  she  was  pop- 
n&r  with  the  poor.  She  could  never  bear  to 
hear  her  grandfather  evil  spoken  of,  and  one 
day  when  travelling  in  the  stage-coach,  a  tory 
squire  so  committed  himself,  not  knowing  in 
whose  presence  he  was ;  she  Jumped  out  at  the 
next  stage,  snatched  a  sword  from  another  fel- 
low-passenger, and  challenged  the  royalist  gen- 
tleman to  a  duel.  She  would  sometimes  £ive 
her  carriage  into  Yarmouth,  and  spend  an 
evening  at  the  assembly  rooms  in  that  city, 
where  her  princely  nuumers,  venerable  aspect, 
and  imposing  energy  of  voice  and  manner,  re- 
called the  protector  to  the  eyes  of  a  generation 
who  knew  him  only  in  the  distance  of  history, 
and  made  her  the  uon  of  the  evening.  A  me- 
moir of  her  by  a  local  physician  has  been  pre- 
servedj  and  even  been  translated  into  French, 
by  Guizot. 

BENEDIOT,  the  name  of  several  popes  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  chupoh.  I.  BekbdictIL, 
elected  in  684,  was  a  Roman,  remarkable  for 
scriptural  science,  piety,  and  kindness  to  the 
poor.  He  caused  the  decrees  of  the  sixth  gen- 
eral council  ^against  the  Monothelites)  to  be 
accepted  by  the  Spanish  bishops,  and  also  in- 
duced the  Greek  emperor  to  give  up  the 
usurped  right  of  confirming  the  election  of  the 
pope.  Constantine  lY.  sent  him  some  locks  of 
the  hiur  of  his  sons,  Justinian  and  Horatius,  sig- 
nifying thereby  that  he  recognized  him  as  their 
adopted  father.  This  pope  reigned  one  year, 
and  died  May  6,  685.  II.  Bensdiot  IU.  (855), 
a. Roman,  and  cardinal  priest,  is  praised  even 
by  Photius  for  meekness  and  benevolence.  He 
signalized  himself  by  zeal  in  building  and  beau- 
tifying churches  in  Rome,  and  in  uniaon  with 
Ethelwol^  kin^  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  estab- 
lished an  English  college  in  Rome.  He  con- 
firmed the  deposition  of  Gregory,  the  unworthy 
bishop  of  Syracuse,  pronounced  by  Ignatius, 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  which  was  the  oc- 
casion of  the  subsequent  dei>osition  of  Ignatius 
and  intrusion  of  Photius  in  his  place,  and  of 
the  Greek  schism.  He  died  April  8, 858.  m. 
Bbnedict  YII.  (976),  of  the  counts  of  Tusco- 
Inm,  and  bishop  of  Sntri,  reigned  during  9 
years  with  great  ability  and  firmness.  He  was 
ohiefly  remarkable  for  his  labors  in  establishing 


oanon  law,  and  upholding  ecclesiastical  diaoi- 
pline.  ly.  Bbnbdiot  YIII.  (1012),  also  of  the 
counts  of  Tuscnlum,  and  cardinal  bishop  of 
Porto.  The  celebrated  German  emperor,  St 
Henry,  and  his  wife,  St  Cunegunda,  were 
crowned  by  him.  He  made  2  visits  to  Ger- 
many, during  the  latter  of  which  he  received 
the  dty  of  Bamberg  as  a  present,  afterward 
exchanged  for  Benevento.  Durins  his  reign 
the  Sancens  attacked  the  pontifical  states,  but 
were  defeated  and  driven  away  by  the  troops 
of  Benedict,  after  a  bloody  and  obstinate  battle 
of  8  days.  Pope  Benedict  introduced  the  cus- 
tom at  Rome  of  onging  the  Nicene  creed 
during  mass.  After  a  very  active  and  vigorous 
reign  of  12  years,  he  died  during  the  early  part 
of  the  year  1024,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  under  the  name  of  John  XIX.  Y. 
BsMKDiCT  XL  was  of  humble  origin,  and  be- 
came at  an  early  age  a  member  of  the  Domini- 
can order,  in  which  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  general  solely  on  account  of  his  learn- 
ing and  piety.  For  the  same  reason  he  was 
afterward  UAde  cardinal  bishop  of  Ostia^  and 
frequentiy  employed  in  important  legations. 
He  was  a  devoted  and  courageous  partisan  of 
his  predecessor,  Boniface  YIII.,  and  remained 
with  him  at  Aragni,  after  all  the  other  cardinals 
had  fled.  On  the  death  of  Boniface  he  was 
unanimously  elected  to  succeed  him  (1308),  and 
very  soon  settied  all  the  difficulties  between 
France  and  the  holy  see.  This  pope  was  re- 
markable for  humility,  and  his  great  talent  for 
pacification.    On  one  occasion,  when  his  mother 

S resented  herself  at  his  court  splendidly  attired, 
e  refused  to  recognize  her  until  she  had  re- 
sumed the  dress  suitable  to  her  humble  state 
of  life.  He  died  at  Perugia^in  1304,  probably 
by  poison.  YI.  Bxnediot  XII.,  a  Frenchman  by 
burth  (Jacques  Foumier),  of  humble  origin,  was  a 
Cistercian  monk,  and  afterward,  snccessively.ab- 
botw  bishop,  and  cardinal.  He  was  the  third  or  the 
Avignon  popes,  having  succeeded  John  XXIL, 
in  1834.  He  was  an  eminent  canonist  and 
theologian,  and  has  left  several  valuable  works. 
As  pope,  he  was  animated  by  a  great  zeal  for 
reformation,  and  was  very  severe  on  negligent 
and  ambitions  ecclesiastics.  He  defined,  by  a 
constitution,  the  doctrine  previously  construed 
by  some,  that  the  beatitude  of  the  just,  and  the 
punishment  of  the  wicked,  commence  before  the 
final  judgment.  He  cUed  at  Avignon  in  1842.  YIL 
BainEDioT  XIII.,  of  the  princdy  house  of  Orsi- 
ni,  bom  in  thd  kingdom  of  Kaplea,  became  at 
an  early  age  a  Dominican,  and,  throughout  his 
whole  life,  was  remarkable  for  the  strictness 
with  which  he  fulfilled  his  religious  duties. 
Having  been  with  great  reluctance  elevated  to 
the  dignity  of  bi^op  and  cardinal,  he  continued 
to  live  as  a  simple  monk,  and  devoted  all  his 
leisure  hours  to  study,  writing,  and  prayer.  As 
a  bishop,  he  was  devoted  to  his  pastoral  duties, 
and  univenally  loved  and  venerated;  and  as 
cardinal,  he  led  what  was  called  the  party  of 
the  Zelasti,  who  were  pledged  to  vote  at  the 
conclave  for  the  candidate  deemed  by  the  col- 


BENEDICT 


119 


lege  of  cardiDiils  the  most  worihj.  without  re- 
gard to  any  worldly  or  political  interest  He 
was  chosen  to  sacceed  Innocent  XIII.,  A.  D. 
1724:,  and  accepted  the  papal  dignity  under 
obedience  to  the  command  of  the  general  of  his 
order,  with  many  tears.  The  well-known 
saints^  Aloysins  de  Gonzaga,  John  of  the  Gross, 
John  Nepomuoen,  and  Stanislaus  Kortka,  were 
canonized  by  him.  IQs  principal  efforts  were 
directed  to  restore  and  uphold  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline, although  he  was  deceived  by  a  hypo- 
crite named  Nicholas  Oosoia,  who  abused  nis 
confidence,  and  was  imprisoned  for  mal-admin- 
istration  by  his  successor.  He  died  Feb.  21, 
1780.  VHL  Bensdiot  XTV.,  the  most  distin- 
guished of  aU  the  popes  of  this  name,  and  one 
of  Uie  most  able  and  learned  popes  of  modern 
times.  His  name  was  Prospero  Lorenzo  Lam- 
bertini,  and  he  was  born  of  an  ancient  fam- 
fly  at  Bologna,  A.  D.  1675.  From  his  youth  he 
devoted  himself  to  study  and  science,  especially 
to  canon  law  and  theology,  and  became  a  volu- 
minous author,  his  works  being  regarded  as 
standard.  After  a  long,  useftd,  and  laborious 
career,  in  different  offices  of  the  Roman  prela- 
ture,  he  was  finally  made,  in  1728,  cardinal 
priest,  and  archbishop  of  Ancona,  by  Benedict 
XIIL  In  1781,  Clement  XII.  transferred  him 
to  Bologna,  where  he  remained  until  his  elec- 
tion to  the  papacy,  which  tookplaoe,  most  un- 
expectedly, Aug.  17,  1740.  He  was  then  65 
years  of  age,  and  he  reigned  18  years.  As 
pope,  he  was  highly  esteemed  by  all  the  contem- 
porary sovereigns,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catho- 
lic During  the  intervals  of  public  business  he 
contrived  to  apply  himself  to  his  favorite 
studies,  and  maintained  a  correspondence  with 
all  the  most  eminent  writers  of  the  day.  He 
was  a  great  patron  of  science,  learning,  the 
fine  arts,  and  charitable  institutions.  His  quiet, 
tranquil  Ufe,  full  of  great  and  good  works,  but 
devoid  of  striking  and  remarkable  events, 
presents  but  few  salient  points.  The  unani- 
mous judgment  of  mankind,  however,  pro- 
nounces Mm  a  great  and  good  man.  The 
complete  collection  of  his  works  fills  15 
folio  volumes.  He  died  May  2,  1758. — Bbn- 
SDicn  antipope,  a  native  of  Aragon ;  he 
stylea  himself  Benedict  XIII.  His  name 
was  Pedro  de  Luna,  and  in  his  early  life  he 
was  alternately  a  student  and  a  soldier.  He 
finafiy  chose  civil  and  canon  law  as  his  pro- 
fesdon,  and  was  professor  of  these  departments 
at  the  university  of  Montpellier,  when  Greg- 
ory XI.  made  him  cardinal.  He  was  a  man  of 
eminent  talents,  and  Pope  Clement  YU.  sent 
him  as  legate  into  Spain.  He  was  the  patron 
of  the  celebrated  St  Vincent  Ferrer,  who  ad- 
hered for  a  considerable  time  to  his  obedience. 
In  1894,  a  portion  of  the  cardinals  at  Avignon 
elected  him  pope,  with  the  previous  engage- 
ment to  resign  if  the  peace  of  the  diurch  re- 
quired it,  France,  bpain,  and  some  other 
portions  of  Christendom,  acknowledged  his 
obedience  at  first  Afterward,  when  the  coun- 
oils  of  PlBa  and  Constance,  and  the  different 


sovereigns  who  had  supported  him,  required 
him  to  resign  his  claims  to  the  papacv,  he  re- 
fused. Both  councils  condemned  and  excom- 
municated him  as  a  schismatic,  and  the  princes 
of  his  obedience  abandoned  him,  and  en- 
deavored to  take  him  prisoner  at  Avignon. 
He  escaped,  however,  to  Chateau-Benard.  and 
afterwani  to  Peniscola,  a  little  town  m  the  Idng- 
dom  of  Valencia,  where  he  played  the  part  of 
pope,  with  two  cardinals.  untU  he  died  in  1424, 
at  the  age  of  00.  He  obliged  his  two  cardinals 
to  elect,  as  his  successor,  Gil  Mufioz,  a  canon 
of  Barcelona,  who  took  uie  name  of  Clement 
VIIL 

BENEDICT,  abbot  of  Peterborough,  an  Eng^ 
lish  monk  and  historian,  died  in  1198.  He 
studied  at  Oxford,  became  prior  of  the  monas- 
tery of  Christ  church  in  Canterbury,  shared  tiie 
friendship  both  of  Beoket  and  King  Henry,  as- 
sisted at  the  coronation  of  Richard  I.,  the  !uon- 
hearted,  under  whom  he  was  keeper  of  the 
great  seal,  and  wrote  histories  which  are  stHl 
extant  of  Thomas  &  Becket,  Henry  U.,  uid 
Richard  I. 

BENEDICT,  Sadtt.  bom  at  Nursia  in  Um- 
bria,  A.  D.  480,  died  March  24,  648.    This 

gatriarch  of  the  western  monks  seems  to 
ave  had  an  irresistible  desire  for  contem- 
Elation,  solitude,  and  the  monastic  life,  firom 
is  childhood.  His  parents  sent  him  to 
Rome  to  study,  but  his  ^ntle,  reserved, 
and  modest  temper,  caused  him  to  be  disgust- 
ed with  the  vices  and  temfitations  he  found 
there,  and  he  fled  to  the  desert  of  Subiaco, 
between  Tivoli  and  Sora,  where  he  commenced 
an  eremitical  life.  After  a  time,  he  could  no 
longer  conceal  himself  or  hinder  a  great  num- 
ber of  persons  from  resorting  to  him,  attracted 
by  his  sanctity  and  wisdom.  He  finally  built  a 
monastery  on  Mount  Cassino,  where  there  had 
formerly  been  a  temple  of  Apollo.  Here  he 
laid  the  foundation  of  the  Benedictine  order, 
and  presided  as  abbot  during  14  years.  There 
is  still  an  extensixe  monastery  on  Mount  Cas- 
sino, which  is  a  favorite  place  of  pilgrimage. 

BENEDICT,  Juuus,  a  German  composer, 
bom  at  Stuttgart,  Dea  24,  1804,  of  a  Jewish 
family.  Having  shown  an  unusual  talent  for 
music,  he  was  placed,  while  a  boy,  under  the 
tuition  of  Hummel,  with  whom  he  made  rapid 
progress.  In  1820  he  was  so  fortunate  as  to 
attract  the  notice  of  Carl  Maria  von  Weber, 
who,  contrary  to  his  usual  practice,  willingly  re- 
ceived him  as  a  pupil  into  his  house  at  Dresden, 
where  he  remained  until  the  end  of  1824  in  the 
most  intimate  and  affectionate  relations  with 
his  illustrious  master.  At  20  years  of  age,  on 
the  recommendation  of  Weber,  he  was  engaged 
to  conduct  the  Grerman  operas  at  Vienna, 
whence,  in  1825,  he  went  to  Naples  to  become 
musical  director  of  the  theatres  San  Carlo  and 
Fondo.  He  remained  here  for  nearly  10  years, 
and  produced,  among  other  works,  ^  Giaoenta 
ed  Ernesto,"  "  I  Portoghesi  in  Goa,"  and  "  Un 
Anno  ed  un  Giomo,"  which  were  too  German 
in  style  to  please  an  Italian  public,  although 


120 


BENEDIOT-BEDERN 


BENEDIOTINE  OBDEB 


some  of  them  were  sabeeqaently  performed  in 
Germany  and  England  wiui  great  success.  In 
1836,  in  accordance  with  a  long-cherished  de- 
sire, he  visited  England,  where  his  reception 
was  so  flattering  that  he  has  continued  to  reside 
there  ever  since.  After  filling  the  position  of 
musical  director  at  the  Lyceum  theatre,  in  Lon- 
don, for  2  years,  he  turned  his  attention  to  the 
English  musical  stage,  and  in  1838  produced 
the  "  Gypsv's  Warning,"  in  1844  the  "  Brides 
of  Venice,"  and  a  year  or  two  afterward, 
the  "  Crusaders,"  all  of  which  were  quite  suc- 
cessful. In  1850,  he  accompanied  Jenny  Lind 
on  her  musical  tour  through  the  United  States, 
as  director  of  her  ooncerts,  of  which  the  or- 
chestra, drilled  and  conducted  hy  him,  was  al- 
ways a  marked  feature.  Since  his  return  to 
Europe  he  has  resided  generally  in  London,  and 
is  frequently  before  the  public  as  director  of 
some  one  of  the  great  musical  festivals  which 
annually  take  place  in  various  parts  of  England. 
Beside  the  works  mentioned,  Benedict  has  com- 
posed much  music  for  the  piano-forte,  on  which 
he  is  an  admirable  performer,  and  a  number  of 
orchestral  and  vocal  pieces.  His  music  is  spirit- 
ed, dramatic,  and  melodious,  and  so  completely 
has  he  assimilated  his  style  to  English  tastes, 
that  he  is  considered  more  national  than  many 
native  composers. 

BENEDIOT-BEUERN,  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
in  the  cirde  of  upper  Bavaria,  noted  for  hav- 
ing once  contained  a  Benedictine  abbey,  found- 
ed in  740.  It  has  glass  works  of  some  celebrity, 
and  quarries  of  marble.  The  village  is  situated 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  offshoots  of  the 
mountains  of  the  Tyrol,  one  of  whose  summits, 
not  far  from  the  village,  has  an  altitude  of  more 
than  6,000  feet. 

BEl^TEDIOTINE  ORDER,  the  most  ancient 
and  widely  spread  religious  order  of  tJie  west- 
em  church,  founded  by  St.  Benedict  The 
monastic  institution,  which  originated  in  the 
East,  had  taken  root  also  in  the  West  before 
the  time  of  St  Benedict,  chiefly  through  the 
influence  of  St.  Athanasius^and  other  prelates, 
who  were  either  orientals  or  had  visited  the 
oriental  monasteries;  and  iJso  through  the 
profound  impression  created  by  the  life  of  St. 
Anthony.  It  was  necessary,  however,  to  modify 
very  much  the  customs  of  the  eastern  ancho- 
rets^ and  to  adapt  the  monastic  rule  to  the  char- 
acter and  habits  of  the  people  of  the  West,  and 
also  to  their  different  climate.  It  was  also  requi- 
site to  introduce  some  regularity,  and  a  fixed 
system  of  government,  among  the  separate  and 
disconnected  religious  communities.  The  rule 
of  St  Benedict  was  accordingly  drawn  up  by 
him,  and  generally  adopted.  His  order  spread 
rapidly  and  widely  throughout  western  Chris- 
tendom, and  in  its  most  flourishing  period  num- 
bered 37,000  abbeys.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  there  were  in  England  28  mitred  abbots 
and  1  prior  of  the  Benedictine  order,  who  were 
peers  of  the  realm,  and  sat  in  the  house  of  lords. 
tVom  this  order  have  proceeded  24  popes,  15,000 
bishops,  and  40,000  canonized  or  beatmed  sunts, 


amonff  whom  are  some  of  the  most  illnstrioiis 
men  that  adorn  the  annals  of  the  church,  as,  for 
example,  St.  John  of  Damascus  and  St.  Bernard. 
It  has  had  also  among  its  members  many  impe- 
rial and  royal  princes,  nobles,  statesmen,  and 
eminent  warriors,  who  have  retired  from  the 
world  to  the  shadow  of  its  peaceful  walls.  The 
rules  of  the  Benedictine  order  are  very  few  and 
simple,  giving  it  a  great  flexibility,  and  power 
of  adaptation  to  different  countries  and  timea. 
Hence  we  see  it  undergoing  very  great  changes 
and  modiflcations,  and  shootin^^  out  many 
branches  from  its  parent  trunk.  From  the  be- 
ginning, the  Benedictines  devoted  themselves 
very  much  to  sacred  science:  and  from  an  early 
period  they  also  commenced  a  zealous  cultiva- 
tion of  every  branch  of  human  learning  and  the 
flne  arts.  With  these  intellectual  pursuits  they 
united  those  of  agriculture  and  gardening.  This 
cultivation  of  science  caused  the  custom  to  be 
early  introduced  of  ordaining  the  Benedictine 
monks  to  the  priesthood,  contraiy  to  the  pre- 
vious usage.  For  several  centuries  they  were 
also  the  principal  teachers  of  youth  in  aU  the 
branches  of  education,  from  the  lowest  to  the 
highest,  and  possessed  a  vast  number  of  colleges 
and  schools.  To  their  care  and  laborious  copy- 
ing of  MSS.,  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  pre- 
servation and  transmission  of  the  entire  body  of 
classical  and  other  ancient  learning  through  the 
dark  ages.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  things, 
the  order  became  very  rich  and  powerful,  and 
following  the  general  law  of  human  institutions, 
fell  to  a  considerable  extent  into  a  state  of  deca- 
dence from  its  primitive  ideal.  We  therefore 
find,  from  the  9tn  century  downward,  very  fi-e- 
quent  and  stringent  measures  of  reformation 
adopted  by  popes,  councils,  and  prelates,  and, 
to  a  considerable  extent,  accepted  and  .carried 
out  within  the  bosom  of  the  order.  Reformers 
also  sprung  up  within  the  bosom  of  the  order 
itself,  and  new  Benedictine  families  were  formed 
on  the  basis  of  the  ancient  rule  and  discipline. 
One  of  these  reformers  was  St.  Benedict  of  Ani- 
ani,  called  **  the  second  Benedict,"  who  died 
821.  The  principal  branches  of  the  great  Bene- 
dictine family  which  have  sprung  up  in  the 
course  of  ages,  are,  the  Clunians,  Cistercians, 
Camaldolese,  Vallombrosians,  Grammontensi- 
ans,  Carthusians,  Fontevraudians,  Bernardines, 
Guubertines,  Humiliati,  CoBlestines,  Feuillants, 
Trappists,  Olivetans,  and  Benedictines  of  St 
Maur.  The  latter  are  well  known  for  their 
learned  and  magnificent  edition  of  the  fathers. 
— ^The  number  of  Benedictine  monks  of  the 
original  stem,  at  the  present  time,  is  es- 
timated at  1,600,  and  their  chief  seat  is  Monte 
Cassino.  There  is  a  large  Benedictine  commu- 
nity at  Youngstown,  In  Pennsylvania,  which  is 
rapidly  increasing,  and  has  already  sent  out  sev- 
eral smaller  colonies.  There  are  also  two  Trap- 
pist  monasteries  in  the  United  States,  one  in 
kentudcy,  the  other  in  Iowa,  each  governed  by 
a  mitred  abbot  The  Trappists  and  Carthu- 
sians are  the  severest  of  all  the  Latin  religions 
orders,  and  still   preserve   all   their  original 


BENEDICTION 


BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY 


121 


Btriotfi«S8  and  rigor.— BsNXDicTi2rs  Nuns  have 
existed  from  an  early  period,  and  daim 
St.  Scholastica,  sister  of  St  Benedict^  as  their 
fonndress,  with  great  probability,  although 
'  some  dispute  the  existence  of  female  con-- 
veaia  under  the  Benedictine  rule  during 
the  lifetime  of  St.  Benedict.  They  have  been 
widely  spread  in  former  times,  and  have 
u^ei^gone  the  same  changes  and  revolutions 
as  their  parent  order.  At  one  time  there  were 
many  convents  into  which  only  noble  ladies 
were  admitted,  and  these  became  so  far  secnlar- 
ieed  that  they  even  ceased  to  take  any  vows, 
and  left  the  order,  and  even  married  whenever 
they  chose.  Every  reformed  congregation  of 
Benedictine  monks  usually  had  also  female  con- 
vents under  its  direction,  which  adopted  a  sim- 
ilar discipline.  Two  remarkable  reformations 
^rung  up  in  the  female  order  itself  one  under 
the  direction  of  the  high-bom  and  saintly  ab- 
bess, Antoinette  of  Orleans,  who  founded  the 
congregation  of  Our  Blessed  Lady  of  Mount 
Calvary,  in  the  17th  century ;  the  other  in  the 
same  century,  under  the  abbess  Mechtilitls, 
who  founded  the  congregation  of  the  Perpetual 
Adoration. 

BENEDICTION,  the  act  of  blesring,  of  wish- 
ing to  a  person  or  ^ing  the  grace  of  Grod.  It 
has  always  existed  as  a  custom  among  Jews  and 
Christians.  The  Jewish  priests  bestowed  bene- 
dictions upon  the  people  when  they  remained 
obedient  to  the  law,  and  maledictions  when 
they  neglected  it.  The  patriarchs,  when  near 
their  death,  invoked  blessings  upon  their  chil- 
dren and  family,  and  at  the  same  time  pointed 
out  the  son  who  should  succeed  as  head  of  the 
family  and  tribe.  The  children  of  Israel  hav- 
ing arrived  in  the  promised  land,  were  assem- 
bled between  the  mountains  of  Ebal  and  Geri- 
zim,  and  from  the  summit  of  Gerizim  benedic- 
tions were  pronounced  upon  those  who  should 
observe  the  duties  of  religion;  and  from  the 
top  of  Ebal,  maledictions  upon  those  who 
should  violate  them. — In  the  Roman  Catholio 
church,  benedictions  are  of  several  kinds,  and 
are  performed  either  by  sprinkling  holy  wa- 
ter, by  signs  of  tibe  cross,  or  by  appropriate 
prayers.  Some  are  bestowed  upon  persons  en- 
dowed with  authority,  or  devoted  to  certain  es- 
tates, as  kings,  queens,  abbots,  abbesses,  virgins, 
knights;  others  npon  objects  used  in  worship, 
as  vases,  linens,  ornaments,  churches,  cemeter- 
ies, water,  oil ;  others  upon  objects  of  eminent 
use  to  men,  as  houses,  ships,  the  sea,  rivers,  rail- 
roads, fire-arms,  the  nuptial  ring,  gardens,  foun- 
tains, flocks,  and  fruits  of  the  earth ;  and  others, 
hj  the  superior  ecclesiastics,  upon  Christian 
people.  Three  times  a  year,  from  the  balcony 
m  front  of  St.  Peter's,  the  pope  solemnly 
gives  his  benediction,  urhi  et  arht,  to  Borne  and 
to  tbe  world.  The  benediction  of  the  Blessed 
Sacrament  is  one  of  the  most  solemn  functions 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  The  conse- 
crated host  is  exposed  on  an  elevated  throne 
above  tbe  altar,  being  placed  in  an  ostenso- 
rium  for  that  purpose.    Many  lights  are  burn- 


ing, incense  is  offered,  hymns  and  prayers  are 
sung,  and  finally,  the  priest  blesses  the  people^ 
by  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  over  them  with 
the  ostensorium.  This  ceremony  is  specially 
prescribed  in  Corpus  Christi,  but  is  used  now 
very  f^equentiy  in  other  festivals,  and  in  many 
churches  every  Sunday  after  vespers. — In  Prot- 
estant churches,  the  benediction  is  usually  giv- 
en in  words  similar  to  those  prescribed  by  Moses 
to  Aaron.  It  is  often  accompanied  with  laying 
on  of  hands,  especially  in  the  celebration  of  mar- 
riages, the  ordination  of  pastors,  the  confirma- 
tion of  converts,  and  the  baptism  of  children. 

BENEFICE  (Lat.  leneficium),  an  ecclesias- 
tical living,  originally  including  every  species 
of  preferment,  as  well  those  to  which  dig- 
nities and  ofifices  were  attached,  viz.,  bbhop- 
rics,  deaconries,  and  prebends,  as  the  lesser 
sort,  viz.,  rectories,  vicarages,  perpetual  cura- 
cies, and  endowed  chaplainries;  but  in  its  pop- 
idar  acceptation  it  includes  only  the  latter 
clasi,  and  the  distinction  is  recognized  in  recent 
acts  of  parliament.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  henellcium  of  the  Romans,  which  was  a 
grant  of  an  estate,  privilege,  or  endowment  of 
any  kind  to  a  subject  by  the  sovereign.  It 
was  afterward  the  designation  of  a  grant  of 
land  by  any  large  proprietor  to  a  retainer  or 
follower  as  a  reward  of  services,  being  the 
same  tiiat  later  was  denominated  a  fief  or  fee, 
the  essential  incident  of  which  was  perpe- 
tuity, that  is  to  say,  it  was  a  permanent 
stipendiary  estate  held  of  a  superior,  and  usu- 
ally subject  to  some  condition  indicating  vas- 
salage. Tbe  principle  of  the  feudal  tenure 
was  applied,  in  the  middle  ages,  to  ecclesiastical 
benefices  to  this  extent,  that  they  were  held  of 
the  pope,  as  a  superior  lord,  though  these  bene- 
fices had  not  the  hereditary  character  of  a  fee,  so 
far  as  respected  the  office  or  dignity  connected 
therewith,  and  tbe  lands  or  emolument  con- 
ferred by  a  grant  were  usually  attached  to  such 
office  or  dignity,  and  on  the  death  of  the  in- 
cumbeot,  reverted'to  the  ecclesiastical  superior 
who  was  entitled  to  appoint  a  successor.  This, 
at  all  events,  was  tbe  daim  of  the  popes, 
though  it  was  the  subject  of  contest  between 
them  and  the  principal  European  sovereigna 
When  the  term  came  to  be  applied  to  ecclesi- 
astical grants,  it  was  gradually  disused  in  re- 
spect  to  all  others,  and  the  fadum,  fee,  was 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY,  in  English  criminal 
law,  ihQ  privilegium  clerieale,  exemption  of  the 
dergy  from  penalties  imposed  by  law  for  cer- 
tain crimes.  This  privilege  no  longer  exists, 
but  it  was  for  many  centuries  an  important 
element  in  the  administration  of  criminal  law, 
and  stiU  is  a  curious  and  instructive  part  of  the 
history  of  England.  The  origin  of  this  priv- 
ilege was  a  daim  made  by  the  ecclesiastics  at 
an  early  period  for  the  entire  exemption  of 
their  order  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  com- 
mon law  courts.  Before  the  Norman  conquest, 
in  the  county  courts,  where  the  greater  part 
of  the  civil  business  of  the  kingdom  was  trans* 


122 


BENEFIT  OF  0LEE6T 


acted,  the  bishop  of  the  diocese  presided  with 
Uie  sberi^  thus  uniting  civil  and  ecclesiastical 
authority,  but  the  foreign  clergy  who  came 
over  with  the  Normans,  and  were  installed  in 
the  chief  preferments  of  the  English  church, 
obtained  from  William  the  Conqueror  a  separa- 
tion of  ecdesiastioal  courts  from  the  civiL  In 
the  reign  of  Stephen,  a  still  further  innovation 
was  made  by  givmg  sole  jurisdiction  to  the 
bishop  over  ecclesiastical  persons  and  causes. 
This  gave  rise  to  the  contest  between  spiritual 
and  temporal  courts,  and  the  breach  was  con- 
tinually widened  by  jealonsv  of  the  Catholic 
dergy.  The  daim  of  exdnsive  jurisdiction 
was  not  successfully  maintained,  except  in 
respect  to  ecclesiastical  causes,  but  by  various 
statutes  and  the  popular  regard  for  the  church, 
which  imposed  some  check  upon  the  most  ar- 
bitrary monarchs,  the  persons  of  the  clergy 
were  exempted  from  penalties  for  certain 
crimes;  but  though  there  was  a  constant  strug- 
gle on  the  part  of  the  dergy  to  assert  this  ex- 
emption on  the  ground  that  the  clergy  were 
amenable  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  it 
was  as  steadUy  resisted  by  the  common  law 
courts,  and  the  privilege  was  allowed  only  in 
the  cases  specifically  provided  for  by  common 
law  or  statute.  It  is  not  easy  in  the  conflict 
of  Jurisdiction,  and  the  varying  legislation  of 
parliament,  to  determine  how  &r  the  exemp- 
tion existed  by  common  law  and  how  far  it 
was  enacted  by  statute.  It  did  not  extend  to 
all  crimes ;  and  the  distinction  made  can  hardly 
be  explained  upon  principle,  but  seems  to  have 
been  in  some  degree  arbitrary,  or,  perhaps,  a 
compromise.  Thus  it  was  not  allowed  in  high 
treason,  nor  in'  petit  larceny,  nor  any  mere  mis- 
demeanor (by  which  was  meant  petty  crimes  less 
than  felony),  and  was,  as  a  general  rule,  allowable 
only  in  capital  felonies,  but  not  all  even  of  that 
class.  The  exemption  was  mainly  founded  on 
statute  25  Edward  III.,  by  which  it  was  pro- 
vided that  clerks  convicted  for  treason  or 
fdonies  touching  other  persons  than  the  king 
himself  should  have  the  privilege  of  holy 
church.  By  the  common  law,  benefit  of  clergy 
was  denied  in  8  kinds  of  felony^  viz. :  l^ing  in 
widt  for  one  on  the  highway  (irmdiatio  ttarumX 
rava^ng  a  country  (depopulatio  agrarum),  and 
burning  of  houses  lc<mbu»tio  domorum) ;  and 
in  all  these  cases,  even  after  the  statute  above 
mentioned,  the  privilege  continued  to  be  de- 
nied. From  time  to  time  it  was  enacted  after- 
ward, in  various  statutes,  that  certain  crimes 
should  be  without  benefit  of  clergy,  as  murder, 
rape,  burglary,  larceny  from  the  person,  or  from 
a  dwelling  house,  any  one  being  therein,  and 
many  other  offences.  As  to  the  persons  enti- 
tied  to  benefit  of  clergy,  it  was  originally  lim- 
ited to  such  as  had  tiie  hahitum  et  tarouram 
elerUalem^  that  is,  the  regular  clergy ;  but  the 
daim  being  made  in  behalf  of  the  retainers  of 
ecclesiastics,  and  other  laymen,  who  were  not 
entitied  to  it,  a  test  was  adopted  that  only 
such  as  could  read  should  be  allowed  the  priv- 
ilege.   But|  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YII.,  it  waa 


found  that  as  many  laymen  as  divines  bad  by 
this  test  an  exemption,  and  a  law  was  then 
passed  making  a  distinction  between  lay 
Bcholars  and  euch  as  were  in  orders.  The 
former  were  to  be  admitted  but  once  to  the 
benefit  of  dei^,  and  were  to  be  subjected  to 
a  slight  punishment,  as  burning  in  the  hand, 
or  perhiq>s  this  waa  merdy  intended  as  a  per- 
manent mark  of  having  once  had  the  benefit 
of  clergy,  so  tiiat  the  person  should  not  be  ad- 
mitted to  claim  it  again.  The  distinction  was 
abolished  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YIIL,  but  re- 
vived again  by  statute  1  Edward  YI.,  by 
which  it  was  also  enacted  that  peers  having  a 
place  in  parliament  should  have  tiie  benefit  of 
peerage,  equivalent  to  that  of  clergy,  for  tl^ 
first  offence,  although  they  could  not  read,  and 
without  being  burnt  in  the  hand,  for  dl  offenoes 
then  dergyable  to  commoners,  and  also  for  the 
crimes  ot  housebreaking,  highway  robbery, 
horse-stealing,  and  robbing  of  churdies— « 
significant  intimation  of  the  state  of  morals 
among  the  bluest  nobility  in  that  era.  In 
the  duchess  of  Kin^ton^s  case,  it  was  hdd  that 
peeresses  were  entitied  to  the  benefit  of  the 
statute.  The  ordinary  course  when  a  daim 
was  made  to  benefit  of  dergy  was,  after  bum- . 
ing  in  the  case  of  the  laity,  and  without  it  in 
case  of  the  dergy,  to  deliver  the  pristHier  over 
to  the  bishop  to  be  dedt  with  according  to  the 
canon  law.  Then  followed  a  pur^ntion,  as  it 
was  called,  that  ia  to  say,  the  offender  waa 
called  before  the  bishop  and  required  to  make 
oath  of  his  innocence^  which  was  to  be  main- 
tained by  the  oaths  of  12  witnesses,  called 
compurgators,  that  they  believed  him,  upon 
which  he  was  acquitted.  This  was  the  generd 
result  The  scandalous  peijury  and  prostitu- 
tion of  the  forms  of  legal  proceedings  exhibited 
in  this  mode  purgation,  induced  the  temporal 
courts  to  avoid  it  altogether,  by  delivering  over 
the  convicted  derk  absque  purgcUumefaeitnda 
— ^the  effect  of  which  was  that  he  could  not 
be  relieved  from  other  legd  consequences  of 
lus  crime,  except  the  punishment  of  death. 
It  was  in  consequence  enacted  by  18  Elizabeth, 
that  tiie  offender  should  be  ddivered  out  of 
prison  with  a  proviso  that  he  might,  in  the  dxsr 
cretion  of  the  judge,  be  kept  in  gaol  a  year. 
Thus  the  law  continued  for  a  long  period  with- 
out dteration,  except  the  extension  to  all  com- 
moners not  in  ordera,  of  the  benefit  of  clergy  in 
dergyable  offences,  subject,  however,  to  being 
burned  in  tiie  hand  and  imprisoned  for  a  year. 
All  these  provisions  of  law  still  required,  as  the 
condition  of  exemption,  that  the  person  daim- 
ing  exemption  should  be  able  to  read,  so  that 
those  who  could  not  read  (except  peers)  were 
hanged,  to  remedy  which  unequal  severity  it 
was  enacted  by  5  Anne  that  the  benefit  of 
clergy  should  be  granted  to  all  who  were  enti- 
tled to  ask  it  without  requiring  them  to  read. 
Findly,  by  statutes  7  and  8  George  IV.,  which 
is  a  revision  of  all  the  previous  acts  rdatiog  to 
crimes,  the  benefit  of  clergy  was  entirely 
abolished.    In  the  United  States  this  privilege 


BENEEE 


BENEZET 


128 


has  nerer  been  veoognized  as  existing.  There 
is  a  single  statute  (act  of  congress,  April  80, 
1T90),  in  ^hioh  it  is  proYided  that  benefit  of 
^ergj  shall  not  be  aUovred  for  any  offences 
pfoniahable  by  death. 

BENEEE,  Fkisdbioh  Edvabd,  a  German 
nhilosopfaer,  bom  in  Berlin,  Feb.  17,  1706, 
ibimd,  after  a  loog  disappearance,  drowned  in 
a  canal  at  Oharlottenbnrg,  Jane  4, 1866.  After 
serring  as  a  yolunteer  in  the  campaign  of  1815, 
he  stndied  theology  and  philosophy  at  Halle 
and  Berlin,  giving  special  attention  to  the  Eng- 
fish  plulosophers.  In  1820  he  lectured  in  the 
mdyeiBity  of  Berlin  as  a  piiTate  teacher,  but 
the  continuance  of  his  lectm«s  was  forbidden  in 
1822,  on  aocoont  of  his  departure  from  the  phil- 
oeophical  principles  of  Hegel.  He  then  tanght 
for  a  few  years  in  Gottingen,  but,  retaming  to 
Berlin  in  1827,  he  then  received  permission  to 
leetmre  in  the  nniversity,  in  which  he  was  elect- 
ed eztraordiDary  professor  of  philosophy  aft;er 
HegeVs  jieath,  in  1882.  The  starting  point  of 
his  system  is,  that  philosophy  mnst  be  founded 

Xn  a  strict  and  careful  examination  of  the 
nomena  of  conscionsneas.  He  thns  adopts, 
in  mental  philosophy,  the  method  observed  by 
Baoon  in  the  natmral  sdences,  and  his  system  is 
described  as  an  empirical  psychology. 
.  BENEYENTE,  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil, 
province  of  Espirito  Santo,  47  miles  8.  of  Yic- 
toria.  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Benevente,  on 
the  Atlantic. 

BENEVENTO,  a  city  of  southern  Italy; 
pop.  16,800 ;  capital  of  the  Roman  delegation  of 
Benevento.  It  is  situated  82  miles  K  E.  of 
Nicies,  on  elevated  ground,  near  the  confluence 
of  the  Galore  and  Sabbato,  and  is  built  of  the 
ruins  of  an  ancient  town,  of  which  it  occupies 
the  site.  It  abounds  in  remains  of  antiquity. 
It  has  the  arch  of  Trajan,  now  called  the 
Golden  Gate.  This  city,  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  immediately  after  the  Trojan 
war,  was  conquered  by  the  Romans  in  269  B.  0., 
wlio.  having  just  defeated  King  Pyrrhus  be- 
neatn  its  wdls,  gave  to  it  the  name  of  Benevet^ 
tumy  or  fortunate  event.  It  belonged  for  a  time 
to  the  Byzantine  empire,  but  was  taken  by  the 
Goth  Totiia  in  545,  and  by  the  Lombards  in  589, 
under  whom  it  became  the  capital  of  a  duchy. 
After  the  £Bdl  of  the  Lombard  kingdom,  it  recov- 
ered its  independence,  but  suffered  many  attacks 
from  the  Saracens,  and  was  ci^tured  by  the  Nor- 
man chief,  Robert  Guiscard,  in  1077,  who  trans- 
ferr^  it  to  the  pope.  Four  councils  of  the  church 
were  held  here  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries. 
In  1800,  Napoleon  instituted  it  a  principality  for 
Talleyrand.  It  was  restored  to  the  pope  in  1815. 
In  1266,  near  Benevento,  was  wagea  the  battle  in 
which  Charlesof  Anjon  defeatedHanfred,  king  of 
Naples.  The  delegation  of  Benevento  contidns 
ao  area  of  90  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  20,500. 
BENEVOLENOE,  a  system  of  loan  to  the 
crown  without  the  sanction  of  parliament  prac- 
tised by  several  British  monarcbs,  in  defiance 
of  Magna  Oharta.  Hemy  YIL  levied  it  success- 
fully.   £Ii28beth  tried  it^  but  wisely  withdrew 


from  the  contest  with  her  subjects.  James  I. 
raised  the  doctrine  of  prerogative  to  a  higher 
pitch  than  had  ever  been  tried,  and  Oharles  I., 
oy  hlB  royal  exactions,  dispensii^^  with  the  power 
of  the  parliament,  and  by  imprisoning  the  recu- 
sants, brought  upon  himself  all  the  calamities  of 
his  life.  The  petition  of  right  disclaimed  the 
king's  authority  to  levy  taxes  without  the  con- 
sent of  parliament,  and  the  bill  of  rights,  in 
1688,  renewed  its  provisions,  and  placed  the 
power  of  the  purse  in  the  hands  of  parliament. 
BENEZET,  Anthony,  an  American  philan- 
thropist, a  native  of  France,  bom  at  St.  Quen- 
tin,  in  the  province  of  Picardy,  Jan.  81,  1718, 
died  in  Philadelphia,  May  5, 1784.  He  was  of 
a  wealthy  and  noble  Protestant  familv,  which 
fled  from  France  to  Holland,  and  thence  to 
England,  in  1715,  after  the  revocation  of  the 
edict  of  Nantes.  In  London  the  £unily  adopted 
the  religious  opinions  of  the  Quakers,  and  they 
removed  from  that  city  to  America  in  1731. 
Tonng  Anthony  was  placed  bv  lus  parents  iu  a 
counting-house,  but  nnding  that  commerce  of- 
fered temptations  to  a  worldly  spirit,  he  left  his 
mastw,  and  bound  himself  as  an  apprentice  to  a 
cooper,  finding  this  business  too  laborious  for 
him,  he  declined  it,  and,  in  1742,  accepted  the  ap- 
pointment of  instructor  in  the  Friends*  English 
school,  of  Philadelphia.  The  employment  of  a 
teacher  of  youth  accorded  with  his  mdination, 
and  he  cheerfully  devoted  to  it  the  greatest  part 
of  his  life.  "  Few  men,*'  says  Dr.  Bush,  "^  since 
the  days  of  the  aposties,  ever  Mved  a  more  dis- 
interested life.*'  One  of  the  first  objects  of  his  en- 
thusiastic philanthropy  was  Uie  abolition  of  the 
slave-trade,  and  the  emandpation  and  education 
of  the  negroes.  To  this  end  he  opened  an  even- 
iuff  school  in  Philadelphia  for  the  negro  popu- 
lation, and  publishea  several  valuable  tracts. 
His  style  was  forcible  and  fervid,  and  he  dis- 
tributed his  works  at  his  own  expense  through- 
out every  part  of  the  United  States,  and  sent 
letters  durecUy  to  the  queen  of  Great  Britain 
and  the  aueen  of  Portugal^  begging  them  to  use 
their  influence  to  aboUsh  the  ^rican  trade. 
He  was  interested,  also,  in  behalf  of  the  abori- 
g^es  of  America,  and  urged  the  adoption  of 
measures  for  their  civilization  and  Ghristianiza- 
tion.  During  the  terrific  campaigns  of  Frederic 
the  Great,  of  Prussia,  he  wrote  a  letter  to  that 
monarch,  in  which  he  endeavored  to  convince 
him  of  tbe  unlawfulness  of  war.  While  the 
British  army  was  in  possession  of  the  city  of 
Philadelphia  he  was  indefatigable  in  his  efforts 
to  relieve  sufferings,  and  his  courage  and  gen- 
tieness  secured  the  dvilities  and  respect  of  the 
British  and  German  ofiicers,  even  when  they 
were  unable  to  grant  his  requests.  So  great 
was  his  sjrmpathy  with  every  thing  that  was 
capable  of  feeling  pidn  that  he  resolved,  toward 
the  close  of  his  lire,  to  eat  no  animal  food,  and 
this  misapplication  of  a  moral  feeling  was,  prob- 
ably, the  cause  of  the  disease  of  which  he 
died.  He  resigned  his  school  2  years  before  his 
death,  in  order  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  the 
instruction  of  the  blacks,  and,  after  the  death 


124 


BENGAL 


of  his  widow,  he  bequeathed  his  entire  estate 
for  the  support  of  a  school  for  the  education  of 
negro  children.  His' funeral  was  attended  hy 
persons  of  all  religious  denominations,  among 
whom  were  several  hundred  negroes.  The 
worth  of  Benezet's  writings  is  alluded  to 
by  the  British  philanthropist,  Olarkson^  who 
confesses  that  one  of  them  enlightened  his  own 
mind  and  quickened  his  ceal  in  the  earljpart  of 
his  life.  The  character,  at  once  acute  and  be- 
nevolent, of  Benezet,  is  revealed  in  his  remark- 
able saying,  that  **  it  is  the  highest  act  of  chari- 
ty to  bear  with  the  unreasonableness  of  man- 
kind." 

BENGAL,  one  of  the  8  presidencies  of  Brit- 
ish India,  and  the  most  important  division  of 
Hindostan.  In  1854,  excluding  the  possesions 
of  the  native  princes,  the  presidency  was  esti- 
mated to  contain  226,000  sq.  m.,  lying  between 
lat.  lO""  and  28""  N.,  and  long.  88^  and  OO*"  K 
Since  then  large  accessions  of  territory  have 
been  made,  one  of  the  latest  of  which  is  derived 
from  the  mediatization  of  the  king  of  Oude. — 
The  province  of  Bengal,  lying  almost  entirely 
within  the  tropics,  is  subjected  to  great  ex- 
tremes of  heat,  the  climate  having  proved  more 
dangerous  to  Europeans  than  almost  any  other 
in  British  India.  Sanatoriums  have,  however, 
been  established  among  the  mountiun  regions 
of  northern  India,  to  which  invalids  are  accus- 
tomed to  retire  and  enjoy  the  bracing  airs 
which  there  visit  them,  as  in  a  temperate 
zone.  Many  years  ago,  Calcutta,  situated  in 
the  south-eastern  quarter  of  Bengal,  was  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  unhealthy  spots  on  the 
globe,  but,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  temperate 
and  regular  mode  of  living,  and  better  knowl- 
edge of  the  diseases  of  the  country,  have  been 
introduced,  while,  by  the  draining  of  marshes, 
cutting  of  canals,  clearing  the  grounds  of  trees 
and  jungle,  the  climate  has  been  greatly  im- 

S roved.  The  seasons  in  Bengal  are  commonly 
ivided  into  the  hot,  cold,  and  rainy,  the  hot 
season  setting  in  in  March  and  continuing  to  the 
end  of  May,  when  the  weather  becomes  nearly 
intolerable,  even  to  the  native.  The  thermom- 
eter frequently  rises  to  100**,  and  even  to  llO*' 
F.  Duriog  this  period  the  troops  are  not  em- 
ployed on  active  service  if  it  can  be  avoided, 
and  it  is  often  found  among  those  merely  stand- 
ing on  guard  that  their  <&esses  are  ^pping 
wet  with  perspiration  at  midnight  In  the 
middle  parts  of  Bengal  this  terrific  heat  is  miti- 
gated by  occasional  thunder  storms,  witii  rain 
and  hail,  but  in  the  districts  contiguous  to  Ba- 
har  a  scorching  west  wind  blows  during  the 
whole  season.  The  rainy  season  begins  in  June 
and  lasts  4  months.  The  rain  is  heavy  and 
constant ;  as  much  as  5  inches  has  sometimes 
fallen  in  one  day,  and  during  the  last  2  months 
alternate  fogs  and  rains  prevail,  rendering  the 
state  of  the  atmosphere  indescribably  un^eas- 
ant.  The  setting  in  of  the  S.  W.  monsoon, 
about  the  beginning  of  June,  is  accompanied  by 
awful  thunder  and  lightning.  The  cold  season, 
from  November  to  the  latter  part  of  February, 


Is  pleasant,  the  l^iermometer  often  slnkiog  as 
low  as  70**  F. — ^The  general  aspect  of  Bengal  is 
that  of  a  level  country,  intersected  by  numer- 
ous rivers  and  encompassed  by  lofty  ranges  of 
mountains.  That  part  of  the  Delta  watered  by 
the  Ganges  as  it  approaches  the  sea  is  a  perfect 
labyrinth  of  creeks  and  rivers,  of  jungle  and 
stagnant  waters,  called  the  Sunderbunds,  a  r^ 
gion  infested  with  tigers,  and  producing  inex- 
haustible supplies  of  timber.  At  the  annual 
inundation  this  region  presents  the  appearance 
of  a  vast  inland  sea,  when  a  curious  spectacle  is 
displayed  to  the  stranger,  of  fields  for  hundreds 
of  miles  covered  with  water,  the  rice  rieing 
above  it,  the  enormous  dikes  built  to  restrain 
the  floods,  and  the  boats  floating  in  immense 
numbers.  This  region,  lying  between  the  rivers 
Hoogly  and  Ohittagong,  abounds  in  quantities 
of  salt  sufiScient  for  the  entire  wants  of  Bea- 
gal.  Into  these  Sunderbunds  the  waters  of  the 
2  mighty  rivers,  the  Ganges  and  the  Bramapoot- 
ra,  meeting,  pour  their  streams,  after  traversing 
Bengal  in  opposite  directions,  from  points  1,200 
miles  asunder.  Many  navigable  streams  pour 
into  these  rivers,  affording  the  most  ample  inter- 
nal communication. — ^The  soil  of  Bengal  in  gen- 
eral is  a  mixture  of  day  with  sand,  fertilized  by 
various  salts  and  an  inmiense  quantity  of  decayed 
animal  and  vegetable  substances.  It  is  a  rich 
black  mould,  very  deep,  and  loose  in  its  texture, 
bearing  incontestable  proof  of  a  country  redeem- 
ed from  the  sea,  as  the  bed  of  sand  on  which  it 
lies  contains  shells^  and  freauently  pieces  of  rot- 
ten wood.  Even  boats  and  anchors,  buried  at 
some  remote  period,  have  been  found.  The 
whole  of  die  soil  of  Bengal  is  characterized  by 
amazing  fertility,  and  this  quality,  in  no  little 
degree,  is  owing  to  the  annual  inundation  of 
the  Ganges  and  other  great  rivers.  The  lands 
are  very  easily  cultivated,  and  yield  prolific 
crops  without  any  manuring  beyond  that  depos- 
ited by  the  inundation.  The  principal  crop  is 
rice,  but  very  good  wheat  and  barley  are  grown, 
and  various  kinds  of  pulse  are  raised  in  great 
abundance,  such  as  peas,  kidney  beans,  &o^ 
while  maize,  millet,  and  other  small  grains,  the 
food  of  the  poorer  classes,  are  generally  sown, 
especially  in  the  hill  regions  of  the  west,  and 
the  immense  and  univeraal  consumption  of  oil 
by  the  natives  causes  the  cultivation  of  mustard, 
sesamum,  linseed,  &c.,  to  be  largely  attended  to. 
Bengal  husbandry,  among  the  natives,  is  still  in 
a  very  primitive  state.  The  plough  is  a  rude 
contrivance,  drawn  by  one  pair  of  oxen,  who 
are  relieved  by  others  until  the  day's  ploughing 
is  completed.  Weeding,  after  the  crops  have 
risen  above  ground,  is  performed  by  means  of  a 
short  spade,  the  laborers  sitting  down  to  their 
task.  There  are  2  seasons  of  reaping,  one  in 
April,  called  the  little  harvest,  for  the  smaller 
grains,  and  the  great  h^ vest,  which  is  wholly 
for  the  rice,  of  whidi,  however,  there  are  3 
crops  sometimes  in  a  year.  Different  crops  are 
sometimes  sown  together  in  one  field,  which 
are  greatly  injured  by  successive  ripening  and 
gathering.    After  the  oom  of  all  kinds  is  reap- 


BENGAL 


125 


ed,  it »  piled  up  in  the  fields  vithont  any  de- 
fence from,  ihe.'weather,  until  the  husbandman 
finds  it  ccmTemen  t  to  thrash  it  out  The  grain, 
alter  -winnowing,  is  stowed  away  in  unbaked 
earthen  jare  or  baskets  of  twigs,  in  round  huts, 
with  their  floors  elevated  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  snrfBce  of  the  ground  to  exclude  the  damp- 
ness. But,  with  sdl  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and 
favors  of  the  climate,  agricultural  knowledge 
stands  at  a  very  low  point  in  Bengal,  as  in  oth- 
er parts  of  India.  No  sufficient  care  is  bestow- 
ed, either  on  the  selection  of  grain  or  the  best 
time  of  sowing.  The  implements  are  few  and 
imperfect,  the  rotation  of  crops  little  under- 
stood, no  manure  is  applied,  except  to  the  su- 
ear-cane,  mulberry,  poppy,  and  tobacco.  The 
dung  of  animals  is  not  collected,  but  used  for' 
fiieL  The  country  is  without  enclosures,  and 
the  roads  are  usually  in  wretched  order.  The 
principal  vegetable  productions,  beside  grain 
and  pulse,  are  tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  mul- 
berry, poppy,  plantains,  pumelos%r  shaddocks, 
limes,  or<uig^  pomegranates,  pineapples,  bana- 
nas, the  banian  tree,  the  cocoanut,  which  sup- 
plies a  kind  of  cordage  made  from  the  fibres 
of  its  palm,  sugar-cane,  which  thrives  exceed- 
ingly well,  the  betel  vine,  which  produces  the 
betel  pepper,  mangoes,  date  trees,  the  areca, 
See  The  potato  has  been  introduced  and 
oaltivated  with  much  success.  There  are  also 
many  kinds  of  flourishing  shrubs,  which  either 
grow  wild  or  thrive  with  very  little  care. 
The  most  important  of  the  commercial  crops 
are  those  of  tobacco,  the  opium  poppv,  sugar, 
indigo,  cotton,  and  silk.  Cofi^ee  has  also  been 
SQocesfifuUy  introduced,  and  tea  is  largely  culti- 
vated in  the  districts  of  Assam.  Immense  plan- 
tations have  been  stocked  with  tea-plants  from 
China,  and  laborers  imported  from  the  green  and 
black  tea  countries  of  the  celestial  empire.  Mr. 
Bobert  Fortune's  efforts  in  this  respect  have 
been  worthy  of  all  praise,  and  there  is  every 
leason  to  believe  that  the  cultiyation  of  tea  will 
annually  increase,  and  become  a  very  important 
item  in  the  Indian  revenue.  Tobacco  was  not 
known  in  India  until  after  the  discovery  of 
America,  but  is  now  grown  everywhere.  Sugar- 
cane, on  the  contrary,  has  been  cultivated  in 
Bengal  from  remote  antiquity,  and  there  is  tow 
scarce  a  district  in  which  it  is  not  grown ;  it  is 
cheaply  manufactured,  and  now  enters  English 
markets  on  the  same  terms  with  that  of  the 
West  Indies.  Indigo  is  a  very  important  ar- 
ticle, of  which  Bengal  supplies  about  five- 
sixths  of  the  production  of  the  whole  world. 
Gotton  is  abundantly  raised,  but  the  demand  is 

aual  to  the  supply,  and  it  cannot  at  present  at 
compare  with  the  product  of  the  American 
states.    Silk  has  been  produced  in  Bengal  for 
many  centuries,  the  knowledge  of  it  having 
doubtless  been  introduced  from  China.    The 
raw  material  was  at  first  carried  to  Europe,  into 
Greece  and  Italy,  from  India,  and  the  first  silk 
manofactories  known  in  Europe  were  estab- 
Ikbed   in  Greece,  by  the  emperor  Justinian. 
Wild  silk-worms  are  found  in  countries  border- 


on  Bengal,  firom  which  a  ooa^  species  of 
is  produced,  but  by  no  means  equal  to  that 
of  the  domesticated  insect.  The  cultivation  of 
the  poppy  is  entirely  a  government  monopoly, 
contracts  being  annually  formed  with  poppy 
growers  to  sow  certain  lands  with  the  plant, 
and  deliver  the  opium  to  the  government,  at  a 
set  price.  The  plants  are  sown  in  November, 
arriving  at  maturity  by  Feb.  2.  The  opium 
produced  in  Bengal  alone,  amounts  to  the  sum 
of  $10,000,000  to  $16,000,000  annually.— Wild 
animals  abound,  such  as  boars,  bears,  wolves, 
iackals,  foxes,  hyenas,  leopards,  panthers,  tigers^ 
lynxes,  hares,  deer,  zebras,  wild  buflaloes,  an- 
telopes, apes  and  monkeys,  and  elephants,  the 
last  of  which  are  doihesticated  in  great  nam* 
hers,  and  prove  eminently  useful  for  military  and 
civil  purposes.  The  royal  Bengal  tiger  is  best 
known  of  all  the  untamable  animals  of  India ; 
it  appears  to  have  been  familiar  to  the  ancient 
Romans,  and  is  described  by  Seneca  as  Ganges 
tica  tigrU.  It  is  of  an  immense  size,  and  such 
prodigious  strength  that  it  can  readily  carry  off 
a  bullock.  The  native  horses  of  Bengal  are 
thin  and  ill-shaped,  but  those  in  use  among  the 
rich  natives  and  the  Europeans  are  of  Persian 
or  Arab  stock,  and  are  valued  highly.  The 
breeds  of  cattle  and  hogs  are  poor ;  goats  and 
sheep  thrive  better,  but  the  latter  are  small  and 
lank,  with  coarse,  thin,  and  hairy  wool.  Game, 
poultry,  and  various  kinds  of  water-fowl,  are 
found  in  the  greatest  abundance;  ducks  of 
many  varieties  of  excellence,  and  the  common 
domestic  fowls  of  Europe,  run  wild  in  the  jun- 
gles. Crows,  kites,  and  sparrows,  are  found 
about  the  dwellings  of  the  Bengalese,  ei\joying 
the  utmost  flreedom  in  security.  A  large  spe- 
cies of  stork  is  known  as  the  ^*  a^utant,"  from 
its  military  strut  and  erect  attitude,  which 
walks  about  at  its  ease  and  devours  ouantities 
of  snakes,  toads,  and  lizards. .  Among  the  feath- 
ered tribes,  many  of  the  birds  are  distinguished 
by  splendid  plumage. — The  inland-eoramerce  of 
Ben^l  is  chiefly  carried  on  with  Agra,  Thibet, 
and  Delhi.  The  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
silks,  calicoes,  muslins,  saltpetre,  opium,  indigo, 
sugar,  gum  lac,  and  a  variety  of  piece  goods, 
nearly  all  of  which  now  pass  through  the  hands 
of  the  East  India  company.  Grain  from  the 
com  countries,  and  salt  from  other  districts, 
form  tiie  general  articles  of  trade  in  the  hands 
of  the  natives.  Cotton  is  imported  from  the 
western  provinces,  and  an  exchange  of  tobacco 
and  betel  nut  carried  on.  Part  of  this  mer- 
chandise is  transported  by  land  carriage,  but  by 
far  the  greater  part  by  water.  The  roads  are 
generally  in  bad  condition,  and  the  noble  cause- 
ways formerly  constructed  by  the  native  princes 
have  fallen  into  ruin.  Such  disadvantages  are, 
however,  amply  compensated  by  the  facilities  of 
water  communication,  the  numerous  branches 
of  tiie  Ganges  and  Bramapootra  being  so  com- 
pletely diffused  over  a  level  country,  that  scaroe- 
ij  any  village  in  the  province  is  more  than  20 
miles  remote  from  a  navigable  river.  The  wood, 
salt,  and  provisions  of  many  millions  of  people, 


126 


BENGAL 


are  oonveved  along  tiiese  bhannelB  hj  80,000 
to  40,000  boatmen,  who  are  tbe  most  kborioos 
and  hardy  of  the  whole  people  of  Hindostan. — 
Ootton  piece  goods  form  the  chief  mannfaotore 
of  Bengal,  bat  not  nearly  to  the  eixtent  that 
formerly  prevailed,  as  the  use  of  sach  goods  is 
almost  entirely  abandoned  in  British  markets, 
and  even  with  the  naliyes  the  oheimer  produc- 
tions of  Qreat  Britain  have  superseaed  them  in 
a  great  measure.  In  the  eastern  quarter  of 
Ben^  the  district  of  Dacca  has  long  been  fa- 
mous for  its  mann&ctare  of  plain  muslina, 
known  by  various  names,  according  to  the  fine- 
ness of  Ihe  different  qualities,  as  well  as  beau- 
tiful varieties  of  striped  and  flowered  muslins. 
€k)arse  handkerchiefs  and  turbans  are  made  in 
almost  every  province.  A  very  extensive  com- 
merce prevails  with  Great  Britain,  in  all  the 
staple  articles  of  cotton,  silk,  sugar,  rum.  and 
indigo.  The  imports  are  of  wrought  and  un- 
wronght  metals,  woollen  and  cotton  good%  and, 
in  short,  almost  every  article  of  British  manu- 
fiftoture.  Rice  is  exported  to  Ceylon,  cottons  to 
Malabar,  and  silk  to  Burat;  from  which  are 
usually  brought  in  return  considerable  quanti- 
ties of  raw  cotton  to  be  employed  in  the  manu- 
factures of  BengaL  Rice,  cottons,  and  gum  lao 
go  to  Bassorah,  in  exchange  for  dried  fruits,  gold, 
and  rose-water,  and  a  variety  of  rich  mercman- 
dise  is  sent  to  Arabia,  receiving  in  return  chiefly 
gold  and  silver.  But  the  maritinie  trade  of  Ben- 
gal has  never  been  as  extensive  as  the  inland. — 
Prior  to  the  British  conquests,  all  the  lands  in 
Bengal,  as  in  other  parts  of  India,  were  framed 
out  by  the  nabob,  on  conditlcm  of  a  certain  fixed 
sum  being  paid  into  his  treasury,  to  r«ahs  and 
zemindars,  who  collected  the  rents  trom  the 
inunediate  cultivators  of  the  soiL  The  titles  of 
the  parties  were  not  well  defined,  and  under 
the  evil  system  of  the  native  rule,  all  justice  was 
frequently  lost  sight  ot  When  the  British  bo- 
came  conquerors,  a  question  arose  as  to  who 
were  the  real  proprietors,  the  cultivators  or  tho 
semindars.  It  appears  tnat  as  long  as  the  tax, 
which  was  assessea  at  a  certain  rato,  was  regu- 
larly paid,  the  occupiers  of  the  land  were  at 
least  secured  in  the  possession  of  their  property, 
and  disposed  of  or  transmitted  it  to  their  de- 
scendants for  generations.  The  government, 
however,  looked  to  the  zemindar  for  the  imme- 
diate payment  of  the  tax.  In  1798,  Lord  Oom- 
wallis  introduced  the  permanent  settiement, 
whereby  the  state  bound  itself  not  to  increase 
the  tax  on  the  land  at  any  future  period.  This 
measure,  doubtiees  intended  to  protect  all  daas- 
ee,  the  ryot  or  cultivator  as  weu  as  the  zemin- 
dar, has  not  done  so.  however,  as  the  zemindar 
has  been  elevated  m)m  the  rank  of  a  revenue 
agent  to  that  of  a  landlord,  and  the  power  in 
his  hands  of  extorting  almost  any  sum  from 
the  rvot  that  his  avarice  may  dictate,  has  fre- 
quently led  to  frightfrd  abuses  and  cruelties. — 
The  following  tab]&  taken  firom  Thornton's 
Gazetteer  of  India  (Lond.  1857),  will  give  the 
best  idea  of  the  size  and  population  of  the  dia* 
tricts  of  the  presidency  in  the  lower  provinces. 


Diitiieta.  AiMlniq.iDJ)M. 

JeMore 8^13 881,TM 

Tweny-foar  Parguinaha S,877 701,181 

Bnrdwan S,tS4 1,854.1M 

Hoofflf 8,001. 1,690,840 

Naddea,  "  ""*  ' 


896,78s 
480,000 


8,048. 

Banoon 1,470. . 

Bmet 1,484. 

Bogllpoor. 7,808 8,000;000 

Dixu^repoor 8,880 1,800,000 

Monghfr 8,508 800,000 

Poomeah 5,718 1,600,000 

Tirhoot 0,114 8,400.000 

Halda 1,888 481,000 

Outtock 8,06n  inoo.000 

Pooree 1,768  f 1,000.000 

BftUaore 1,876 666,805 

Mtdnapoor  and  nicUeUee ^089 666^88 

Koordah 080 6n,160 

Moorihedabad 1,856 1,045,000 

Bacoorah 8,160 800,000 

BuDcpora 4,180 8«SU,O0O 

Bat^TO 8,084 671,000 

Pubna. 8,606 600,000 

BMrbhoom. 8,114 l,0IO,8r« 

Daooa 1,060 600,000 

FureedpowandDeo-i  ooea 8S5j00O 

can  Jelalapoor       j *,««" "•™*'"^ 

MTmunsUigh 4,718 1,487,000 

Brlhei,  Incfading  Jlrntiah 8,424 880,000 

"telXb^^r"*    ^'^^ ^^ 

Bhababad 4.408 1.600,000 

Patna 1,828 1,800,000 

Babar 6,694 8,600.000 

Saran,  witb  Cbamparan. 6,894 1,700,000 

Cbittagong. 8,717 1,000,000 

TlparahandBoUoab 4,850 jsoQ^OOO 

The  annderbanda 6,600 [onkaownl 

CoasyahHUlfl 789 10,986 

Oacliar 4,000 00,000 

Talenm  (Benapattar  ferritorr)  ..8,160 5,015 

^Camroop 8,788 800,000 

Nowgong 4,160 70,000 

Darraiig 1^000 80,000 

iXsi «•«» «^«» 

Lnckempoor. 8,960. 

Sudya,wltb|,       ^g^ 


Lower  ABsam 


Upper 


Goalpara.... 

Anean 

Bombalpoor, 
rh... 


80,000 


Mntnick    f 


8,606 400.000 

15,164 881,688 

4,608 874^000 

8,684 878.816 


Bamgof] 

L.h«dngg.|g£j^N«'o<.r...  5^} 4B.«» 

Blngboom 8,944 800.000 

>^^j^<>«»lBS5bh^mV.;:;;;'^8g} ™^ 


Total, 


808,940 


40.871,091 


The  principal  dties  of  Bengal  and  their  popu- 
lation, are:  Calcutta,  418,182,  by  tbe  cen- 
sus of  1850 ;  Moorshedabad,  150,000 ;  Daeca^ 
60,000;  and  Burdwan,  54,000.  iVom  the 
great  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  slight  vege* 
table  diet  required  by  the  natives,  it  is  ad- 
culated  that  ^nsal  might  easily  support  double 
its  present  population.  This  now  conosts  of 
about  I  of  native  Hindoos,  and  |  of  Moguls. 
The  Moguls  are  the  descendants  of  those  who 
conquer^  the  whole  empire  of  Hindostan,  more 
than  8  centuries  ago,  and  who  were  originally 
natives  of  Tartary.  In  the  eastern  districts  of 
Bengal  they  are  very  numerous;  they  are  all 
Mohammedans,  and  hold  the  reli^ous  rites  of 
the  Hindoos  in  great  abhorrence.  As  a  neople 
the  Hindoos  are  slender,  handsome,  and  well 
shaped,  of  a  dark  brown  and  sometimes  a  yel- 
lowish complexion,  with  black  straight  hair. 
Most  of  th^  shave  their  heads,  and  pluck  out 
the  hair  from  all  parts  of  their  bodies.    Those 


BENGAL 


BENGALEE 


127 


of  the  lower  rasiks  go  almoet  naked,  weariog 
c&mply  a  dotih  around  the  loins ;  those  of  higher 
order  nse  turbans,  aod  long  dresses  of  white  cot- 
ton. The  female  costnme  consists  of  loose  draw- 
ers, a  coat,  and  a  mantle  of  cotton  cloth  worn 
over  the  ahonlders.  Their  heads  are  uncovered, 
and  their  hair  is  worn  fastened  np  behind  with 
a  profusion  of  ornaments,  which  they  are  fond  of 
scattering  over  every  part  of  their  bodies.  The 
character  of  the  Bengalese  cannot  be  rated  high ; 
the  males  are  cunning,  deceitftil,  and  treacher- 
ous, and  the  women  generally  divide  their  time 
between  their  passion  for  dress,  and  their  fond* 
neas  for  intrigue. — The  English  established 
their  commercial  intercourse  with  Bengal  at  a 
very  early  period,  and  made  their  first  settle- 
ment on  ibe  Ganges  in  the  beginning  of  the  I7ilx 
century.  This  was  at  Hoogly,  about  26  miles 
above  Calcutta.  By  means  of  their  fort  and 
aimed  force,  they  protected  their  vessels  which 
came  down  from  JPatna  from  the  demands  of 
the  r^ahs,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
oentuiy  they  obtained  from  Feroluere,  the  great 
grandson  of  Aumngzebe,  a  firman,  exempt- 
ing them  from  all  duties,  and  this  was  re- 
gmed  as  the  company's  commercial  charter. 
Erom  the  year  1742,  they  repelled  frequent  at- 
tacks from  the  Mahratta  princes  and  the  nabobs 
of  Bengal,  but  the  fieunous  battle  of  Plassey, 
gained  in  1757  by  Lord  Glive,  with  8,200  men, 
only  900  of  whom  were  Europeans,  over  the 
nabob's  army  of  60,000  foot  and  18,000  horse 
with  60  pieces  of  cannon,  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  British  empire  in  India  In  1765  the  Eng- 
lish assumed  the  entire  government  of  the  prov- 
ince, receiving  from  the  Mogul,  Shah  Aulem,  a 
grant  of  the  entire  revenues  of  Bengal,  Bahar, 
and  Orissa,  on  condition  of  paying  him  26  lacs  of 
rupees,  amounting  to  about  $1,800,000,  per  an- 
num. The  power  of  the  companv  in  Bengal, 
as  in  other  parts  of  India,  has  been  almost 
wholly  gained  by  usurpation  and  violence,  and 
there  is  much  di^rence  of  opinion  whether 
the  condition  of  the  natives  has  been  im- 
proved under  its  rule.  It  has  been  contended 
with  much  force  by  able  writers  of  England 
as  wen  as  other  countries,  that  the  people  have 
been  crushed  and  not  elevated  by  their  An^o- 
Sazon  masters.  That  there  has  lonff  existed  a 
great  deal  of  ill-feeling  which  needed  but  some 
B^^t  provocation  to  display  itsd£  is  proved 
by  the  extraordinary  mutiny  which  began  in 
1867,  among  the  native  regiments  of  Bengal, 
and  which  will  be  frtlly  treated  under  the  title 

HlNDOSTAV. 

BENGAL,  Bay  ot  (Lat  ffangeticui  Siniti), 

B  gulf  of  the  Indian  ocean,  embraced  between 

the  peninsula  of  Hindostan  on  the  W.  and  the 

coast  of  Lower  Siam,  Tenasserim,  Pegu,  and 

Aracsan  on  the  E.    With  the  exception  of  the  * 

Arabian  aea,  it  is  the  largest  indentation  on  the 

soatbern  coast  of  Asia,  its  width  at  the  broad- 

eti  partf  i.  e,  frx>m  Gape  Oomorin  at  the  S.  ex- 

trealtj  of  Hindostan,  to  the  same  latitude  on 

the  coast  of  Siam,  being  1,400  m.    From  this 

wmt  it   continues  of  neariy  uniform  width  to 


Gape  Negrais,  m  lat  16"*  1'  N.,  whence  it  con- 
tracts until  the  opposite  coasts  are  but  250  m. 
apart,  and  terminates  in  an  inlet  or  indentation 
of  its  N.  shore,  about  60  m.  wide  and  thickly 
studded  with  islands.  All  that  part  of  the  bay 
lying  south  of  the  parallel  of  Gape  Negrais 
is  distinguished  by  some  hydrographers  as  the 
sea  of  Bengal.  It  receives  the  waters  of  many 
important  rivers,  among  which  are  the  Ganges, 
Bramiupootra,  Hoogly,  Irrawaddy,  Godavery, 
and  Eistnah.  The  tide  in  some  places 
rises  at  times  70  or  80  feet.  On  the  W.  coast 
there  are  no  good  harbors,  and  no  soundings  at 
the  distance  of  80  m.  from  land,  but  on  the  E. 
side  there  are  several  safe  ports,  and  soundings 
within  2  miles  of  the  shore.  The  S.  W.  mon- 
soon begins  to  blow  on  the  W.  or  Ooromandel 
coast  about  the  end  of  March  or  early  in  April* 
In  June  it  acquires  its  greatest  strength  and 
regularity;  in  September  it  subsides;  and  in 
October  the  N.  E.  monsoon  commences,  from 
which  time  till  Dec.  1,  navigation  in  the  gulf 
is  fraught  with  great  danger.  During  the  prev- 
alence of  both  these  winds  a  heavy  surf  rolls 
along  the  entire  western  coast,  rendering  aooeaa 
to  the  rivers  extremely  difficult 

BENGALEE,  or  Gauba  LAKouAaB,  Thb,  is 
one  of  the  6  modem  languages  of  Hindostan, 
which  are  derived  frt>m  the  ancient  Sanscrit. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  Banga,  the  Sanscrit 
name  of  the  country,  with  the  Arabic  article 
al  suffixed ;  the  whole  being  corrupted  into  the 
present  form.  Oaura  is  derived  from  Gaur^ 
the  name  of  the  ancient  metropolis.  It  is 
spoken  by  25  millions  of  British  suljects,  of 
whom  about  one-fourth  speak  also  some  other 
dialect.  It  extends  over  the  regions  on  tiie 
lower  Ganges,  from  Patna  down  to  its  delta; 
being  purest  in  the  province  of  Bengal,  and  in 
the  eastern  r^ons.  One  of  its  dialects,  the 
MaWhUa^  or  lirutiifaf  is  spoken  in  the  Sircar 
Tirhut,  as  far  northwaivd  as  the  Nepaulese  Hun* 
alaya.  The  Bengalee  name  of  the  country  ia 
Anggo.  This  lan^age  consists  of  an  abori^* 
nal  basis,  with  which  a  much  greater  portion  of 
Sanscrit  and  Pracrit  has  been  admixed  thui 
with  that  of  any  of  its  cognates ;  with  a  consid- 
erable addition  of  Afghan,  Persian,  Arabic, 
Portuguese,  Malay,  and  English  words.  Al- 
though the  Sanscrit  element  predominates,  aa 
regards  the  words,  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
language  dlffidr  more  from  Sanscrit  than  the 
forma  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  Gothic,  imd  Persian; 
most  of  the  flexions  of  nouns  and  verbs  having 
been  lost,  and  their  places  being  supplied  by 
auxiliary  words,  and  oy  circumlocution.  Not- 
withstanding this,  it  admits,  in  the  higher  style, 
many  of  those  forms,  which  are  intelligible  oidy 
to  more  cultivated  nersons.  There  are  no  forma 
of  gender,  and  only  few  feminine  words  are 
formed  by  the  suffixes  •  and  tnl.  There  are  7 
cases  made  by  suffixes — nominative,  accusative, 
instrumental,  dative,  ablative,  genitive,  and  vo» 
cative.  The  plural  of  nouns  is  made  by  suffix- 
ing <{«^  to  the  ffenitive  singular.  It  delights  in 
compound  words,  formed  especially  by  means  of 


128 


BENGALEE  TEAR 


BENGER 


a  sort  of  past  participle;  elegant  Sanscrit  oom- 
ponnds  being  ud idiomatic.  There  is  bat  one 
conjugation,  whose  radical  is  the  imperative. 
Oomponnd  tenses  are  made  by  the  auxiliaries, 
meaning  to  do,  to  he,  to  become.  Only  the  3 
verbs  meaning  to  give,  to  come,  and  to  go,  are 
irregular.  The  singular  and  plural  of  verbs  are 
often  confounded;  the  plural  with  a  singular 
noun  denoting  respect,  the  singular  with  the 
plural  noun  being  used  in  speaking  to  inferiors. 
There  are  8  simple  moodB»  infinitive,  indicative, 
imperative ;  4  others  being  periphrastic,  the  po- 
tential, optative,  inchoative,  and  frequentative. 
Any  verb  is  coDJugable  negatively  by  the  sufQx 
nd.  The  system  of  writing  is  that  of  the  dS^ 
vandgari  (divine  city's  writing)  of  the  Sanscrit 
language,  but  the  forms  of  letters  are  more  bro- 
ken and  twisted.  B  and  v,  however,  are  writ- 
ten by  one  character,  and  the  characters  of  the 
sounds,  s,  z,  sh,  are  interchangeable. — ^No  book 
written  in  Bengalee  appeared  before  A.  D.  1600. 
After  the  settlement  of  Moslems  in  Gaur,  the 
Yolsyas  and  Soodras  (agricultural  and  servile 
castes)  began  to  study  Persian,  to  gain  a  liveli- 
hood, and  were  well  rewarded  by  uie  conquer- 
ors. Historical  works  appeared  about  380  years 
ago,  written  by  the  followers  of  Ohaitanya,  the 
founder  of  the  Voishnava  sect.  Several  religious 
essays  were  written  soon  after.  A  Bramin 
abridged  the  MaMbhdrata  ;  Eirtivasa  trans- 
lated the  Udmayanct.  Both  are  ancient  San- 
scrit epic  works.  Except  the  stories  of  Krish- 
na's study,  the  rules  of  arithmetic  in  verse,  and 
a  few  other  elementary  books,  the  vernacular 
literature  was  very  poor,  until  B^ah  KrishnA- 
chandra  Roy  Bahadoor  restored  Hindoo  litera- 
tore  in  India,  by  bringing  in  pundits  and  en- 
dowing schools.  His  endeavors  bore  ample 
fruit,  and  many  Bramins  now  earn  money  oy 
literary  mendicity,  for  the  sake  of  supporting 
pnpils.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  Sanscrit 
hooks,  and  the  prejudice  of  most  Bramins  against 
the  Bengalee,  this  was  neglected  nntil  1800, 
when  the  college  of  Fort  William  was  found- 
ed, and  the  study  of  Bengalee  was  made  im- 
perative and  collateral  to  the  Sanscrit^  Dr.  W. 
Oarey  being  the  first  professor  of  both.  Among 
others,  the  head  pundit  of  the  college,  Mrity- 
ni\joy  Vidyalankar,  was  distinguished  in  pro- 
moting his  native  literature.  Many  Bengalee 
works  have  since  been  printed  at  Calcutta  and 
Serampore.  Tlie  first  native  newspaper  was 
published  by  Mr.Marshman  at  Serampore,  1818. 
Considerable  change  has  been  made  since  in  the 
diction  and  composition  of  this  language,  which 
continues  to  be  enlarged  and  ennobled,  by  being 
capable  of  borrowing  indefinitely  from  the  ven- 
erable Sanscrit  mother.  Gilchrist,  H.  P.  Fors- 
ter,  Carey,  W.  Morton,  Hunter,  Mohun  Persaud, 
Tahur,  Tarachand  Chukruburti,  Sir  G.  C. 
Haughton,  have  published  Bengalee-English 
dictionaries  and  vocabularies,  and  Ram  Comul 
Sen  has  translated  Todd's  edition  of  Johnson's 
English  dictionary  into  Bengalee. 

BENGALEE  YEAR,  one  of  the  solar  years 
of  India,  apparently  dating  from  the  Hegira 


(the  Bengalee  year  1264  commencing  in  April, 
1857) ;  but  starting  from  the  Mohammedan  lunar 
year  apparently  about  the  middle  of  our  16th 
century.    See  Chronology. 

BENGAZI,  a  town  of  Tripoli,  province  of 
Barca;  pop.  2,600.  It  is  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  Berenice,  and  is  a  mean  Arab  town  in 
a  state  of  great  filth  and  wretchedness.  The 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  lie  all  around  a  little 
below  the  surface.  There  was  formerly  a  good 
harbor,  but  a  reef  of  rocks  at  the  entrance  pre- 
vents its  easy  access,  and  the  accumulations  of  - 
sand  deposit  have  nearly  choked  it  up. 

BENGEL,  JoHAKN  Albreoht,  a  German 
Lutheran  theologian  of  the  18th  century,  born  at 
Winnenden,  Wtlrtemberff,  June  24,  1687,  died 
Dec.  2, 1752.  He  entered  the  theological  college 
of  Ttlbingen  in  1708.  He  distinguished  himself 
as  a  Greek  scholar,  and  early  exhibited  a  predir 
lection  for  critical  study.  He  began  his  career 
as  a  theological  writer  by  a  treatise  on  the 
holiness  of  God.  He  was  the  author  of  several 
very  important  works,  but  that  on  which  his 
fame  as  a  scholar  principally  depends  is  his  ^i- 
tion  of  the  Greek  Testament,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1734.  It  produced  a  sensation  in  the 
theological  world,  and  was  one  of  the  most  val- 
uable contributions  to  theological  literature 
which  the  century  afforded.  No  German  theo- 
logian has  infused  more  of  his  spirit  and  senti- 
ments into  English  theology,  if  we  except 
Luther,  than  Bengel.  His  edition  of  the  Greek 
Testament,  preceding  those  of  Wetstein,  Gries- 
bach,  Lachmann,  and  Scholz,  was  severely  criti- 
cized by  many  eminent  scholars,  such  as  Michae- 
lis,  Banmgarten,  and  others.  Bengel  also  wrote 
a  work  on  the  Apocalypse,  in  which  production, 
one  writer  says,  he  exhibited  an  enthusiasm  akin 
to  the  inspu-ation  of  the  revelator  himsel£  He 
considered  the  Apocal3rpse  as  the  key  to  all 
prophecy,  and  believed  that  any  right  exposition 
of  it  would  unseal  the  entire  future  history  of 
the  world  up  to  the  end  of  time.  He  thought 
he  discovered  in  the  mystical  figures  of  the  seer 
of  Patmos  that  the  world  would  end  in  1886. 
He  was  occupied  to  the  last  in  his  critical  studies, 
and  died  almost  with  his  proof-sheets  in  his 
hands. 

BENGER,  Elizaseth  Ogilvt,  an  English 
authoress,  born  in  Wells,  1778,  died  Jan.  9, 
1827.  At  the  age  of  18,  the  death  of  her 
father,  a  purser  in  the  British  navy,  left  her  and 
her  mother  in  very  narrow  circumstances.  Six 
years  later,  she  removed  to  London,  where  she 
became  known  to  Campbell,  the  poet,  Miss 
Joanna  Baillie,  Miss  Aikin,  Dr.  Aikin,  Dr. 
Gregory,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Hamilton  and  others. 
At  the  age  of  13,  she  had  shown  her  literary 
taste  by  writing  a  poem  called  "  The  Female 
XJeniad,"  which  was  published.  After  her  re- 
moval to  London,  she  attempted  prose  fiction, 
poetry,  and  the  drama,  but  without  much  suc- 
cess. It  was  as  a  biographer  that  she  first  ob- 
tained reputation.  She  produced  in  succession, 
memoirs  of  Mrs.  E.  Hamilton,  of  John  Tobin, 
the  dramatiBt,  of  Elopstock  and  his  fi-iends,  of 


^BSSQXJELA 

AnnaBoleyn,  of  Mary,  qaeen  of  Scots,  of  EKza- 
betlii  qneeu  of  Bohemia.  When  she  died,  she 
bad  made  some  progress  in  memoirs  of  Henrj 
IV.  of  France.  Mxss  Benger's  stjle  is  dear, 
and  her  industry  in  collecting  fiftots  was  nn- 
doabted.  Her  life  was  one  long  illness,  and  the 
Yerj  act  of  putting  her  thonghta  npon  paper 
was  a  painful  task. 

BEN6UELA,  a  maritime  country  of  western 
AMca,  between  lat.  9""  and  lO""  S.,  and  long. 
12"  and  17"*  £.  The  climate  causes  fever,  the 
temperature  varying  from  94""  to  105^  F.  in  the 
^ade.  The  surface  is  mountainoos.  The  soil 
18  w€^  moistened  and  highly  fertileb  It  pro- 
duces fruits  and  European  vegetablee  in  abun- 
dance. The  hills  yield  copper,  sulphur,  petro- 
leum, and  gold.  Beasts  of  prey,  including  the 
lion  and  hyena,  are  numerous.  The  prevailing 
T^igion  IS  fetichism.  The  government  of  the 
provinces  is  in  the  governor  general  of  St  Paul 
de  Loando.  The  Portuguese  occupv  some  settle- 
ments in  tbe  province,  beyond  which  their  con- 
trol does  not  actually  extend.  The  chief  of  these 
is  New  Benguela,  or  St.  Philip  de  Bengnela, 
-which  is  a  seaport  town,  on  the  Atlantic,  near  the 
river  Gatumbella,  Ut  12**  88'  9"  S.,  long.  18" 
25'  8"  E.  It  is  the  Portnguese  capital  of  the 
district)  and  has  a  very  commodious  harbor. 
Its  principal  inhabitants  are  slave  dealers.  It 
lias  more  rained  than  inhabited  houses,  and  has 
not  a  single  place  of  Instruction.  Old  Bengnela, 
formerly  the  capital  of  the  district,  lies  on  the 
coast  182  miles  N.  N.  E. 

BENI,  or  Vesi,  a  river  of  Bolivia,  South 
America.  It  is  formed  by  the  junction  of  2 
small  streams  among  the  mountains  lying  S.  E. 
of  Lake  Titicaca,  thence  it  runs  N.  through  the 
intendency  of  La  Pa:^  curves  to  the  N.  £.,  and 
on  reaching  the  confines  of  Brazil  unites  with 
the  Meonore  to  form  the  Madeira.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  level,  very  fertile,  and  in- 
habited by  tribes  of  Indians,  many  of  whom 
are  in  a  barbarous  state.  Gold  is  found  along 
its  shores,  and  its  waters  afifbrd  fine  fish. — ^A 
department  of  Bolivia,  on  the  river  Beni;  its 
principal  towns  are  Trinidad  and  Loreto.  An 
iZngTigh  colonization  company  has  received  a 
grant  of  a  large  tract  of  land  in  this  department 

BENI-HASS AN,  a  village  of  central  Egypt, 
on  the  Nile.  In  its  vidnity  are  a  number  of 
scolptnred  grottos. 

BENI-ISGUEN,  a  town  of  Algeria,  in  the 
Sahara  desert  It  is  strongly  built,  sorrounded 
by  a  wall  with  6  towers. 

BENI-60(EF.  or  Bma-SorEF,  a  town  of 
"Bgyptf  on  the  Nile.  It  has  large  cavalry  bar- 
racks, cotton  mills,  and  alabaster  quarries,  and 
IS  the  entrepot  for  the  produce  of  the  rich  valley 
of  Fayoom.     Pop.  6,000. 

BENIGIA,  the  former  capital  of  California, 

shire  town  of  Solano  county ;  pop.  in  1854,  about 

2^000.     It  is  on  the  strait  of  karquenas,  which 

ecnmecta  San  Pablo  and  Soisun  bays.    The  land, 

for  about  a  mile  from  the  town,  is  level  or 

gently  nndnlating.    Beyond  this  tract  are  hills. 

Bad  stiU  further  back  a  suoceasion  of  hills  and 

VOL.  m. — 9 


BENIOWSKT 


129 


valleys.  The  valleys  are  capable  of  cultivation, 
but  in  and  around  the  town  there  is  not  even  a 
tree  to  be  seen.  The  houses  are  of  wood,  and 
present  a  neat  and  respectable  appearance, 
w  hile  the  legislatore  held  its  sessions  here, 
there  were  several  large  hotels ;  commerce 
fiourished,  and  building  was  carried  on  with 
great  rapidity.  The  capitol  is  a  handsome  bri^ 
edifice,  on  the  brow  of  a  slope  about  half  a  mUe 
from  the  river.  The  facings  are  of  stone, 
brought  from  an  inexhaustiUe  quarry  a  short 
distance  below  the  town.  This  stone  is  of  a 
light  brownish  color,  soft,  easily  wrought,  and 
hardening  with  age  or  exposure.  The  harbor 
is  capable  of  accommodating  ships  of  the  lai^jesi 
size.  The  works  of  the  Pacific  mail  steamship 
company,  with  founderies  and  machine  shops^ 
a  navy  station,  and  an  arsenal,  are  in  the  town 
or  its  environs.  Several  steamboat  lines,  run- 
ning between  San  Francisco  and  Sacramento^ 
touch  at  Benida. 

BENIN,  a  kingdom  of  western  Africa,  in 
upper  Guinea,  bordered  by  the  bight  of  Benin. 
Its  extent  is  not  known.  Its  coast  is  thickly 
indented  with  estuaries  of  considerable  expanse, 
and  studded  with  isles.  The  surface  is  level  for 
a  certain  distance  inland.  Further  in  it  rises  to 
an  elevation  of  2,000  and  8,000  feet  It  Is 
thickly  wooded.  The  soil  is  proftise  in  all  the 
vegetable  growths  of  the  tropica.  It  is  laid 
out   in   square  plots,  which   produce    gums^ 

I)lantains^  maize,  and  suw-cane  of  excel- 
ent  qaality.  Gotten  is  indigenous.  The  gov- 
ernment is  native,  and  the  most  revolting 
cruelty  is  characteristic  of  it  and  the  peoj^ 
Their  religion  is  fetichism.  Human  sacrificea 
are  numerous.  The  country  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  traffic  in  slaves,  and  of  a  limited  trade 
in  salt,  palm  oil,  and  bine  coral. — Its  capital  is 
Benin,  a  large  town,  pop.  16,000,  on  ^e  right 
bank  of  Benin  river,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the 
Niger.  Benin  was  formerly  the  oreat  empo- 
rium for  slaves.  The  palace  of  the  king  outside 
of  the  city  is  defended  by  walls.  The  houses  of 
the  city  are  built  of  clay,  thatched  with  reedsi 
straw,  or  leaves.  They  are  irregularly  distribut- 
ed. The  city  is  a  busy  mart  for  cattie,  she^, 
goats,  pigs,  poultry,  yams,  cotton,  ivory,  Euro- 
pean wares,  and  fruits.  Belzoni,  the  celebrated 
traveUer,  died  near  this  place  in  1828. — ^Bknih 
RivsB,  in  the  kingdom  of  Benin,  upper  GKiinea, 
one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Niger.  It  discharges 
into  the  ffulf  of  Guinea,  180  miles  below  Benin, 
and  120  N.  N.  W.  of  Gape  Formosa.  Lat  (en- 
trance N.  W.  point),  5**  46'  N.,  long.  6^  4'  E. 
It  is  2  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  across  which 
is  a  bar,  with  12  feet  of  water  at  spring  tides. 
It  divides  into  2  branches,  which  have  been 
explored  to  the  distance  of  60  and  70  miles 
respectively,  the  dense  vegetation  prevented 
fhrther  progress. — ^Bight  of  Bbmin,  tiie  norths 
em  portion  of  the  gulf  of  Guinea,  between  tiio 
Slave  coast  and  Oalabar  river.  Manv  rivers 
empty  into  it,  but  the  natural  facilities  ior  com- 
merce are  very  limited. 
BENIOWSKT,  Moanz  Auauar  vov,  an  ad* 


180 


BENJAHOf 


BENJAMIN 


Tentoroofl  Hungarian,  bom  at  the  village  of 
Verbova,  Hungary,  in  1741,  died  May  28, 1786. 
The  son  of  an  Aostrian  general,  he  served  as 
lientenant  in  the  7  years'  war,  and  in  the  Polish 
war  against  Bossio.  In  1709  he  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Bnssians,  who  exiled  him  to  EJamt- 
€^tka.  Avdllng  himself  of  a  knowledge  of 
navigation  whioh  he  had  acquired^  he  succeed 
in  saving  the  vessel  which  was  to  convey  him  to 
Siberia  from  wreck.  This  feat  won  for  him  the 
sympathy  of  the  governor  of  Eamtohatkay 
which  was  still  more  strengthened  by  his  pro- 
ficiency in  chess,  and  he  appointed  him  tutor  of 
his  children.  Among  these  children  was  a 
lovely  girl  of  the  name  of  Aphanasia,  who  fell 
in  love  with  the  romantic  Hungarian,  and  with 
the  consent  of  her  faUier  they  were  married. 
In  1771  be  effected  his  escape  from  Eamtchat- 
ka  with  the  assistance  of  his  wife,  who,  although 
she  had  since  learned  that  he  had  another  wife 
in  Hungary,  continued  to  cling  to  him  with  the 
flame  affection,  followed  him  to  Formosa  and  to 
Moscow,  at  which  latter  place  she  died,  loving 
him  to  the  last  On  his  return  to  Paris,  he 
undertook  to  found  a  French  colony  at  Mada- 
gascar where  he  arrived  in  June,  1774,  founded 
his  colony,  and  in  1776  was  proclaimed  king  by 
some  of  tiie  native  tribes,  while  his  wife,  whom 
he  had  this  time  prudently  taken  with  him,  was 
proclaimed  queen.  The  governor  of  the  Isle  of 
France  refusing  to  supply  him  with  men  to  sup- 
port his  state,  Beniowsky  applied  directly  to  the 
French  government,  but  without  success.  Dis* 
gustod  with  the  French  and  their  colonies,  he 
now  entered  the  Austrian  service,  and  was  com- 
mander in  the  battle  of  Habelsohwerdt,  in  17y8, 
against  the  Prussians.  His  subsequent  efforts 
to  interest  the  Engliah  government  for  Mada- 
gascar were  fruitless^  but  he  was  successful  in 
obtaining  the  support  of  a  wealthy  firm  of  Balti- 
more, U.  8.,  and  leaving  his  wife  in  America, 
he  effected  a  landing  in  that  island,  but  soon 
after  he  arrived  he  was  killed  in  a  conflict  with 
a  body  of  l^oopa  from  the  Isle  of  France.  He 
wrote  his  autobiography  in  French;  it  was  trans- 
lated into  German  by  George  Forster,  into  Eng- 
lish by  William  Nicolson,  and  into  various  oUier 
languages.  Kotzebue  dramatized  his  character 
and  career  in  his  play  entitled  the  ^  Oonspiracy 
in  Eamtehatka." 

BENJAMIN  (son  of  my  good  fortune),  named 
by  his  mother,  who  died  in  childbirth,  Benoni 
(son  of  my  sorrow),  the  youngest  and  favorite 
son  of  Jacob.  We  find  Jacob  refhsing  at  first 
to  let  Benjamin  go  down  into  i^ypt  with  the 
other  brethren,  at  the  demand  ofthe  then  un- 
known Joseph,  during  the  famine.  The  tribe 
of  Benjamin  was  weak  and  small  in  its  early 
history,  yet  it  seems  to  have  been  treated  witb 
special  &vor  in  the  exodus  of  the  Hebrews  to 
Pfdestme,  having  the  place  of  honor  both  in  the 
encampment  and  order  of  march.  On  the  di- 
vision of  the  land,  a  territory  rich  and  fertile, 
ihpugh  small,  was  assigned  to  Benjamin.  It 
was  a  sort  of  frontier  land  between  the  two 
great  rival  tribes  of  Ephraim  and  Judah,  and  it 


seems  to  have  vacillated,  in  its  attaohmenta^ 
from  one  to  the  other.  In  its  early  histoiy  ife 
attached  itself  to  Ephraim,  and  is  generallr 
mentioned  in  connection  with  that  tribe.  It 
furnished  the  first  king  to  Israel,  in  the  persoa 
of  SauL  Upon  the  death  of  Saul  the  tribe  of 
Beigamin,  naturally  enough,  claimed  the  suo- 
oession  in  the  person  of  Ishboshetb.  Around 
him  the  11  tribes  rallied,  while  David,  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  set  up  a  claim  to  the  throne.  His 
most  violent  enemies,  from  tiie  commencement 
of  his  campaign  against  the  kingdom,  Saul, 
Shimei,  and  Sheba,  were  Benjamites.  Jerusa- 
lem, within  the  borders  of  Bei^amin,  was  al- 
ready in  his  possession,  while  Bethel  and  Jericho 
were  in  the  hands  of  the  northern  &ctiona. 
Under  these  circumstances  Beigamin  scarcely 
knew  how  to  act.  The  death  of  Abner  and  Ish- 
boshetb decided  its  course.  Policy  was  on  the 
side  of  a  surrender,  which  was  felt  by  all  the  re- 
bellious tribe&  and  accordingly  David  was  re- 
crowned  at  Hebron,  as  the  king  of  all  IsraeL 
From  that  time  the  fortunes  of  Bei^amin  no 
longer  follow  those  of  Ephraim  on  the  north,  but 
are  cemented  to  the  more  princely  estate  of  Ju- 
dah on  the  south.  To  Judah  Beigamin  was  more 
closely  geographically  related  than  to  Ephraim. 
In  the  northernmost  part  of  the  Beigamito  ter- 
ritory coursed  across  from  east  to  west  that 
great  range  of  highlands,  on  which  stood  Ai, 
Michmash,  and  Bethhoron,  overlooking  on  the 
one  hand  the  vast  southern  slope  of  Jerusalem 
and  the  surrounding  country  of  Jndea,  and  on 
tttQ  other  the  more  extensive  but  less  fertile 
territory  of  Samaria  and  Galilee.  On  this  teble- 
land  was  the  second  great  struggle  of  the 
Israelites  for  an  entrance  and  possession  of  the 
promised  land.  Here  was  the  conflict  of  Saul 
with  the  Philistines  in  the  hour  of  the  deepest 
depression  the  Jewish  state  ever  saw  until  her 
subjuj^ation  to  the  Assyrian  power.  And  fr<Hn 
these  high  table-lands  the  crusader  Coeur  de 
Lion  exdaimed,  with  his  face  buried  in  bis 
armor,  that  he  might  not  see  the  countiy  that 
lay  stretched  out  before  him^  and  desecrated  by 
the  Moslem  sway:  '^Ab,  Lord  Godl  I  pray 
that  I  may  never  see  thy  holy  city,  if  so  be  thi^ 
I  may  not  rescue  it  from  the  hands  of  thine 
enemies.^^  The  interests  of  Becgamin  were, 
then,  geographically  involved  in  the  triumph  oi 
the  nouse  of  David  when  the  immediate  pros- 
pect of  its  own  supremacy  was  taken  away  in 
the  death  of  Ishboshetb.  To  its  topograpMcal 
destinies  it  was  always  after  faithful,  not  even 
losing  its  affection  for  Judah  in  the  revolt  of 
the  ten  tribes  under  Jeroboam,  nor  yet  in  the 
captivity  of  Babylon,  for  after  the  return  Ja- 
dan  and  Benjamin  were  "'  the  flower  of  the  new 
Jewish  colony  in  Palestine." 

BENJAMIK,  Pake,  an  American  poet  and 
journalist,  bom  Aug.  14, 1809,  at  Demerara,  in 
Britii^  Guiana,  where  his  father,  a  Few  Eng- 
lander  of  Welsh  descent,  resided  as  a  metohanL 
An  illness  at  an  early  age,  improperly  treated, 
caused  him  a  permanent  lameness,  and  he  was 
sent  to  his  fiEither's  home  in  New  England  £>r 


BEfrJAMlK 


BBKimr 


181 


medical  advioe  and  to  be  ednefttecL  Hestadied 
2  yean  atHBrvard  ooUege,  gndnated  at  Trinity 
college,  Hartfeid,  in  1829,  began  to  praotifle  law 
In  Boston  in  1682,  and  was  one  of  the  origiDal 
editmB  of  the  ^^New  En^^and  Magazine/'  In 
1887  he  removed  to  New  York,  edited  in  con- 
nection with  O.  F.  HofEman  the  *' American 
Monthly  Magazine,''  and  eabsequently  was  as* 
sodated  with  Horace  Greeley  in  editing  the 
"  New  Toiler."  He  was  next  engaged^in  con- 
nection with  Epea  Baigent  and  Roftis  W.  Gris- 
wold,  aa  effitcv  of  the  "^  New  World,''  a  Gheiq> 
weeUy  periodical,  which  republished  the  best 
artides  of  Enc^ish  magazine  literature,  and  re» 
ceiyed  original  contributions  from  many  spirited 
writers.  After  5  years  he  sold  his  interest  in 
this  Jonraal,  and  has  since  appeared  frequentiy 
before  the  fmblic  as  aleetnrer  both  in  prose  and 
ferae.  His  poems,  whiidi  embrace  many  popu* 
lar  lyrical  and  satirical  pieces,  have  never  been 
collected,  but  are  foond  scattered  through  the 
recent  periodical  literatmre  of  the  country. 

BENJAMIN  ov  Tubkla,  a  Jewish  rabbi,  bom 
at  Todda,  in  Navarre,  died  about  1178,  noted 
in  history  as  the  first  western  traveller  who 
penetrated  v«ry  to  into  the  regions  of  the  East. 
Me  joomOTed,  as  appears  from  his  ^^  Itinerary," 
88  fiir  as  China,  though  most  critics  incline  to 
the  opinion  that  very  many  of  his  descriptions 
of  places  are  derived  from  other  sources  than 
personal  travel  and  observation.  His  account 
IS  full  of  fUmloos  stories  and  errors  in  fact. 
The  spirit  of  critical  examination  and  geo- 
graphical research  which  has  characterijsed 
eastern  travel,  and  especially  in  the  Holy  Land, 
for  2  oeittories  past,  was  not  then  kindled.  The 
important  aid  of  correct  geographical  Imowl- 
edge  in  scriptural  ezpontions  had  not  been 
recogniied.  The  Bible  was  not  studied  as  it  is 
now.  Moreover,  Beiriamin  was  a  Jew ;  he  trav- 
elled and  wrote  with  Jewish  prejudices.  In- 
deed, the  specific  object  of  his  Journey  was  to 
acquaint  hmiself  witii  the  state  of  his  brethren 
in  the  East  No  wonder,  then,  that  he  dilates 
with  more  enthustasm  on  the  prospects  of  the 
Jewish  people  when  he  stombles  upon  a  petty 
^prince  of  the  captivity"  exercising  a  limited 
aatfaority  at  Bagdad  over  the  Jews  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  while  he  utteriy  neglects  to 
describe  some  of  tne  important  scriptural  places 
which  he  seems  to  have  visited  in  Palestine,  de- 
scriptions which,  if  ffdthftillv  made  at  that  early 
day  (1160),  would  have  afforded  valuable  con- 
tributioos  to  biblical  literature.  The  *<  Itiner- 
ary," an  account  of  his  tour,  was  first  written 
in  Hebrew.  It  has  since  been  published  in 
Geiman,  Latin,  French,  and  English.  The  first 
Hebrew  edition  was  published  in  1548,  at  Ocn* 
stantinople* 

B£n£aH.  a  fortified  village  of  Bootan,  N. 
India.    It  is  built  on  a  nearly  inaccessible  rook, 
SylOO  fyet  above  the  sea,  has  a  citadel,  and  is 
deieaded  hy  sewral  round  towers. 

B£[NK£x<r«  A  small  village  of  Switzerland,  in 
the  canton  of  Znrich,  ritnated  on  the  side  <^  a 
bsB  clad  wiHi  Tinea.    It  is  noted  for  2  battles 


fought  between  the  Austrians  and  Russians  and 
the  French  in  1799.    Pop.  625. 

BENEENDORFF,  Auexakdk,  count,  a  Rus- 
sian diplomatist,  bom  in  1782,  in  Esthonia,  of 
a  family  of  the  inferior  gentry,  died  at  Baden- 
Baden,  Sept.  28,  1842.  His  mother  was  first 
lady  of  the  bed-chamber  to  the  princess  Mary 
of  Wftrtemberg,  wife  of  the  unhi^py  Paul  I.  ot 
Rusria.  She  followed  her  mistress  to  St  Pe- 
tersburg, and  married  there.  Her  son  thus  ob- 
tained a  pontion  early  in  life  at  the  court  of 
Paul,  whom  he  pleased  by  his  quiet,  insinuat- 
ing manners  and  talent  for  drawing.  He  was 
placed  in  the  guards,  and  advanced  rapidly. 
After  the  death  of  Paul,  he  was  transferrod  to 
the  general  stafi^  and  participated  in  the  wars 
against  Napoleon  in  Germany  and  France. 
After  the  return  of  peace,  he  commanded  a 
re^ment  of  the  guards,  was  again  admitted 
into  daily  intimacy  with  the  empress  mother, 
the  widow  of  Paul,  and  thus  became  inthnate 
with  Nicholas,  then  grand  duke,  who  liked  his 
apparent  good-natured  straightforwardness  and 
high-soun<fing,  virtuous  phraseology.  Nicho- 
las, on  becoming  emperor,  believed  he  had  in 
Benkendorff  the  man  to  carry  through  reforms 
and  eradicate  all  the  internal  abuses  of  the  ad« 
ministration.  Benkendorff  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  military  board  appointed  to  investi- 
gate the  conspiracy  of  1826.  He  gained  the 
nillest  confidence  and  affection  of  his  master, 
and  became  an  all-powerful  favorite.  He  in- 
troduced and  enlat-giod  the  net  of  the  gendar- 
merie or  military  pdice  over  the  whole  empire, 
rendering  it  superior  to  all  the  military,  dvil, 
and  ecdedastiinl  antiiorities.  He  was  the  chief 
of  this  peculiar  army,  numbering  44,000  men, 
as  weQ  as  of  the  secret  police  or  the  secret  spy 
system,  of  which  the  gendarmerie  formed  tne 
visible  centres  and  ohannela  of  communication. 
Everybody  trembled  before  a  man  who  daily 
reported  to  his  master  so  many  secrets,  mys- 
teries, lies,  and  scandals.  In  the  course  of  hla 
career  he  was  created  a  count  He  was  good- 
natmred.  but  narrow-minded  and  feeble,  men- 
tally inaolent,  and  himself  a  tool  in  the  hands  of 
his  subordinates.  The  emperor  Nicholas  gen- 
erally yielded  to  his  advice,  which,  if  not  al- 
ways dear  and  intelligent,  was  condliatory  aa 
&r  as  Benkendorff's  mental  powers  could  em- 
brace the  difficult  questions  aflbcting  prominent 
individuals  throughout  the  empire,  in  regard  to 
whom  he  was  caUed  upon  to  enlighten  his  mas- 
ter. At  one  time  even  the  highest  matters  of 
state  and  of  foreign  policy  passed  through  his 
hands.  His  habits  were  dissolute,  and  he  died 
disoreditaUy. 

BENNET,  Henbt,  earl  of  Arlington,  an  Eng- 
lish statesman,  bom  at  Arlington,  in  ^ddle- 
sez,  England,  in  1618,  died  Julv  28, 1685.  He 
devoted  himself  to  the  cause  of  Charles  I.,  and 
was  appointed  under-secretary  of  state;  he 
fought  m  several  batties,  and  was  wounded  at 
Andover.  After  the  battie  of  Worcester  he 
retired  to  Spain.  Upon  the  restoration  he  re- 
turned to  mf^d^  and  was  rewarded  for  hia 


BENN1ET 


BENinSTT 


MTvloes  bj  being  appointed  keeper  d  the  privy 
seal,  and  short]/  aiterward  secretary  of  state. 
In  1664  he  was  created  Baron  Arlington ;  in 
1670  became  noted  as  one  of  the  fSEimons  ca- 
bal, but  is  not  aoonsed  of  entertaining  their 
extreme  sentiments;  he  was  created  earl  of 
Arlington  in  1672.  He  was  one  of  the  pleni- 
potentiaries sent  to  XJtreoht  to  negotiate  a  peace 
oetween  Austria  and  France.  This  mission  not 
being  saccessfnl,  an  endeavor  was  made  by  his 
oolleagaes  to  cast  the  odium  of  the  failure  upon 
Arlington;  he,  however,  defended  himself  be- 
fore the  house  of  commons,  and  was  acquitted. 
The  war  with  Holland,  which  is  said  to  have 
been  caused  by  the  machinations  of  the  cabaL 
lost  to  Arlington  the  favor  of  the  king  and 
people;  he,  however,  received  the  office  of 
ohamberlain.  In  1679  he  became  a  member  of 
the  new  council,  and  retained  his  office  of 
chamberlain  on  the  accession  of  James  II. 
During  the  many  years  in  which  he  resided  on 
the  continent  he  had  learned  a  cosmopolitan 
indifference  to  constitutions  and  religions;  and 
while,  if  there  was  any  form  of  government 
which  he  liked,  it  was  that  of  France,  and  if 
there  was  any  church  for  which  he  felt  a  pref- 
erence, it  was  that  of  Rome,  he  yet  observed 
the  outward  ordinances  of  Protestantism,  and 
accommodated  himself  to  the  political  views  of 
the  king  and  the  public. 

BEIT^T,  Thomas,  an  Anglican  theologian 
and  controversialist,  writing  equally  agcdnst 
the  Catholics  and  the  various  bodies  of 
dissenters,  bom  at  Salisbury,  May  7,  1678, 
died  Oct.  9,  1728.    He  was  extensively  ac- 

Suainted  with  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  oriental 
teratures,  and  composed  verses  in  the  Hebrew 
language.  In  1700  he  became  rector  of  St. 
James's,  Colchester,  which  position  he  held 
until  1714,  when  he  became  D.  D.,  and  removed 
to  London,  where  he  was  chosen  morning 
preacher  at  St.  Lawrence  Jewry,  and  lecturer 
at  St.  Chive's,  in  the  Borough.  He  was  soon 
alter  presented  to  the  vicarage  of  St.  Giles's, 
Oripplegate.  Beside  his  works  in  confutation  of 
popery,  schism,  Quakerism,  and  the  principles 
of  the  nonjurors,  he  wrote  many  tracts  on 
baptism,  litur^es,  and  clerical  rights,  and 
engaged  in  the  Trinitarian  controversy  in  an 
examination  of  the  **  Scripture  Doctrine  of 
the  Trinity"  by  Dr.  Clark.  Bennet  was  violent 
in  his  disputes,  but  honest  and  orthodox  in 
his  views. 

BENNET,  William,  an  English  composer, 
born  about  1767,  studied  music  at  Exeter,  un- 
der Bond  and  Jackson,  and  at  London,  under 
Bach  and  Schr6ter.  By  the  last  he  was  in- 
structed in  playing  upon  the  piano-forte,  which 
he  was  the  first  to  introduce  into  Plymouth.  In 
1798  he  was  made  orgamst  to  the  church  of  St. 
Andrew's  at  Plymoutii,  and  gained  much  repu- 
tation aa  an  improvisator  upon  the  organ.  Gf 
his  numerous  compositions  the  best  are  his  col- 
lects of  the  church  of  England,  new  version  of 
psalms,  an  anthem  for  the  coronation  of  George 
^OY.,  and  an  American  glee. 


BENNETT,  Jambs  Gobdok,  an  American 

journalist,  founder  and  proprietor  of  the  "  New 
York  Herald,*'  bom  about  the  year  1800,  al 
New  Mill,  Keith,  in  Banflbhire,  Scotiand.  He 
remained  at  school  in  his  native  place  till  he 
was  14  or  15  years  of  age,  when  he  went  to  a 
Roman  Gatholic  seminaiy  in  Aberdeen,  with  a 
view  to  preparing  for  holy  orders  in  that  church, 
of  whicn  his  parents  were  members.  At  this 
institution  he  pursued  the  usual  routine  of  aca- 
demic life  for  2  or  8  years,  when  he  abandoned 
the  intention  of  entering  upon  an  ecclesiastical 
career,  and  soon  after  determined  to  emigrate 
to  this  country.  Acting  under  a  sudden  im- 
pulse, he  embarked  wil£  a  youthful  compan- 
ion, in  April,  1819,  and  arriving  in  Halifax,  with 
but  scanty  pecuniary  resources,  betook  himself 
to  the  occupation  of  teaching  for  the  sake  of  a 
livelihood.  He  was  led  to  this  employment  by 
necessity  rather  than  inclination,ana  after  a  brief 
experience  of  its  annoyances,  left  Hali&x  fof 
Portland,  and  soon  made  his  way  to  Boston. 
This  was  in  the  autumn  of  1819,  and  making  the 
acquaintance  of  Mr.  William  Wells,  an  English 
gentleman,  at  the  head  of  the  distinguished 
publishing  house  of  Wells  and  Lilly,  he  obtained 
the  situation  of  a  proof  reader  in  that  establish- 
ment During  his  residence  in  Boston  he  was 
the  author  of  several  poetical  compositions, 
suggested  by  his  rambles  in  the  vicinity  of  that 
metropolis.  Littie  else  is  known  of  his  history 
at  this  period.  In  1822  he  came  for  the  first 
time  to  New  York,  and  after  a  short  connection 
with  the  press,  accepted  the  offer  of  Mr.  WU- 
lington,  the  proprietor  of  the  ^'  Charleston  Cou- 
rier "  to  employ  him  as  a  translator  from  the 
Spaniah-American  papers,  for  that  joumaL  He 
also  prepared  original  articles  for  the  "  Courier," 
some  of  which  were  in  verse.  He  remained  in 
this  situation  for  several  months,  when  he  re- 
turned to  New  York,  and  issued  proposals  for 
the  establishment  of  a  oommeroial  school.  This 
plan  was  not  carried  into  effect,  and  his  next 
step  was  the  delivery  of  a  course  of  lectures  on 
political  economy,  in  the  vestry  of  the  old 
butch  church  in  Ann  street.  In  1825  Ifr. 
Bennett  made  his  first  attempt  to  become  the 
proprietor  of  a  public  journal.  He  purchased 
a  Sunday  newspaper  called  the  "New  York 
Courier ; "  but  not  succeeding  in  the  enterprise, 
was  employed  as  a  writer  and  reporter  for  sev- 
eral iournals  of  the  city.  In  1826  he  became 
closely  connected  with  the  "National  Advo- 
cate," a  democratic  newspaper  publbhed  by 
Mr.  Snowden ;  and  after  the  state  election  of 
that  year,  began  to  take  an  active  part  in  poli- 
tics. He  was  a  vehement  opposer  of  the  tariff^ 
and  commented  severely  on  the  subject  of  banks 
and  banking.  In  the  spring  of  1827  he  diso(Hi- 
tinued  his  connection  with  the  "  National  Ad^ 
vocate,"  which,  having  changed  proprietors, 
had  espoused  the  cause  of  John  Quincy  Adamsi 
while  Mr.  Bennett  was  a  warm  partisan  o( 
Martin  Van  Buren,  then  in  the  senate  of  the 
United  States.  He  was  next  engaged  with  the 
late  M.  M.  Noah,  aa  assodate  editor  of  th^ 


BENI9XTT 


BENNINGSEN 


18S 


^l&tqolnr,^^  and  became  an  acknowledged 
member  of  the  Tammany  society.  During  the 
premdential  canvaas  of  1828,  he  was  devoted  to 
the  intereats  of  Qen.  Jackson,  residing  at  Wash- 
ington as  correspondent  of  the  "Enquirer.'' 
Aner  the  ftision  of  that  lonmal  with  the 
"  Gonrier,''  in  1839,  he  oontmned  to  write  in 
the  editorial  department  of  the  "  Courier  and 
Enquirer ; "  and  in  the  aatomn  of  the  same 
year,  he  became  an  associate  editor.  In  1881 
he  connnenced  a  series  of  articles  on  the  bank- 
ing system  of  the  United  States,  sustaining  the 
opposition  of  Gen.  Jackson  and  the  democratic 
party,  to  the  recharterof  the  United  States 
bank.  He  remained  in  this  position  until  1882, 
when  a  difference  of  political  opini<A  with  the 
aenior  editor  Ool.  J.  W.  Webb,  led  to  his  re- 
ttrementy  and  in  Oct  of  the  same  year  he  is- 
sued the  first  number  of  a  new  journal  called 
the  "  New  York  Qlobe.'*  This  continued  pre- 
cisely one  month,  during  which  time  it  was 
strenuoualy  devoted  to  the  cause  of  Jackson  and 
Van  Buren.  Mr.  Bennett  then  purchased  a 
part  of  the  "Pennsylvanian,*'  a  daily  journal  in 
t^hUadelphia,  and  became  its  principal  editor. 
He  continued  this  publication  untal  1884,  when 
he  returned  to  New  York,  and  in  May.  1886, 
issued  the  first  number  of  tne  "  New  York  Her- 
ald," with  which  journal  his  name  has  since 
that  time  been  identified.  (See  "Memoirs  of 
James  Gordon  Bennett,  and  his  Times,"  by  a 
journalist,  New  York,  1865.) 

BENNETT,  Wiluam  Stebndalx,  anEnslish 
composer,  bom  at  ShefBeld.  England,  April  18, 
1816.  At  Syears  of  age  ne  was  entered  as  a 
chorister  in  Sing's  college,  Cambridge,  whence 
he  was  tranafemd  to  the  royal  academy  of 
mudC)  and  became  a  pupil  of  Dr.  Orotch,  under 
whose  tuition  he  composed  a  symphony  in  E 
flat,  and  several  concertos,  which  were  perform- 
ed at  the  philharmonic  concerts  in  London. 
He  had  completed  several  brilliant  composi- 
tiona,  when  attending  the  muacal  festival  at 
Dfksseldorf,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of 
MendelssomL  and  formed  an  mtimacy  with 
him  which  had  an  important  efiS»ct  upon  the 
career  of  the  voung  composer,  who  thence- 
forth modelled  his  style  upon  that  of  his  friend, 
at  whose  invitation  he  went  to  Leipsia  and 
brought  out  his  overture  of  the  **  Naiades,"  and 
other  works,  at  the  Gewandhaus  concerts.  The 
&vor  with  which  these  were  received  induced 
him  to  make  Germany  his  home  for  several 
years.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1888,  he 
was  made  a  member  of  the  royal  society  of 
music.  He  delivered  at  Queen's  college,  Lon- 
don, in  1848^  a  lecture  on  harmony,  and  has 
*  composed  for  his  pupils  a  collection  of  pieces 
for  practice  on  the  piano-forte.  His  music  so 
stronglv  reflects  the  peculiaritiee  of  Mendels- 
sohn, that  it  cannot  be  called  original,  though 
fall  of  grace  and  imagination. 

BENKINGSEN,  Lkyik  August  Thsophilb, 
count,  A  Russian  general,  bom  in  Brunswick, 
Feb.  10,  1746,  where  his  fkther  served  as  colo- 
nel in  the  guards,  died  Oct  8»  1826.    Aa  a 


page,  he  spent  6  years  at  ^e  Hanoverian  court 
of  Geoingo  II. ;  entered  the  Hanoverian  armv,  and 
having  advanced  to  the  rank  of  captain  m  the 
foot  guards,  participated  in  the  last  campaign 
of  the  7  years'  war.  His  excessive  passion  m 
the  fair  sex  at  that  time  made  more  nc^  than 
his  warlike  exploits.  In  order  to  marry  the 
daughter  of  the  baron  of  Steinberg^  the  Hano- 
verian minister  at  the  court  of  Vienna,  he  left  the 
armv^  retired  to  his  Hanoverian  estate  of  Banteln, 
by  dmt  of  lavish  expenditure  got  hopelessly 
in  debt,  and,  on  the  death  of  his  wife,  re- 
solved to  restore  his  fortune  by  entering  the 
Russian  military  service.  Made  a  lieut^ant- 
colonel  by  Oatharine  H.,  he  served  first  under 
Romanzo^  against  the  Turks,  and  then  under 
8uwaro£  against  the  rebel  Pugatche£  Dur- 
ing a  furlough  mmted  to  him  he  went  to  Han- 
over to  carry  off  Mile,  von  Schwiehelt,  a  lady 
renowned  for  her  beauty.  On  his  return  to 
Russia,  the  protection  of  RomanjEoff  and  Po- 
temkin  procured  for  him  the  command  of  a 
regunent  Having  distingnished  himself  at  the 
siege  of  Otchakov,  in  1788,  he  was  appointed 
brigadier-generaL  In  the  Polish  campaign  of 
1798-'04,  he  commanded  a  corps  of  light  troops: 
was  created  general  after  the  affidrs  of  Orsohani 
and  Solli;  decided  the  victory  of  Yilna,  by 
breaking  un^  at  the  head  of  the  horse,  the  cen- 
tre of  the  Polish  army,  and,  in  consequence  of 
some  bold  surprises^  successfully  executed  on 
the  banks  of  the  lower  Niemen,  was  rewarded 
by  Oatharine  U.  with  the  order  of  St.  Vladimir, 
a  sabre  of  honor,  and  200  serfe.  During  hia 
Polish  campaign  he  exhibited  the  qualities  of  a 
good  cavalry  officer— fire,  audacity,  and  quick- 
ness—but not  the  higher  attainments  indispen- 
sable for  the  chief  of  an  army.  After  the  Po- 
lish campaign,  he  was  despatched  to  the  army 
in  Persia,  where,  by  means  of  a  bombardment, 
lasting  10  days,  he  compelled  Derbend,  on  the 
Oaspian  sea,  to  surrender.  The  cross  of  the 
order  of  St.  George  of  the  second  class,  was  the 
last  gift  he  received  from  Oatharine  H.,  after 
whose  death  he  was  recalled  and  disgraced  by 
her  successor.  Oount  Pahlen,  military  governor 
of  St  Petersburff,  was  organizing  at  that  time 
the  conspiracy  by  whidi  Paul  lost  his  life. 
Pahlen,  knowing  th»  reckless  character  of  Ben- 
ningsen,  kt  him  into  the  secret,  and  gave  him 
the  post  of  honor — that  of  leading  the  conspira- 
tors  in  the  emperor's  bedchamber.  It  was  Ben- 
ningsen  who  dra^^  Paul  firom  the  chimney^ 
where  he  had  secreted  himself;  and  when  the 
other  conspirators  hesitated,  on  Paulas  reftusal 
to  abdicate,  Benningsen  exdaimed,  ^Enough 
talk,''  untied  his  own  sash,  rushed  on  Paul,  and 
after  a  struggle,  in  which  he  was  aided  by  the 
others,  succeeded  in  strangling  the  victim.  To 
shorten  the  process,  Benningsen  struck  him  on 
the  head  with  a  heavy  silver  snuff  box.  Im- 
mediately on  the  accession  of  Alexander  I.,  Ben- 
ningsen received  a  military  command  in  Lithu- 
ania. At  the  commencement  of  the  campaign 
of  1806-%  he  commanded  a  corps  in  the  first 
army  under  Kameuski — ^the  second  being  com- 


184' 


BENmNGfiEN 


BENKnraTON 


manded  by  Biizh6yden— he  tried  in  yain  to 
cover  Warsaw  against  the  French,  was  foroed 
to  retreat  to  Poltosk  on  the  Narev,  and  there, 
Dea  24,  1806,  proved  able  to  repnlse  an  at* 
taok  of  Lannes  and  Bernadotte,  his  forces  being 
sreatlj  superior,  sinoe  Napoleon,  with  his  main 
lorce,  had  marched  upon  the  second  Bnssiaa 
army.  Benningsen  forwarded  yain-glorions  re- 
ports to  the  emperor  Alexander^d.  by  dint  of  in- 
trigues against  TTamenslri  and  BnzhOyden,  soon 
gained  the  supreme  command  of  the  army  des- 
tined to  operate  against  Napoleon.    At  the  end 
of  January,  1807,  he  miade  an  offensiye  move- 
ment against  Napoleon^s  winter  quarters,  and  es- 
caped by  mere  chance  the  snare  Napoleon  had 
laid  for  him,  and  then  fought  the  battle  of  Syr- 
ian.   Eylau  having  faUen  on  the  7th,  the  mam 
battle,  which,  in  order  to  break  Napoleon^s  vio- 
lent pursuit,  Benningsen  was  foroed  to  accept, 
occurred  on  Feb.  6.    The  tenacity  of  the  Bus- 
sian  troops,  the  arrival  of  the  Prussians  under 
Lestooq,  and  the  slowness  with  which  the  single 
French  corps  appeared  on  the  scene  of  action, 
made  the  victory  doubtful.   Both  parties  daim- 
ed  it,  and  at  any  rate,  the  field  of  Eylau — as 
Napoleon  himself    said — was   the   bloodiest 
among  all  his  battles.     Benningsen  had   Te 
DmrniB  sung,  and  received  from  the  czar  a 
Rusdan  order,  a  pension  of  12,000  rubles,  and 
a  letter  of  congratulation,  praising  him  as  **the 
Tanquisher  of  the  never  vanquished  captain.*' 
In  the  spring,  he  intrenched  himself  at  Heils- 
berg,  and  neglected  to  attack  Napoleon,  while 
part  of  the  French  army  was  still  occupied  with 
the  siege  of  Dantzic;  but,  after  the  fill  of  Dantzio, 
and  the  junction  of  the  French  army,  thought 
the  time  for  attack  had  arrived,    first  ddayed 
by  Napoleon^s  vanguard,  which  mustered  the 
third  part  only  of  his  own  numerical  force,  he 
was  soon  maposnvred  back  by  Napoleon  into 
his  intrenched  camp.    There  Napoleon  attack- 
ed him  in  vain  June  10,  with  but  two  corps 
and  some  battalions  of  the  guard,  but  on  the 
next  day  induced  him  to  abandon  his  camp 
and  beat  a  retreat    Suddenly,  however,  and 
without  waiting  for  a  corps  of  28,000  men, 
which  had  already  reached  Tilsit,  he  returned  to 
the  offensive,  occupied  Friedland,  and  there 
drew  up  his  army,  with  the  river  Alle  in  his 
rear,  and  the  bridge  of  Friedland  as  his  only 
Ime  of  retreat    Instead  of  quickly  advancing, 
before  Napoleon  was  able  to  concentrate  his 
troops,  he  allowed  himself  to  be  amused  for  5 
or  6  hours  by  Lannes  and  Mortier,  until,  to- 
ward 5  o'dodc.  Napoleon  had  his  forces  ready, 
and  then  oonomanaed  the  attack.    The  Bus- 
dans  were  thrown  on  the  river,  Frie^nd  was 
taken,  and  the  bridge  destroyed  by  the  Bus- 
flians  themselves,  although  tlieir  whole  right 
wing  stood  still  on  the  opposite  dde.    Thus  the 
battle  of  Friedland,  June  14,  costing  the  Bus- 
dan  army  above  20,000  men,  was  lost   It  was 
add  that  Benningsen  was  at  that  time  influ- 
enced by  his  wife,  a  Polish  woman.    During 
this  whole  campdgn  Benningsen  committed 
fimlt  upon  fimlt,  his  whole  conduct  ^chibiting 


a  strange  oompound  of  radi  impradenoe  and 
weak  irresolution.  During  the  campaign  of 
1812,  his  prindpd  activity  was  displayed  at  the 
head-quarton  of  the  emperor  Alexander,  where 
he  intrigued  against  Barday  de  Tolly,  wi^  a 
view  to  get  his  place.  In  the  campaign  of 
1818,  he  commanded  a  Russian  army  of  reserve, 
and  was  created  count  by  Alexander,  on  the 
battle  fidd  of  Leipsio.  Beceiving  afterward 
the  order  to  didodge  Davoust  from  Hambuig, 
he  beleaguered  it  until  Napoleon's  abdicatioa 
of  April,  1814,  put  an  end  to  hostilities.  For 
the  peaceful  occupation  of  Hamburg^  thea 
efiSacted  by  him,  he  daimed  and  received  new 
honcnv  and  emoluments.  After  having  hdd 
the  ooounand  of  the  araiiy  of  the  south,  in 
Bessarabia,  from  1814  to  1818,  he  finally  re- 
tired to  his  Hanoverian  estate,  where  he  died, 
having  squandered  most  of  his  fortune,  uxA 
leaving  hh  children  poor  in  thh  Rusdan  service. 
BENNINGTON,  the  name  of  a  county  and 
its  shire  town  in  Vermont,  area  about  700  sq. 
miles,  pop.  in  1850,  18,689.  It  lies  in  the  8. 
W.  comer  of  the  stete,  and  is  skirted  by  the 
Green  monntdns  on  the  east  It  is  well  water- 
ed by  the  Battenkill,  Hoosick,  and  smaller 
streams,  has  many  water  privileges,  and  al- 
though mudi  of  its  land  is  too  rough  for  culti- 
vation, it  is  good  for  gradng,  and  is,  on  the 
whole,  a  thriving  part  of  the  state.  In  the 
north  part  of  the  county,  especially  in  DorseL 
large  quantities  of  marble  are  quarried  and 
manufactured,  for  building  and  ornamental 
purposes,  some  varieties  of  which  are  veiy 
white  and  fine,  and  take  a  high  polish. 
The  county  is  cut  by  2  railroads^  meeting 
at  Rutland,  Yt,  on  uie  north,  and  at  £a^ 
Bridge,  N.  T.,  on  the  south.  The  But- 
land  and  WashUigton  road  crosses  the  north- 
western comer  of  the  county  only,  while  the 
western  Vermont  nearly  bisects  it,  having  sta- 
tions in  6  towns.  In  1850  the  produotiou 
amounted  to  160,920  bushels  of  Indian  com, 
200,018  of  potetoes,  64,600  tons  of  hay,  502,- 
786  pounds  of  butter,  and  568.494  of  cheese. 
There  were  8  cotton  and  4  woollen  factories,  8 
grist  mills,  2  paper  mills,  2  powder  mills,  40 
saw  mills,  4  founderies,  2  newspaper  offices,  29 
churches,  and  6,177  pupils  attending  public 
schools. — ^The  town  is  situated  in  the  S.  W. 
part  of  the  county,  wise  settled  in  1761, 
has  a  condderable  manufacturing  interest,  es- 
pedally  of  stoneware,  known  bs  the  Benning- 
ton ware,  and  is  one  of  the  shire  towas  of  the 
county,  Manchester beingthe  other.  Bennington 
is  noted  in  lustory  as  the  place  in  which  jone  of 
the  early  battles  of  the  revolution  was  foi^t 
The  army  of  Gren.  Burgoyne,  marching  to  the 
south  from  Ganada  in  1777,  and  causing  the 
abandonment  of  Ticonderoga  by  Gen.  8t  Glair, 
created  the  greatest  commotion  throughout  New 
England,  since  Boston  was  supposed  to  be  its 
point  of  destination.  Gen.  Stark  chanced  to  be  at 
the  Idme  at  Bennington,  having  under  his  com- 
mand a  corps  of  New  Hampshire  militia,  and  he 
detennined  to  confront  a  strong  detadunent  of 


BENNO 

the  enemy  Bent  ont  under  Ool.  Baiim  to  proeare 
enppUeB.    He  hastily  oolleoted  the  continental 
foToea  in  the  neighborhood,  and  Ang.  10  ap- 
proached the  Britifih  colonel,  whom,  after  a  hot 
action  of  2  honra,  he  forced  to  a  disorderly 
retreat.     The  engagement  was   hardly  over 
when  a  reinforcement  arrired,  sent  by  Gen. 
Borgoyne,  and  the  battle  was  renewed,  and 
kept  up  several  honrs  till   dark,  when   the 
British  forces  retreated,  leaving  their  baggage 
and  anmiiinition.    The  loss  of  the  enemy  was 
200  killed,  600  taken  prisoners,  and  1,000  stand 
of  arms. — The  Americans  lost  only  14  killed 
and  42  womided.    No  trace  now  remains  to  in- 
dicate the  precise  locality  of  the  engagement 

BENNO,  Saimt,  bishop  of  Meissen,  bom  in 
1010  at  HUdesheim,  died  June  16, 1107.  He 
was  educated  in  the  cloister  of  St.  Michael  in 
his  native  town,  where  in  1082  he  assamed  the 
doak  of  a  Bene^ctine  monk.  la  1051  he  re- 
ceived the  appointment  of  canon  of  the  chnrch 
in  Qoslar,  and  in  1066  was  promoted  by  the 
emperor  Henry  lY.  to  the  bishopric  of  Meissen. 
The  efforts  wMch  he  immediately  began  for  the 
advancement  of  Christianity  in  the  territories 
of  his  bishopric  were  frnstrated  by  the  war  which 
broke  out  between  the  emperor  and  Pope  Gre- 
gory yn.  He  declared  himself  for  the  pope 
against  the  canse  of  Henry,  and  though  more 
than  once  made  a  prisoner  by  the  imperial 
forces,  was  yet  restored  to  flreedom.  Bat  when 
in  1085  he  supported  in  a  general  council  the 
ban  of  excommunication  which  was  thundered 
against  the  emperor,  the  latter  exerted  his 
power  and  took  from  him  his  bishopric  He 
was  afterward  restored  to  the  same  bishopric 
by  Pope  dement  III.,  and,  in  an  unenlightened 
age  and  a  most  benighted  territory,  labor- 
ed with  zeal  and  discretion  until  his  death  for 
the  welfare  of  his  flock.  In  the  16th  century 
pilgrimages  were  made  to  his  tomb,  and  in  1528 
he  was  canonised. 

BENOtT,  RxNfi,  a  celebrated  French  doctor 
of  the  Sorbonne,  curate  of  St  Eustace,  in  Paris, 
was  bom  at  Savenidres,  near  Angers,  in  1521, 
and  died  March  7, 1 608.  Beingsecretly  inclined  to 
Protestantism,  he  published  at  Paris  the  French 
translation  of  the  Bible  which  had  been  made 
by  the  reformed  ministers  at  Geneva,  which, 
although  it  had  been  approved  by  several  doc- 
tors of  the  Sorbonne,  and  its  publication  au- 
thorized by  Oharles  IX.,  was  condemned  as 
soon  as  it  appeared.  Benott  was  confessor  to 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  during  her  stay  inFrance, 
and  for  some  time  after  her  return.  When 
Henrv  IV.  abjured  the  reformed  fiuth,  he  as- 
sisted at  the  ceremony.  He  was  afterward 
made  bishop  of  Troyee,  but  could  never  obtain 
the  pope's  authority  for  his  installation,  and 
was  obliged  to  content  himself  with  enjoying 
the  episcopal  revenues. 

BENOOWE,  "the  mother  of  waters,"  a 
river  of  central  Africa,  the  main  tributary  of 
the  Quorra,  Kawara,  or  Niger,  which  it  rivals, 
if  it  does  not  surpass,  in  length,  depth,  and 
brttudth.    This  river  has  hitherto  been  termed 


BENOOWE 


185 


the  Ohadda,  Tchadda,  or  Tsadda,  but  Dr.  Barth 
thinks  this  name  was  an  invention  of  Lander, 
who,  in  common  with  other  travellers,  errone- 
ously fancied  it  to  be  an  outlet  of  Lake  Tchad. 
It  was  first  discovered  by  Richard  and  John 
Lander,  Oct.  25, 1880.  On  Aug.  2, 1884,  Rich- 
ard Lander,  Lieut  AUen,  and  Dr.  OldfieldL  enter- 
ed the  Benoowe,  which  thev  call  the  Ohadda, 
in  the  ship  Alborkah,  intenmng  to  ascend  it  as 
far  as  its  supposed  source.  Lake  Tchad,  but  after 
proceeding  104  miles,  and  reaching  a  country 
called  Domah,  the  king  of  which  was  at  war 
with  the  sheik  of  Bomoo,  they  ran  out  of  pro- 
visions and  were  obliged  to  return.  The  peo- 
ple would  neither  trade  nor  scdl  them  anv  thing, 
but  deserted  the  villages  and  retreated  into  the 
woods  at  their  approach.  On  June  12, 1861,  Dr. 
Barth,  while  travelling  in  Adamawa,  came  upon 
this  river  at  its  point  of  junction  with  a  consid- 
erable affluent,  the  Faro,  about  long.  12""  80'  K 
It  was  there  at  least  800  feet  broad,  and  was  liable 
to  rise,  under  ordin^  circumstances,  80  or  even 
60  feet  higher.  Ihe  natives  informed  the 
traveller  that  it  came  from  the  S.  S.  E.  Noth- 
ing further  is  as  yet  known  of  its  source  and 
upper  course.  The  British  government,  im- 
pelled by  the  desire  to  open  up  to  civilization 
and  commerce  the  districts  lying  on  the  banks 
of  this  great  natural  highway  into  the  centre 
of  the  continent,  despatched  (in  conjunction 
with  Mr.  Macgregor  Laird,  a  gentleman  of 
wealth  and  knowledge)  the  steamer  Pleiad  to 
navigate  this  stream.  Dr.  Baikie  eventually  took 
command  of  the  expedition,  and  has  published 
an  interesting  narrative  of  his  journey.  See 
"Narrative  of  Exploring  Voyage  up  the  Niger 
and  Tsadda,  1864^  (Loud.  1866).  The  Pleiad, 
with  an  entire  crew  of  black  sailors  and  8  black 
interpreters,  commenced  the  exploration,  July 
8,  1854.  The  expedition  reached  a  point  800 
miles  higher  up  the  Benoowe  than  AUen  and 
Oldfield,  in  1884^  and  only  60  miles  below  the 
place  of  junction  with  the  Faro.  The  want  of 
wood  for  the  purposes  of  ftiel,  and  the  fear  of  the 
crew  that  the  river  would  fall  and  prevent  them 
from  regaining  the  coast,  compelled  a  return. 
There  was  not  a  single  death  during  this  expe- 
dition. The  inhabitantB  along  the  banks  are 
pfljrtly  pagans,  and  partly  Mohammedans.  The 
last  are  of  the  Fellatah  nation^  and  speak  the 
Palo  and  Houssa  tongues.  The  banks  beyond 
Domah  are  thus  described  by  Dr.  Baikie: 
**  Though  no  towns  or  villages  could  be  seen  to 
enliven  the  prospect,  yet  every  thing  around  us 
wore  a  smilmg  aspect  The  river,  still  upward 
of  a  mile  in  oreadth,  preserved  its  noble  ap- 
pearance ;  the  neighboring  soil  teemed  with  a 
diyersified  vegetation,  and  the  frequent  recur- 
rence of  hill  and  dale  pleased  the  eye.  Nor  was 
animal  life  wanting,  for  from  our  mast-head  we 
ei^oyed  the  novel  siffhtof  a  large  herd  of  ele- 
phants, orossine  a  little  streamlet  not  much 
more  than  a  mile  from  us."  The  further  in- 
land the  Pleiad  got,  the  more  savage  the  pop- 
ulation became.  They  discovered  a  tribe  who 
lived  in  houses  and  villages  flooded  with  water, 


136 


BEKOWM 


BENTHAM 


"  like  a  oolony  of  beavers,  or  after  the  fashion 
of  the  hippopotami  and  crocodiles  of  the  neigh- 
boring swamps.*' 

BENOWM,  a  town  of  Soodan,  near  the 
Senegambian  frontier,  in  lat  16^  6'  K,  long. 
9°  W.  It  is  a  caravan  station  on  the  road  fix>m 
the  Senegal  to  Timbnotoo. 

BENSLET,  Thomas,  a  distinguished  printer 
of  London,  died  in  1888.  He  is  much  known 
for  an  edition  of  Lavater,  printed  by  him  in 
1789,  in  5  vols.  4to,  and  for  an  edition  of  the 
En^ish  Bible  between  1800  and  1815,  in  7  vols, 
^to.  He  also  printed  Shakespeare  in  1803,  in  7 
vols.  8vo,  and  Homers  England  in  10  vols,  folio, 
in  1806,  whidi  is  adorned  with  elaborate  por- 
traits and  engravings  on  copper.  He  was  prom- 
inent also  in  the  construction  of  the  machine 
printing  press,  invented  by  Eoenig,  and  applied 
to  printing  the  "  Times"  newspaper  in  1814. 

BENSON,  Gboboe,  an  English  dissenting 
clergyman,  born  in  Great  Salkeld,  in  1699; 
^ed  in  1763.  At  11  years  of  age  he  read  the 
Greek  Testament  From  1721  to  1763  he  held 
successive  pastoral  charges ;  first  at  Abingdon, 
Berkshire,  next  at  Southwark,  and  finally  as 
colleague  of  Dr.  Lardner  in  the  congregation  of 
Orutched  Friars.  He  published  severS  works, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  "'  A  Treatise 
on  Prayer"  (1731),  "  Comments  on  some  of  the 
Epistles,"  "  History  of  the  first  Planting  of  Ohris- 
tiani^"  (1785),  '' Keaaonableness  of  the  Ohris- 
tian  Beligiou,"  "  History  of  the  Life  of  Christ," 
and  "  An  Account  of  the  Burning  of  Servetns, 
and  of  the  concern  of  Calvin  in  it."  In  his 
early  ministerial  career  he  wa^  Calvinistic  in 
theology ;  later  he  became  an  Arian,  and  en- 
deavored to  suppress  some  of  his  former  publi- 
cations. 

BENSON,  Josspo,  a  Wesleyan  Methodist 
minister,  born  Jan.  25,  1748,  in  the  parish 
of  Eirk-Oswald,  in  Cumberland,  England,  died 
Feb.  16,  1621.  He  acquired  the  rudiments  of 
learning  in  the  village  school,  and  was  subse- 
quently placed  under  the  care  of  the  Rev.  Mr. 
Dean,  a  minister  of  the  Presbyterian  churdi. 
He  was  a  diligent  student,  and  made  rapid  pro- 
gress in  the  studv  of  the  Latin  and  Ghreek  lan- 
guages. His  fftther  dengned  educating  him  for 
a  mmister  in  the  establi^ed  church,  but,  while 
pursuing  his  studies,  he  was,  through  a  relative, 
introduced  to  the  Methodists^  and,  under  the 
labors  of  that  denomination,  was  converted. 
Soon  after  this  event  he  joined  that  society, 
and  ever  aft^ward  remained  one  of  its  most 
zealous  and  devoted  members.  After  finishing 
the  course  of  study  at  Mr.  Dean's  school,  at  the 
age  of  17  he  became  a  teacher  m  the  Gambles- 
by  school  in  Cumberland.  Subsequently  meet- 
ing with  Mr.  Wesley  at  Bristol,  he  was  appoint- 
ed by  him  to  the  office  of  classical  teacher  in 
the  Eingswood  schooL  His  first  attempts  at 
preaching  were  among  the  colliers  of  Kings- 
wood.  Soon  after  he  entered  upon  his  duties 
as  teacher  at  this  place  he  entered  his  name  in 
the  books  of  the  university  of  Oxford,  and  reg- 
ularly kept  his  terms  at  St.  Edmund's  hs^ 


His  object  in  this  was  to  make  himself  moz^ 
ftilly  acqudnted  with  di^ical  literature,  math- 
ematics, metaphysics,  and  natural  philosophy. — 
In  the  vear  1767  the  countess  of  Huntington 
founded  a  college  at  Lievecca  for  the  educa- 
tion of  candidates  for  the  Christian  ministry, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Fletcher, 
throi^h  whose  influence,  and  the  sanction  of 
Mr.  Wesley,  Mr.  Benson  was  appointed  the 
principal  After  remaining  some  time  in  tiiis 
mstitution.  he  went  to  Oxford,  with  tiie  in- 
tention or  preparing  himself  for  orders  in 
the  church  of  England.  In  this,  however,  he 
was  disappointed,  for  notwithstanding  he  had 
passed  the  curriculum  of  the  university,  his 
views  and  feelings  were  too  strongly  tinctured 
with  Methodism  to  allow  his  instructors  to 
sign  his  testimonials,  and  though  he  obtained, 
through  a  clerical  friend,  a  populous  parish  with 
a  large  church,  and  his  testimonials  were  coun- 
tersigned by  the  bishop  of  St.  David's^  yet  the 
bishop  in  whose  diocese  the  pariah  was  situated 
refused  to  ordain  him.  He  then  returned  to 
his  Methodist  friends  at  Bristol,  and  entered 
upon  the  work  of  preaching  in  different  parts 
of  Wiltshire.  In  due  time  he  entered  the  itine- 
rant connection,  and  was  appointed  to  London 
circuit,  and  subseguentlv  to  Newcastle,  Edin- 
burgh, Bradford,  Sheffield,  Hull,  Birmingham, 
Manchester,  and  other  prominent  places.  After 
the  death  of  Mr.  Wesley  he  was  appointed  pres- 
ident of  the  conference^  a  position  which  he 
occupied  for  some  time.  While  stationed  in 
Lonoon,  where  he  continued  for  4  years,  he 
conmienced  writing  his  commentary,  and  edit- 
ed the  **  Wesleyan  Magazine."  Such  was  his 
Sopularity  as  a  preacher,  that  vast  crowds 
^ked  to  hear  him.  He  was  sent  for  in  eveiy 
direction  to  open  new  chapels  and  attend  to 
the  various  interests  of  the  denomination  as 
president  of  the  conference.  In  the  65tli 
year  of  his  age,  he  completed  his  conmientary 
in  5  volumes  quarto.  This  work  has  been 
very  popular,  both  in  England  and  Americai 
among  tlie  Methodists,  and  still  holds  a  promi- 
nent place  in  the  literature  of  the  church. 
He  wrote,  in  the  early  part  of  his  ministry,  an 
"  Essay  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,"  and 
also  one  on  the  "•  Unacriptural  nature  of  So- 
cinianism."  Toward  the  close  of  life  he  edited 
^Amdt^s  True  Christianity,"  and  continued  up  to 
the  day  of  his  death  to  conduct  the  magazine. 

BENTHAM,  Jsbbmt,  an  English  juridical 
philosopher,  born  in  London,  Feb.  16,  1748^ 
in  Red  Lion  street^  near  Aldgate  church, 
died  in  Queen-square  place,  Westminster,  his 
residence  for  40  years  previously,  June  6, 1882. 
His  ereat-grandfatiier,  a  pro^rous  London 
pawnbroker  of  the  time  of  Charles  IL — a 
more  reputable  calling  then  than  now — ^had 
acquired  some  landed  property  which  re- 
mained in  the  family.  His  grandfather  was  a 
London  attorney;  his  father,  who  followed  the 
same  profeEeion,  was  a  shrewd  man  of  business, 
and  added  considerably  to  his  patrimony, 
principally  by  fortunate  purchases  of  laud  and 


JEREMY  BENTHAM 


187 


leases.  These  London  Bentiiatns  were  probably 
an  off-ahoot  from  an  ancient  Torkshire  &mlly 
of  the  same  name,  which  boasted  a  bishop  and 
many  clergymen  among  its  members ;  but  the 
subject  of  this  notice  did  not  tronble  himself 
mnch  to  trace  his  genealogy  beyond  the  pawn- 
broker. His  mo&er,  Alicia  Grove  (whose 
beanty  &iid  amiability  cq>tiTated  his  flEkther  at 
first  sight,  and  prevailed  over  the  temptation  of 
a  wealthier  match  which  his  family  had  in  view 
for  him),  was  the  daughter  of  a  retired  Andover 
Shopkeeper.  Jeremy  Bentham,  the  eldest,  and 
for  9  years  the  only  child  of  this  marriage,  was 
for  Uie  first  16  years  of  his  life  exceedingly  pony, 
small,  and  feeble.  At  the  same  time  he  exhib- 
ited a  remarkable  precocity,  which  greatly 
stimulated  the  pride  as  well  as  afiOdction  of  his 
father.  At  the  age  of  8  years,  as  he  was  not 
iJlowed  story-books,  he  amused  himself  with 
reading  Bapin^s  ^'History  of  Englaad."  He 
had  a  decided  taste  for  mnsio,  ana  at  5  years 
of  age  acquired  a  knowledge  of  musical  notes 
and  learned  to  play  the  violin.  At  4  or  earlier, 
having  previously  learned  to  write,  he  was  in- 
itiated into  Latin  grammar,  and  in  his  7th  year 
entered  Westminster  school.  Meanwhile  he 
was  taught  French  by  a  private  master  at  home, 
and  at  7  read  Telemachus — a  book  which 
strongly  impressed  him.  Learning  to  dance 
was  a  mnch  more  serious  undertaking;  he  was 
so  weak  in  the  legs  as  to  make  it  laborious  and 
painfuL  Young  as  he  was,  he  acquired  distinc- 
tion at  Westminster,  as  a  f&brieator  of  Latin  and 
Greek  verses,  the  great  end  and  aim  of  the  in- 
struction given  there.  When  12  years  old  he 
was  entered  as  a  commoner  at  Queen's  college, 
Oxford,  where  he  spent  the  next  8  years.  The 
young  Bentham  haa  not  been  happy  at  school. 
He  had  suffered  firom  the  tyranny  of  the  elder 
boys,  though  he  escaped  the  discipline  of  cor- 
poral puniuiment,  ana  was  but  once  forced  into 
a  boxing  match.  Neither  was  he  happy  at  Ox- 
ford. Though  regarded  by  others  ana  taught 
from  infancy  to  regard  himself  as  a  prodigy,  he 
was  yet  exceedingly  diffident,  and  to  the  high- 
est degree  sensitive  of  any  slight  or  neglect — 
peculiarities  which,  as  well  as  his  high  estimate 
of  himself,  dung  to  him  through  life.  His  tutor 
was  morose,  the  college  dull,  while  his  sensitive 
pride  suffered  much  from  the  mingled  penurious- 
ness  and  meddlesomeness  of  his  father,  who  kept 
him  on  veiy  short  allowance;  and  who,  in  spite 
of  all  his  affection  for  his  son,  of  whose  ultimate 
distinction  he  had  formed  the  highest  hopes, 
£uled  entirely  to  comprehend  the  boy's  delicacy 
and  diffidence,  and  never  gained  either  his  con- 
fidence or  his  love.  His  mother  had  died  2 
vears  before  he  entered  the  university,  leaving 
him  an  only  brother,  afterward  Sir  Samuel  Bent- 
ham.  Several  years  after  his -father  married 
for  a  second  wife  the  widow  of  a  clergyman  al- 
ready the  mother  of  2  boys^  of  whom  the  eldest, 
Cbarles  Abbot,  was  afterward  speaker  of  the 
house  of  commons,  and  finally  raised  to  the 
peerage  as  Lord  Colchester.  There  were  no 
chUdren  by  this  second  marriage^  yet  it  was  a 


source  of  great  vexation  to  Bentham,  to  whom 
his  mother-in-law  was  far  from  being  agreea- 
ble. Though  very  uncomfortable  at  Oxford, 
Bentham  went  through  the  exercises  of  the 
college  with  credit  and  even  with  some  dis- 
tinction. Some  Latin  verses  of  his  on  the  ac- 
cession of  George  HI.  attracted  considerable  at- 
tention as  the  production  of  one  so  young.  Into 
the  disputations  which  formed  a  part  of  the 
college  exercises  he  entered  with  much  satisfac- 
tion ;  but  he  never  felt  at  home  in  the  uni veraty, 
of  which  he  retained  the  most  unfavorable  re- 
collection. In  his  old  age,  he  seldom  spoke  either 
of  Westminster  school  or  Oxford  but  wiUi  as- 
perity and  disgust.  In  1768,  while  not  vet  16, 
he  took  his  degree  of  A.  B.  Shortly  after,  he 
commenced  easing  his  commons  in  Idnooln's 
Inn,  but  went  back  to  Oxford  to  hear  Black- 
stone's  lectures.  To  these  lectures  he  listened 
without  the  presumption,  at  that  time,  to  set 
himself  up  as  a  critic,  yet  not  wi^out  some  oc- 
casional feelings  of  protest.  Returning  to  Lon* 
don,  he  attended,  as  a  student,  the  court  of 
king's  bench,  then  presided  over  by  Lord 
Mansfield,  of  whom  he  continued  for  some 
years  not  only  a  great  admirer,  but  a 
profound  worshipper.  Among  the  advocates, 
Dunning's  clearness,  directness,  and  precision, 
most  impressed  him.  He  took  his  degree  of 
A.  M.  at  the  age  of  18,  the  youngest  graduate, 
so  says  Dr.  Southwood  Smith,  that  had  been 
known  at  either  of  the  universities;  and  in 
1772  he  was  caUed  to  the  bar.  Bentham's 
grandfather  had  been  a  Jacobite;  his  father, 
educated  in  the  same  opinions,  had,  like  others 
of  that  party,  transferred  his  sentiments  of  loy- 
alty to  the  reigning  family.  The  young  Bent- 
ham had  breathed,  fh)m  infancy,  at  home,  at 
school,  at  college,  and  in  the  courts,  an  atmos- 
phere conservative  and  submissive  to  authori- 
ty. Yet,  in  the  progress  of  his  law  studies, 
beginning  to  contrast  the  law  as  it  was  with 
law  such  as  he  conceived  it  might  be,  and  ought 
to  be,  he  came  gradually  to  abandon  the  posi- 
tion of  a  submissive  and  admiring  stuaent, 
anxious  only  to  make  of  the  law  a  ladder  by 
which  to  rise  to  wealth  and  eminence,  for  that 
of  a  sharp  critic,  an  indignant  denouncer,  a 
would-be  reformer.  His  &ther,  who  fondly 
hoped  to  see  him  lord  chancellor,  had  some 
cases  in  nurse  for  him  on  his  admission  to  the 
bar,  and  took  every  pains  to  push  him  forward. 
But  it  was  all  to  no  purpose.  His  tempera- 
ment, no  less  than  his  moral  and  intellectual 
constitution,  wholly  disqualified  him  for  suc- 
cess as  a  practising  lawyer.  He  soon  abandoned 
with  disgust,  to  the  infinite  disappointment  of 
his  father,  all  attempts  in  that  line.  With  a 
feelmg  in  the  highest  degree  distressing  of 
having  faUed  to  fulfil  the  high  expectations 
formed  of  him  by  his  friends,  and  entertamed 
by  himself,  he  continued  for  years,  to  borrow 
his  own  words.  ^  to  pine  in  solitude  and  penury 
in  his  Lincoln's  Inn  garret,"  living  on  a  very 
narrow  income,  drawn  partly  from  some  lega- 
cies, and  partly  from  a  small  property  conveyed 


188 


JEREMY  BENTHAM 


to  him  by  his  ftther  at  the  time  of  hiB  seoond 
marriage.  StiU,  however,  he  contlnoed  a  dili- 
gent fitndent  and  Berlons  thinker,  amusing  him- 
self with  chemistry,  then  a  new  science,  diongh 
mainly  devoted  to  jorispradenoe,  but  rather  as 
it  shonld  be,  than  as  it  was.  The  writings  of 
Hnme  and  Helvetina  had  led  him  to  adopt  util- 
ity as  the  basis  of  morals,  and  especially  of 
legislation;  and  already  he  began  to  write 
down  his  ideaa  on  this  subject — ^the  commence- 
ment of  a  collection  of  materials  for,  and  frag- 
ments o^  a  projected,  but  never  completed 
code,  which,  for  the  whole  remainder  of  his 
long  life,  famished  him  with  regular  and  al- 
most daily  employment.  In  the  controversy 
between  Great  Britain  and  her  American  col- 
onies, which  became  at  this  time  a  leading 
a  10  of  public  discussion,  Bentham  did  not 
e  any  great  interest  His  tory  education, 
and  his  idea  of  the  law  as  it  was,  led  him,  un- 
warped,  as  he  says,  by  connection  or  hopes,  to 
favor  the  government  side.  In  the  arij^ments 
on  behalf  of  the  colonies,  used  on  eiuer  side 
of  the  water,  he  saw  nothing  to  change  his 
inind.  "  The  whole  of  the  case,*'  to  borrow  his 
own  statement,  *^  was  founded  on  the  assump- 
tion of  natural  rights,  dauned  wiUiout  the 
lightest  evidence  of  their  existence,  and  snp- 
^rted  by  vague  and  dechmiatory  generalities.'' 
Had  the  argument  been  placed  on  the  ground 
of  the  impossibility  of  good  government  at 
such  a  distance,  and  the  benefits  that  would  ac- 
crue to  both  parties  from  a  separation — ^grounds 
more  in  accordance  with  his  ideaa  of  the  true 
basis  of  laws — ^it  would  then  have  attracted  his 
attention.  As  it  was,  he  had  some  hand,  though 
email,  in  a  book,  ^*  Review  of  the  Acts  of  the  13th 
Parliament."  published  in  1775,  by  a  friend  of 
his,  one  Jonn  Lind,  in  defence  of  Lord  North's 
policy.  The  next  year  he  ventured  to  print  a 
book  of  his  own,  under  the  title-— the  first  part 
of  it  so  appropriate  to  the  character  of  idl  his 
writings— of  "A  Fragment  on  Government" 
He  had  contemplated  a  critical  commentary  on 
the  commentaries  of  Blackstone,  then  lately 
published ;  but  in  this  piece,  he  coimned  himself 
to  what  Blackstone  says  of  the  origin  of  gov- 
ernment Rejecting  the  fiction  of  an  original 
contract,  suggested  by  Locke,  and  adopted  by 
Blackstone,  he  found  government  sufficiently 
warranted  and  justified  by  its  utili^;  while  in 
pkce  of  conformity  to  the  laws  of  God  and  na- 
ture, which  appeared  to  him  to  rest  too  much  in 
vague  assertion  and  opinion,  he  suggested  ^the 
greatest  happiness  of  the  greatest  number  "  as  a 
precise  and  practicable  test  of  right  and  wrong, 
both  in  morals  and  laws.  This  pamphlet,  for  it 
was  scarcely  more,  appeared  anonymously,  and 
attracted  at  first  some  attention.  It  was  even 
ascribed  to  Mansfield,  to  Oamden,  and  to  Dun- 
ning. The  impatient  pride  of  Bentham's  father 
having  led  him  to  betray  the  secret  of  its  au- 
thorship,  the  public  curiosity,  which  had  been 
aroused  by  the  work,  not  in  its  character  of  a 
philosophical  treatise,  but  of  a  personal  attack, 
speedily  subsided.    A  second  pamphlet^  publiah- 


ed  in  1778,  a  critidsm,  though,  on  the  whole, 
a  friendly  one,  on  some  amendments  to  the  law 
of  prison  discipline,  prepared  in  the  form  of 
a  printed  bill,  with  a  pre&oe  to  it  by  Jir.  Eden 
(ittterward  Lord  Auckland),  assisted  by  Black- 
stone, did  not  attract  much  more  attention. 
He  was  also  disappointed  in  an  attempt  which 
he  made,  at  this  time,  to  be  i^>pointed  secretary  of 
the  commission  sent  out  by  Lord  North  to  propoaa 
terms  to  the  revolted  American  colonie»--a 
pUioe  already,  before  his  implication  was  made» 
j^ven  to  Adam  Ferguson.  Meanwhile  his  writ- 
ings, though  neglected  at  home,  yet  served  to 
make  him  known  at  Paris,  whence  he  received 
letters  addressed  to  him  in  the  character  of  a 
philosopher  and  reformer  from  D'Alembert^ 
Morellet,  Ghastellux,  Brissot,  and  others.  They 
also  gained  for  him  the  acquaintance  and  friend- 
ship of  Lord  Shelbume,  who  in  1781  paid  him  a 
visit  in  his  Lincoln's  Inn  garret  After  much 
urging,  Shelbume  at  length  prevailed  upon 
him  to  become  a  visitor  at  his  country  seat  of 
Bowood.  The  ice  once  broken,  Bentham 
became  a  frequent  inmate  there,  and  a  great 
favorite,  especially  with  Lady  Shelbume.  He 
was  indeed  more  noticed  by  the  ladies,  whose 
musicd  performances  he  accompanied  on  the 
violin,  than  by  Gamden,  Barr6,  and  other  great 
men  of  the  day  whom  he  met  there.  Btill  this 
introduction  to  Bowood  was  a  great  thing  for 
Bentham.  It  raised  him,  as  he  himself  express- 
ed it,  fr^m  the  **  bottomless  pit  of  humiliation" 
into  which  he  was  fast  sinking,  and  inspired 
him  with  new  oonfidence  in  himself  and  new- 
seal  for  his  fikvorite  studies.  He  had  also  the 
additional  excitement  of  foiling  in  love.  A  verv 
young  lady  whom  he  met  there,  whose  framk 
simpScity  was  in  strong  contrast  with  the  stif^ 
ness  and  pmdenr  which  was  the  prevailing  style 
at  Bowood,  made  an  impression  on  his  heart, 
whidi,  though  it  did  not  result  in  marriage, 
yet  lasted  through  life.  Already  before  his 
acquaintance  with  Lord  Shelbume  he  had 
printed  part  of  an  introduction  to  a  penal  code 
which  he  had  undertaken  to  construct;  but 
the  unfavorable  or  lukewarm  opinion  of  his  un- 
dertaking expressed  by  Gamden  and  Dunning; 
to  whom  Shcdburae  had  shown  the  sheets,  and 
by  some  other  friends  whom  he  consulted, 
joined  to  his  Hi-success  in  finishing  the  work  to 
his  mind,  long  kept  this  printed  fragment  un- 
published.— In  1786  he  left  England  on  a  visit 
to  his  younger  brother,  then  employed,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel  in  the  Russian  army,  in  the 
service  of  Prince  Potemldn,  in  an  abortive 
scheme,  of  which  Eiikov  on  the  Don  was  the 
seat,  for  introducing  English  methods  in  manu- 
factures and  agriculture  mto  that  barbarous  re- 
gion. Furnished  with  funds  by  a  maternal 
undo,  Bentham  proceeded  by  way  of  Paris,  hie 
third  visit  thither,  across  the  Alps  to  Leghorn. 
There  he  embarked  in  an  English  ship  for 
Smyrna,  and  from  Smyrna  sailed  in  a  Turkish 
vessel  to  Gonstantinople.  Alter  passing  several 
weeks  in  that  city,  he  travelled  by  land  through 
Bulgaria,  Wallaohia,  Moldavia,  and  the  Uk- 


JEBEMT  BENTHAH 


189 


fttne,  to  bia  destinsiioii  in  White  Rosna.  Here 
h»  spent  a  year  and  a  hal^  living  most  of  the 
time  a  very  solitary  life,  devotixig  himself  amid 
many  annoyanoes  and  priTstionfl,  among  which 
was  -want  of   books,  to  his  favorite  stadies. 
Tired  ont  at  last»  in  the  abeenoe  of  his  brother, 
detained  at  Kherson  by  an  expected  attook 
from  the  TnrkSy  he  started  for  home  by  way  of 
Poland,  Germany,  and  Holland,  and  reached 
England  in  the  spring  of  1788.    While  redd- 
ing at  KrikoT  he  had  written  his  "Letters  on 
IJaury,'^  ocoasloned  by  the  report  that  the  legal 
rate  of  interest  was  to  be  lowered.    He  sent 
the  mannacript  to  England;  his  father  oansed 
it  to  be  printM  while  he  still  remained  absent, 
uid  it  proved  with  the  English  public  the  most 
snooessfiil  of  his  works.    Benewmg  his  visits  to 
Bowood,  he  there  met  Bomilly,  whom  he  had 
known  dightly  befbre,  and  with  whom  he  now 
formed  an  intimacy  which  lasted  as  long  as 
Bomilly  lived.   He  now  also  first  formed  the  ao- 
oniaintance  of  the  Swiss  Dmnont,  who  had  been 
aomeeticated  at  Lord  Bhelbnrne^s  during  his 
absence.    Bentham  had  become  so  much  dis- 
gnsted  at  his  fiulore  to  attract  attention  in  Eng- 
haad  that  he  had  adopted  the  idea  of  pnblishing 
in  French,  and  had  made  some  essays  in  that 
language.    Bomilly  had  shown  some  of  these 
IVoQch  sketches  to  Dnmont,  who,  very  much 
impressed  by  them,  offered  his  services  to  cor* 
rect  and  re-write  them  with  a  view  to  publica- 
tion.   Another  friend  of  Bentham's,  witn  whom 
he  had  kept  up  a  correspondence  while  absent 
in  Boasia,  had  written  to  him  of  Paley^s  success 
in  applykig  the  principle  of  utility  to  morals, 
and  had  urged  him  to  set  to  work  to  complete 
some  of  his  own  treatises ;  or  at  least  to  publish 
the  already  printed  part  of  his  introduction  to 
bis  unfinished  penal  code.    These  sheets,  after 
lying  in  hand  for  8  years,  were  now  at  length 
pnbliflhed  under  the  title  of  ^*  An  Introduction 
to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and  Legislation," 
but  they  attxacted  very  little  attention.    Du- 
mont,  however,  who  about  this  time  went  to 
Paris,  and  became  connected  with  Mirabeau, 
aided  to  epre&d  Bentham's  reputation,  and  in 
the  Qfurrier  de  Protmce^  of  which  he  was  one 
of  the  editors,  gave  publicity  to  some  of  his 
manuscripts.    Meanwhile  Bentham,  with  the 
idea  of  aiding  the  deliberations  of  the  states- 
general,  then  about  to  meet,  drew  up  and  print- 
ed, but  did  not  publish,  his  **  Parliamentary 
Tactics,"  and  with  the  same  object  in  view  pre- 
yed and  printed  a  *^  Draft  of  a  Oode  for  the 
Organisation  of  the  Judicial  Establishment  in 
IVimoe;"  services  which  the  national  assembly 
recognized,  by  conferring  on  him  the  dtizea- 
diip  of  France,  in  a  decree  (Aug.  23, 1792),  in 
which   his  name  was  included  with  those  of 
Priestiey,  Paine,  Wilberforce,  Glarkson,  Mackin- 
tosh, Anacbarsis  Oloota,  Pestalozzi,  Washington, 
JQopstock,  Koecinazko,  and  several  others.    In 
this  character  of  French  citizen,  Bentham  next 
year  addressed  to  tiie  national  convention  a 
new  pamphlet,  ^'  Emancipate  your  Colonies," 
the  first  work  which  laid  aown  the  principle  of 


ranking  colonies  as  integral  parts  of  the  mother 
country.— While  residing  at  J&ikov,  Bentham's 
attention  had  been  attracted  by  an  architectural 
idea  of  his  brother's,  who  was  a  person  of  great 
mechanical  genius^  though  like  himself  given  to 
running  from  one  thing  to  another  witiiout  stop- 
ping to  finish  any  thing.  This  idea  was  that  of 
a  circular  buildizig  so  constructed  as  that  from 
the  centre  all  the  inmates  could  be  overlooked. 
The  younger  Bentham  had  attempted  to  realize 
it  with  a  view  to  the  oversight  of  his  Russian 
workmen.  The  elder  brother  seized  upon  it,  in 
connection  with  his  study  of  penal  legislation, 
as  applicable  to  prison  discipline.  He  gave  to 
this  building  the  name  of  Panopticon,  and  while 
still  in  Bussia  wrote  a  series  of  letters  in  expla- 
nation of  its  construction  and  its  uses.  These 
letters^  after  his  return,  were  printed  at  Dublin 
by  the  Irish  parliament,  the  adoption  of  his 
prison  discipline  scheme  having  been  proposed 
there.  In  1791  they  were  brought  out  at  Lon- 
don, with  additions,  under  the  title  of  ^'  Panop- 
ticon ;  or,  the  Inspection  House." — ^In  1792 
Bentham's  fSather  died,  leaving  him  the  fiunily 
mansion  in  QueenVsquare  place,  Westminster, 
where  he  chiefly  resided  for  the  rest  of  his  life, 
and  a  freehold  and  leasehold  property  of  be- 
tween £500  and  £600  a  year.  He  left  about 
an  eq^ual  amount  to  the  younger  brother,  who 
by  this  time  had  returned  from  Russia,  and 
had  zealously  entered  with  his  elder  brother 
into  the  perfecting  of  the  Panopticon,  with  a 
view  to  apply  it  to  prison  discipline.  Being 
now  possessed  of  means,  Bentham,  in  coig  auc- 
tion with  his  brother,  submitted  plans  to 
Mr.  Pitt  for  taking  charge  of  1,000  convicts,  in 
a  building  to  be  erected  for  that  purpose,  at  the 
expense  of  the  government;  but — ^npon  certain 
conditions,  and  at  a  certain  rate  of  pay  for  each 
convict — ^to  be  under  the  entire  control  of  the 
Benthams  for  their  Joint  lives.  Mr.  Pitt,  Mr. 
Dundas,  Mr.  Bose,  and  others,  entered  with 
much  enthusiasm  into  the  idea,  and  in  1794  an 
act  of  parliament  authorized  the  contract  The 
Benthams  obtained  an  advance  from  the  treas- 
ury, and  spent  several  thousand  pounds  of  bor- 
rowed money  on  the  strength  of  this  arrange- 
ment, inyolving  themselves  thereby  in  great 
embarrassments,  but  from  some  mysterious 
cause,  could  not  get  any  further  advances,  nor 
a  signature  of  the  contract.  The  ministers, 
however,  continued  favorable,  and  made  use  of 
a  parliamentary  committee,  in  1797,  to  urge  the 
completion  of  the  contract,  when  at  lengtii  the 
hitherto  mysterious  delay  was  explained,  and  the 
afBtir  again  brought  to  a  standstill,  by  the  refusal 
of  the  king  to  sign  a  treasury  warrant  for  a  sum 
of  money  needed  to  periect  the  titie  to  the  land 
on  whidi  the  building  was  to  be  erected,  and 
for  which  considerable  expenditures  had  already 
been  made.  George  HI.  had  taken  an  antip- 
athy to  Bentham,  partiy,  as  Bentham  believed, 
from  having  looked  into  his  treatise  on  the  or- 
ganization of  the  French  indiciary,  and  partiy 
because  he  had  discovered  him  to  be  the  author 
of  2  newspaper  articles  signed  ^^Anti-Machi- 


140 


JEREMY  BENTHAM 


BYel/'  and  published  in  1787,  attacking  the 
policy  of  a  war  with  Kosaia,  which  the  king 
had  much  at  heart  Thirteen  years  more  were 
spent  in  vain  solioitationa,  till  finally,  in  1811. 
an  act  of  parliament  annnlled  the  contract,  ana 
provided  for  the  erection  of  a  prison  on  a  dif- 
ferent plan,  and  at  much  greater  expense  to 
the  public.  In  order  to  get  a  conveyance  of  the 
lanif,  the  imperfect  title  ^  which  stood  in  Bent- 
ham's  name,  this  act  provided  for  an  award  on 
the  question  of  damages,  under  which  the 
Benthams,  8  years  after,  received  the  sum  of 
J628,000.  It  may  well  be  supposed  that  Bent- 
ham's  experience  in  this  matter  could  not  but 
embitter  him  against  the  existing  management 
of  public  concerns. — ^Meanwhile,  Dumont,  hav- 
ing returned  to  England,  had  obtained  from 
Bentham  all  his  manuscripts,  and  had  applied 
himself  with  zeal  to  the  task  of  extracting  from 
them,  and  his  printed  works,  a  vivid  and  popu- 
lar statementm  French,  of  Bentham's  system 
and  ideas.  This  labor  of  love  Dumont  per- 
formed with  remarkable  success;  and  the  first 
fruits  of  it,  published  at  Paris  in  1802,  during 
the  peace  of  Amiens,  under  the  title  of  Traitea 
de  UgUlation  civile  et  penals^-^  publication 
in  which  Talleyrand  took  a  great  interest,  offering 
himself,  if  necessary,  to  bear  the  whole  expense 
— speedily  made  Bentham  known  and  £a,mous 
throughout  the  continent  of  Europe  as  the 
philosopher  of  jurisprudence.  In  England,  too, 
no  acquired  some  new  disciples  and  codpera- 
tors.  Brougham  joined  Romilly  in  acknowl- 
edging his  genius,  and  accepting  many  of  his 
ideas.  In  1808  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of 
James  Mill,  who,  next  to  Dumont,  did  most  to 
diffuse  his  doctrines.  Mill  lived  for  several 
years,  a  large  part  of  the  time,  in  Bentham's 
house,  who  still  labored  away  some  6  or  8 
hours  daily  on  his  codes^  stopping, 'however,  as 
occasion  offered,  to  launch  forth  vehement  at- 
tacks on  the  English  system  of  jurisprudence. 
6uch  was  his  "Scotch  Reform  compared  with 
English  Non-Reform,"  published  in  1808,  and 
his  **  Elements  of  the  Art  of  Packing  as  ap- 
plied to  Special  Juries,"  printed  in  1808,  but 
which  he  was  dissuaded  by  Romilly  frx)m  pub- 
lishing, lest  it  might  expose  him  to  a  prosecu- 
tion for  libel.  Some  difficulty  was  even  met 
with  in  finding  a  publisher  for  the  "Rationale 
of  Judicial  Evidence,"  edited  by  Mill,  from 
Bentham's  manuscripts,  lest  that,  too,  especially 
the  part  of  it  assdling  the  whole  tedmical 
method  of  English  judicial  procedure,  might  be 
regarded  as  a  libel  on  the  administration  of 
justice.  Nor^  indeed,  did  this  work  appear  till 
1827.  when  it  was  published  in  5  vols.  8vo. 
Confirmed,  meanwhile,  by  his  growing  reputa- 
tion, ift  his  always  strong  interior  faith  in  himself, 
Bentham  became  anxious  to  bring  out,  not  as  a 
mere  draft,  but  as  an  actual  body  of  law,  his  ideal 
code,  on  which  he  had  been  laboring  all  his 
life,  but  which  yet  existed  only  in  his  brain, 
and  in  an  immense  mass  of  fragmentary  manu- 
scripts. He  had  hoped,  on  the  strength  of  prom- 
ises from  Miranda^  to  become  the  legidator  of 


Venezuela,  to  which  country  he  had  even 
thoughts  of  removing.  But  Miranda's  project 
fSuled.  In  1811 — ^Dumont  having  in  that  year 
brought  out  a  new  French  work,  edited  from 
his  manuscripts,  2%iorie  de»  peinea  et  des  r^ 
eompenue — ^he  addressed  an  elaborate  letter  to 
President  Madison,  offering,  upon  the  receipt  ol 
a  letter  importing  the  prendent's  approbation, 
and,  as  far  as  depended  upon  him,  acceptance 
of  his  proposition,  to  forthwith  set  about  drawing 
upfor  the  use  of  the  United  States,  orsudiof  them 
as  might  accept  it, "  a  complete  body  of  law ;  in 
one  word,  a  pannomion,  or  as  much  of  it  as  the 
life  and  health  of  a  man,  whose  age  wanted  fit- 
tie  of  four  and  sixty,  might  allow  of^"  asking 
and  expecting  no  reward  beyond  the  employ- 
ment and  the  honor  of  it.  This  letter,  beside 
a  sketch  of  his  plan,  which  embraced  not  mere- 
ly the  text  of  a  code,  but  a  perpetual  running 
commentary  of  reasons,  included  also  a  vigorous 
attack  upon  the  existing  system  of  EngliSi  and 
American  jurisprudence,  and  an  answer  to  cer- 
tain anticipated  objections,  both  to  the  plan, 
and  to  himself  as  legislator.  Mr.  Brougham 
wrote  at  the  same  time  to  some  American 
friends,  expressing  his  opinion  that  no  person 
in  Europe  was  so  capable  as  Bentham  of  such 
a  task.  No  answer  nad  been  received  to  this 
letter  when,  in  1814,  Mr.  Gallatin  was  a  littie 
while  in  England,  in  his  capaci^  of  commis* 
sioner,  to  treat  for  peace.  Not  only  had  Gral- 
latin  received  from  Dumont,  who  was  his  coun- 
tryman, a  presentation  copy  of  the  Traith  de 
Ikfielatumy  but  he  had,  as  he  told  Bentham, 
who  had  an  interview  with  him,  been  his  dis- 
ciple for  25  yearS|  in  consequence  of  having 
reisui,  soon  after  its  publication,  a  copy  of  the 
"Introduction  to  the  Principles  of  Morals  and 
Legislation,"  put  into  his  hands  by  Colonel 
Burr.  We  may  mention,  by  the  way,  that 
Burr  himself,  when  in  England,  6  years  before, 
had  obtained  an  introduction  to  Bentham  from 
Dumont,  and  had  even  passed  a  considerable 
time  under  his  roof— one  object  of  Bentham 
doubtiess  being  to  avail  himself  of  Burr^ 
knowledge  of  American  affairs.  In  consequence 
of  this  interview  with  Gallatin,  Bentham  was 
led,  in  a  letter  to  (Jovemor  Snyder,  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, enclosing  a  printed  copy  of  his  letter  to 
Madison,  and  a  letter  of  introduction  from  Gal- 
latin, to  renew  his  offer  of  himself^  as  a  oodifier. 
At  length,  in  181 6,  Madison  returned  a  courteous 
reply  to  Bentham's  letter  of  1811,  referring  to 
the  intervening  war  as  an  apology  for  his  long 
silence,  stating  that  a  compliance  with  Bent- 
ham's proposals  was  ^^not  within  the  scope  of 
his  proper  functions,"  suggesting  some  obstacles 
to  the  proposed  codification,  and  objections  to 
it,  but  fully  admitting  the  desirability  of  such  a 
reform.  This  letter  was  conveyed  to  London 
by  J.  Q.  Adams,  appointed  American  minister  to 
England,  and  who  became,  during  his  residence 
there,  intimate  with  Bentham.  When  Adams 
returned  home,  in  1817,  to  assume  the  office  of 
secretary  of  state,  he  became  the  bearer  of  a 
droular  letter,  addressed  by  Bentham  to  the 


JEBEMY  BENTHAM 


141 


goYemon  of  the  states,  accompanied  hj  copies 
of  the  letter  to  HadLaon,  and  a  renewm  of  his 
offer  of  lumsdf  as  legislator.  Bentham's  pro- 
posalsy  which  he  followed  np  by  a  series  of 
short  letters  on  the  same  subject,  addressed  to 
the  people  of  the  states,  were  laid  before  the 
legislatares  of  Penn^lvania  and  New  Hamp- 
,  shire.  He  receiyed  appreciatiye  letters  from  (toy- 
ernors  Snyder  and  Plumer,  of  those  states ;  but 
nothing  f\uther  resulted.  Several  years  later, 
Edward  Liyingston  sent  him  a  copy  of  his  draft 
of  a  penal  code  for  Louisiana,  with  strong  ex- 
pressions of  admiration  for  his  genius^  ana  .ao- 
xnowledgments  of  the  instruction  receiyed  from 
the  study  of  his  works.  Meanwhile,  in  1814, 
Bentham  had  made  an  offer  of  his  legialatiye  aid 
to  the  emperor  of  Russia,  in  the  language  of 
which  country  2  translations  had  appeared  of 
the  Traith  de  UgUlation^  one  of  them,  it  was 
said,  by  the  special  procurement  of  the  goyern- 
ment.  The  emperor  replied  in  a  letter  written 
by  his  own  hand,  in  wmch  he  promised  to  sub- 
mit Bentham's  proposal  to  the  commission  at 
work  on  a  code  for  the  empire.  He  sent,  at 
the  same  time,  a  yaluable  ring,  which  Bentham 
returned,  sending  with  it  a  second  letter,  in 
which  he  gave  reasons  why  nothing  could  be 
expected  to  come  of  the  reference  of  his  propo- 
sals to  a  commission  whick  in  one  shape  or  an- 
other, had  been  in  session  for  more  than  a  cen- 
tury without  any  result.  In  the  expectation 
that  Prince  Adam  Ozartorisky,  who  was  one  ot 
his  disciples,  would  be  appointed  regent  of  Po- 
land, he  had  hopes  of  legislating  for  that 
country,  but  another  person  was  appointed  and 
this  hope  failed.  The  revolutions  of  1820, 
which  established  liberal  governments  in  the 
Spanish  peninsuhL  gave  ^Bentham  new  and 
stronger  hopes.  Dnmont's  compilations  had 
been  translated  into  Spanish,  and  were  well 
known  to  the  leading  liberals  of  Spain  and 
Spanish  America.  The  Portuguese  cortes  caused 
tiiem  to  be  translated  into  Portuguese.  In  1822 
he  published  also  his  "  Codification  Proposed,'' 
addressed  to  all  nations  professing  liberal  opin- 
ions^ tendering  his  services  as  legislator,  and 
arguing  in  favor  of  a  code  emanatiDg  from  a 
single  mind.  He  was  consulted  on  the  Spanish 
penal  code,  on  which,  in  1822,  he  published 
some  letters  addressed  to  the  conde  de  Toreno, 
and  mmilar  appUcations  were  made  to  him 
from  Spanish  America.  But  the  downfall  of 
liberalism  in  the  peninsula,  and  the  protracted 
dvil  wars  in  the  late  Spanish  colonies,  disap- 
pointed his  expectations  in  that  quarter. — Whue 
thus  seeking  the  office  of  legislator,  another 
idea  had  engrossed  much  of  his  attention.  He 
had  taken  a  sreat  interest  in  the  educational 
system  of  BeU  and  Lancaster,  and  in  1817  he 
had  published,  under  the  title  *of  *'  Ohrestoma- 
thia,"  a  proposal  to  appl^  this  system  to  the 
higher  branches  of  education.  There  was  eyen 
a  scheme  for  erecting  a  building  in  his  garden 
on  the  Panopticon  system,  in  which  the  exper- 
iment was  to  be  tried ;  but,  like  so  many  other 
of  his  plans,  it  did  not  go  on. — ^Though  Bent- 


ham had  always  boasted  of  beiuff  a  man  of  no 
party,  as  well  as  of  all  countries,  he  had  come 
at  length  to  occupy  at  home  the  position  of  a 
party  chief.  He  espoused  with  characteristic 
zeal  and  enthusiasm  the  ideas  of  the  radicals— 
who  now  first  appeared  as  a  political  party. 
He  went,  indeed,  the  full  length,  not  merely  of 
republicanism,  but  on  many  points  of  democra- 
cy. He  wrote  pamphlets  and  drew  up  plans 
in  behalf  of  parliamentary  reform  ana  other 
movements  or  the  radicals,  and  became  a  sort  of 
spiritual  head  of  the  party.  It  was  he  who  to- 
nished  the  money  to  set  up  the  *^  Westminster 
Review, '^  established  in  1828  as  the  organ  of 
the  radicals.  The  political  editor  was  ]d>. 
Bowring  (the  present  Sir  John  Bowring),  with 
whom  Bentham  had  fonned  an  acquaintance 
throuffh  their  mutual  interest  in  the  Spanish 
liberal  movement  That  acquaintance  sj^edily 
ripened  into  a  very  close  indmacy  and  friena- 
ship,  which  lasted  to  the  end  of  Bentham^s  life^ 
His  connection  with  the  radicals,  and  his  ve- 
hement attacks  on  law  abuses  and  the  law- 
yers, had  rather  cooled  off  Lord  Brougham, 
but  m  his  place  Bentham  acquired  a  new  disci- 
ple and  pupil,  in  the  person  of  Daniel  O^Con- 
nell.  Mr,  Peel,  in  his  movements  in  the  house 
of  commons  for  the  amendment  of  Uie  criminal 
law,  seemed  to  be  starting  in  Bentham's  di- 
rection. Bentham  even  entertained  the  hope 
that  he  might  persuade  the  duke  of  Wellington, 
with  whom  he  corresponded,  to  undertake,  in 
addition  to  Catholic  emancipation,  those  re- 
forms in  the  administration  of  justice  which 
Oromwell  had  attempted,  but  in  which  the  law- 
yers had  baffled  him.  The  acknowledgment  of 
his  genius  by  the  most  eminent  men  of  his 
times,  his  world-wide  reputation,  and  the  share 
he  was  now  taking  in  the  actual  movement  of 
affairs,  more  than  made  up  for  the  sneers,  to 
which,  indeed,  he  paid  no  attention,  cast  at 
him  as  a  visionary  sonemer ;  and  the  satisfaction 
and  even  gayety  of  the  latter  part  of  his  life 
formed  a  strong  contrast  with  the  gloom  of  his 
youth  and  early  manhood.  In  his  last  10  years 
he  seldom  left  his  own  home,  taking  exerdse 
in  his  garden.  He  retained  to  the  last  his  lov# 
of  music,  of  pet  ammala,  cats  particularly,  and 
of  flowers,  but  spent  regularly  6  .or  more  hours 
a  day  in  composition,  employing  generally  3 
secretaries.  He  saw  no  company,  except  at 
dinner.  His  hour  of  dining  was  7 ;  his  table 
was  delicately  spread,  but  admission  to  it, 
though  he  generally  had  2  or  8  guests,  was 
only  obtained  as  a  particular  fetvor.  Dinner 
was  followed  by  music  on  the  organ.  He  was 
of  a  gav  and  lively  temper,  hopeful,  enthusias- 
tic, and,  in  spirit,  young  to  the  last  His  last 
published  work  was  his  "  Constitutional  Code,'' 
of  which  a  volume  appeared  in  1880.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  engaged  with  Bow- 
ring in  an  attempt  to  present  his  fundamental 
ideas  in  a  more  popular  form.  This  work  was 
published  in  1834,  after  his  death,  under  the  title 
of  '*  Deontology.''  Bentham  gave  a  practical 
exemplification  of  his  prindplea  by  bequeathing 


142 


BENTHAK 


BENTINQK 


his  body  to  his  friend,  Dr.  Soatliworth  Smith, 
for  the  pnrpoae  of  diasectioik  A  oollection  of  his 
works,  in  11  vols.  8vo,  pablished  at  Edinburgh, 
under  the  supervision  of  Bowring,  his  exec^ 
ntor,  was  completed  in  1848.  It  inclades,  at 
the  end.  a  memoir  made  up  principally  of  let- 
ters and  of  Bentham's  reminiscences,  as  noted 
down  by  Bowring,  very  badly  put  together,  bat 
containing  a  great  deal  of  interesting  matter. 
Domont,  just  before  his  own  death,  edited  and 
publish^,  at  Brussels,  in  1828,  a  complete  col- 
lection of  his  comoilations  from  Bentham  in  6 
doable  volumes,  demi-ootavo.  A  translation 
into  English  of  the  TraitS»  de  Ugidaticn  was 
published  at  Boston  in  1840,  under  the  title  of 
^  llieorv  of  Legislation."  It  is  from  this  work, 
a  translation  of  which,  with  some  additions 
from  B^tham's  manuscripts,  is  included  in 
Bowring's  edition  of  Bentham^s  works,  that  the 
general  reader  will  best  obtain  a  knowledge  of 
Sentham's  system.  In  his  earlier  writings,  and 
in  many  of  his  pamphlets,  Bentham  express- 
es himself  with  great  terseness  and  energy,  but 
in  his  didactic  works  he  often  loses  himself 
in  parentheses,  and  protracts  his  sentences  to 
a  tedious  length.  In  his  later  writings  he 
sacrificed  every  thing  to  precision,  for  which 
purpose  he  employed  many  new  words,  some 
of  which,  such  as  international,  codify,  codifi- 
cation, maximize^  minimize,  dec.,  have  become 
permanent  additions  to  the  langtuage.  His  anal- 
ysis of  human  nature,  on  which  he  based  his 
system,  can  hardly  rank  him  high  as  a  meta- 
physician ;  his  employment  of  the  exhaustive 
method  of  reasoning  frequently  led  him  into 
useless  subdivisions  and  unneoessairy  refine- 
ments: but  he  had  a  vexy  acute  intellect,  a  thor- 
ough devotion  to  truth,  a  strong  spirit  of  be- 
nevolence, unwarped  by  any  selfisn  or  party 
views.  Unawed  oy  authority,  he  appealed  to 
reason  alone,  and,  having  devoted  his  whole 
life  to  the  study  of  jurisprudence,  his  works 
abound  with  su^estions  and  ideas  as  novel  as 
they  are  just  JN  obodv  has  been  so  much  plun- 
dei^  as  Bentham,  said  some  one  to  Talleyrand. 
"  True,"  he  replied ;  "  yet  how  rich  he  still  is." 
9n  the  improvements  introduced  of  late  yean 
into  the  administration  of  the  law,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  many  of  his  suggestions  have 
been  followed,  often  without  acknowledgment, 
or  even  knowledge,  perhaps,  of  the  source 
whence  they  ori^pnated.  There  are  many  more 
of  his  ideas  that  may  yet  be  put  to  use.  The 
4th  part  of  his  treatise  on  the  penal  code,  as 
published  by  Dumont,  of  which  the  subject  is 
the  indirect  means  of  preventing  offences,  con- 
tiuns  a  mine  of  wisdom,  which  the  numerous 
members  of  our  le^dative  bodies  might  exploit 
with  advantage. 

BENTHAM,  Thoicas.  an  English  Protestant 
clergyman,  bom  in  Sherbum,  Yorkshire,  in  1618, 
diedinl578.  He  was  noted  for  the  boldness  with 
which  he  asserted  his  religious  principles  during 
the  reign  of  Queen  Mary,  and  was  distinguishea 
by  the  favor  of  Elizabeth  in  the  settiement.  Ap- 
pointed fellow  of  Magdalen  college,  Oxford,  he 


l^redy  expressed  his  religious  sentiments,  and  1 
sometimes  rather  forgetfiil  of  the  proprieties 
and  courtenes  of  life,  in  the  resolution  to  main« 
tain  his  opinions.  On  one  occasion,  in  1658,  he 
knocked  the  censer  out  of  the  hands  of  the  of- 
ficiating priest  at  mass,  ^  in  order  to  prevent  in- 
cense being  offered  to  idols."  For  this  breach 
of  decorum  he  lost  his  place,  although  the  laws 
conceining  religion  were  still  in  force.  He 
then  travelled  on  the  continent,  visiting  Sfaoces- 
sively  Zurich,  Frankfort,  and  Basel,  at  which 
latter  place  he  employed  himself  in  expounding 
the  Scriptures  to  the  English  exiles  who  had 
taken  refoge  in  that  city.  On  his  return  to 
England,  before  the  dose  of  Mary's  reign,  he 
ministered  privatety  to  a  Protestant  congrega- 
tion in  London.  Here  he  also  nearly  involved 
himself  in  personal  difficulty,  by  the  boldness 
with  which  he  advanced  his  Protestant  opinions. 
At  the  burning  of  some  Smithfield  martyrs, 
Mary  had  forbidden  that  any  one  should  speak 
to  them,  or  pray  for  them,  on  pain  of  similar 
punishment  Bentham,  so  soon  as  he  got  sight 
of  them,  deserted  by  his  self-control,  or  else  de- 
liberately, cried  out,  '^May  God  have  mercy  oa 
them,"  with  sundry  other  ejaculations,  whidi 
callea  out  a  hearty  round  of  ^^  Amen"  from  the 
TOomiscuous  multitude.  On  the  accession  of 
Elizabeth,  Bentham  was  appointed  to  the  pul* 
pit  of  Paldl's  Oross — then  a  very  infiu^itial  sta- 
tion— and  soon  after,  in  1659,  to  the  see  of 
lichfield  and  Coventry.  He  was  opposed  to 
preserving  in  the  Protestant  church  the  forms 
and  habits  of  Rome,  but  yielded  to  the  policy 
of  Elizabeth  in  the  matter.  He  published  an 
exposition  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostiea,  and 
tnmslated  into  En^ish  some  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

BENTINOK  the  name  of  a  distanguished  no- 
ble fiunily,  of  German  origin,  in  England,  with 
extensive  connections  in  Germany  and  Holland. 
The  English  line  was  founded  by  JoHAmr  Wil- 
HXUf,  bom  in  1648,  died  in  England  in  1709; 
educated  with  William  of  Orange,  whom  he  ac- 
companied to  England,  and  who  made  him  eari 
of  Portland.  He  was  prominent  in  the  battle 
of  the  Boyne,  and  in  the  peace  of  Byswick. 
William  in.  died  in  his  arms. — ^Hbhrt,  his  son, 
was  made  duke  of  Portiand  in  1716,  and  died 
in  1726,  as  governor  of  Jamaica. — ^Wiluail 
son  of  Henry,  bom  1708,  died  1762;  married 
Margaret  Cavendish,  a  name  which  has  since 
remained  in  the  fimiily. — Lord  Wiliiak 
Ohablbs  QjLyvsima^  second  son  of  the  8d 
duke  of  Portland,  bom  Sept.  14^  1774,  died  at 
Paris,  June  17,  1889.  Entering  the  army  at  an 
early  age,  he  served  in  Flanders,  with  the  duke 
of  York;  was  colonel  in  the  amiy  before  he 
was  21.  In  1799  he  joined  the  Russian  army 
under  8uwaroff,  in  Italy,  where  he  continued 
in  active  service  until  1801 ;  went  out  to  India, 
as  governor  of  Madras,  in  1808 ;  was  made  ma- 
jor-general on  his  return  in  1806 ;  was  sent  on 
a  misnon  to  the  Spanish  court  in  1808,  relative 
to  the  French  invasion  of  Spain;  commanded  a 
brigade,  under  Sir  John  Moore,  at  Ooruma,  in 


BENTINOE 


148 


Jan.  1809 ;  'went  to  Bicilj  in  1810,  as  ^enipo- 
tentiarj  and  commander-in-ohief  of  the  JEngliah 
troopB  there;  bestowed,  a  oonstitation  on  that 
iakand  in  1812 ;  conducted  the  expedition  from 
8&dly  to  Catalonia,  in  1818,  to  operate  in  the 
rear  of  the  French  armies,  but  was  compelled 
to  make  a  hasty  retreat;  took  possession  of 
Genoa,  in  1814,  when  the  inhabitants  revolted 
from  tiie  Frendi,  and  threw  np  his  commission 
in  disgnst  when  the  Grenoese  (who  darned  the 
redst^^iishment  of  their  republic  under  England, 
under  the  convention  which  had  been  made) 
were  given  over  to  Piedmont.  By  this  time  he 
was  lieutenant-general.  Betuming  to  England, 
he  was  elected  member  of  parliament  for  Not- 
tingham, and  voted  with  the  liberal  party.  He 
Bnbsequenti  J  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  full  gen- 
eral, and  was,  in  1827,  under  the  government 
of  Mr.  Canning  (a  family  connection  by  mar- 
riagel  sent  to  India  as  govemor-gencnral,  in 
widen  capacity  he  continued  until  1885,  when 
Ql  health  compelled  him  to  resign.  The  results 
of  his  Indian  rule  were :  the  reduction  of  the 
batta  (allowanceB  made  to  the  troops  on  the 
march),  mudi  to  the  discontent  of  tne  army; 
the  abolition  of  flogging  among  the  native  troops, 
British  soldiers  serving  in  the  same  country  re- 
maining subject  to  it ;  the  prohibition  of  the 
suttee,  or  burning  alive  of  the  widow  on  the  fu- 
neral pile  of  her  husband :  the  granting  English- 
men leave  to  settle  in  India,  though  not  belong- 
ing to  the  military  or  civil  service;  the  uphold- 
ing of  the  native  population  as  far  as  possible ; 
and  the  protection  of  the  liberty  of  tne  press. 
Some  of  these  alterations  were  made  by  order 
of  the  East  India  directors  in  England,  and 
some  were  carried  out  contrary  to  the  wish  of 
the  directors.  In  1884  he  made  war  on  the 
regah  of  Cooiv,  annexed  his  territory,  and  pen- 
soned  him  o£  When  he  quitted  India,  the  na- 
tives, who  looked  upon  him  as  the  best  friend 
they  had  had  since  the  time  of  Warren  Hastings, 
expressed  their  regret^  at  a  public  meeting  in 
Calcutta,  and  tesUfiea  their  respect  by  erecting 
an  equestrian  statue  of  him.  The  court  of  di- 
rectors in  England,  respecting  his  integrity  and 
firmness,  though  they  had  sometimes  differed 
in  opinion  wiu  himTgave  him  a  warm  recep- 
tion on  his  return.  He  reentered  the  house  of 
commons  in  1886,  for  the  city  of  Glasgow,  but 
was  too  much  of  an  invalid  to  take  an  active 
part  in  politics  or  legislation,  and  resigned  his 
seat  a  few  days  before  his  death,  in  his  65th 
year.— Lord  Whxiak  Geobos  Fbedsbio  Oav- 
XBDZSH,  an  English  politician,  bom  Feb.  27^802, 
died  Sept  21,  1848.  8d  son  of  William  Henry 
Cavendish,  4th  duke  of  Pordand  (by  Hen- 
rietta, daughter  and  co-heiress  of  Mi^or-general 
Scott) ;  he  received  the  baptismal  names  of  Wil- 
liam George  Frederic,  but  was  commonly 
known  only  by  the  second.  Though  a  younger 
son,  he  inherited  a  large  fortune  from  his  moth- 
er. He  entered  the  army  and  rose  to  the 
rank  of  migor.  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  married 
his  aunt,  took  him  as  private  secretary^  when 
he  was  foreign  miuster.  and,  pleased  with  his 


frank  nature,  capacity  for  business,  and  trust- 
worthy character,  admitted  him  into  his  fullest 
confidence.  In  1827,  when  Mr.  Canning  be- 
came prime  minister.  Lord  George  Bentindc 
entered  parliament  for  the  borou^  of  Xing^s 
Lynn,  for  which  he  continued  to  sit  during  the 
rest  of  his  life.  He  was  constant  in  attending 
the  house,  but  spoke  rarely  and  then  not  ef- 
fectively. Nature  had  not  made  him  an  orator. 
Mr.  Canning  died  in  August,  1827,  after  a  pre- 
miership of  four  months,  and  Lord  Gk>derich 
(created  earl  of  Ripon  in  1888)  succeeded  Can- 
ning, and  received  the  parliamentary  support  of 
Lord  George— probably  because  the  duke  of 
Portland,  his  &ther,  was  in  the  cabinet  When 
the  duke  of  Wellington  brought  in  the  Catholic 
relief  bill  of  1829,  Lord  George  voted  for  it,  and 
subsequently  supported  Lord  Grey's  ministry, 
during  the  reform  bill  debates,  and  until  the 
succession  of  Lord  Bipon,  Sir  James  Graham, 
and  Lord  Stanley  (now  earl  of  Derby),  in  1884. 
Similarity  of  tastes — ^both  being  fond  of  horses 
and  racing— 4rew  him  so  strongly  to  Lord  Stan- 
ley, that,  in  Dea  1884,  when  O'Connell  quoted 
the  lines  from  the  "  Anti  Jacobin'' : 

Bo  down  thy  iteep,  romantlo  Asbboanc,  $^dt§ 
The  Derbj  dlllj,  oftrrying  six  inaides, 

Lord  George  was  one  of  the  half  dozen.  He 
warmly  supported  Sir  Bobert  Peel,  during  his 
short  tenure  of  oflSce,  1884-'6 ;  strongly  de* 
nounced  what  he  called  '^  the  Lichfield  house 
compact"  (between  O'Connell's  Irish  party  and 
the  whigs),  by  which  Peel  was  compelled  to  re- 
sign office ;  warmly  supported  him  in  opposi- 
tion until  1841,  and  decUned  an  offer  of  office 
made  to  him  at  that  time,  on  Peel's  again  be- 
coming prime  minister.  For  some  time  after, 
Lord  George  voted  with  Sir  Robert ;  but,  in 
1843,  when  free  trade  principles  began  to  per- 
vade ministerial  measures,  many  of  the  Peel 
party,  who,  as  landed  proprietors,  considered 
protection  indispensable  for  the  maintenance 
of  agriculture,  oecame  alienated  from  their 
chie£  In  1846,  when  Sir  Bobert  announced 
his  intention  of  repealing  the  com  lawa^ 
many  adherents  quitted  him.  The  protect 
tion  party  were  about  240.  They  had  no 
leader.  Lord  Stanley,  who  certainly  would 
have  been  their  head,  had  he  remained  in  the 
house  of  commons,  had  been  called  up  to  the 
house  of  lords,  in  the  course  of  the  previous 
year.  A  man  of  weight,  standing,  experience^ 
character,  industry,  vigilance,  skill,  eloquence, 
and  tact,  was  required.  Ko  one  thought  of 
Lord  George.  The  assault,  on  the  opening  of 
the  contest  on  free  trade  in  com,  was  com 
menoed  by  Mr.  Disraeli.  So  long  had  Lord 
G^rge  been  a  silent  member  of  the  house,  that 
no  one — not  even  himself— anticipated  that  he 
could  summon  up  confidence  to  be  an  active  de- 
bater. An  amendment  on  one  of  the  govern- 
ment resolutions  had  been  moved  by  Mr.  Miles, 
and  a  long  debate  ensued.  On  the  12th  nighL 
when  a  division  was  eagerly  looked  for,  Lord 
George  Bentinck  threw  himself  into  the  strife. 
It  was  long  after  midnight  when  he  spoke  *  but 


144 


BENTIVOGLIO 


BEKTLEY 


his  mind  was  filled  with  as  thoron^^h  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  as  any  one  possessed;  he 
was  master  of  all  the  facts ;  he  remembered  all 
the  figures;  he  possessed  strong  natural  powers 
of  rapid  calculation ;  and,  dismissing  his  timidi- 
ty, he  entered  into  the  discussion,  wowing  an 
intimate  knowledge  of  the  details  and  working 
of  the  British  commercial  system,  evading  no 
point,  shrinking  from  no  investigation.  From 
that  hour  he  was  leader  of  the  protectionists, 
with  Mr.  Disraeli  as  his  assistant,  and,  though 
the  contest  was  unsuccessful,  his  reputation  was 
deservedly  great  He  never  rose  to  eloquence, 
but  earnestness,  boldness,  and  plain  language, 
combined  to  make  him  impressive  and  formida- 
ble. The  public,  who  had  previously  known 
him  only  as  a  liberal  patron  of  the  turf— ac- 
cepted, indeed,  as  a  ruling  authority  on  the 
race-course,  and  very  anxious  to  substitute  fair 
play  and  honorable  principle  for  chicanery  and 
trickery-— exaggerated  his  efficiency.  Thence- 
forth, until  his  death.  Lord  George  was  the  first 
man,  on  the  opposition  side,  in  the  commons.  He 
studied  the  leading  questions  closely,  and  gene- 
rally threw  light  upon  every  discussion.  The  ses- 
sion of  1848  had  ended,  and  he  went  to  his  fa- 
ther's seat  (Welbeck  abbey,  Nottinghamshire) 
to  recruit  He  had  returned  from  Doncaster 
races,  where  one  of  his  horses  had  won  the  great 
%t  Leger  stakes,  and  left  the  abbey  to  walk 
across  the  fields,  to  pay  a  visit  to  Lord  Hanvers, 
one  of  his  neighbors.  A  mile  from  the  house 
he  had  an  attack  of  spasms  of  the  heart,  which 
was  immediately  fatai.  He  was  found  dead  on 
a  footpath  through  a  meadow.  The  news  of 
his  decease,  so  sudden  and  so  sad,  smote  the 
public  mind  with  awe  and  grief.  The  ftme- 
ral  was  most  private,  but  as  Mr.  DisraeU, 
his  biographer,  records,  **from  9  till  11 
o'clock  that  day  all  the  British  shipping  in  the 
docks  and  the  river,  from  London  bridge  to 
Gravesend,  hoisted  their  flags  half-mast  high, 
and  minute  guns  were  fired  from  appointed  sta- 
tions along  the  Thames.  The  same  mournful 
oeremony  was  observed  in  all  the  ports  of  Eng- 
land and  Lreland ;  and  not  only  in  these,  for  the 
flag  was  half-mast  high  on  every  British  ship 
at  Antwerp,  at  Rotterdam,  at  Havre.''  Lord 
George  Bentinck  was  singularly  temperate  and 
abstinent  He  was  unmarried.  The  continen- 
tal branches  of  the  Bentinck  fjEimily  bear  the 
name  of  Bentinck-Bhoon,  and  Aldenburg-Ben- 
tinck. 

BENTIVOGLIO,  the  name  of  a  family  once 
sovereign  at  Bologna,  of  which  several  mem- 
bers have  been  distioguished  in  Itidian  history. 
L  OdsNELio,  a  cardinal,  bom  at  Ferrara  m 
1668,  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  80.  1782.  Under 
Clement  XI.,  he  beciame  archbishop  of  Car- 
thage, and  nuncio  in  France,  where  he  showed 
great  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  bull  Uhigenitus,  He 
was  recalled  to  Italy  in  1719,  and  elected  cardi- 
nal, after  which  he  was  sent  as  nuncio  to  Spain. 
He  was  a  patron  of  literature,  and  was  himself 
learned  in  law  and  the  sciences,  as  well  as  in 
theology.    There  remain  from  him  several  dis- 


oonrses,  a  translation  of  the  7%t^(ai  of  Statins, 
and  some  sonnets.  II.  Eboolx,  a  poet,  born 
1612,  died  Kov.  6, 1578.  He  was  scarcely  6  years 
old  when  his  father,  Annibale  H.,  the  last  Bolo- 
gnese  sovereign  who  strove  to  maintain  Bologna 
against  the  popes,  was  expelled,  and  betook 
himself  to  Ferrara,  where  his  relatives,  thfi 
princes  of  Este,  offered  a  home,  and  subse- 
quentiy  diplomatic  employment,  to  Ercole,  who 
was  a  most  accomplished  person,  excelling  in 
poetry,  munc,  and  gymnastic  exercises.  He 
wrote  sonnets,  eclogues,  satires,  and  comedies, 
ni.  Gmno,  bom  at  Ferrara  in  1579,  died  Sept  7, 
1644.  He  was  raised  in  1621  to  the  dignity  of 
cardinal.  As  papal  nuncio  in  Paris,  he  dis- 
charged  his  duties  so  successfully,  that  Lonia 
XIU.,  on  his  return  to  Rome,  appointed  him 
protector  of  the  interests  of  France  at  the  Vati- 
can. After  having  served  three  popes  with  so 
much  distinction,  it  was  supposed  that  he  would 
himself  ascend  tiie  papal  tnrone,  but  he  died 
almost  immediately  after  the  opening  of  the 
conclave. 

BENTLET,  Gidbon,  an  American  soldier, 
remarkable  for  his  longevity,  and  for  the  excel* 
lent  though  humble  services  which  he  rendered 
to  lus  country  as  soldier  in  the  revolutionary 
war,  was  born  in  1751,  and  died  at  Constantia, 
Oswego  CO.,  N.  T.,  in  Jan.  1858,  aged  107 
years. 

BENTLET,  Riohabd,  classical  scholar  and 
critic,  born  at  Oulton,  near  Wakefield,  England, 
Jan.  27,  1662,  died  July  14, 1742.  The  son  of 
a  yeoman  or  small  farmer,  he  was  educated  at 
Wakefield  grammar  school,  whence,  at  the  age 
of  18,  he  was  transferred  as  a  sizar  to  St.  John's 
coUege,  Cambridge.  He  took  his  degree  of 
B.  A.  with  distinction,  his  place  in  the  arrange- 
ment of  honors  corresponding  witii  that  of 
third  wrangler  in  the  present  system.  From  a 
fellowship  in  his  own  college,  the  most  obvloae 
resource  of  a  young  scholar,  he  was  excluded 
by  a  by-law  which  was  not  rescinded  until  the 
reign  of  George  IV.  In  1682  he  was  appointed 
by  his  college  to  the  head  mastership  of  Spal- 
ding grammar  school,  and,  after  holding  it  for 
a  year,  quitted  it  for  the  more  eligible  situation 
of  domestic  tutor  to  the  son  of  Dr.  Stillingfleet, 
then  dean  of  St  PanPs,  where  he  had  fiill 
nse  of  the  dean's  fine  library,  one  of  the  best 
collections  in  England,  and  constant  association 
with  the  dean.  Here  BenUey  acquired  that 
Biblical  learning  which  afterward  entitled  him 
to  the  divinity  professorship,  and  which  war- 
ranted his  proposals  for  a  revised  text  of  the 
New  Testament  He  remained  with  Stilling- 
fleet  for  6  years,  and  then,  early  in  1689,  ae- 
companied  his  pupil  to  Oxford,  where  he  him- 
self was  admitted,  ad  eundem^  to  the  degree 
of  M.  A.  he  had  previously  taken  at  Cambridge. 
He  made  constant  use  of  the  Bodleian  library, 
largely  increased  his  knowledge  of  the  oriental 
languages,  became  acquainted  with  the  leading 
men  of  tne  university  (through  introductions 
from  Stillingfieet,  now  bishop  of  Worcester), 
and  more  particularly  with  Dr.  John  Hill|  the 


BENTLEY 


145 


editor  of  the  Greek  Testamant  BenHefs  fint 
pablication,  in  1691,  was  a  Latin  epistle  to 
jCn,  on  an  edition  of  the  "  Ohroniole^'  of  John 
Kalfela^  and  his  reputation  as  a  scholar  and  a 
critio  was  at  ODce  established  by  it,  in  furek^ 
oonntries  aa  well  as  at  home.  At  this  time,  he 
projected  an  entire  edition  of  the  "Fragments  of 
the  Greek  Poets.'*  and  also  a  Corpm  of  the 
Greek  lexioograpners,  neither  of  which  he  ao- 
oomplished.  He  took  holy  orders  in  1690. 
The  celebrated  Bobert  Boyle,  who  died  at  the 
dose  of  the  year  1691,  bequeathed  an  annual 
stipend  for  the  foundation  of  a  lecture  in  defence 
of  religion  agiunst  infidels.  Bentley  obtained 
the  first  nomination  early  in  1692,  and  the  leo- 
torea  which  he  delivered  establisbed  his  repnta- 
tion  aa  a  preacher.  In  October  of  the  same 
year  he  was  i4>pointed  a  prebendary  at  Worces- 
ter; in  April,  1694,  keeper  of  all  the  king's 
fibrariea,  and  again  selected  as  Boyle  lecturer ; 
in  1695  he  was  made  one  of  the  chaplains  in 
ordinary  to  King  William  m. ;  and  in  1696 
took  the  degree  of  D.  D.  at  Cambridge,  and 
■flgytod  his  friend  GrsdYius  in  preparing  an  edi- 
ticm  of  Gallimachus.  The  Hon.  Charles  Boyle 
(afterward  earl  of  Ossory)  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  the  '^Epistles  of  Phalaris,'*  early  in 
1695,  and  coniplamed  in  his  prefEuse  of  some 
aQeged  want  of^  courtesy  on  the  part  of  Bent- 
ley,  respecting  the  loan  of  a  manuscript  in  the 
kh^fs  library.  Bentley  courteously  assured 
6o^  that  his  statement  was  erroneous,  and 
eroected  the  complaint  or  accusation  to  be  can- 
odled  or  retracted.  Neither  course  was  adopt- 
ed, and,  after  a  lapse  of  two  years,  Bentley  was 
called  on,  in  compliance  with  a  promise  made 
to  his  learned  friend,  William  Wotton,  the  lln- 
goist,  of  Oxford — made  long  before  Mr.  Boyle 
had  even  commenced  his  labors — to  make  a  pub- 
lic statement  of  the  grounds  on  which  he  con- 
doded  the  ''  Epistles  ^  Phalaris''  to  be  spurious. 
This  i4>peared  in  an  i^>endix  to  the  second 
edition  of  Wotton^s  "Kefleotions  on  Ancient 
and  Modem  Learning,'^  nor,  as  he  had  entered 
Into  the  discusdon,  ^d  he  spare  keen  critical 
oeoBore  on  Mr.  Boyle's  own  labors.  The  lead- 
ing scholars  of  Oxford,  headed  by  Atterbury, 
nmted  in  a  reply  to  Bentley,  which  was  pub- 
lished in  1698,  with  the  name  of  Charles  Boyle 
on  the  title-page.  Pope,  Swift^  and  Gay  brought 
lighter  weapons  into  the  fielo.  General  opin- 
ion set  in  strongly  against  Bentley,  who  was 
diaUked  for  the  arrogance  of  his  knowledge; 
bat,  after  a  pause,  there  was  issued  that  immor* 
tal  dissertation  {imnwrtalu  dmertatio  are  the 
i^nds  of  Person),  in  which  Bentley  disposed 
of  the  question  at  once  and  forever,  with  a 
mi^ty  array  of  erudition,  and  showed  that 
Hie  '*  Epistles''  were  written  by  a  sophist,  who 
had  assumed  the  name  of  Phalaris ;  that  the 
onstles  ascribed  to  Themistodes,  Socrates. 
wip^es,  and  others,  were  not  genuine ;  and 
that  the  fables  attributed  to  JEiop  were  the 
productions  of  various  mind&  at  various  times. 
To  this  dissertation  a  r^oinder  was  promised, 
but  never  jweared.  Early  in  1700,  at  the  age 
wvoi«  m. — 10 


of  88,  Dr.  Bentley  received  that  main  prefer- 
ment  which  was  at  once  his  reward  and  his 
scourge  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  By  the  gift  of 
the  crown,  he  was  made  master  of  Trinity  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  an  office  of  large  emolument, 
great  di^ty,  much  power,  and  vast  responsi- 
bility, m  January,  1701,  he  married  Joanna, 
daughter  of  Sir  John  Bernard,  a  baronet  in 
Huntingdonshire.  In  the  same  year  he  waa 
made  archdeacon  of  Ely.  As  actual  head  of« 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  he  introduced 
many  necessary  reforms,  put  the  university 
press  on  a  better  footing  than  before,  encour- 
aged scholars  and  scholarship,  improved  the 
discipline  of  his  college,  also  improved  the 
modes  of  examination  for  scholarships  and  fel- 
lowships, and  extended  the  college  library. 
Many  abuses  which  he  reformed  were  sup- 
ported by  the  fellows  of  his  college,  from  whose 
society  he  kept  aloo^  and  his  general  conduct^* 
even  when  morally  and  legally  correct,  waa 
arbitrary.  In  1709,  the  vice-master  of  Trinity 
and  some  of  the  senior  fellows  accused  him  of 
mal-appropriation  of  the  college  funds.  Out  of 
this  arose  a  litigation  (one  of  uie  causes  ceUbres 
of  literature),  in  which  Bentley,  supported 
somewhat  by  the  junior  fellows,  but  most 
strongly  by  his  own  determination,  boldness, 
and  adroitness,  succeeded  in  keeping  his  office 
4  years  after  sentence  of  deprivation  had  been 
pronounced  against  hun,  and  finally,  at  the  end 
of  nearly  80  years,  saw  the  suit  come  to  a  natu- 
ral death.  £x  1717,  the  regius  professorship  of 
divinity  at  Cambridge,  by  far  the  richest  in 
Europe,  became  vacant.  Bentley — ^notwith- 
standing the  doubt  whether,  as  master  of  Trin- 
ity, he  could  also  hold  that  office— procured  him- 
self to  be  elected.  His  openine  lecture  treated  of 
the  text — 1  John  v.  7 — on  the  three  heavenly 
witnesses.  He  maintained  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity,  but  decidedly  r^ected  the  verse,  of  which 
he  gave  the  history.  As  professor  of  divinity, 
one  of  his  earliest  administrative  steps  was,  when 
George  I.  visited  Cambridge  and  several  per- 
sons were  nominated  to  the  degree  of  D.  D.,  to 
demand  4  guineas,  in  addition  to  the  usual  fees, 
before  he  would  "  create"  them,  as  professor. 
For  this,  he  was  complained  of  to  the  vice- 
chancellor,  and  the  result  wa^,  by  a  grace  of 
the  senate,  passed  by  a  m^ority  of  more  than 
two  to  one,  he  was  degraded  and  deprived  of  all 
his  degrees,  in  Oct  1718.  He  appealed  to  the 
law,  and  after  more  than  5  years'  Utigation,  the 
court  of  king's  bench  issued  a  mandamus,  com- 
pelling the  university  to  reinstate  him  in  every 
dignity,  privilege,  and  right  of  which  it  had  de- 
privea  imn. — ^Amld  all  the  liti^ous  and  trouble- 
some years  of  Bei;Ltley's  disputes  with  his  cdi- 
lege  and  with  the  university,  he  pursued  hia 
literary  and  scholastic  labors  as  eagerly  and 
perseveringly  as  if  nothing  else  was  on  his  mind. 
After  his  coup  dressed  in  literature  (the  appen- 
dix to  the  Chronicle  of  Malelas)„  he  began 
to  prepare  editions  of  Philostratus,  of  Hesy- 
chius,  and  of  the  Latin  poet,  Manilins;  but  the 
Philostratus,  though  ready  for  the*  press,  never 


146 


BENTLET 


BENTON 


appeared,  nor  Ib  it  known  what  has  become  of 
it.  In  1695  he  assisted  Evelyn  in  the  revision 
of  his  Kwmiamata,  In  1696  he  wrote  the 
notes  and  made  the  emendations  of  the  text  of 
Oallimachns.  The  first  dissertation  of  Phalaiis 
appeared  in  1697,  the  second  in  1699.  He 
wrote  in  1708  three  critical  epistles  on  the 
"Platns"  and  the  "  Clouds"  of  Aristophanes,  to 
assist  his  friend,  Lndolf  Enster,  in  his  edition  of 
•that  poet  At  various  times  he  gave  literary  as- 
sistance to  other  learned  men,  and  was  mainly 
instrumental  in  engaging  Professor  Ootes  to  pre- 
pare a  new  and  improved  edition  of  Sir  Isaao 
Newton's  Frindpia.  In  1710  he  prepared 
emendations  on  828  passages  in  the  Frasments 
of  Menander  and  lliilemon,  which  had  been 
edited,  but  with  great  ignorance  of  Greek,  by 
the  well-known  Clericus,  or  Le  Olerc.  In  1711 
he  completed  his  edition  of  Horace — ^the  most 
popular  of  aU  his  publications.  In  1718  he  re- 
plied to  Anthony  OoUins's  ^^  Discourse  on  Free 
Thinking."  In  1716  he  proposed,  in  a  letter  to 
Archbishop  Wake,  to  restore  the  original  text 
of  the  New  Testament,  exactly  as  it  was  at  the 
time  of  the  council  of  iTice — using  the  Vulgate 
to  correct  the  Greek  text,  and  out  of  all  the 
variations  obtain  that  which  Bt  Jerome  had 
authenticated  as  the  reading  authorized  long 
before  his  day.  The  project  was  never  pro- 
ceeded with,  though  Bentley  made  extensive 
preparations  for  it,  and  even  issued  a  prospectus 
(in  1720),  to  which  was  appended,  as  a  specimen, 
we  22d  chapter  of  the  Revelations.  In  1726  he 
published  annotated  and  revised  editions  of  Ter- 
ence and  Phffidrus :  it  is  said  that  ^  undoubtedly 
his  Horace  is  by  much  the  more  elaborately 
learned ;  but  wiUi  relation  to  the  interests  of 
his  author,  his  Terence  is  the  most  complete." 
He  subsequently  became  involved  with  Dr. 
Hare  in  a  controversv  on  the  metres  of  Ter- 
ence, which  made  Su*  Isaac  Newton  remark 
that  *'two  dignified  clergymen,  instead  of 
minding  their  duty,  had  been  fighting  about  a 
play-book."  Toward  the  dose  of  1781  he  un- 
dertook his  edition  of  "  Paradise  Lost,"  rapidly 
carried  it  on,  and  published  it,  with  notes  and 
corrections  of  the  text,  in  January,  1782.  Hia 
mistake  was  in  undertaking  such  a  work.  It 
has  some  marks  of  abOity ;  but,  as  a  whole,  is 
not  worthy  of  his  pen.  In  the  same  year,  how- 
ever, he  redeemed  himsel£  In  1726  he  had 
noted  and  corrected  the  whole  of  Homer,  diiefly 
with  a  view  to  the  restoration  of  the  digamma 
to  its  place  and  functions  in  the  metre.  In 
1782  he  seriously  applied  himself  to  complete 
this  edition.  It  was  never  published,  but  the 
MS.  was  finally  transmitted  to  G^ttingen  bj 
Trinity  college,  for  the  use  of  Heyne,  who,  in 
his  own  edition  of  Homer,  acknowledged  the 
profoundest  obligations  to  it,  and  made  the 
world  circumstantially  acouainted  with  its  mer- 
its. Bentley^s  edition  of  Manilius^  published  in 
1789,  when  he  was  in  his  78th  year,  had  been 
prepared  for  the  press  45  years  before.  Four» 
teen  years  after  fientley's  death,  Horace  Wal- 
pole  published,  at  his  private  press  an  edition 


of  Lncao,  iUusttated  by  the  notes  of  Bentley, 
oomblned  with  those  of  Grotius.  The  sug^^ 
tions  of  plausible  coi\]eotures  for  the  emendation 
of  the  text  are  excellent.  In  1740,  after  a 
happy  union  of  89  years,  Bentley  lost  his  wife. 
One  of  their  daughters  was  the  mother  of 
Richard  Oumberland,  the  dramatist.  He  had  a 
presentiment)  strong  in  his  mind,  that  he  would 
complete  his  60th  year,  and  exceeded  that  a^e 
by  nearly  6  months,  at  his  death  in  1742. — ^Aa 
a  public  man,  Bentley  had  an  overweening  opin- 
ion of  his  own  dignity  and  right^  and  a  deter- 
mination in  i^holdin^  both,  which  opposition 
only  increased.  In  pnvate,  though  his  manner 
was  statdy,  if  not  severe^  he  is  represented  as 
being  very  amiable.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to 
say  tiiat  he  was  the  best  scholar  England  ever 
produced— the  greatest  of  modem  times,  per- 
nios, if  we  exc^t  Salmasius.  Parr,  Porson, 
and  others,  imite  in  eulogizing  his  vast  erudi- 
tion. Dr.  Johnson  said  that  ^^  he  thought  very 
highly  of  Bentley ;  that  no  man  went  so  far  in 
the  kinds  of  learnUiff  tiiat  he  cultivated."  His 
life,  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Monk,  bishop  of  Glouoestar 
and  Bristol,  is  an  daborate  prc^nction,  leaning 
rather  against  Bentley,  and  published  in  1880. 

BENTLEY,  Welluk,  an  American  scholar 
and  clergyman,  bom  in  Boston,  in  1758,  grad* 
nated  at  Harvard  college  in  1777,  ordained  pas- 
tor of  a  church  in  Salem  in  1788,  died  Dea  29, 
1819.  He  was  distinguished  for  ms  antiquarian 
learning,  and  collected  a  valuable  and  curiooa 
library  and  cabinet,  which  he  bequeathed  to  the 
college  at  Meadville,  Pa.,  and  to  the  antiquariaa 
society  at  Worcester.  In  theology  he  was  re- 
garded as  a  Unitarian,  and  he  left  several  pub* 
lished  sermons  and  discourses.  He  was  for 
many  years  an  editor  of  the  "Essex  Register,^* 
a  democratic  newspaper,  wrote  a  history  of 
Salem  for  the  collections  of  the  Maasachusetta 
historical  society,  and  after  his  death  his  eulogy 
was  pronounced  by  Edward  Everett. 

BENTON,  the  name  of  countie&in  several  of 
the  United  States.  I.  An  eastern  county  of 
Aiabanui,  bordering  on  Georgia,  and  embracing 
an  area  of  1,170  sq.  m.  The  Ooosa  and  the 
Tallapoosa  are  the  chief  rivers;  beside  which 
there  are  several  small  streams  furnishing  good 
water  power.  Chalybeate  and  other  mineral 
springs  are  found  in  many  places.  Marble  and 
lunestone  of  good  quality  are  obtained  in  abun- 
dance, and  tiie  ores,  among  which  are  gold,  lead, 
and  iron,  are  rich  and  plentiful.  The  surface  la 
uneven,  and  in  some  places  mountainous.  Agri- 
culture is  in  a  very  forward  state,  and,  in  1850^ 
the  comity  produced  6,995  bales  of  oottoh, 
§80,856  bushels  of  com,  92,860  of  sweet  pota- 
toes, and  69.452  of  oats.  There  were  9  grist 
and  flour  mills,  7  saw-mills,  1  carding  and  fiill- 
ing  mill,  1  iron  ftunaoe,  1  newspaper  estabUsh- 
ment,  and  25  churches.  The  public  schools 
numbered  1,688  pupils.  Value  of  live  stock, 
$888,410.  Pop.  17,168,  of  whom  8,763  were 
slaves.  Capita),  Jacksonville.  11,  A  north- 
western coun^  of  Arkansas,  containing  about 
900  square  miles.    It  la  drainedy^y  Ulinoia 


BENTON 


147 


river  BiidTlBg  eredr,  is  generally  level,  and  hae 
a  remarkably  fertile  soil.  In  1854  the  produc- 
tions amonnted  to  248,780  bushels  of  corn, 
81,812  of  wheat,  and  64,725  of  oats.  The 
stronff  tide  of  emigration  which  has  been  di- 
rected toward  this  part  of  the  state,  is  rapidly 
augmenting  the  population  and  developing  the 
resovroes  of  the  country.  Pop.  in  1864,  6,495. 
of  whom  195  were  slaves.  Capital,  Benton- 
ville.  m.  The  old  name  of  Hernando,  a  west- 
em  oonnty  of  the  peninsula  of  Florida,  border- 
ing on  the  golf  of  Mexico,  and  embracing  an 
area  of  about  1,000  sq.  m.  It  is  a  low,  sandy 
tract,  occupied  in  great  part  by  swamps  and 
pine  foreets.  In  1850  it  produced  28,516  bush- 
els of  com,  86  hogsheads  of  sugar,  8,910  gallons 
of  molasses,  and  6,160  pounds  of  rice.  There 
were  7  churches,  and  60  pupils  in  tlie  public 
schools.  Value  of  live  sto<dc,  $65,840.  Fop. 
926 ;  of  whom  822  were  slaves.  Capital,  Mel- 
endez.  IV.  A  N.  W.  county  of  Tennessee 
with  an  area  of  about  400  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  E.  by  the  Tennessee  river,  and  on  the 
N.  W.  by  the  Big  Sandy.  The  soil  is  good,  and 
the  agricultural  products,  in  1850,  amounted  to 
805,490  bushels  of  Indian  com,  144,508  pounds 
oi  tobacco,  and  48,802  of  butter ;  value  of  live 
stock,  fl^Mll.  There  were  87  churches  and 
600  pupils  in  the  public  schools.  Pop.  6,805, 
of  whom  868  were  slaves.  Capital,  Camden, 
y.  A  western  county  of  Indiana,  bordering  on 
Illinois,  watered  by  Pine  and  Sugar  creeks, 
and  having  an  area  of  414  s<i.  m.,  most  of 
which  is  occupied  by  fertile  prairies.  The  sur- 
&ce  presents  few  irregularities,  and  about }  of 
it  is  covered  with  forests  of  oak,  ash,  sugar- 
maple,  and  walnut.  The  chief  staples  are  wheat, 
maize,  oata,  pork,  and  cattle.  The  value  of  live 
stock,  in  1860,  was  $65,110,  and  the  other  pro- 
ductions amounted  to  160,400  bushels  of  Indian 
com,  2,612  of  wheat,  14,808  of  oats,  948  tons 
of  hay,  and  4,846  pounds  of  wool  There  were 
180  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Organized 
in  1840;  capital,  Oxford;  pop.  in  1860, 1,144. 
VL  A  central  county  of  Missouri,  intersected 
by  the  Osage  and  its  branches,  the  Ponnne 
de  Terre  and  Grand  rivers,  and  by  2  or  8  small 
creeks^  and  oomprinng  an  area  of  770  sq.  m. 
The  sor&oe,  which  is  somewhat  uneven,  is  oc- 
cupied by  alternate  tracts  of  fertile  prairie  and 
woodland.  Lead  is  the  most  important  mineral 
The  staples  are  grain,  cattle,  and  pork.  The 
value  of  live  stock,  in  1860,  was  $177,054 ;  the 
other  productions  amounted  to  154^965  buiahels 
of  Indian  com,  11,072  of  wheat,  89,415  of  oats, 
and  12,502  pounds  of  wool.  There  were  4  tan- 
neries^ 1  saw-mill,  1  grist-mill,  1  newspaper 
ofBce,  and  6  churches.  Capital,  Warsaw.  Pop, 
in  1866,  6,789,  of  whom  626  were  slaves.  YU. 
A  centi^  county  of  Iowa,  recently  formed, 
traversed  by  Cedar  river,  touched  by  Iowa 
river  on  its  8.  W.  boundary,  and  having  an  area 
of  720  sq.  nou  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
occupied  hj  prairies  and  woodlands,  the  former 
in  hffger  proportion  than  the  latter.  The  soil 
28  rery  productive,  and,  in  1856,  yielded  46,586 


bushels  of  wheat,  49,815  of  oats,  821,519  of  In- 
dian corn,  27,721  of  potatoes,  and  8,784  tons  of 
hay.  Capital,  Vinton.  Pop.  hi  1656,  6,247. 
y  ni.  An  eastem  county  of  Minnesota,  bounded 
W.  by  the  ilfississippi,  E.  by  Rum  river ;  wa- 
tered by  the  Flat,  the  Nokay,  and  the  Elk,  and 
having  an  area  of  1,450  sq.  m.  The  surface  is 
uneven,  and,  in  some  places,  covered  with  pine 
woods,  and  other  timber.  Lumber,  Indian  corn, 
potatoes,  and  hay,  are  the  most  important  pro* 
ductions.  In  1860,  the  county  yielded  160 
bushels  of  Indian  com,  8,650  of  i>otatoe8,  and 
1,121  tons  of  hay ;  value  o^live  stock,  $11,925. 
Capital,  Sauk  Rapids.  Pop.  in  1857,  688.  IX. 
A  western  county  of  Oregon,  bordering  on  the 
Pacific  ooeauj  J[>ounded  £•  by  WiUammette  river, 
and  comprismg  an  area  of  about  1,100  sq.  m. 
The  sur&ce  is  nuHmtainous,  Mt.  Snelling  near 
the  centre  of  the  county  being  the  highest  ele- 
vation. Cape  Foulweather  is  situated  on  the 
N.  W.  coast  The  soil  is  fertile,  well  suited  to 
agriculture  and  grazing,  and  produced  in  1850, 
14,918  bushels  of  wheat,  40  of  Indian  corn,  198 
ofoats,  and  1,402  of  potatoes.  There  were  1,866 
pounds  of  wool  raised,  and  41,065  pounds  of 
butter  made.  Value  of  live  stock,  $196,891. 
Number  of  pupils  attending  schools,  40.  Capi- 
tal, Mimville.  Pop.  814. 

BEOTOK  a  poet  village  of  Lafiiyette  oo., 
lIHsconsin,  situated  18  miles  N.  of  Galena,  in  a 
region  abounding  in  lead  mines,  which  are  ex- 
tensively worked.  In  1850,  it  had  2  churches^ 
6  stores,  a  smelting  furnace,  and  about  800  in- 
habitants. Its  growth  has  since  been  rapid,  and 
by  the  census  of  1865,  had  2,218  inhabitants. 

BENTON,  Thomas  Habt,  an  American 
statesman,  bom  near  Hillsborough^Orange  co., 
N.  a,  March  14,  1782.  d^ed  in  Washington, 
April  10, 1858.  His  &ther  died  when  he  was  8 
vearsold;  his  early  education  was  imperfect: 
he  was  for  some  time  at  a  grammar  school,  and 
afterward  at  Chapel  Hill,  the  university  of 
North  Carolina,  but  finished  no  course  of  study 
there,  as  his  mother  removed  to  Tennessee  to  set* 
tie  on  a  tract  of  land  belonging  to  his  father's 
estate.  Thomas  studied  law,  and  soon  rose  to 
eminence  in  that  profession.  He  was  now 
elected  to  the  legislature,  serring  only  a  single 
term,  during  which  he  procured  the  passage  of 
a  law  reformiug  the  judicial  system,  and  of  an- 
other giving  to  slaves  the  benefit  of  apury  trial, 
the  same  as  white  men.  One  of  his  earliest 
friends  and  patrons  was  Andrew  Jackson,  at 
that  time  a  judge  of  the  supreme  court,  and 
subsequentiy  nu^or-general  of  the  state  militia. 
Benton  became  ms  aide-de-camp,  and  during  the 
war  also  raised  a  regiment  of  volunteers.  It  waa 
from  that  service  he  derived  the  tide  of  colonel, 
which  has  dung  to  him  through  life.  Not- 
withstanding the  dose  intimacy  between  Jack- 
son and  himself  which  was  of  the  most  cordial 
and  unreserved  character,  a  mde  and  sudden 
rapture  took  place  in  wluch  severe  pistol  and 
dagger  wounds  were  given,  and  produced  a  ren< 
counter  that  estranged  them  fi)r  many  years. 
After  the  volunteers  were  disbanded  Mr.  Mad* 


148 


BENTOlSr 


iflon  appointed  Ool.  Benton,  in  1818,  a  lientenant- 
oolonel  in  the  anny,  bat  on  his  way  to  serve 
in  Canada,  in  1816,  he  heard  the  news  of  the 
peace  and  resigned.  He  now  removed  to 
Missouri,  and  took  np  his  abode  in  the  city  of 
St.  Louis.  There  he  devoted  himself  anew  to 
his  profession.  Soon,  however,  enga^ng  in  the 
politics  of  the  day,  he  was  led  to  &e  establish- 
ment of  a  newspaper  entitled  the  ^Missouri 
Inquirer.'^  Inthispodtion  he  was  involved  in 
many  disputes  and  contentions.  Duels  were 
usual  at  that  time,  and  he  had  his  share  of  them 
with  tiieir  unhappy  consequences.  In  one  of 
them,  which  was  forced  upon  him,  he  killed  his 
opponent,  Mr.  Lucas — an  event  he  deeply  re- 
gretted, and  all  the  private  papers  relating  to 
which  ne  has  destroyed.  His  journal  took  a 
strong  and  vigorous  stand  in  favor  of  the  ad- 
mission of  Missouri,  notwithstanding  her  slavery 
oonstitution,  and  when  the  angry  controversy 
was  terminated  he  was  rewarded  for  his  labors 
by  being  chosen  one  of  the  first  senators  from 
the  new  state.  It  is  from  this  period,  1820, 
that  his  political  history  and  the  great  influence 
he  has  exerted  upon  public  afiEairs  may  be  said 
to  date.  A  man  m  the  early  prime  of  life^  pos- 
sessed of  a  commanding  intellect,  of  large  and 
liberal  culture,  an  assiduous  student,  indus- 
trious, temperate,  resolute,  and  endowed  with 
a  memory  whose  tenacity  was  marvellous^  he 
soon  placed  himself  in  the  front  rank  of  those 
who  shaped  the  councils  of  Uie  nation.  As  a 
representative  of  the  West  with  the  manifold 
interests  of  a  frontier  population  intrusted  to 
his  care,  Ool.  Benton  rorthwith  devoted  him- 
self to  securing  a  reform  in  the  land*  system  of 
the  general  government.  A  pioneer  himself  in 
early  life,  he  sympathized  with  the  demands  of 
that  class,  and  his  familiarity  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  government  taught  him  how  fiEdlacious 
and  suicidal  was  the  policy  of  attempting  to 
derive  a  revenue  from  sudi  a  source.  The 
general  distress  which  prevailed  throughout  the 
oountry  in  1820,  and  which  bore  with  especial 
hardship  upon  the  land  purchasers  of  the  West, 
attracted  attention  to  tms  subject,  and  afforded 
cause  for  the  initiative  which  was  taken  by 
oongress  in  liberalizing  the  system.  A  measure 
of  relief  devised  by  Mr.  Crawford,  secretary  of 
the  treasury,  changing  all  future  sales  to  the 
cash  basis,  reducing  the  price  to  $1  25  per  acre, 
and  allowing  a  discount  equal  to  the  difference 
to  former  purchasers,  afforded  material  relief. 
But  this  was  not  all  that  was  needed.  First  a 
preemptive  rkht  to  all  actual  settiers ;  secondly, 
a  periodic  reduction  according  to  the  time  sec- 
tions had  been  in  market,  so  as  to  make  the 
prices  correspond  witii  the  auality ;  and  thirdly, 
the  donation  of  homesteaas  to  impoverished 
but  industrious  persons  who  would  cultivate 
the  soil  for  a  given  period  of  years,  and  thereby 
develop  the  resources  of  the  country — these 
were  all  points  essential  to  tiie  needed  reform. 
Col.  Benton  apprehended  the  full  scope  of  these 
changes,  and  determined  to  persist  in  urging 
them  until  they  should  be  accomplished.    The 


years  1824, 1826, 1828,  accordingly  found  him 
doing  battie  for  such  amelioration  of  the  entire 
t^stem.  A  bill  embracing  these  features  was 
moved  by  him  and  renewed  annually  until  it  at 
last  took  hold  upon  the  public  mind.  At  first 
his  speeches  attracted  more  attention  through- 
out the  country  than  in  congress,  for  there  hb 
efforts  were  counteracted  by  schemes  for  divid- 
ing the  public  lands  or  the  proceeds  of  their 
sales  amcxig  the  states.  His  firmness  and  po- 
sition in  the  senate  as  a  supporter  of  the  ad- 
ministration of  Jackson,  gave  him  great  weight 
with  that  party,  and  he  was  thus  enabled  so 
far  to  impress  his  views  upon  die  president  that 
they  were  embodied  in  one  of  his  messages, 
and  from  that  date  the  ultimate  triumph  of  land 
reform  became  only  a  question  of  time.  In  his 
own  state  of  Missouri,  there  were  large  quan- 
tities of  saline  and  mineral  kmds  whidi  it  had 
been  the  object  of  the  general  government  to 
withdraw  frx>m  sale  and  farm  out  This  inju- 
rious monopoly  was  also  aimed  at  in  his  meas- 
ures, and  he  succeeded  in  effecting  a  change 
which  threw  all  open  to  occupancy.  Intimate- 
ly blended  with  the  same  subject,  and  moved  bv 
the  same  considerations,  were  the  efforts  which 
he  began  during  the  first  term  of  his  senatorial 
service,  to  effect  a  repeal  of  the  imposts  upon 
all  necessaries  of  life.  These  duties  bore  with 
great  hardship  upon  the  population  of  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi.  It  was  a  tribute  levied  upon 
them  in  part  to  sustain  government  and  in  part 
to  protect  special  interests.  In  some  cases  this 
was  most  unequal  as  well  as  oppresaiye,  and  we 
may  cite  the  salt  tax  as  one  that  at  that  time 
met  with  more  hostility  than  any  other.  Dur- 
ing the  session  of  1829-'80,  CoL  Benton  deliv- 
ered the  first  elaborate  argument  against  thia 
burden  upon  a  prime  necessary,  and  afterward 
followed  it  up  in  such  a  manner  as  to  effect  its 
repeal.  In  Meeting  adventure  to  explorations 
in  the  fru*  west,  in  fixing  the  attention  of  gov- 
ernment upon  the  early  occupancy  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia,  in  encouraging  overland  tran- 
sit from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  Col.  Benton 
was  also  prominent  He  had  previously  devoted 
himself  to  these  subjects  and  written  largely  up- 
on them  in  1819,  and  no  sooner  had  he  taken  his 
seat  in 'the  senate  than  he  made  direct  %fforts 
to  engage  congress  and  the  public  in  the  great 
enterprise.  From  the  researches  of  Clark  and 
Bogers,  from  the  suggestions  of  Jefferson,  frt)m 
reports  of  trappers  and  voyageurs,  and  from  the 
courses  of  continental  streams,  he  first  elabo- 
rated the  project  of  overland  connection ;  and  as 
science  expanded,  and  knowledge  of  the  Inter- 
yening  wUdemess  became  more  definite,  his 
views  took  form  in  tiie  proposals  which  are  now 
BO  largely  occupying  public  attention  for  a  great 
central  railway.  The  route  urged  by  him  as 
preferable  to  all  others  is  through  the  passes  of 
the  Rocky  mountains  discovered  by  Fremont, 
known  as  the  Cochetope,  and  debouching  upon 
California  through  gaps  in  the  Sierra  ifevada. 
For  many  years  he  was  the  leading  advocate 
and  support  in  the  senate  of  the  whole  scheme 


HENTOK 


149 


ofweBtfomexploratioiL  It  will  thiu  be  seen  that 
€k>L  Benton  became  almost  at  the  outset  of  his 
eaxeer  the  ezponeDt  of  western  interests,  and 
though  largelj  participating  in  all  the  great 
measures  and  poutical  stm^les  that  separated 
parties^  he  never  neglected  what  was  due  to  his 
own  immediate  constitaency.  The  sacoess 
which  has  already  attended  land  reform,  the 
establishment  of  preemption,  the  graduation  of 
price,  the  donations  to  works  of  public  improye- 
ment^  all  trace  their  origin  to  his  continuous 
labors.  In  subordination  to  these  leading  ob- 
jects, he  likewise  did  much  to  open  up  and  pro- 
tect the  trade  with  New  Mexico,  to  encourage 
the  establishment  of  military  stations  on  the 
Missouri,  and  throughout  the  interior,  to  culti- 
vate amicsible  relations  with  Indian  tribes,  and 
to  fiiYor  the  commerce  of  our  inland  seas  that 
now  bear  such  a  wealth  of  freights.  The  mark- 
ing out  of  post-roads,  and  securing  appropria- 
tiona  for  their  maintenance,  was  especially  a 
work  of  his  own  undertaking,  and  its  benefit 
has  been  deeply  felt  in  every  branch  of  western 
trade.  Upon  the  wider  ^eatre  of  national 
politics  the  career  of  Ool.  Benton  was  equally 
remarkable.  In  the  currency  disputes  which 
attended  the  expiration  of  the  charter  of  the 
bank  of  the  United  States,  the  reoharter  after- 
ward, and  the  final  veto  message  of  Jackson, 
Ooh  Benton  addressed  himself  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  whole  question  of  finance,  circu- 
lating medium,  ana  exchange,  and  brought 
forward  his  propositions  for  a  gold  and  silver 
currency  as  the  true  remedy  for  existing  embar- 
rassments, and  the  only  rightful  medium  for  gov- 
ernment aisbursements  and  receipts.  Upon  this 
subject  he  made  many  of  the  most  elaborate 
speeches  of  his  life,  speeches  that  evince  great 
research,  a  close  study  of  finance,  and  a  fvJl 
knowledge  of  the  evils  that  so  often  attend  ex- 
panded paper  issues.  In  Europe,  as  well  as  in 
America,  his  expositions  attracted  great  atten- 
tion, and  extended  widely  his  reputation  as  a 
debater,  a  thinker,  and  a  practicial  statesman. 
At  this  time  his  manner  of  oratory  was  deliber- 
ate and  unimpaasioned,  his  matter  full  to  over- 
flowing with  facts,  figures,  logical  deduction, 
and  historical  illustration;  but  almost  wholly 
devoid  of  that  exuberance  of  wit  and  raciness 
of  humor  which  characterize  his  later  dis- 
courses. The  elaboration  whieh  he  gave  to 
these  views  paved  the  way  for  subsequent  legis- 
lation upon  the  national  finance,  and  did  much 
to  consolidate  the  sentiment  of  the  democratio 
party  in  favor  of  the  sub-treasury  system  which 
was  eventually  adopted.  It  was  from  the  finan- 
cial policy  which  he  thus  enunciated,  that  he 
derived  the  sobriquet  of  ^  Old  Bullion,"  which 
has  never  forsaken  him,  and  which  also  ne  never 
forsook.  Throughout  the  long  and  critical 
struggle  between  the  administration  of  Jackson 
and  we  advocates  of  the  recharter  of  the  na- 
tional bank,  he  was  the  main  stay  and  support 
of  the  president  in  the  senate,  and  actins  in 
strictest  unity  with  his  party,  held  high  place 
in  their  afiecti<»x  and  confidence.     The  re- 


cords of  his  labors  in  that  behalf  will  be  found 
upon  almost  every  page  of  the  debates  of  con- 
gress. As  the  mover  of  the  *^  expunging  reso- 
lutions," Col.  Benton  made  himself  especially 
obnoxious  to  his  political  opponents,  but  finally 
achieved  success,  and  gained  a  great  personal 
triumph.  The  motion  was  to  strike  from  the 
journals  of  the  senate  a  resolution  of  censure 

rn  Gen.  Jackson,  and  the  passion  of  partisans 
hed  the  contest  with  an  importance  at  the 
time  fiir  greater  than  will  attach  to  it  in  the 
future ;  but  as  an  exhibition  of  many  traits  of 
OoL  Benton's  character,  persistency,  keen,  saga- 
cious insight,  stubborn  devotion  to  the  fame  of 
his  party  chief^  unquailing  courage,  and  confi- 
dence of  success  in  the  &ce  of  an  adverse  ma- 
jority, no  act  of  his  life  was  more  striking. 
I)uring  the  succeedingadministration  of  Mr.  Van 
Buren,  much  of  Col.  Benton's  time  was  devoted 
to  the  defence  of  the  new  financial  policy,  then 
being  inaugurated.  Upon  the  questions  relat- 
ing to  the  Oregon  boundary,  the  annexation  of 
Texas,  and  various  other  important  matters 
growing  out  of  our  foreign  relations  between 
the  presidential  terms  of  Tyler  and  Taylor, 
OoL  Benton  took  a  leading  and  influential  part. 
On  the  first  of  those  he  dmered  from  the  demo- 
cratic administration  of  Mr.  Polk,  which  had 
declared  for  the  line  of  &i°  40',  but  the  power- 
ful effort  of  Ool.  Benton,  in  which  he  reviewed 
the  whole  controversy,  and  elucidated  the  claims 
of  the  United  States  with  much  force,  was  not 
to  be  withstood,  and  the  administration  and 
party  were  content  to  acquiesce  in  his  views,  and 
accept  the  line  of  4&^  as  the  northern  boundary. 
During  the  Mexican  war,  also,  his  services,  and 
intimate  acquaintance  witib  tiie  Spanish  prov- 
inces of  the  south,  to  whose  history  he  had  de- 
voted much  attention,  proved  most  useful  to 
the  government.  It  was  upon  his  suggestion 
that  the  policy  of  '^  masterly  inactivity,'^  at  first 
determined  upon  by  the  president,  was  finally 
abandoned,  and.  a  vigorous  prosecution  of  the 
war  urged  in  its  stead.  His  counsels  were  much 
sought  also  in  regard  to  maturing  a  plan  of 
campaign  and  conquest  for  compemiur  a  peace, 
and  at  one  time  it  was  proposed  by  President 
Polk  to  confer  upon  him  the  titie  of  lieutenant- 
general  with  full  command  of  the  war,  in  order 
that  he  might  carry  out  his  conceptions  in  per^ 
son.  The  project,  however,  was  never  consum- 
mated. The  bill  creating  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
genersJ  passed  the  house,  but  was  defeated  in 
the  senate.  The  acquisition  of  Mexican  terri- 
tory brought  on  disputes  in  congress  touching 
the  question  of  slavery,  which,  after  threatening 
the  peace  of  the  country,  were  adjusted  by  the 
comprondse  acts  of  1850.  Ool.  Benton  opposed 
this  compromise,  of^ed  by  Mr.  Olay,  as  being  a 
vicious  system  of  legislation,  as  fraudulent  in 
regard  to  the  Texas  donation,  and  as  defective 
and  ill-judged  in  its  clause  in  regard  to  the  fnsi- 
tive  slave  law.  The  acts,  however,  though  de- 
feated as  a  whole,  passed  separately. — ^in  the 
violent  rupture  which  had  taken  place  between 
Gen.  Jackson  and  Mr.  Oalhoun^  and  which  made 


150 


BESTOI[ 


its  mark  npon  parties  as  well  ss  persons,  Ool. 
Benton  haa  warmly  espoused  the  side  of  the 
former  at  the  very  oatset.  Shortly  previ- 
ous to  that,  the  doctrine  of  nullification  had 
first  heen  broached  at  a  dinner  party  in  cele- 
bration of  the  birth-day  of  Hr.  Jefferson,  re* 
oaring  an  endorsement  from  Mr.  Oalhoon,  and 
meetinff  with  strong  rebuke  firom  Gen.  Jack- 
son. After  the  rupture,  political  antagonism 
heightened  the  animosity  of  the  parties,  and 
nullification  assumed  threatening  proportions  in 
the  acrimonious  diroutes  growing  out  of  the 
tariff  regulations.  Ool.  Benton,  in  his  close 
i^iation  with  the  administration,  became  the 
leading  democratic  opponent  of  Mr.  Calhoun 
upon  this  question  in  the  senat€^  and  the  diver- 
gence whioih  then  manifested  itself  grew  and 
widened  as  years  progressed,  and  was  the  fruit- 
fiol  cause  of  a  life-long  hostility  and  oppodtion 
between  them.  The  question,  however,  was 
arranged,  but  the  compromise  of  183d  proved 
to  be  only  a  lull  in  the  storm.  The  same  views 
in  regard  to  state  rights  rei^peared  in  the  field 
of  politics  in  connection  with  the  far  more  com- 
plicated question  of  domestic  slavery.  This 
was  manifested  first  in  the  conflict  in  the  house 
of  representatives  in  1835,  upon  the  discussion 
of  abolition  petitions,  but  the  action  of  that  body 
suppressed  the  cause  of  strife,  and  it  was  not  until 
1846-'7  thattiie  same  policy  was  renewed.  The 
principles  sought  to  be  enforced  were  admitted 
to  be  identical  with  those  of  the  first  nullifica- 
tion movement;  the  causes  asdgned  and  the 
machinery  for  enforcement  were  different.  Al- 
though representing  a  slave  state,  Ool.  Benton 
did  not  on  account  of  the  subject-matter  in- 
volved deviate  from  the  positions  he  had  main- 
tuned  on  former  occasions.  At  the  earliest 
announcement  of  the  new  programme  in  the 
senate  of  the  United  States  he  stood  forth  to 
the  attack.  It  was  the  beginning  of  a  warfkre 
that  was  eventually  to  prostrate  himself  at 
home,  and  drive  him  from  the  seat  he  had  so 
long  filled  in  the  senate.  On  Feb.  19,  1847, 
Mr.  Oalhoun  introduced  a  set  of  resolutions  in 
the  senate,  declaring  the  doctrines  he  wished  to 
insist  upon  in  regard  to  the  territorial  powers 
ci  congress,  the  admisaion  of  states,  and  the  use 
of  common  property,  all  bearing  mrectiy  upon 
the  slavery  question,  and  the  exciting  issues  that 
had  been  evoked  by  the  proposed  restriction 
known  as  the  "  Wflmot  Proviso."  which  re- 
quired the  exdnsion  of  slavery  m)m  all  new 
territory  to  be  acquired  by  the  United  States. 
They  were  immediatoly  denounced  by  OoL 
Benton  as '^fire-brand  resolutions."  Mr.  Oal- 
houn expressed  his  surprise,  stating  be  had  ex- 
pected tiie  support  of  Ool.  Benton,  as  he  was 
mm  a  slave  state.  Ool.  Benton  retorted  that 
he  had  no  right  to  expect  such  a  thing.  ''Then," 
said  Mr.  Oalhoun,  "I  shall  know  where  to  find 
the  gentiemau ;"  to  which  Ool.  Benton  respond- 
ed, "I  shall  be  found  in  the  right  place— on 
the  side  of  my  country  and  the  union."  The 
resolutions  never  came  to  a  vote,  but  they  were 
sent  to  the  legislature  of  every  slave  state,  were 


adopted  by  some  of  them,  and  beoame  the 
basis  of  after-conflict  and  party  organieation.  It 
was  determined  by  their  author  to  make  them 
the  grounds  of  instructions  to  senators  in  con- 
gress, and  for  this  purpose  they  were  sent  to 
Missouri,  and  confided  to  the  hands  of  demo- 
crats in  the  legislature  unfriendly  to  OoL  Ben- 
ton's reelection.  Without  exciting  inquiry,  and 
under  the  sanction  of  leading  members  of  the 
party  whose  fealty  was  not  then  suspected,  they 
were  passed  in  both  branches  and  sent  to 
Washington.  OoL  Benton  no  sooner  received 
the  instructions  than  he  denounced  them  as  not 
being  expressive  of  the  sense  of  the  people,  as 
containing  disunion  doctrines,  and  as  designed 
to  produce  an  eventual  separation  of  the  states. 
He  announced  that  he  would  appeal  from  tb» 
legislature  to  the  people,  and  immediately  after 
the  adjournment  of  congress  retnmed  to  IGa- 
souri  for  that  purpose.  He  began  the  canvass 
of  the  state,  and  prosecuted  it  iu  every  section 
in  a  series  of  speeches,  which  for  bitterness  of 
denunciation,  strength  of  exposition,  and  canstio 
wit,  have  scarcely  their  equal  in  the  English 
language.  The  whig  pariy  of  the  state  at  first 
sustained  his  position,  but  finding  a  prospect  of 
reaping  a  triumph  of  their  own  from  the  di- 
visions of  the  democracy,  they  changed  front, 
and  afiSliated  with  the  "  Anties,"  as  the  demo- 
cratic opponents  of  Ool.  Benton  were  called. 
The  result  in  1849-'50  was  the  return  of  a  legis- 
lature largely  democratic,  but  composed  of 
opposite  wings,  the  Benton  men  being  in  the 
plurality.  Many  ballotings  for  senator  were 
had  without  compromise;  but  a  bargain  was  at 
length  struck  between  whigs  and  anties,  and 
10  of  those  chosen  by  the  people  as  democrats, 
but  unfriendly  to  OoL  BentonT  voted  for  Henry 
B.  Geyer,  who  was  elected.  Mr.  C^er  was  a 
whig,  but  had  committed  himself  to  the  anti- 
Benton  party  in  a  letter  prior  to  his  elec- 
tion. Many  of  his  party  following  his  lead,  they 
soon  coalesced  with  the  opposition  democrats^ 
and  in  after  campaigns  bv  adroit  management, 
they  gained  control  of  the  stote  government 
This  was  chiefiy  effected  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Mr.  Sterling  Price,  who,  althon^ 
elected  governor  as  a  supporter  of  the  views 
of  OoL  Benton,  yet,  after  a  pretended  oompr<>- 
mise  of  the  two  democratic  wings,  was  no  sooner 
sworn  into  office  than  he  changed  over  to  the 
oppoation,  carrying  several  of  the  other  state 
officers  along  with  him.  To  vindicate  his  po- 
sition, and  to  break  up  the  asceadenoy  whidi 
the  so^salled  nullification  party  was  thus  ao- 

Suiring,  OoL  Benton,  in  1852,  made  a  more 
irect  appeal  to  the  people  in  the  oongresfli<»ial 
district  in  which  he  resided,  announced  him- 
self a  candidate  for  congress,  and  was  elected 
over  all  oppo^tion.  In  the  session  that  fol- 
lowed he  at  first  gave  a  warm  support  to  the 
administration*  of  President  Heroe,  but  that 
soon  falling  under  tiie  control  of  the  adherents 
of  Mr.  Oalhoun,  OoL  Benton  withdrew  his  sup- 
port, and  the  administration  in  turn  making  a 
war  upon  him  displaced  from  office  aU  ms 


BENTOK 


BENUA 


161 


triends  tbroaghotit  lOssonrL  Soon  the  r^eal 
of  tiie  Missonri  oompromiae  was  mooted,  and 
beoame  a  parlr  measure  in  the  shape  of  the 
Kansas-Nebradbi  bilL  Agunst  this  Ck>l.  Ben- 
ton exerted  himself  with  all  his  strength,  de- 
fivering  a  memorable  speech  in  the  house  that 
did  much  to  excite  the  country  against  the  act, 
bnt  Ceuled  to  defeat  its  passage.  The  next 
election  coming  on  in  1854^  Ool.  Benton  was 
defeated  in  his  own  district  by  a  combination 
of  his  old  opponents  with  the  new  American 
party  that  had  Jnst  arisen,  and  Mr.  Kennett  was 
returned  in  his  stead.  Retiring  from  active 
politics,  he  then  determined  to  devote  his 
feisure  to  writings  and  study  more  congeidal  to 
bis  age ;  but  was  prevailed  upon  by  his  friends 
to  suffer  his  name  to  be  used  as  a  candidate  for ' 
governor  of  Missouri  in  the  election  of  1859. 
Once  more  laying  aside  the  pen,  and  startinff 
forth  to  canvass  the  state,  he  was  received 
everywhere  with  enthusiastic  applause.  Im- 
mense masses  of  people  gathered  to  hear  him, 
bis  old  political  friends  rallied  to  his  standard, 
and  his  course  became  a  triumphant  procesmon. 
But  a  third  list  of  candidates  was  in  the  field 
representing  the  American  party,  although 
most  of  its  members  sympathized  Wi1±i  Ck>l. 
Benton,  and  those  who  did  not  voted  for  his 
adversary  instead  of  the  candidate  of  their  own 
par^.  Mr.  Trusten  Polk  (national  democrat) 
was  thereby  elected  by  a  trifling  plurality. 
The  result  of  Col.  Benton's  canvass,  nowever, 
was  to  restore,  in  a  great  measure,  the  conserva- 
tive filling  of  the  state,  and  to  prepare  the 
way  for  a  more  liberal  policy  upon  all  domestio 
subjects.  His  friends  up  to  the  hour  of  election 
were  sanguine  of  his  success.  He  himself  was 
never  so,  but  felt  hims^  fully  repaid  for  all 
bis  toil  by  the  impress  he  had  made  upon  pub- 
lio  opinion,  and  the  reaction  he  had  effected 
agfunst  dismion  politics.  In  the  presidential 
election  of  Nov.  1856,  Ool  Benton  supported 
Mr.  Buchanan  in  opposition  to  his  own  son-in- 
law,  OoL  Fremont.  The  reason  assigned  by 
him  was  a  coniidenoe  that  Mr.  Buchanan,  if 
elected,  would  restore  the  principles  of  the 
Jackson  administration,  and  the  apprehension 
that  the  success  of  OoL  Fremont  would  engen- 
der sectional  parties  fatal  to  the  perman^oe  of 
the  union.  Be  soon  after  saw  occasion  to 
modify  these  opinions,  and  although  in  retire- 
ment, he  was  inclined  to  oppose  the  adminis- 
tration of  Buchanan  and  to  unite  with  the  op- 
position that  presented  itself  in  the  republican 
parfy.  After  his  defeat  in  1856,  Ool.  Bentmi 
devoted  his  time  again  to  literary  pursuits. 
Even  before  that  time  he  had  begun  his  ^^  Thirty 
Years'  View'*  of  the  working  of  the  govern- 
ment, of  which  the  1st  volume  was  published  in 
New  York  in  1854.  It  is  a  retrospect  of  the 
period  during  which  he  held  a  seat  in  the 
senate  of  the  United  States,  and  presents  a  con- 
Deeted  narrative  of  the  times  from  Adams  to 
Pieroe^  developing  much  of  the  secret  histoiy  of 
the  men  and  politics  of  that  epoch.  No  sooner 
was  that  oS  his  hands  than  he  engaged  in  the 


still  more  laborious  task  of  oondensittg,  re- 
vising, and  abridging  the  debates  of  congress 
from  the  foundation  of  the  government  to  the 
present  time.  Li  this  work,  even  at  the  ad- 
vanced age  of  76,  his  daily  labors  were  almost 
incredible ;  it  was  finally  completed  down  to 
the  conclusion  of  the  great  compromise  debate 
of  1850— in  which,  along  with  Olay.  Oalhoun, 
Webster,  and  Seward,  he  had  himself  borne  a 
conspicuous  part — ^upon  his  very  deathbed, 
where  he  dictated  and  revised  the  final  por* 
tions  in  whispers,  after  he  had  lost  the  ability 
to  speak  aloud.  Some  months  previous  to  this, 
in  an  interval  of  leisure,  he  also  wrote  a  review 
of  the  decision  of  the  supreme  court  in  tiie 
Dred  Scott  case,  which  attracted  great  at- 
tention. With  a  strong,  industrious  int^ect^ 
a  dominating  character,  and  ^uiok  appreciation 
of  men,  OoL  Benton  exercised  a  prominent 
influence  upon  national  afiEairs.  In  Missouri  hk 
power  was^t  one  time  boimdtoss,  and  through- 
out the  West  he  moulded  public  opinion  to  bis 
will  for  many  years.  While  adhering  to  strict 
.party  lines  he  was  able  to  effect  almost  every 
thing  he  attempted,  and  olten  standing  forth 
alone  he  drew  his  party  with  him  against  the 
policy  of  presidents  and  cabinets.  In  «hiB 
last  attempt  of  this  kind,  however,  he  fiiiled, 
and  was  forced  to  relinquish  office  as  a  c(Hise- 
quence;  but  this  crowning  struggle  was  a 
testimony  to  his  independence  and  sense  of 
duty  that  will  contribute  no  less  to  his  fame  with 
posterity  than  tin  hcmors  which  he  received 
through  party  idlegiance.— OoL  Benton  was 
married,  after  becoming  senator,  to  Elizabeth, 
daughter  of  OoL  James  McDowell,  of  Rock- 
bridge CO.,  Ya.  BSb  surviving  children  are  4 
daughters— Mrs.  William  Oar^  Jones,  Mrs.  Jes- 
sie Ann  Fremont,  Mrs.  Sarah  Benton  Jacob,  and 
Madame  Susan  Benton  Boileau,  now  at  Oalcutta, 
wife  of  the  French  consul-genersL  Mrs.  Ben- 
ton died  in  1854^  having  been  struck  with  par- 
alysis in  1844,  and  from  the  time  of  that 
calamity  her  husband  was  never  known  to  go 
to  any  place  of  festivity  or  amusement 

BENTZEL-STERNAU,  Ohbdhav  Enirer, 
count,  a  German  author  and  statesman,  bom 
at  Ments,  April  9, 1767,  died  in  Switzerland, 
Aug.  18,  1850.  He  made  a  mark  upon  the 
literary  world  of  Germany  by  his  Oold&ne  KaXb 
(Golden  Oalf),  which  appeared  in  1802  and  1804^ 
and  to  which  he  added  Der  iteineme  Gattf  Ihr 
aUs  Adam,  satirical  novels^  full  of  humorous  and 
philosophical  delineations  of  men  and  things. 
He  translated  Young's  ''Night  Thoughts,*'  and 
Oomeille's  Cid  ;  and  for  several  years  he  edited 
the  jMtrn.  In  1806  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
ministry  of  the  interior,  in  Baden;  in  181^ 
finance  minister  of  what  was  then  the  grand 
duchy  of  Frankfort  In  politics  he  was  a  liberal 
conservative.  He  became  a  convert  to  Protea- 
tantism^Aug.  19, 1827. 

BENUA,  with  the  prefix  Drang,  signifies,  in 
the  Malay  archipelago,  the  aborigines  of  the 
Malay  people.  The  term  is  applied  chiefly 
to  the  wild  mountaineers  of  the  Malay  penin* 


152 


BENZEKBEBG 


BSNZOIN 


sola,  and  to  some  of  the  Beml-barbarotis  tribee 
to  be  found  on  the  small  islands  in  the  straits 
of  Malacca,  and  in  the  RMo-Iinga  group.  In 
some  parts  they  are  confounded  with  the 
Orang-Laut,  and  with  the  B^ua»  or  sea-gyp- 
sies^ who  are  all  of  ^nuine  fialay  stock,  and 
speak  the  language  with  the  same  puril^  as  at 
Menancabow,  the  centre  of  Malayan  civilizfr- 
tion.  The  Orang-Benua  are  on  land,  what  the 
Ba^uB  are  on  sea — wandering  Tagabonds,  sub- 
ristiug  upon  the  spontaneous  productions  of 
nature.  They  have  been  regarded  by  the  civil- 
ized Malays  as  little  superior  to  the  orang- 
outaog,  the  man-like  ape  of  the  Bomean  and 
Sumatran  forests;  but  since  the  establishment 
of  the  British  free  port  of  Singapore,  and  more 
especially  since  gutta-percha  has  become  an  im- 
portant article  of  commerce— a  tree  gum,  chief- 
It  to  be  found  in  the  almost  inaccessible  Jungles, 
uirough  which  the  Orang-Benua  has  roamed 
for  agesj  an  unreclaimed  savage — ^their  habits 
and  condition  have  greatly  improved.  All  the 
gutta-percha  exported  from  Singapore  is  col- 
lected by  the  hands  of  these  Malay  outcasts. 
^  Nearly  eveiy  man  in  the  interior  of  Johore 
and  Pahang,"  says  Mr.  Logan,  in  the  ^^  Journal 
of  ihe  Indian  Archipelago,"  ^^  is  now  ensaged 
in  searching  for  taiim  trees,  from  whi(£  the 
best  gum  is  obtained;  and  Um  they  exchange 
with  Malay  and  Ohinese  traders,  for  articles  of 
dothinf^,  and  for  utensils  and  conveniences  for 
habitations,  to  which  they  are  attaching  them- 
selves ;  and  they  also  begUi  to  purchase  imple- 
ments for  husbandry."  There  are  many  tribes 
of  the  Benua,  called  Jakun,  Sakai,  Sletar,  Min- 
lara,  Sabimba,  and  Basisi,  which  are  the  names 
of  rivers  near  which  they  are  found. 

BENZENBERG,  Johank  Fbiedbigh,  a  Ger- 
man  astronomer,  bom  May  6, 1777,  at  SchOUer, 
near  Elberfeld;  died  June  8,  1846.  His  most 
important  work  is  Ueber  die  Stemtehnuppen 
(Hamburg.  1889).  He  built  an  observatory, 
which  he  bequeathed  to  the  city  of  BUsseldorf. 

BENZOIC  AOm,  a  product  of  the  resm, 
benzoin,  obtained  by  distillation  or  precipita- 
tion, in  the  form  of  acioular  crystals  and  pearly 
scales,  of  specific  gravity  0.657.  When  pure  it 
has  no  odor,  but  as  usually  prepared,  contain- 
ing resin  and  a  little  essential  oil,  it  possesses 
the  aromatic  perfhme  of  benzoin.  It  is  soluble 
in  water,  melts  at  249*',  sublimes  in  a  current 
of  air  with  a  gentle  heat.  Benzoic  add  also 
exists  in  all  biJsams  (as  these  are  defined  in 
France),  in  vanilla,  cinnamon,  and  the  urine  of 
infanta,  and  that  of  the  dog  and  of  herbivorous 
quadrupeds.  It  may  readily  be  obtained  from 
tnat  of  the  horse  and  of  the  cow.  Its  ehemi- 
oal  composition  is  represented  by  the  formula 
QuHsOg+HO.  It  forms,  with  alkalies  and 
ewthy  and  metallic  oxides,  salts  called  ben- 
Eoates.  It  is  used,  combined  with  ammonia,  in 
chemical  analyses  for  precipitating  sesqui-oade 
of  iron  in  neutral  solutions. 

BENZOIN  (Malay,  haminian),  gum-benjamhi 
of  commerce^  an  odorous  resin  extracted  from  the 
styraa  lenMom^  a  tree  which  attains  a  considera- 


ble height)  and  is  the  peculiar  product  of  Ban* 
coolen,  Batak,  and  Palembang  territories,  in  Su- 
matra, and  Brunai  territory  in  Borneo.  The  tree 
is  cultivated  and  raised  from  the  small  brown 
nut  which  it  prodooes.  When  the  plant  has  at- 
tained its  fourth  year,  and  its  stem  nas  a  diame- 
ter of  8  inches,  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sumatra^ 
and  6  years,  and  10  inches  diameter,  on  the 
western  coast,  it  be^ns  to  yield  its  best  sap, 
which  flows  from  the  barl^  and  which  is  ob- 
tained by  making  an  incision  therein  near 
the  ground.  That  obtained  during  the  first 
2  years  after  tapping  is  of  a  creamy,  or  light 
safiron  tint,  and  is  soft  and  fragrant;  for  2 
or  8  years  more,  it  prqduoes  an  inferior 
quality,  of  reddish  hue,  and  harder  than  the 
best;  after  this  time,  the  sap  ceases  to  flow, 
the  tree  is  cut  down,  and  a  very  inferior  resin, 
is  obtained  by  scraping  the  inner  sur&oe  of  the 
bark  and  the  stem.  In  the  Batak  country  it  is 
brought  to  the  markets  on  the  west  coast  of 
Sumatra  in  cakes,  called  tcmpang^  of  difGu-ent 
weights^  and  these  cakes  constitute  the  chief 
currency  of  the  Bataks,  who  do  not  make  use 
of  coined  money.  The  benzoin  obtained  in 
Palembang  territory  is  mainly  collected  by  wild 
tribes,  in  the  lowest  state  of  civilization,  tlie 
Eubu  in  the  Bawas  and  Bat«ig-Lekoh  districts, 
and  the  Eumring  further  south.  The  Palem^-' 
bang  resin  is  generally  of  an  inferior  quality, 
being  mostly  spontaneous  exudations  of  wila 
trees,  collected  by  these  wild  tribes.  It  is  said 
of  the  Kubn,  by  Lieut,  de  Sturler  of  the  DuU^ 
£.  I.  army,  that  when  Malay  traders  come  to 
their  country  for  benzoin,  they  go  to  appointed 
places,  beat  a  gong,  deposit  triiLcets  and  pieces 
of  colored  clo&,  and  then  retire;  after  a  time, 
the  timorous  savages  emerge  cautiously  from 
the  recesses  of  the  forest,  take  what  has  been  left 
for  them,  and  leave  benzoin  in  the  place,  which 
is  generally  more  than  an  ample  equivalent. 
This  account  is  confirmed  by  recent  travellers. 
There  are  no  complete  reports  of  the  whole 
product  of  the  resin  in  the  archipelago.  From 
the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  in  1855,  was  export* 
ed  benzoin  of  the  value,  in  India  markets,  of 
84,600  florins^  about  $15,000.  According  to  the 
Singapore  price  current,  in  1857,  it  was  worth, 
Ist  quality,  $89  per  picul  (188  lbs.) ;  2d  sort, 
$45  to  $60;  8d  sort^  $16  to  $20.  The  greater 
portion  of  this  resin  is  made  use  of  as  an  in- 
cense in  Roman  Oatholic  countries,  and  where 
the  Greek  church  prevails,  in  the  ceremonials 
of  that  reli^on.  it  is  someUmes  employed  in 
medicine,  being  considered  a  valuable  emetic  and 
styptic;  and  still  more  in  perfumery.  The 
odor  of  the  best  resin  somewhat  resembles  that 
of  the  vanilla  bean.  Being  soluble  in  spirits, 
and  not  in  water,  it  is  erroneously  called  a  gum. 
Its  density  varies  according  to  quality,  ntim 
1.068  to  1.092.  Beside  benzoic  acid,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  essential  oil,  it  contains  8 
different  kinds  of  resins,  which  have  not 
yet  been  employed  in  the  arts.  It  is  used  in 
several  kinds  of  fine  varnishes  and  lacquer 
work,  on  canes  and  snuff-boxes,  which  emit  a 


BENZOLE 


158 


fidnt  vaniOft  odor  when  warmed  wi£h  the  liand. 
Benzoin  is  sapposed^  by  Bome  writers,  to  be  the 
mftlabathram  of  the  ancients.  Plmj  and  Dios- 
oorides  describe  it  very  accnrately ;  and  men- 
tion is  made  in  the  Periplos  of  the  Erythnean 
sea,  of  malabathmm,  an  article  of  oommeroe  on 
the  Mialabar  coast,  said  to  be  bronght  from  a 
oountry  farther  east 

BENZOLE,  named  bj  the  French  chemist 
Pelonse,  one  of  the  bigMy  carbonized  pro- 
dnots  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  coal  tar. 
It  was  discovered  by  Prof.  Faraday,  in  experi- 
menting npon  the  oils  condensed  from  oil  gas. 
lOtscherlicn  afterward  obtained  it  by  distilling 
benzoic  acid  with  hydrate  of  Hme.  It  is  also 
obtained  by  passing  the  yapor  of  benzoic  acid 
tbrongh  a  red-hot  iron  tube.  Various  processes 
are  given  for  preparing  it  in  the  large  way.  The 
material  employed  for  producing  it  is  the  crude 
coal  naphtha,  that  comes  over  in  the  first  distil- 
lation of  coal  tar.  This  is  rectified  by  distilling 
it  several  times  from  a  metallic  still,  and  sul^ 
jeotang  the  vapor  at  last  to  a  low  temperature 
(about  82^  F.).  Most  of  the  other  substances 
associated  wi&  it  condense  in  the  worm  of  the 
still  at  higher  temperatures,  and  fall  back  into 
the  stilL  The  benzole  is  then  puiified  by  re- 
distilling, at  a  heat  between  176"*  and  1H%  and 
by  a  new  distillation  freed  from  i  of  its  volume  of 
solphoric  acid.  Filtering  at  a  low  temperature 
is  also  applied  between  the  distillations,  to  re- 
move any  insoluble  impurities.  Benzoic^  when 
pure,  is  a  clean  fluid,  like  alcohol,  without  col- 
or, very  volatile,  possessing  an  ethereal  odor, 
and  of  specific  gravity  0,85.  Its  gravity,  how- 
ever, varies  with  the  mode  of  its  preparation, 
and  it  is  stated  that  it  is  produced  at  the 
works  at  Oloversport,  Ky.,  weighing  only  6 
pounds  to  the  gallon,  which  is  |  the  weight  of 
water,  or  specific  gravity  0.75.  As  prepared  in 
England,  by  Mansfield,  from  the  crude  naphtha 
spirit  obtained  from  coal-tar,  it  boils  at  176*'  F. 
At  82*"  it  ceases  to  evaporate,  and  solidifies  in 
forma  resembling  white  wax  or  camphor,  and 
like  these,  will  then  burn  without  melting. 
Slowly  cooled,  when  liquid,  it  takes  beautiM 
forms  of  cruciform  leaflets,  which  are  perfectiy 
transparent,  and  cluster  together  on  each  side 
of  a  central  azia^  like  the  leaflets  of  the  fern 
upon  its  petiole.  It  will  not  mix  with  water, 
but  is  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  has  the 
solvent  properties  of  these  fluids,  and  is  appli- 
cable to  a  great  variety  of  useful  purposes  in 
chemistry  and  the  arts.  Its  composition  is  12 
atoms  of  carbon  and  6  of  hydn^n— Oi|H«; 
bat  Dr,  Muspratt  and  others,  who  give  this  for- 
mula, believe  that  it  will  prove  to  be  a  hydride 
of  phenyl  radical,  tnua  expressed  (OuH|)H. 
It  may  then  properly  be  named  hydro-ben- 
zide. — ^Numerous  uses  have  been  proposed  for 
benzole ;  and,  as  the  manufacture  of  it  is  now 
extensively  entered  upon  in  Manchester,  Glas- 
gow, and  other  large  towns  in  Great  Britain, 
and  also  in  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
at  Wiliiamsburgh,  near  New  York  city,  it  is 
probable  it  will  beoome  an  artide  of  great  im- 


portance, particularly  where  alcohol,  etiier,  and 
other  alcoholic  products  are  so  oostiy  as  they 
are  in  Great  Britain.  But  the  most  important 
use  proposed  is  for  illumination.  It  has  been 
found  that  almost  any  gas,  or  even  atmospheric 
air,  passed  through  benzole,  or  some  other 
equally  volatile  hydro-carbon,  takes  up  a  por- 
tion of  its  vapor,  and  acquires  great  illuminating 
power ;  that  of  coal  gas  passed  over  its  surface 
is  very  much  increased,  and  steam  is  thus  ren- 
dered illuminating.  The  first  suggestion  of  this 
use  of  benzole  was  by  a  man  named  Beel,  of 
London,  who  took  out  a  patent,  about  the  year 
1886,  fbr  forcing  common  air  into  a  reservoir 
containing  highly  rectified  coal  naphtha  (ben- 
zole), and  burning  the  vapor  carried  along  hj 
the  air  at  a  burner  near  the  reservoir.  In  this 
country,  the  subject  was  taken  up  about  the 
year  1851,  by  different  parties,  the  first  ma- 
chines in  successM  operation,  of  which  we 
have  any  knowledge,  b^ng  those  of  Mr.  Oliver  • 
P.  Drake,  of  Boston.  A  current  of  atmospheric 
air,  by  means  of  a  simple  bellows  carried  by 
clockwork,  was  forced  through  a  mixture  of 
benzole,  alcohol,  and  water,  and  ignited  at  a 
gas  burner.  The  flame  was  remarkable  for  its 
deamess  and  the  intensity  of  the  light,  and 
resembled  in  color  more  the  light  of  the  sun 
than  does  any  other  artificial  light.  A  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  its  use  by  the  benzole  ceas- 
ing to  evaporate  at  a  temperature  approaching 
that  of  the  boiling  point  of  water,  and  the  aeri- 
form mixture,  when  conveyed  through  cold 
tubes,  was  liable  to  deposit  a  portion  of  its  car- 
bonaceous load,  and  produce  a  light  of  most 
uncertain  brilliancy.  At  a  high  temperature, 
on  the  contrary,  the  benzole  vapor  was  much 
more  readily  tcucen  up,  and  produced  a  smoky 
light,  so  that  it  could  not  be  used  in  very  warm 
weather.  To  obviate  this  difficulty,  several  im- 
provements have  been  introduced,  and,  by  the 
use  of  benzole  unmixed  with  other  substances, 
and  furnished  by  a  regulating  apparatus  in  suit- 
able quantities,  accoraing  to  tne  temperature, 
tiie  light  has  burned  much  more  satisfactorily 
through  the  ordinary  range  of  temperature  to 
which  it  is  ever  hkely  to  be  exposed  when  pro- 
tected from  the  weather  without  Benzole  of 
great  purity  is  found  to  do  better  than  the  more 
common  article  formerly  employed,  and  espe- 
dally  when  introduced  to  the  current  of  air 
diffused  through  porous  diaphragms,  and  in  a 
chamber  admitting  of  the  thorough  mixture  of 
the  air  and  benzole  vapor.  Such  is  the  appa- 
ratus now  manufactured  under  the  patents  held 
by  Mr.  Jesse  Carpenter.  From  the  beauty, 
economy,  and  convenience  of  the  light,  it  is  an 
extremely  desirable  object  to  perfect  the  appa- 
ratus, that  its  use  may  be  practicable  at  all 
temperatures.  The  demand  it  has  created  for 
benzole  has  caused  the  price  of  this  to  be  ad- 
vanced from  56  cents,  at  which  it  was  formerly 
rated  in  England,  to  $1  50  per  gallon  in  this 
country.  But  the  new  works  which  have  un- 
dertaken its  manufacture,  will  no  doubt  cause 
its  price  to  be  reduced  again.  Btill,  at  the  higher 


164 


BEOWULF 


BlItANGEB 


nto,  it  Is  fonnd,  aooordi&g  to  a  report  made  in 
Jan.  1856,  by  a  oonunittee  appointed  to  examine 
into  the  merits  of  the  light  at  the  Utica  me* 
ehanics'  fair,  that  the  oost  of  a  light  equivalent 
to  that  prodaoed  by  a  ooal-gas  bnmer,  eonsum- 
ing  6  cabic  feet  per  hour,  is  bnt  1^  cent  per 
honr ;  while  that  of  a  ooal-gas  light,  at  tiie  rate 
of  $8  60  per  1,000  feet^  is  dfU  cents  per  hoar. 
The  quantity  of  benzole  equivalent  to  1,000  feet 
of  coal  gas,  is,  however,  variously  estimated, 
probably  from  the  different  qualities  of  Cerent 
maoufactorers,  and  the  different  methods  of 
testing  it.  The  English  authorities,  in  1650, 
estimated  that  a  gallon  of  the  fiuid  possesses  an 
illaminating  power  equal  to  about  1,000  cnbio 
fdet  of  gas.  In  this  country,  according  to  the 
experiments  of  Hr.  Drake,  this  is  regarded  as 
too  low  an  estimate,  2  gallons  being  required 
to  produce  this  effect.  In  the  small  cost  of 
transportation  as  well  as  in  deanliness  in  han- 
dling, benzole  possesses  great  advantages.  The 
pure  artide  is  a  pleasant  substance  to  use, 
having  an  agreeable  odor ;  but  much  of  the 
common  benzole  has  a  strong  disagreeable 
smell  of  coal  tar.  Beside  being  used  in  the 
manner  described,  benzole  may  also  be  mixed 
to  advantage  with  alcohol  or  with  naphtha,  for 
producing  a  fluid  of  great  illuminating  power, 
and  very  volatile,  without  involving  danger  of 
explosion. — The  substances  readily  dissolved  by 
benzole  are  stated  to  be  various  renns,  mastic, 
camphor,  wax,  putty,  fatty  and  essential  oils, 
caoutchouc,  and  gutta  percha.  The  solution 
with  either  of  the  two  latter  has  the  prop- 
erty of  the  collodion  (or  gun-cotton  dissolved  in 
ether),  of  quickly  evaporating,  and  leaving  a 
fllm  like  a  win  membrane.  In  this  way,  it  may 
be  used  as  an  application  to  cuts  and  bums. 
Bhell-lao,  copaL  and  gamboge  are  sparingly  dis- 
solved by  it.  It  dissolves  iodine,  phosphorus, 
and  sulphur,  and  when  boiling  takes  up  the 
last  in  large  quantitv,  of  which  the  greater  part, 
however,  when  cooling,  separates  by  crystalliz- 
ing. Processes  have  been  patented  in  England 
for  its  employment  In  removing  paint,  tar,  oil, 
Ac.,  from  different  &bric&  and  from  leather, 
wool,  cotton  waste,  fto.,  and  for  cleaning  sloves. 
Used  thus  in  the  large  way,  ^e  benzole  is  dis« 
tiUed  over  and  saved.  No  substance  has  been 
found  so  well  adapted  for  removing  the  oil  from 
the  wool  dyed,  before  it  is  spun  into  carpets,  &o., 
at  the  mills  in  Yorkshire.  The  colors  are  not 
affected,  while  the  greasy  matters  are  entirely 
dissolved  out  Tk^eated  with  nitric  acid  it  gives 
rise  to  a  substance  called  nitro-benzole,  which 
IB  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  oU  of  bitter  al* 
monds  in  perfumery. 

BEOWULF,  Talk  of,  an  Anglo-Saxon  heroic 
poem,  published  in  6axon  and  English  by  J. 
M.  Kemble,  London,  1885,  and  later  by  Thorpe 
and  by  Wackerbarth.  A  metrical  translation  in 
German  was  produced  by  L.  Ettmttller  (Zurich, 
1640).  Leo  says  it  is  the  oldest  monument  of 
German  poesy  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  dialect,  and 
of  great  interest  in  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  German  literature.    It  is  evidcoitly  of 


eontinental  and  pagan  origin,  but,  in  the  shape 
in  which  it  has  come  down  to  us,  it  is  partially 
but  not  entirely  Christianized. 

BfiRAJN^GER,  PiBBBX  Jkav  dx,  the  most  fl- 
lustrious  of  French  lyric  poets,  bom  in  Paria, 
Aug.  19, 1780,  died  there  July  16, 1857.  His 
father,  notwithstanding  his  pretensions  to  noble 
origin,  was  book-keeper  to  a  grocer,  and  mar- 
ried a  pretfy  young  milliner,  the  daughter  of 
an  honest  tailor,  by  the  name  of  Ohampy,  who 
kept  a  small  shop  in  the  rue  MontorgueiL  "Here 
the  future  bard  came  into  the  world,  which  &ct 
he  afterward  commemorated  in  one  of  his  moet 
BonghtiytotigB^LeTaiUmretlaFie.  Kespnng 
thus  ftom  the  people,  and  in  spite  of  (he  parti- 
cle de^  which,  owing  to  his  fiuther^s  prejudice, 
remained  afloxed  to  his  patronymic,  he  never 
miased  an  opportunity  of  proclaiming  his  ple- 
beian birth;  Je  iuiitilain^  et  tr^  Main,  is  the 
burden  of  one  of  his  earliest  efibsions.  After 
being  put  to  nurse  for  8  years,  he  was  brou^t 
back  to  his  grand&ther^s,  where  he  lived  for 
more  than  6  years,  little  cared  for  by  his  mother, 
and  entirely  neglected  bv  his  father,  while  he 
was  the  pet  of  tiie  old  folks.  In  the  beginning 
of  1789  he  was  sent  to  a  school  in  the  &ubourg 
St.  Antoine;  and,  from  the  roof  of  the  house, 
he  witnessed  the  taking  of  the  Bastile  by  the 
people,  which  event  made  the  deepest  impre^ 
mon  upon  his  youthfhl  mind,  as  appears  Ihnn  a 
song,  Le  14  JuiUeL  written  40  years  later. 
His  father,  being  unanle  any  longer  to  pay  his 
board  at  school,  sent  him,  without  previous  no- 
tice, to  a  sister  of  his,  a  widow  without  cbil« 
dren,  who  kept  a  small  inn  near  Pdronne,  inR- 
cardy.  She  at  first  hesitated  to  receive  uie  un- 
expected guest ;  but  soon,  moved  by  sympathy 
and  affection,  she  cried,  pressing  the  child  to 
her  bosom :  "  Poor  forlorn  being,  I  wiU  be  your 
mother."  And  she  most  fiuthfully  kept  her 
word.  Under  the  guidance  of  this  worthy  wo- 
man, whose  mind  was  far  above  her  humble  sta- 
tion, the  young  Pierre  was  brought  up  in  a 
somewhat  irregular  way ;  but  received  lesscms 
intended  to  make  him  a  good  man,  and  a  thor- 
ough republican.  This  last  character  was  ain- 
guiarly  enhanced  in  him  by  the  practical  train- 
ing he  was  submitted  to.  at  a  school  established 
by  M.  Ballue  de  Bellanglise,  formerly  a  member 
of  the  legislative  assembly,  and,  according  to 
B^ranger  nimsel^  a  sort  of  republican  F6n61on, 
and  a  true  philanthropist  In  this  school  the 
boys  were  formed  into  a  kind  of  democratic  aa> 
sociation,  electing  their  own  officers,  as  mayor, 
oouncillorsu  Justices  of  the  peace.  They  debat- 
ed political  questions ;  on  important  occasions, 
speeches  were  publidy  d^ve^  by  the  young 
politicians,  and  more  than  once  they  sent  up 
addresses  to  the  convention,  and  to  Robe^ierre. 
B6ranger  distinguished  himself  among  his  young 
colleagues  as  a  dear  and  cogent  speaker;  so 
much  so  that  the  good  Ballue  used  to  prognos- 
ticate that  the  boy  would  at  some  future  day 
**make  his  mark.*'  Patriotism,  which,  as  1m 
says,  was  the  great,  if  not  the  only  passion  of 
his  life,  was  already  buining  in  the  heart  of  the 


B£RAKG£B 


155 


boj,  and  he  feelingly  namtes  his  emotions 
wnoi  hearing  of  the  Tiotories  or  the  reyerses 
ci  the  Frendb  armies.  Bat  the  time  had  come 
vhen  it  was  neoessary  for  him  to  learn  a  trade : 
conseqaently,  through  the  advice  of  his  good 
fiiend,  M.  BoJlne,  he  entered  the  printing  office 
of  Lainei,  a  bookseller,  who  evinced  great  kind- 
ness toward  his  apprentice.  The  latter  did  not 
aoqnire  marked  proficiency  as  a  printer,  bat 
showed  an  inclination  to  poetry,  makingat  that 
time  some  roogh  attempts  at  rhyme.  Toward 
the  end  of  1T96,  the  yonng  printer  was  called 
hack  to  Paris  by  his  fiither,  who  was  then  en- 
gaged in  all  sorts  of  stock-jobbing  and  finan« 
ciering  qtecolatioos,  as  well  as  in  Boorbon  con- 
spiraeieB.  A  large  amoant  of  the  money  made 
by  his  exertions  was  q>ent  in  .these  conspiracies 
finmi  which  he  was  known  as  the  "banker  of 
the  royalists.'*  Toang  B^anger  became  the 
aBBstant  of  his  fietther;  and  however  repugnant 
the  bonneas  was  to  his  feelings  and  opinions, 
he  evinced  so  much  tact  and  ability  that,  ao* 
eolding  to  his  father,  he  was  sore  to  become  "a 
great  banker.*'  Unhappily,  in  1798,  the  firm 
Med;  and,  although  reduced  to  very  striut- 
eoed  drcnmstanoes,  the  young  man  found  him- 
self greatly  relieyed.  ^*My  povertv,"  he  says, 
'^was  not  barren  of  pleasare.  I  lived  in  an 
attic  on  the  boulevard  St  Martin^  and  the 
most  magnificent  sight  opened  before  my  eyes. 
I  had  no  money,  no  hope,  no  prospect  of  for- 
tune, it  is  tme;  but  I  was  free  from  all  the 
trouble  and  disgust  connected  with  the  business 
I  bad  been  engfl^i^  in  against  my  taste  and  feel- 
ioga.  To  live  alone  and  make  verses  at  my  ease, 
I  ooosidered  to  be  true  happiness."  !EViendship 
and  love  idso  contributed  to  embellish  his  life ; 
and,  as  far  as  his  slender  means  would  allow, 
he  heartily  joined  in  popular  amusements. 
Gracefol  remembrances  of  that  time  are  to  be 
traced  in  seyeral  ci  his  liveliest  pieces,  such  as 
Le^rem^BMidMimhahU.  This  careless  life  last- 
ed several  yean,  during  which  he  sketched  man  v 
projects  of  great  works,  and  wrote  poems  whi<^ 
were  never  destined  to  be  brought  to  light, 
among  the  number  a  pastoral  poem,  LepSUri- 
M^an  ^ic,  OlaeiBy  and  several  comedies,  two 
of  -much  were  five-act  plays.  Meanwhile  he  had 
seen  the  revolution  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  which 
he  applauded,  like  the  minority  of  France,  and 
had  been  on  the  point  of  being  kiDed  lii  the  me 
SLKkMse,  by  the  infernal  machine,  directed 
agidnsi  the  fint  consul.  Although  he  did  not 
witDesB  with  indifference  the  great  chauffes 
wMoh  were  taking  place  in  his  country,  his  m- 
tefest  was  especiaUv  concentrated  in  his  poeti- 
cal peribrmanoes ;  bat.  anfortnnately,  the  scan- 
ty pittance  upon  whicn  he  depended,  was  con- 
stantiy  diminishing,  and  at  the  end  of  1808 
penary  stared  him  in  the  face;  his  gold  watch  and 
other  valoahlee^  relics  of  better  tones,  had  been 
pawned  long  ago :  his  clothing  was  in  tiie  poor- 
eat  condition,  and  none  of  his  friends  was  well 
enoDgfaofiTto  offer  him  reliefl  In  this  extremity 
he  wrote  a  UfUer  to  Looien  Bonaparte,  brother 
of  the  fint  oonsal,  sending  him,  as  specimens  of 


his  literary  attainments,  two  poems.  Is  rSta 
hliumneiU  du  culte  and  Le  dMuge,  He  had 
scarcely  any  hope  in  the  success  of  this  last 
shift ;  so  we  may  imagine  his  joy,  when  a  very 
kind  answer  invited  lum  to  an  interview.  Bor* 
rowing  a  dress  appropriate  fox  such  a  visit,  he 
repaired  to  his  new  protector.  Lucien,  whose 
interest  had  been  awakened  by  the  letter,  was 
much  pleased  with  the  young  man,  gave  him 
advice  and  encouragement,  and  relieved  his 
wants  by  resigning  to  lum  his  pension  as  a 
member  of  the  French  institute.  This,  being 
an  annual  income  of  a  littie  less  than  $200,  was 
a  fortune  to  the  destitute  young  poet.  The  next 
year,  1806,  he  was  engaged  by  the  painter  Lan- 
don  to  write  the  notices  for  the  Annaiea  du 
tnu9ie,  an  illastrated  publication,  ^ving  outline 
engravings  of  the  great  paintings  m  the  Louvre 
gallery.  This  added  for  2  yean  $850  to  his  anr 
naal  income,  and  enabled  him  to  help  his  father 
and  secure  a  degree  of  comfort  for  his  old 
grandmother,  who  had  been  entirelv  ruined. 
This  was  indeed  a  bright  epodi  in  the  life  of 
our  poet,  who  more  eagerly  than  ever  devoted 
himself  to  hispoetical  pursuits.  In  1609,  being 
introduced  to  Fontanes,  the  grand  master  of  the 
imperial  univernty,  by  his  friend  Arnault,  he 
was  appointed  to  an  office  worth  about  $200 ; 
which  salary  was  gradually  increased  to  $400. 
B^ranger's  life  now  began  to  take  a  more  regu- 
lar shape,  and  his  talent  to  flow  in  its  proper 
channel.  He  had  occasionally  written  songs, 
mostiy  of  a  gay  torn,  as  they  were  designed  to 
enliven  his  ioyous  meetings  with  his  friends 
whom  he  vlnted  at  P6ronne ;  but  however  sue* 
oesaftd  in  his  attempts,  he  was  not  conscious 
that  this  was  his  true  calling^  and  would  ulti- 
mately secure  him  durable  fame.  Now,  how- 
ever, he  paid  more  attention  to  lyrical  poetry, 
and  felt  that  it  might  possibly  be  treated  m  suon 
a  manner  as  to  take  rank  among  the  most  cred- 
itable branches  of  literature.  Some  of  the 
pieces  which  he  wrote  during  the  followiog 
years,  being  circulated  in  manuscript,  created  a 
sensation— Za  sinat&ur^  Le  petit  homme  gris, 
Lee  gtietscif  and  Leroid?  Yoetot^  among  the  num- 
ber. This  success  procured  for  him  the  ac- 
quaintance of  D^saugiers,  the  well-known  song 
writw  of  the  time,  and  a  very  kind-hearted 
man,  who  took  a  decided  fancy  for  his  young 
competitor,  and  prevailed  upon  him  to  become  a 
member  of  the  celebrated  dub,  LeeoMau^  which 
had  been  reMablished  about  1811.  Hence- 
forth his  fiftme  increased  rapidly;  his  gay  satires, 
and  even  the  licentious  strains  in  which  he  in- 
dulged, according  to  the  custom  of  his  contem- 
poraries, were  received  with  applaiose,  and  gave 
him  a  rank  among  the  most  renowned  lyricists. 
The  disasten  of  1814  and  1815,  the  2  invasions 
of  France  by  European  armies  eroecially,  fell 
like  a  Utter  pang  on  the  patriotic  heart  of  St- 
ranger, and  contributed  to  give  a  new  and 
higher  direction  to  his  poetical  vein;  he  felt 
that  song  could  be  made  the  medium  of  general 
feeling,  and  celebrate  at  once  the  glory  and 
miBf(»rtun6s  o(  his  beloved  country.    From  thet 


166 


B£BANGEB 


BERAR 


tame  he  beoame  tiie  tralj  popular  or  rather  the 
troly  national  bard  of  France.  The  Ist  volume 
of  B^ranger's  songs  was  published  in  1816,  and 
eagerly  sought  for,  although  it  contained  very 
few  political  pieces.  Its  popularity,  however, 
excited  suspicion  in  the  admimstrative  d^art- 
ment  to  which  the  poet  belonged,  and  a  friendly 
recommendation  to  stop  such  publications  for 
the  future  was  addressed  to  him  by  his  chief. 
B^ranger,  who  was  now  fiurly  launched  on  his 
new  course,  pud  no  attention  to  this  notice,  and 
went  on  to  produce  new  pieces,  which,  like  their 
predecessors,  were  extensively  drculated  by  sing- 
mg  long  before  they  were  collected  in  book  form. 
These  were  published  in  1821.  but  previous  to 
issuing  the  volume,  B^ranger  len  his  office,  to  save 
the  minister  the  tronble  of  discharging  him.  The 
sale  was  immense,  and  the  songs  resounded  all 
over  the  country.  Judicial  proceedings  di- 
rected against  the  poet,-  on  account  of  his  bold 
attacks  upon  the  government,  only  added  to 
his  popularity  and  promoted  the  diffusion  of 
tiie  volume.  Brought  before  the  courts,  he 
was  sentenced  to  8  months  of  imprisonment 
and  a  fine  of  500  francs.  This  at  once  gave  a 
more  powerful  impetus  to  his  fame  and  to  his 
Inspiration :  new  songs  issued  from  the  gaol,  and 
were  repeated  from  one  end  of  France  to  the 
other.  B6ranger,  or  rather  his  songs,  had  be- 
come a  political  power.  A  8d  volume,  which 
appeared  in  1826,  though  scarcely  less  bold 
than  the  precedizig,  was  treated  with  more 
forbearance  by  the  government;  but  the  4th, 
published  in  1828,  was  severely  dealt  with; 
an  imprisonment  of  9  months,  and  a  fine  of ; 
10,000  francs,  was  the  penalty  imposed  on  the 
song-maker,  who  was  now  proclaimed  the 
greatest  poet  of  the  day.  This  was  the  most 
brilliant  period  of  his  career.  B^ranger  had 
meanwhile  secured  great  personal  influence 
among  the  chiefs  of  the  opposition  party ;  his 
advice  was  sought  for  and  respected ;  nis  known 
disinterestedness,  his  freedom  of  speech,  which 
was  always  united  with  the  ntmost  courtesy,  his 
want  of  personal  ambition,  his  generous  djspo- 
dtion,  his  marked  sympathy  for  ^onng  men, 
every  thing  contributed  to  endear  him  to  all, 
and  peculiarly  to  the  inferior  classes.  Next  to 
the  memory  of  Napoleon  I.  no  name  enjoyed 
a  greater  popularity  than  that  of  B^ranger.  He 
was  instrumental,  at  least  through  his  songs,  in 
the  revolution  of  1880.  He  afterward  promoted 
the  election  of  Louis  Philippe  as  king,  being  con- 
vinced that  France  was  not  yet  prepaid  for  a 
republican  government,  but  refused  all  fmpoint- 
ments  or  rewards  proffered  by  the  Idng  himself 
or  his  ministers.  He  desired  to  live  as  a  true  phi- 
losopher, contented  with  the  little  income  secured 
by  the  sale  of  his  songs,'  and  desirous  of  preserv- 
ing his  personal  independence.  His  6th  volume, 
published  in  1888,  affords  evidence  of  his  settled 
determination  to  be  nothing  but  a  song-maker: 
he  did  not  even  wish  to  continue  a  political 
adviser.  Although  he  acted  as  if  willing  to  be 
forgotten,  there  was  no  abatement  in  his  popu- 
larity during  the  reign  of  Louis  Plulippe;  and 


when  the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  broke 
out,  the  name  of  B^ranger  was  still  among  the 
brightest  in  the  eyes  of  the  people.  They 
sought  him  as  their  representative;  and  in 
spite  of  his  decided  refusal,  they  elected  him  to 
the  constituent  assembly;  he  had  to  send  in  his 
resignation  twioe  before  it  was  accepted.  The 
last  years  of  the  national  bard  were  passed  in 
comparative  retirement,  amid  a  small  circle  of 
intimate  friends;  but  the  admiration  which  he 
inspired  drew  incessantly  around  him  crowds 
of  visitors,  whom  he  could  scarcely  avmd  by 
living  as  privately  as  possible  in  various  villages 
or  provindal  towns.  On  the  news  of  his  kst 
iUnes&  the  secluded  street  where  he  lived,  in 
one  or  the  most  quiet  parts  of  Paris,  was  filled 
up  by  the  multitade,  who  were  anxious  to  show 
tiieir  sympathy  for  him,  and  eagerly  waited  for 
hourly  accounts  of  his  health,  nis  death  threw 
a  veil  of  sorrow  not  only  over  Paris,  but  over 
all  France ;  and  his  funeral  was  attended  by 
a  host  of  mourners.  Every  one  felt  thiSb 
France  had  lost  a  great  poet  and  a  great  dtizen. 
The  songs  published  by  B^ranger  during  his 
lifetime  have  been  reprinted  under  every  pos- 
sible form,  and  miUions^of  copies  have  been  * 
circulated  among  all  cKsses  of  Frendimen. 
No  poet  could,  however,  so'  well  have  dispensed 
with  the  printing  of  his  works  without  ii^juring 
his  flEtme.  His  songs  are  fiEoniliar  even  to  those 
who  are  unable  to  read.  Beside  his  printed 
works,  he  left  92  songs  written  firom  1884  to 
1851,  and  a  memoir  of  hiniselfj  both  of  which 
were  published  a  few  months  after  his  death. 
The  former  cannot  add  to  his  poetical  renown ; 
'but  the  latter,  which  is  a  perfect  gem  of  auto- 
biography, furnishes  convincing  evidence  tiiat 
in  him  simplicity,  honesty,  and  goodness  of 
heart,  were  united  to  genius.  Partial  transla- 
tions or  imitations  of  B6ranger's  songs  have 
been  published  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States.  We  must  notice  especially  the  version 
of  200  choice  pieces  by  Mr.  William  Young,  of 
New  York. 

BERAI^  a  large  province  of  India,  situated 
near  the  centre  of  the  Deccan,  and  added  to  the 
British  possessions  in  Dec.  1858.  It  lies  partly 
in  the  territory  of  the  Nizam,  or  Hyderabad,  and 
partly  in  Nagpoor,  extending  from  lat  17°  48' 
to  22^  48'  N.,  and  from  long.  76*^  20'  to  82°  48' 
E.  Area,  56,728  sq.  m. ;  pop.  2,550,000.  It 
consists  mainly  of  an  elevated  tracts  bounded 
N.  by  the  Sautpoora  range,  and  surrounded  b^ 
mountains  which  enclose  it  like  a  valley.  It  i8 
watered  by  the  Wurda,  Wynegunga,  Khahan, 
Taptee,  and  Mahanuddy.  The  soil  is  veiy  fer- 
tile, and  well  suited  to  grain,  tobacco,  sugar, 
and  cotton.  The  wheat  is  considered  the  beat 
in  India ;  it  is  readv  for  the  harvest  8  months 
after  it  is  sown,  and  leaves  time  for  a  crop  of 
Indian  com.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion of  the  inhabitants,  but  is  conducted  in  a 
rude  manner,  with  inferior  implements.  Since 
the  British  have  had  possession  of  the  country^ 
however,  there  has  been  some  improvement. 
There  is  no  foreign  and  very  littie  domestic 


b£babd 


BEBBERA 


157 


trade,  the  execrable  state  of  the  roads  proving 
as  severe  a  check  to  traffic  as  the  heavy  transit 
duties  exacted  by  the  native  mlers.  Sheep  and 
cotton  are  transported  to  Kamganm  in  the  N. 
^.  part  of  the  province,  and  thence  forwarded 
to  Bombay,  bnt  qoantities  of  cotton  are  lost  on 
the  way,  and  the  few  sheep  which  survive  the 
hardships  of  the  route  are  greatly  reduced  in 
flesh.  A  railix)ad  to  the  W.  coast  and  the  re- 
moval of  oppressive  imposts  are  among  the 
measures  of  reform  promised  by  the  British,  and 
a  belief  is  entertained  that  with  the  impulse  thos 
given  to  industry,  Berar  will  soon  contribute 
largely  to  supplying  cotton  for  the  English  mar- 
ket. The  common  people  of  this  province  are 
exceedingly  illiterate.  Only  the  children  of  the 
Bramins  and  merchants  receive  any  education, 
and  it  is  questionable  whether  the  little  they  are 
taoght  is  of  much  benefit  to  mind  or  morals.  It 
is  a  rare  thing  for  a  farmer  to  know  how  to  write 
his  own  name,  and  even  the  studies  of  the  Bra- 
mins are  usually  confined  to  books  of  theology. 
— ^The  ancient  coontry  of  Berar,  which  was 
much  more  extensive  than  the  modem  province, 
was  one  of  the  5  original  independent  kingdoms 
-  of  the  Deccan.  In  ^e  17th  century  it  was  an- 
nexed to  the  Mogul^mpire,  on  the  decline  of 
which  it  was  overrun  by  the  Mahrattas  and 
afterward  divided  between  the  Peshawer  and 
the  n^ah  of  Nagpoor.  The  latter  prince  having 
joined  with  Dowlat  Bow  Sindia  against  the 
British  in  1808,  was  forced  to  cede  to  them  the 
province  of  Outtack,  together  wiUi  Sumbulpoor 
and  Patna,  and  to  the  Im  izam  some  provinces  on 
the  frontier  of  Hyderabad.  In  1817,  Appah 
Bahib,  the  next  r^ah.  took  arms  agiunst  the 
British,  who  accordingly  deposed  him,  and  gov- 
erned uie  country  from  that  time  until  1826,  in 
the  name  of  Biyee  Rao  Booshlah,  then  a  minor. 
The  country  was  given  up  to  the  young  rigah 
on  his  coming  of  age,  and  on  his  dying  without 
heirs  in  Dec  1858,  was  added  to  the  possessions 
of  the  East  India  company.  The  remainder  of 
Berar,  comprised  in  the  dominions  of  the  Nizam, 
is  included  in  the  territory  recently  assigned  to 
the  British  for  the  support  of  the  milita^  force 
called  the  ^*  Nizam's  Contingent.'' 

B£BARD,  Fb^dIbio,  a  French  physician, 
bom  at  Hontpellier,  Nov.  8, 1789,  cued  April 
16, 1828.  When  only  20  years  of  age,  he  wrote 
a  thesis  entitled  "  Theory  of  Natural  Medicine, 
or  Nature  considered  as  the  true  Physician, 
and  the  Physiolan  as  an  imitator  of  Natnre." 
He  afterward  went  to  Paris,  where  he  was  en- 
gaged to  write  in  the  "Dictionary  of  Medical 
Science.''  In  1816  he  returned  to  Montpellier 
as  professor  of  therapeutics  in  a  private  course 
of  lectures  to.  the  medical  stndents  of  the  col- 
lege. At  this  period  he  published  a  work  ex- 
pianatory  of  the  ^*  Doctrines  of  the  Medical 
School  of  Montpellier."  B6rard  retomed  to 
Paris  in  1828,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  a  pro- 
iSMsorship  at  the  school  of  medicine,  but  was 
not  successful.  With  Dr.  Rouzet,  he  published 
Pumas'  work  on  "Chronic  Diseases,"  with 
instructiTe    commentaries,    2   vols.  8vo.     In 


1828  he  also  published  in  Paris  his  work  on 
"The  Relations  of  the  Physical  and  the  Moral 
Organism,  as  a  Key  to  Metaphysics  and  the 
Physiology  of  Mind."  In  this  work  he  ex- 
plains his  own  views  of  human  nature  and  the 
grinciples  of  life,  in  opposition  to  the  views  of 
labams.  He  also  took  occasion  to  publish  at 
the  same  time,  a  manuscript  letter  of  Oabania, 
on  "  Primary  or  Final  Oanses,"  accompanied  by 
numerous  annotations. 

B£B  AED,  PixRBB  HoNonfi.  a  French  surgeon 
and  physiologist,  bom  at  lichtenberg,  in  1797. 
He  pursued  hia  studies  unaided  by  fortune,  and 
in  1881  was  elected  professor  of  physiology  to 
the  faculty  of  medicine  of  Paris,  became  dean 
of  that  fkcnlty  in  1848,  and  in  1852  was  ap- 
pointed by  the  president  of  the  republic  inspector- 
general  of  the  medical  schools,  and  enterodinto 
&e  new  upper  council  of  public  instruction. 
He  has  published  historical  notices  of  Broussais 
and  of  Haller,  has  enlarged  the  10th  edition  of 
Ricberand's  "Elements  of  Physiology,"  has 
begun  the  publication  of  a  great  work  on  phy- 
riology,  ana  has  made  many  reports  to  the  acad- 
emy of  medicine.— AuousTB,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, a  French  surgeon,  bom  at  Y arrains,  near 
Saumur,  Aug.  2, 1802,  diedatParis,  Oct  16, 1846. 
He  stadied  at  Paris  under  the  guidance  of  his 
elder  brother,  Rerre,  became  professor  of  clini- 
cal surgery  to  the  faculty  of  raris,  was  one  of 
the  founders  of  the  sodety  of  sui^^ry,  and  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  medidne,  and  wrote 
numerous  professional  treatises. 

BERAT,  or  Assajst  Bsliorad,  a  town  of 
Albania,  on  the  river  Beratinos,  the  ancient 
Apsus ;  pop.  8,000.  It  is  the  seat  of  a 
paBhalio  and  Greek  archbishopric,  and  was 
taken  by  Ali  Pasha  from  his  rival  Ibrahim. 
Amurath  IL  captured  Berat,  and  his  troops  held 
it  notwithstanding  a  desperate  attempt  by  Soan- 
derbeg  with  a  strong  body  of  Italian  aunliaries 
to  retake  it. 

BERBERA,  a  tradmg  phice  of  Africa,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  gulf  of  Aden,  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Somauli,  and  directiy  south  of  the 
British  settiement  of  Aden,  in  the  southern  part 
of  Arabia.  There  are  few  permanent  inhabitants 
in  Berbera,  on  account  of  the  hot  monsoons, 
which  blow  from  tiie  last  of  May  to  August 
It  is  sinmly  a  place  for  traffic  from  the  in- 
terior. The  yearly  trade  commences  about 
Kov.  1,  and  continues  to  increase  until  March, 
and  finally  closes  in  May.  The  traffic  is 
mostiy  in  slaves,  cattle,  sheep,  gold  dust,  hides, 
coffee,  myrrh,  benzoin,  ostrich  feathers,  ele- 
phants' tusks,  and  gum  arabic  The  traders 
are  principally  firom  Harrar,  a  large  settiement 
lying  a  littie  south  of  west  from  Berbera,  and 
about  200  miles  distant  The  tribes  surround- 
ing Berbera,  and  nearer  the  coast,  also  visit  it 
The  vessels  trading  to  that  port  are  from  the 
southern  parts  of  Arabia  and  from  Hindostan, 
bringing  cotton  and  silk  goods,  beads,  wire, 
sugar,  rice,  copper,  iron,  and  rinc.  Berbera  is 
a  desert  spot  and  the  country  around  for  10 
miles  back  affords  no  pastorage  for  the  cattle^ 


168 


BERBERS 


BERBIGE 


which  most  therefore  be  sold  soon  after  their 
arriyal  at  the  port  The  alayes  are  maoj  of 
them  ci^tared  from  among  the  Ohristiaiifl  of 
Shoa,  in  Abyssinia.  The  name  of  this  town 
majr  perhaps  be  traced  to  the  same  etymcdogi- 
cal  origin  with  Berber  and  Barabra,  ^*  dwellers 
of  the  desert*" 

BERBERS.  InthatportionofAfrioaknownto 
modems  as  tlie  Barbary  states^  one  nide  wild  olan 
stands  alone,  refusing  to  Join  the  mM^  that  has ' 
long  ago  obliterated  nearly  every  mark  of  nation- 
als^ among  those  who  have  been  its  sabJectB^ 
They  have  given  their  name  to  the  Barbary 
states,  and  impressed  their  character  on  their  his- 
tory. The  origin  of  the  name  Berbers  has  been 
the  snbject  of  much  ooigeotore.  Some  Arabian 
writers  haye  derived  it  from  the  Arabian  word 
"Bar"  (desert);  othersfrom  "Bebema"  (mur- 
muring), as  deecriptiye  of  the  sound  of  the 
North  African  language.  Others  still  say  that 
Ber  was  the  son  <^  one  of  the  shepherd  kings 
of  Egypt,  and  that  from  him  comes  the  name 
'^  Berbers ;"  while  others  affirm  that  Ber  was  a 
descendant  of  Mad^h,  who  was  the  pr^nitor 
of  the  whole  race.  Consequently,  the  Berbers 
call  themselyes  Amazirghs;  they  do  not  know 
the  name  Berbers.  However  the  question  of 
the  origin  of  the  term  may  be  settleo,  it  leaves 
the  origin  of  the  tribe  itself  still  open.  In  re- 
gard to  this,  opinions  are  ^te  as  various.  The 
most  probable  conclusion  is  that  they  came  ori- 
ginally from  the  land  of  Oanaan.  This  opmion 
is  supported  by  tradition,  by  monumental  re- 
mains, and  by  history.  The  Berbers  themselves 
have  a  tradition  that  they  came  from  Oanaan ; 
and  some  of  the  Arabians  say  that  the  Ber- 
bers are  a  colony  of  Philistines,  and  others  that 
they  were  Amalekites  driven  out  by  Joshua. 
Frocopius  asserts  the  same  origin  for  Ihem. 
He  says  that  2  marble  columns  were  at  Tan- 
gier in  his  time,  with  inscriptions  in  Phoe- 
nician :  "  We  fly  from  the  robber,  Joshua,  the 
son  of  Nun."  And  it  is  certain  tnat  the  Jews 
who  had  settled  in  Spain  before  A.  D.  604^ 
called  the  Jews  who  had  settled  across  the 
straits,  in  Barbary,  •'Philistines."  By  this  they 
doubtless  meant  to  say  that  their  brethren,  set>- 
tiing  in  North  Africa,  had  thus  mingled  with 
PhiBstines  (whom  tradition  had  so  long  assigned 
to  that  locality).  The  Berbers  are,  without 
much  doubt,  a  renmant  of  the  discomfited 
Oanaanites.  If  it  appears  strange  that  they 
should  have  wandered  so  fiEnr,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  the  country  was  not  altc^ether  un- 
known to  them.  They  lived  on  the  boi^«  of  the 
Mediterranean.  They  must  fly  or  be  extermi- 
nated. Northward  they  could  not  fly,  for  there 
lay  the  invading  force  in  the  heights  of  jAJalon 
and  Michmash.  Eastward  they  would  not,  for 
they  were  dwellers  by  the  sea.  Southward, 
they  must  keep  the  sea-K)oast,  or  plunge  into 
the  deserts  of  Arabia.  This  would  take  them 
to  Egypt;  but  Egypt  was  a  powerful  and  thick- 
ly settled  kingdom.  To  the  nomadic  Philis- 
tines Egypt  would  g^ve  neither  contentment 
nor  food«    Moreover,  it  is  the  opinion  of  able 


writers,  that  the  PhOistlnes  were  the  Hyksoe  of 
Egyptian  history,  wh<Hn  Thothmes  had  expelled 
sciuroely  2  centuries  before,  and  the  remem- 
brance and  hatred  of  whose  tyranny  had  not 
yet  died  away  in  Egypt.  But  beyond,  in  Oy- 
renica,  and  Numidia,  and  Mauritania,  a  fertile 
soil,  a  climate  like  their  own,  a  location  by  the 
sea,  and,  above  all,  a  country  {n^ieisely  adapted 
by  its  mountains  and  plains  for  nomadic  life, 
invited  them.  To  this  day,  *they  have  preserv* 
ed  the  same  nomadic  habits  which  character- 
used  the  ancient  Philistines.  They  inhabit  the 
back  coontry,  in  the  northern  and  western  val- 
leys and  slopes  of  the  Atlas,  while  tiie  mongrel 
descendants  of  a  dozra  nations  crowd  the 
coast.  On  the  southern  slopes  of  the  Atlas  live 
an  equally  distinct  tribe,  Imown  as  the  Shel- 
loohs.  The  Shelloohs  consider  themselves  as 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants,  and  say  that  the 
Berbers  are  interlopers^  who  emigrated  from 
the  east  The  Berbers  occupy  thus  precisely 
the  topographical  attitude  they  should  occupy 
as  inunigrants,  who  would  naturally  follow  the 
shore,  and  drive  back  the  original  occupants  of 
the  territory,  around  and  beyond  the  moun* 
tains,  where  the  Shelloohs  now  are.  The  Ber- 
bers and  Shelloohs  are  constant  marauders  up« 
on  each  other,  and  date  this  hostUitfy  back  to 
an  early  time.  The  only  argument  against  thia 
account  of  the  ori^n  of  the  Berbers  is  found 
in  philology.  The  Berber  language  seems  to 
resemble  the  Sbellooh,  and  neither  of  them 
appears  to  have  any  Semitic  affinitiee,  whereas 
the  Philistines  were  a  Semitic  branch.  In  ao- 
cordance  with  this  philological  phenomenon, 
Messrs.  Nott  and  Gliddon,  in  the  ^^  Indigenous 
Races,"  set  down  the  SheUoohs  and  Berbers 
as  Hamitio  and  cognate.  But  in  aU  mental  and 
physical  peculiarities,  they  do  not  present  affini- 
ties, that  would  justify  the  blending  of  thdr  nar 
tional  origin.  The  Shelloohs  are  of  frail  struoturcL 
dark  complexion,  easily  civilized,  humane,  and 
peaceable;  the  Berbers  are  robust,  of  light 
color,  stubbornly  savage,  cruel,  and  warlike.  In 
every  outward  respec^  they  are  as  antipodal  as 
the  Berbers  and  Arabs.  In  whichever  oirectioa 
the  truth  may  lie,  the  Berbers  are  an  interest- 
ing race.  Rude,  warlike,  and  nomadic^  they 
have  come  down  almost  unchanged  through 
more  than  half  the  course  of  human  history. 

BEBBIOE,  a  district  of  the  colony  of  British 
Guiana,  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1626,  between 
lat  6^  and  r  N.,  and  long.  57^  and  68°  W. 
It  was  8  tames  captured  by  the  Britid),  otithe 
last  occasion  in  1808,.  in  whose  hands  it  has 
since  remained.  In  1881,  Demerara,  Essequibo, 
and  Berbice  were  consolidated  into  British. 
Guiana.  The  capital  of  Berbice  was  New  Am- 
sterdam. It  stands  on  the  K  bank  of  the  Ber- 
bice river,  which  flows  into  the  Atlantic,  and 
is  navigable  for  166  miles  from  the  sea  for  vea* 
sels  drawing  7  feet  of  water.  Vessels  of  800 
tons  can  only  sidl  as  far  as  Fort  Nassau,  50 
miles  from  the  river^s  mouth.  On  this  river. 
Sir  R.  Sdhomburffk  first  saw,  in  1887,  the  gigan- 
tic water-lily,  called  Vietotia  regia.    The  last 


BERBIGUIXR 


BERENGAKIUS 


169 


0808118  of6«rbieew«8  in  1851;  pop.  S7,008,  of 
whom  19,631  werenadyea,  4,547  Afiioan  immi- 
graota,  8^  whites.  Since  the  emancipation  of 
the  aLaves,  manj  n^gproes  have  beoome  free  pro- 
prietors. The  prinoipal  products  are  rice,  cotton, 
sogar,  ram,  vanilla,  maize,  balsam,  and  timber. 
The  land  is  flaL  ezoeedinglj  woody,  and  only 
coltiTated  near  tne  river.  The  dimate  is  dead- 
ly  for  European  constitutions.  In  1844,  the 
total  value  of  exports  was  £226,218,  of  which 
£222,859  went  to  Great  Britain.  Total  imports, 
later  statistics,  £65,640.  In  the  same  year  86 
vesseli^  about  12,000  tons  burden,  entered,  and 
72  vessels  with  neariy  the  same  tonnage  cleared. 
The  registered  shipping  was  18  vessels  with  a 
burden  of  854  tons.  The  later  statistics  of  this 
district  are  induded  in  those  of  British  Guiana. 

BERBIGUIBB^  Ohables  Auexandbb  Yor- 
OKRT,  a  French  stadent  of  demonology,  bom  at 
Garpentraa,  department  of  Yaudnse,  1776,  died 
Dec  8, 1851,  of  a  dcUy  constitution,  attribut- 
ed "  the  ills  which  flesh  is  heir  to,''  as  well  as 
the  troubles  inflicted  upon  him  personally,  by 
a  lawsuitj  and  the  ix\]ndicious  treatment  of 
the  physician  to  whom  he  submitted  his 
case,  all  to  evil  epirits,  sent  by  the  prince  of 
demons  to  assail  nis  Christian  virtues.  This 
canviction  became  so  fixed  in  his  mind  that 
he  went  through  a  thorough  course  of  studies 
in  demonology,  which  brought  him  to  the  con- 
dasion  that  the  evil  ^irits  in  question  belonged 
to  the  family  of  fairies.  He  published  a  work 
in  Alport  of  his  condnsion,  Les  JFbr/acMij  ou 
UniM  Ua  d&moM  ne  9ont  pas  de  V  autre  monds^ 
illustrated  with  plates  (Paris,  1821,  8  vols. 
8vo).  The  author  ruined  himself  in  this  ex- 
pensive publicatioii,  and  died  in  a  mad-house. 

B£ROHET,  Giovanni,  an  Italian  poet  and 
prose  writer,  bom  at  IGlan,  about  the  year 
1790,  was  a  friend  of  Hanzoniand  Silvio  PeUico. 
In  1826  he  became  a  frequent  contributor  to  a 
Uberal  journal  at  Milan,  called  the  Chrioiliatore, 
When  this  journal  was  finally  suppressed  and 
itB  contributors  cast  into  prison  or  exiled  by 
the  Austrian  government,  Berchet  settled  in 
Geneva.  A  colleotion  of  his  patriotic  poems 
was  published  in  a  small  volume  at  Paris,  in 
1841.    

BEBOHET,  PncBBX,  ahistorical  painter,  bom 
in  France,  1659,  diedin  London,  1720.  He  went 
to  England  in  1681,  and  was  sent  by  William 
in.  to  decorate  a  palace  at  Loo,  in  Holland. 
He  afterward  painted  the  ceiling  of  Trinily 
odlege,  Oxford,  and  the  staircase  at  the  duke 
of  Sehomberg's  in  Pall-Mall,  and  the  summer 
honse  at  Banelagh. 

BEBOHT&SGADEK,  a  district  in  the  drde 
of  Upper  Bavaria;  pop.  9,200.  It  is  an 
.  Alpine  ooont^  with  Swiss-like  scenery.  The 
Watamum  aim  the  Hdhe  Gobi  are  the  bluest 
peaksL  Its  main  industrial  feature  is  the  pro- 
dncti<Hi  of  salt.  In  the  royal  mines  200  miners 
ace  employed,  and  the  annual  produce  is  16,000 
owt  of  rook  salt.  This  district  and  its  chief 
town  of  the  same  name  are  also  famous  for  their 
mmnn(nr*m^A  of  wood,  bone,  aod  v^oty  work. 


BEROHTOLD,  Leopoid,  Oount,  a  German 
philanthropist  and  traveller,  born  in  Moravia, 
1788,  died  in  1809.  He  acquired  8  different 
languages,  and  traversed  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  in  order  to  ^ain  knowledge  which 
should  enable  him  to  diminish  the  sum  of  hu- 
man misery.  He  studied  in  Turkey  the  means 
of  warding  off  and  curing  the  plague;  he  propa- 
gated vaccination  in  countries  where  the  prac- 
tice had  not  yet  been  introduced.  At  his  own 
cost,  he  erected  and  endowed  various  charitable 
institutions  at  t^rague  and  BrOnn,  and  saved  the 
people  of  Riesengebirge  in  1805  from  famine 
by  collecting  contributions  for  their  aid,  and 
impc^ng  com  from  abroad  for  their  free  use* 
After  the  battle  of  Wagram,  Oount  Berchtold 
threw  open  his  chateau  for  the  use  of  the  sick 
and  the  wounded.  He  was  cut  off  by  a  fever 
incurred  in  the  wards  of  this  temporary  hos- 
pital 

BEBDIANSK,  a  city  in  the  government  of 
Taurida,  in  European  Russia,  on  the  sea  of  Azo^ 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Berdianka;  pop.  6,000. 
Its  port  is  one  of  the  best  in  that  sea,  and  is  of 
special  value  for  the  commerce  of  the  dty  of 
Kertsdi,  and  for  the  exports  of  grain  from  the 
Nogea-Tartars.  This  is  prindpally  in  wheat 
linseed,  rape  seed,  hemp,  butter,  hides,  and 
wool  In  the  vicinity  of  Berdiansk  there  are 
coal  mines  and  salt  lakes. 

BERDITOHEY,  or  Bbbdtohsw,  a  city  in  the 
government  of  Yolhjmiain  European  Russia; 
ill  built,  with  several  churches  and  cloisters, 
and  20,000  popuktion,  mostly  Polish  Jews.  It 
is  cdebrated  in  that  region  for  its  fair  held  for 
4t  wedcs  from  the  15th  of  August,  to  which 
almost  all  the  nobles  and  seigneurs  gather  with 
their  families,  often  encamping  in  the  open  fleld. 
The  traffic  at  this  fair  amounts  sometimes  to 
$4,000,000.  The  nobles  also  take  this  oppor^ 
tnnity  to  transact  their  own  private  affiiirs,  such 
as  lending,  but  above  all  borrowing  money  from 
the  Jews,  paying  rents  and  interest,  selling  and 
buying  landed  estates,  or  renting  them,  hirinff 
overseers  and  other  servants.  Such  fJEurs  and 
gatherings  in  Polish,  or  Russo-Polish  towns,  are 
the  harvest  seasons  of  the  Jews,  who,  as  bank- 
ers, brokers,  ffo-betweens,  advisers,  confidential 
men,  surround  the  Polish  nobles,  peasants  and 
hirelings  of  whatever  kind,  and,  in  fiMt,  direct 
thefr  actions. 

BERENDS,  JuiiVB,  a  Pmsnaa  democrat, 
bom  in  Eyrits,  April  80, 1817;  studied  theoU 
ogy,  but  a  radicaif  sermon  of  his,  printed  in 
1S44^  lost  him  the  license  to  preach,  or  to  teadi 
sohooL  He  then  set  np  as  a  printer  at  Berlin. 
In  1848  he  was  elected  to  the  Prussian  constitu- 
ent assembly,  and  hdd  an  influential  political 
position  through  the  subsequent  events,  till  the 
retetabliahment  of  the  old  order  of  things 
caused  him  to  return  to  private  life* 

BERENGARIUS  (BsBEHass),  an  eodedastio 
who  played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  11th  cen^ 
tury,  as  an  opponent  of  the  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation,  supposed  to  have  been  bom  at  Toun^ 
in  998,  and  tohave  died  there  in  1088.    Xtisoer* 


160 


BERENICE 


tain  th&t  he  resided  there  daring  the  spreater  part 
of  his  life,  and  held  a  canonry  in  tiie  (march  of  St. 
Martin,  though  he  was  at  the  same  time  archdea- 
con of  Angers.  His  contemporaries,  Guitmond 
and  Berthold,  describe  him  as  a  man  of  shaUow 
intellect  and  little  erudition,  whose  chief  dialeo- 
tic  weapons  were  the  use  of  terms  in  a  novel  sig^ 
nification,  and  the  employment  of  opprobrious 
epithets.  It  is  difficult  to  discover  predselv 
what  was  his  doctrine  of  the  eucharist,  althougn 
it  is  certain  that  he  denied  transubstantiation. 
He  commenced  his  attack  on  this  dogma  in 
1045,  and  was  supported  at  first  by  several 
bishops,  the  chief  of  whom  were  Bishop  Bruno 
of  Angers,  and  Bishop  Frollant  of  Senlis,  as  well 
as  by  a  still  larger  number  of  the  inferior 
der^  and  students.  It  seems  also  that  Philip 
the  Fair,  king  of  France,  countenanced  him  for 
a  time,  from  political  reasons,  as  the  learned 
Gfrdrer  labors  to  prove.  These  bishops  aban- 
doned him,  however,  at  a  later  period,  and  all 
political  countenance  was  withdrawn  from  him, 
60  that  he  failed  in  establishing  a  numerous  and 
permanent  party.  The  opinion  of  Berengarius, 
together  with  that  of  John.Scotns  Erigena, 
whom  he  professed  to  follow,  was  first  con- 
demned by  a  council  at  Bome.  A  public  dis- 
pute which  he  held  with  2  monks  of  Bec^  be- 
fore William  of  Normandy,  ended  also  in  an 
unfavorable  manner  for  him.  Soon  after  (1060), 
2  synods  were  held,  the  first  at  Yercelli,  the 
second  at  Paris,  to  both  of  which  he  was  invited, 
and  where,  on  his  failing  to  appear,  his  doctrine 
was  condemned.  In  1054,  a  synod  was  held  at 
Tours,  by  the  papal  legate,  Hildebrand  (after- 
ward Gregory  VII.),  where  Berengarius  re- 
tracted his  doctrine,' and  signed  the  Smnula  of 
faith  presented  to  him,  without  any  attempt  to 
defend  himself.  As  he  continued,  however,  to 
teach  and  propagate  his  doctrine,  it  was  con- 
demned again  by  Victor  H.,  in  1066,  by  Nicho- 
las II.,  and  a  synod  of  118  bishops  at  Bome,  in 
1059,  where  Berengarius  made  a  new  retrac- 
tion, by  the  French  synods  of  Angers,  Bouen, 
St.  Maizent,  and  Poitiers,  between  1062  and 
1076 ;  by  2  synods  at  Bome  in  1078  and  1079, 
and  finallv  by  the  synod  of  Bordeaux  in  1080. 
At  these  last  8  synods,  Berengarius  renewed  his 
recantation  in  the  most  precise  language,  but 
after  each  one,  except  the  last  continued  to 
teach  hte  doctrine  as  before.  Aner  the  last  re- 
cantation, he  certainly  abstained  from  attacking 
the  doctrine  of  the  Boman  church,  and  he  is 
said  to  have  died  in  her  faith  and  communion, 
as  related  by  William  of  Malmesbury.  The  re- 
mains of  his  works  are  to  be  found  in  the  col- 
lections of  D'Achery  and  Martenne,  and  in  a 
more  recent  publication  by  Visoher  (Berlin, 
188^ 

BERENICE.  I.AcityofEffypt,ontheRed 
sea,  whence  a  road,  258  miles  inlength.  extended 
across  the  desert  to  Ooptos,  on  the  Nile.  This 
road  was  constructed  in  the  reign  of  the  second 
Ptolemy.  Berenice  was  one  of  liie  principal 
centres  by  which  the  trade  of  Egypt,  under  the 
Macedonian  dynasty,  and  that  of  tiie  Bomans 


subsequently,  were  carried  on  with  the  remote 
East  Daring  the  Boman  period,  a  sum  equal 
to  $2,000,000  is  said  to  have  been  annoally  re- 
mitted to  the  East  by  the  Boman  merchants  as 
payment  for  its  precious  products,  which  sold 
at  Bome  for  a  hundred-fold  more  than  their 
original  price.  Nothing  now  remains  of  Bere- 
nice but  a  heap  of  ruins,  adjoining  the  modem 
port  of  Habest  11.  Bxbbnioe,  or  Hesperis, 
a  <Aty  of  Cyrenaica,  near  which  the  ancients 
imagined  the  gardens  of  the  Hesperides  to  be 
situated.  A  nlthy,  wretched  village,  named 
Bengazi,  now  occupies  a  portion  of  its  site. 

BEBENICE,  the  name  of  several  Egyptian 
and  Syrian  queens.  I.  A  daughter  of  L^gus  by 
Antigone,  was  originidly  the  wife  of  Philip,  an 
obscure  Macedonian,  but  going  to  Egypt  in  the 
train  of  Eurydice,  the  bride  of  Ptolemy  Soter, 
that  monarch  became  enamored  of  her,  abd  ul- 
timately married  her.  Berenice  was  the  mother 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelnhus,  and  possessed  sadi  a 
hold  on  her  husband^s  affections,  that  she  pre- 
vailed on  hun  to  leave  the  kingdom  to  her  own 
son,  rather  than  to  his  issue  by  Eurydice.  She 
had  the  reputation  of  being  the  wisest  and  most 
virtuous  of  the  queens  of  Ptolemy.  After  ber 
death,  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  decreed  her  divine 
honors,  and  the  poet  Theocritus  sang  of  her 
beauty,  her  goodness,  and  her  apotheosis.  11. 
A  daughter  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  married 
to  Antiochus  Theos,  king  of  Syria.  .  By  his 
treatv  with  Philadelphns,  249  B.  0.,  Antioohns 
was  bound  to  put  away  Laodice,  and  to  esponse 
in  her  stead  the  Egyptian  inincess.  That 
monarch  very  reluctantly  fulnlled  thia  oondi* 
tion ;  but  the  moment  he  heArd  of  the  death  of 
Philadelphus,  he  hastened  to  repudiate  Bere- 
nice and  to  restore  to  her  rights  her  injured 
rival.  The  indignant  Laodice  was  not,  how- 
ever, appeased  by  this  act  of  justice,  and  soon 
after  caused  Antiochus  to  be  poisoned.  Bere- 
nice now  fled  to  Daphne  with  her  infant  son ; 
but  the  partisans  of  Laodice  pursued  her 
thither,  and  having  taken  the  city,  murdered 
herself  her  child,  and  all  her  Egyptian  attend- 
ants. III.  Daughter  of  Magaa,  king  of  Oyr^e, 
betrothed  to  Ptolemy  Euergetes.  Magas  died 
however,  before  the  nuptial  ceremomes  could 
take  place,  and  his  queen  Arsino^  who  was 
averse  to  the  marriage,  offered  her  daughter 
and  her  kingdom  to  Demetrius,  son  of  Demetri- 
us PoUoroetes.  Demetrius  immediately  accept- 
ed the  offer,  and  embarked  for  Oyrene,  but  no 
sooner  did  he  arrive  than  Arsinod  and  himself 
became  mutucdly  enamored  of  each  other. 
This  so  enraged  Berenice  that  she  appealed  to 
the  people,  a  party  of  whom  rushed  into  the 
palace  and  murdered  Demetrius  in  the  very 
arms  of  the  queen.  After  the  consummation  of 
this  tragedy,  Berenice  proceeded  to  Egypt  and 
became  the  spouse  of  Euergetes.  When  that 
monarch  was  setting  out  on  his  Syrian  expedi- 
tion, she  cut  off  her  ebon  tresses,  and  dedicated 
them  in  the  temple  of  the  Zephyrian  Venos  fbr 
her  husband's  safe  return.  Before  long,  the 
hair  mysterioaaly  disappeared,  whereon  aconrt- 


BEBENIOB 


BEBESFOBD 


161 


ly  Saaoaiaii  ezotoimed,  tiiat  it  had  been  tnoula- 
ted  to  the  akiea,  and  metamorphoaed  into  a 
ooDstellation.  This  idea  was  taken  up  by  some 
ooortly  astronomer  of  the  age,  who,  in  oompli- 
ment  to  the  queen,  gave  the  name  of  dma 
Bereniceg  to  the  duster  of  stars  at  the  tail  of 
the  Lion.  Berenice  was  assassinated  in  221 
B.  O.,  by  order  of  her  son,  Ptolemy  Fhilopator. 
lY.  Daughter  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  ascended 
the  throne  of  Egypt  on  the  death  of  her 
ffttiier.  She  married  Alexander  II.,  the  grand- 
son of  Ptolemy  Physoon,  whom  the  dictator 
8ylla  had  nominated  kix^^,  but  10  days  after 
her  nArriage  she  was  muidered  by  her  cruel 
huaband,  whom  the  indignant  people  almost 
immediately  sacrificed.  Y.  Daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy Auletei,  and  eldest  sister  of  the  celebrated 
Cleopatra,  was  proclaimed  queen  by  the  Alex- 
andrians after  the  expulsion  of  her  father,  58 
B.  0.  Her  first  husband  was  Seleucus  Oybio- 
sactee,  brother  of  Antiochus  Asiatious,  long 
d  Sjria;  but  his  ayarioe  and  meanness  so 
di^^ted  Berenice  that  she  had  him  killed,  and 
eepoused  Arohelans,  king  of  Oonuma  in  Oq>pa- 
docia.  In  6  months,  however,  Auletes  was  re- 
stored to  his  throne  by  the  Romans,  and  Bere- 
nice and  her  consort  were  slain  in  battle.  YL 
Daughter  of  Oostobarus  and  Salome,  sister  of 
Herod  the  Great,  was  espoused  to  her  cousin, 
Aristobulufi,  who,  not  treating  his  wife  with 
sofiScient  deference,  was  put  to  death  in  the 

?ear  6  B.  0.  Berenice  was  next  married  to 
heudion,  maternal  unde  to  Antipater,  the 
eldest  son  of  Herod.  She  appears  to  nave  been 
again  a  widow  when  sbe  went  with  her  moth- 
er to  Some,  where  she  died.  YII.  The  eldest 
Slighter  of  Agrippa  I.,  married  to  her  uncle, 
Herod,  king  of  Ohalcis,  by  whom  she  became 
the  mother  of  2  sons.  After  the  death  of  Her- 
od, A.  D.  48,  sbe  repaired  to  the  court  of  her 
brother,  Agrippa  H.,  and  became  his  mistress. 
Next  she  was  married  to  Polemon,  king  of  Oili- 
da,  but  soon  abandoned  him  and  returned  to 
Agrippa.  In  A.  D.  62,  she  was  with  her  brother 
at  Gaasarea,  when  the  apostle  Paul  pleaded  his 
cause  before  him.  In  A.  D.  65,  while  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  she  hazarded  her 
life  by  interceding  with  the  sanguinary  Elorus, 
fi>r  her  oppreased  countrymen,  the  Jews.  At  a 
subsequent  period,  she  labored  to  dissuade  her 
nation  from  that  great  rebellion  which  was 
attended  with  such  calamitous  results;  but 
finding  her  efforts  vain,  she  went  over  to  the 
Bomans  with  Agrippa,  and  thus  escaped  the 
ruin  in  which  the  rebels  were  involved.  The 
most  illustrious  of  the  Bomans  were  not  proof 
against  her  arts  and  attractions.  Her  munifi- 
cence gained  her  the  friendship  of  Yespasian: 
her  b^ty  and  fascinating  manners  won  the 
heart  of  Titus.  Nor  was  the  affection  of  the 
latter  for  Berenice  a  passing  feeling.  After  the 
deetmction  of  Jerusalem,  she  accompimied  the 
conqueror  to  Rome,  where  his  connection  with 
her  continued  until  the  murmurs  of  the  Romana 
compelled  him  to  dismiss  her.  She  then  re- 
turned to  Judsa,  where  she  died. 
VOL.  m, — 11 


BERESFORD,  Jaku,  an  English  author, 
born  at  Upham,  in  Hampshire,  1764,  died  Sept. 
1840.  He  was  educated  at  the  diarter-house  and 
at  Merton  coUege,  Oxford.  Having  received 
holy  orders,  he  was  wpointed  to  the  valuable 
rectory  of  Kibworth,  Leicestershire.  He  wrote 
several  separate  works  on  various  subjects,  be- 
side some  excellent  papers  in  the  ^^  Looker-on,^' 
a  periodical  of  considerable  interest,  published 
in  l792-'8.  The  work  which  obtained  for  him 
great  and  permanent  celebrity  was  the  well- 
known  humorous  prose  satire,  *^The  Miseries 
of  Human  life,*'  in  2  vols.  This  has  been  re- 
peatedly reprinted;  it  has  even  been  drama* 
tized,  and  numerous  imitations  of  it  have  ap- 
peared. 

BERESFORD,  jA]a8,latesuif^n  to  the  Brit- 
ish forces,  bom  in  the  island  of  Barbados,  Jan.  8, 
1788.  died  at  Hartford.  Conn.,  March  4,  1848. 
His  umily  was  one  of  the  highest  respectability 
in  the  island,  and  an  English  branch  of  the  Irish 
house  of  that  name.  Dr.  Beresford  received  his 
medical  and  surgical  education  in  London,  under 
Sir  AsQaj  Oooper,  and  in  1804^  soon  after  re- 
ceiving his  diploma,  entered  the  medical  service 
of  the  British  army,  in  which  he  passed  through 
the  various  grades  of  professional  rank  to  that 
of  staff  surgeon,  which  he  received  in  1815. 
His  whole  term  of  service  was  one  of  constant 
and  arduous  duty,  and  he  was  in  every  engage- 
ment in  the  West  Indies  which  took  place  dur- 
ing that  period;  he  was  wounded  at  the  last 
capture  of  Guadeloupe,  while  in  discharge  of 
his  professional  duties  to  his  corps,  the  royal 
York  rangers.  In  1817,  at  his  own  earnest  re* 
quest,  he  was  put  on  the  half-pay  list,  and  im- 
mediately entered  on  an  extensive  private 
practice  in  Berbice,  S.  America.  Here  he 
remained  at  the  head  of  his  profession  till 
1883,  when,  resigning  all  connection  with  the 
army,  he  removed  to  the  United  States,  and 
settled  in  Hartford,  where  his  eminent  abil- 
ities soon  gave  him  a  large  and  valuable  prao- 
to  whior 


loh  his  fine  social  qualities  great- 
ly contributed.  Though  maintaining  the  first 
rank  in  his  profession.  Dr.  Beresford's  life 
was  too  ftdly  occupied  to  afford  leisure  for 
recording  the  results  of  lus  large  experi- 
ence. 

BERESFORD,  William  Oabb,  viscount, 
British  general,  bom  in  Ireland,  Oct.  2, 1768, 
died  in  Kent,  fan.  8,  1854.  The  iUegitimate 
son  of  George,  1st  marquis  of  Waterford,  he  en- 
tered the  army  at  the  age  of  16,  and  served  in 
Nova  Scotia  until  1790.  During  this  period^ 
he  lost  one  of  his  eyes  firom  an  accidental  shot 
by  a  brother  officer.  He  served  at  Toulon,  Oor- 
sica,  the  West  Indies  (under  AbercrombyX  the 
East  Indies,  and  Egypt,  under  Baird.  On  his 
return,  in  1800,  he  was  made  colonel  by  brevet 
He  Bubsequentiy  was  employed  in  Ireland,  at 
the  conquest  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
(as  brigadier-general)  against  Buenos  Ayres^ 
in  1806,  where  he  was  compelled  to  surrender, 
but  finally  escaped.  In  180Y  he  commanded 
the  forces  which  ci^tured  Madeirai  and  was. 


162 


BEBESINA 


made  governor  of  thafc  island*  In  1808  he  be- 
came mfigor-general,  and,  having  arrived  in  Por- 
tngal  with  &e  English  foroea,  was  introsted 
with  the  whole  organizfition  of  the  Portognese 
anny,  including  the  mihtia.  He  was  one  of  the 
commissioners  for  ac|]asting  the  terms  of  the 
celebrated  convention  of  Ointra;  was  present 
during  the  retreat  on,  and  battle  of  Oomnna, 
where  he  covered  the  embarkation  of  Sir  John 
Moore's  troops ;  and,  in  March,  1809,  was  ap< 
pointed  marsnal  and  generalissimo  of  the  Portu- 
gaese  army,  soon  raised  by  him  into  an  excel- 
lent force,  whether  of  attack  or  defence.  He 
fought  all  through  the  Peninsular  war,  until  its 
dose  in  1814^  vigorouslv  supporting  Welling- 
ton. On  the  only  considerable  occasion,  how- 
ever, when  he  held  the  chief  command,  at  the 
battle  of  Albuera,  in  1811,  he  displayed  very 
noor  generalship,  and  the  day  would  have  been 
lost  but  for  the  act  of  a  subaltern  in  diso- 
bedience of  Ms  orders.  He  took  part  in  the 
victories  of  Salamanca,  Yittoria,  Bayonne, 
Orthes,  and  Toulouse.  For  these  services  he 
was  created  a  fleld-niarshal  of  Portugal,  duke 
of  Elvas,  and  marquis  of  Santo  Oampo.  In 
1810  he  was  chosen  member  of  parliament 
for  the  county  of  Waterford  (he  never  took 
his  seat),  and,  in  1814,  was  created  Baron 
Beresford  of  Albuera  and  Dungannon;  in 
1828  he  was  advanced  to  the  dignity  of  vis- 
count. In  1814  he  went  on  a  diplomatio 
mission  to  Brazil,  where,  in  1817,  he  repress- 
ed a  conspiracy.  On  his  return,  he  succes- 
iively  became  ueutenant-general  of  the  ord- 
nance^ general  of  the  army,  and  (firom  1828  to 
1880)  master-general  of  the  ordnance.  Hav- 
ing assisted  Don  Miguel,  in.  1828,  he  was  de- 
pnved  of  his  baton  as  field-marshal  of  Portu- 
gal. In  politics,  he  was  actively,  though  silent- 
ly, a  decided  tory.  His  military  efficiency 
duefly  oondsted  m  his  successful  reorganization 
of  the  Portuguese  troops,  whom,  by  great  skill 
and  unwearied  exertions,  he  finally  rendered 
soffidently  firm  and  well  disdplined  to  cope 
even  with  the  French.  In  1882  he  married  his 
cousin,  Louisa,  daughter  of  the  archbishop  of 
Tuam,  iaxd  widow  of  Thomas  Hope,  the  mil- 
lionidre  banker,  and  author  of  ^^  Anastasius.^^ 
He  left  no  children,  and  the  title  became  extinct 
at  his  death. 

BERESINA,  or  Bebbzina,  a  river  of  Russian 
Poland,  feunous  for  a  battle  fought  on  its  banks, 
and  for  the  disastrous  retreat  of  the  grand 
army  of  Napoleon  L,  after  the  burning  of 
Moscow.  The  Beresina  has  its  sources  in  sev- 
eral small  lakes,  a  little  to  the  north  of  the 
town  of  Dockszyce,  in  lat  66*'  10'  K,  long.  27* 
20'  E.  It  has  a  course  of  about  280  miles,  in 
a  direct  line,  without  allowance,  for  the  sinuos- 
ities of  the  current^  which  are  Very  great  and 
continuous,  owing  to  the  levd  nature  of  the 
country  through  which  it  flows,  principally  due 
southward,  with  an  inclination  to  the  eastward 
in  its  lower  waters,  which  fiEdl  by  2  mouths 
into  the  Dnieper  at  Rezhitza.  For  the  first 
hundred  miles  of  its  course,  until  it  readies  a 


village  of  its  own  name,  a  short  distance  be- 
low the  town  of  Borissov,  it  flows  through 
ri  morasses  and  swampy  meadows ;  bdow 
place  its  banks,  still  deep  and  miry,  are 
encumbered  with  forests.  In  its  upward  march 
the  army  did  not  come  upon  this  river ;  for, 
having  entered  the  Russian  territory  hy  the 
passage  of  the  Niemen  at  the  town  of  ifovno, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Yilna  with  that 
river,  June  24, 1812,  numbering  200,000  men, 
induding  40,000  horse,  of  whom  12,000  were 
cuirassiers,  it  marched  direct  on  Yilna ;  which 
was  evacuated  by  the  Russians  and  occupied 
by  Napoleon  on  June  28.  The  object  of  this 
march  was  to  fall  directly  on  the  great  in- 
trenched camp  of  the  Russians,  centrally  situ- 
ated at  Drissa,  on  the  confluence  of  a  stream 
of  the  same  name  with  the  Dwina,  which  lies 
K  E.  of  Yilna,  at  a  distance  of  about  160  miles, 
the  route  between  the  two  places  running  to 
the  northward  of  the  sources  of  the  Beresina. 
The  Russians,  however,  having  £Edlen  back^ 
accordance  with  a  preconcerted  plan,  upon  Yi- 
tepsk,  in  the  line  of  their  retreat  to  Moscow, 
of  whidi  movement  Napoleon  was  informed  at 
Gloubokoje,  directly  north  and  about  80  miles 
distant  from  the  head-waters  of  the  Beresina, 
the  French  army  marched,  in  pursuit  of  the 
enemy,  due  west  uponYitepsk,  thus  turning 
the  river,  which  they  were  destined  to  cross  a 
few  months  later  under  such  altered  circum- 
stances, and  leaving  its  waters  entirdy  to  tho 
right  of  their  advance.  On  Sept  6  was  fought 
the  desperate  battle  of  Borodino,  at  the  dose 
of  whi<m  the  French  had  not  enough  ammuni- 
tion on  hand  to  fight  another  general  battle; 
on  the  14th  of  that  month.  Napoleon  entered 
Moscow,  in  triumph,  only  to  see  the  greater 
part  of  the  dty  reduced  to  ashes,  by  tiie 
fires  kindled  by  the  hands  of  the  Russlaaa 
themsdves,  between  the  16th  and  19th,  whea ' 
the  act  of  self-devotion  was  complete,  and  the 
army  of  the  invader  already  doomed  to  destruc- 
tion. On  the  morning  of  Oct  19,  exactly  ono 
month  after  the  voluntary  destruction  of  the 
capital  of  old  Russia,  and  6  days  after  the  first 
fm  of  snow — ^which,  it  may  be  well  to  observe 
here,  was  not  extraordinarily  early,  any  more 
than  it  was  the  true  cause  of  the  French  re- 
treat, as  orders  had  already  been  issued,  and 
partially  acted  upon,  for  the  retreat  of  the  hos- 
pitals, magazines,  and  parks  of  artillery,  previ- 
ous to  the  appearance  of  the  first  snow-flake — 
Napoleon  evacuated  Moscow,  and  the  most  dis- 
astrous retreat  whidi  all  history  has  recorded 
was  begun  by  the  great  captain,  ^'  who,  then  for 
the  flrst  time  in  his  life,  retired  in  the  open, 
field  from  an  enemy.''  Strategetical  reasons 
of  sufficient  weight  compelled  Napoleon  to  re- 
treat  on  Smolensk,  by  the  wasted  and  ruined 
line  of  Mozhaisk,  instead  of  by  that  of  Edooga 
and  Medynsk,  which,  not  having  suflTered  b  v  the 
transit  of  the  contending  armies,  would  have  . 
afforded  partial  supplies  for  his  troops,  whidi 
were  from  this  moment  utterly  destitute  of 
magazines  and  portable  supplies.    The  end  of 


BERESINA 


163 


the  Rnasifin^  in  their  xmnsnal  tactics  and  long 
retreat  on  Moaoow,  as  well  as  in  the  wonderfm 
act  of  patriotism  which  destroyed  that  famous 
dtj,  now  appeared  to  be  MI7  gained.  While 
the  Eronch  were  in  rapid  and  disorderly  re- 
treat, famishing  with  hunger,  perishing  wiUi 
cold,  and  nnable  to  snatch  a  moment^s  precari- 
ous sleep  among  the  whelmmg  snow-drifts, 
without  the  certainty  of  being  aroused  by  the 
wild  yell  and  the  avenging  lances  of  the  close- 
pnrsoing  CkMsacks,  from  every  quarter  of  the 
empire,  from  the  very  opposite  extremities  of 
Europe^  the  Bussian  armies  were  closing  in  to 
the  front,  in  order  to  intercept  what  was  now 
almost  a  hopeless  and  despairing  flight  of  a  dis- 
organized host — and  would  have  been  so  alto- 
gether, but  for  the  steady  resolution  with 
which  the  veterans  of  a  hundred  victories 
stood  to  their  arms,  and  resumed  both  the  sem- 
blanoe  and  the  spirit  of  an  army,  whenever 
the  Russian  trumpets  announced  an  attack  on 
their  decimated  columns.  Alreadv  it  was  pre- 
<£cted  in  the  capitals  of  his  enemies — ^and  that 
was  in  every  capital  of  Europe,  unless  it  were 
that  of  little  Saxony — ^that  the  great  conquer- 
car's  career  of  conquest  was  a&eady  run,  and 
that  no  choice  was  left  to  him,  but  that  of  a 
grave  or  a  prison,  for  himself  and  for  the  rem- 
nant of  his  innnmerable  armies,  in  the  sacred 
soil  of  Bofloa.  But,  in  ^ite  of  aU,  the  extra- 
ordinary genius  of  the  man,  the  zeal  and  de- 
votion with  which  he  knew  how  to  inspire  his 
heutenantBi  and  the  indomitable  courage  of  his 
veterans,  carried  him  through ;  and  he  was  en- 
abled to  burst  asunder  the  toils,  and  escape. 
Still,  when  the  army  arrived  at  Orsha,  whence 
Xapoleon  had,  at  first,  determined  to  force  his 
way  across  the  Oula  in  a  direct  line  on  Yilna, 
his  poeition  appeared  indeed  hopeless.  At 
this  jimctare.  just  when  he  had  discovered  the 
formidable  obstacles  that  would  oppose  him  on 
tbo  route  to  Yilna,  which  led  through  almost 
impenetrable  swamps  and  forests,  and  had 
taken  the  direct  roaa  on  the  Beredna  by  Bor- 
isaov,  he  received  iuformation  that  he  was,  in 
fact,  aU  but  surrounded*  Minsk,  on  the  line  of 
his  intended  march,  from  Borissov  eastward. 
was  taken;  the  bridge  of  Borissov  seized,  and 
the  coarse  of  the  Beresina  defended  in  his 
front  by  Tchichagoff  with  80,000  men;  Wittgen- 
stein was  in  an  impr^iable  position  on  his 
right;  and,  on  his  left^  Sutusof^  with  the  main 
Busaan  army.  To  oppose  this  concentration 
of  forces,  aU  that  Napoleon  could  collect  was 
not  above  40,000  actual  combatants,  although, 
nominaDy,  after  his  junction  with  Yiotor^s, 
Oodinot's,  and  DombrofGsky's  corps,  he  num- 
bered 70,000  meiL  with  a  powerfm  artillery  of 
150  guns.  On  the  mommg  of  Kov.  28,  the 
advanced  guard  of  Tchiohagofl!^  having  crossed 
the  bridge  of  Borissov,  in  order  to  open  his 
communications  with  Wittgenstein,  was  en- 
countered by  Ondinot's  vanguard;  defeated 
with  losfl^  and  driven  back  across  the  bridge, 
which,  however,  it  had  the  presence  of  mind 
to  destroy;  and,  the  river  behig  filled  with 


masses  of  floating  ice,  it  seemed,  at  least,  ques- 
tionable how  Napoleon  could  hope  to  make  his 
way  across  its  flooded  and  encumbered  waters. 
On  the  following  morning  the  whole  force  of 
the  grand  army  was  drawn  up  on  the  heights 
of  Borissov,  determined  to  effect  their  passage 
at  that  point ;  but  so  skilfully  did  Napoleon  con- 
trive to  mask  his  intentions,  and  to  lead  the 
enemy  to  believe  that  his  real  operations  were 
directed  on  the  lower  Beresina,  that  Tchichagoff 
remained  inactive,  and  Tchaplitz,  who  com- 
manded on  the  western  bank  of  the  river,  ex- 
actly in  the  teeth  of  the  vanguard  as  they 
should  cross  over,  was  ordered  down  to  resist 
the  false  attack  on  the  lower  part  of  the  river. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  western  bank  being  thus 
cleared  for  a  while,  the  French  sappers  rushed 
iuto  the  river  shoulder  deep  to  establish  the 
bridges:  Oorbineau,  with  his  cavalry,  swam 
across  tne  stream,  and  drove  back  the  Bussian 
detachments  which  were  collecting  on  the  fur- 
ther side;  and  before  Tdiaplitz  returned  from 
his  fruitless  excursion,  the  French  vanguard 
was  so  firmly  established  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river,  that  there  was  no  longer  a  hope  to 
dislodge  it,  A  second  bridge  was  erected,  and 
Oudinot's  corps  being  pushed  across  with  50 
pieces  of  utillery,  drove  back  the  Bussians  to 
the  thidtets  at  a  distance  from  the  river,  and 
thus  secured  the  important  defiles  leading  to 
Zembin,  and  the  line  of  the  retreat  of  the  army. 
Meanwhile,  however,  Tchichagoff  learning 
what  was  in  progress,  marched  at  once  to  the 
aid  of  Tchaplitz,  and  established  a  bridge  of 
pontoons  at  Borissov,  a  little  way  above  the 
French  bridges  at  Studianka,  by  which  he  pass- 
ed over,  reenforccd  by  Yermolofif  with  the  van 
of  XutusofTs  army,  in  order  to  assail  the  French 
advanced  guard  on  the  ri^ht  bank  of  the  river; 
while  Wittgenstein,  commg  up  in  force,  and 
having  already  cnt  off  Partonneaux,  with  t,000 
men,  and  obhged  him  to  lay  down  his  arms^ 
was  preparing  to  attack  Yictor,  who  command- 
ed the  rear-guard  on  the  left-hand  bank,  and  to 
force  him  down  headlong  on  the  bridges  and  the 
river.  On  the  night  of  Nov.  27,  the  Bussian 
commanders  aU  met,  and  concerted  measures 
for  a  simultaneous  attack  on  the  following  day, 
on  both  sides  of  the  river.  The  momiog  of  the 
28th  opened  by  a  roirited  Bussian  attack  on 
Oudinot;  but  he  had  been  rednfbrced  by  Ney's 
corps,  by  the  imperial  guard,  and  by  a  few 
squadrons  of  cuirassiers,  who  charged  with  such 
impetuosity,  that  they  drove  all  before  them, 
ana,  although  the  battle  was  reestablished, 
gained  so  much  time  that  the  retreat  was  made 
good,  and  the  guards  and  Davoust's  corps 
defiled  off  safely  in  the  direction  of  Zembin, 
dining  the  continuance  of  Ihe  action,  which 
was  maintained  in  the  woods  between  ^rill  and 
Stackhow,  with  incredible  fhry,  until  midnight. 
It  was,  however,  on  Yictor's  devoted  rear- 
guard, seriously  jeoparded  by  the  loss  of  Par- 
tonneaux's  division,  that  fell  the  brunt  of  the 
storm.  After  a  fearftil  struggle  the  Bussian  ad- 
vanced artillery  established  a  Dattery  of  12  guns 


164 


BSBEZOY 


<m  a  spot  which  oommanded  the  bridges ;  then 
an  IrretrieTable  confasion  and  hideous  roat 
oommenoed,  while,  oorps  after  corps,  and  bat- 
tery after  batterj,  the  Russian  forces  advanced 
girdling  in  both  combatants  and  fuffitives  with 
a  circle  of  desolating  fire,  and  thnnderinff  upon 
the  bridges,  crowded  and  choked  wim  the 
helpless  throngs,  through  whom  the  guns  and 
caissons  tore  their  way,  like  the  car  of  Jugger- 
naut, over  masses  of  the  dead  and  dying.  At 
lughtfall  the  artillery  bridge  broke  down  under 
the  mingled  effects  of  the  pressure  and  the  en- 
emy^s  nre;  and  thousands  were  precipitated 
into  the  waves,  and  perished  under  the  freezing 
waters,  which  in  the  following  spring  gave  np 
their  dead,  to  the  number  of  12,000  human 
corpses.  In  the  mean  time,  just  in  the  crisis  of 
tiiis  agony,  Yiotor's  last  oorps  forced  its  way  up, 
and  passing  over  and  through  the  miserable  re^ 
Hos,  principally  non-combatants,  of  the  host, 
held  tne  bridge  firmly  until  the  morning,  when 
on  the  approach  of  the  Russian  troops  it  was 
set  on  fire  as  the  last  measure  of  defence.  It  is 
said  that  hundreds  of  the  deserted  wretches 
rushed  over  the  burning  timbers,  and  when  the 
heat  became  too  intense  for  endurance,  plunged 
into  the  fearful  river,  where  so  many  thousands 
of  their  comrades  had  already  perished ;  and 
there  found  their  ffraves,  happier  perha^  tlian. 
the  other  miserable  thousands,  wno,  prisoners 
to  the  Muscovite,  paid  for  their  leader's  ambi- 
tion bv  the  horrors  of  Siberian  bondage.  This 
was  tne  last  act  of  the  grand  but  appalling 
drama  of  the  Russian  invasion.  Out  of  above 
500,000  men  with  100,000  horses,  and  above 
1,800  cannon,  who  had  opened  this  terrific  cam- 
paign, less  than  50,000  combatants  and  non- 
combatants,  scarcely  preserving  the  semblance 
of  an  army,  or  the  show  of  discipline,  straggled, 
beyond  the  Beresina,  in  detached  flroup&  along 
ihe  road  to  Vilna.  The  price  paid  for  the  pas- 
sage of  those  wretched  survivors,  was  12,000 
dead,  16,000  prisoners,  and  25  pieces  of  cannon; 
and  yet,  of  those  thus  dearly  rescued,  but  20,- 
000,  not  one-third  of  whom  had  seen  the  towers 
of  the  Kremlin,  defiled  across  the  bridge  of 
Koyno,  too  glad  to  see  the  last  of  Russian  ter- 
ritoiT. 

BEREZOY,  or  Bbbszotse,  a  village  on  a 
plateau,  containing  gold,  in  the  goyemment  of 
rerm,  Asiatic  Russia,  or  Siberia,  on  the  east- 
em  side  of  the  Ural  mountains.  Since  1754, 
gold  has  been  dug  here.  The  first  Uralian 
gold  washing  was  in  1814.  Now  the  mines 
.enrnloy  about  6,000  hands. 

BEREZOY,  or  Bxbbsef,  a  district  in 
Asiatic  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Tobolsk. 
The  population  is  composed  of  nomads,  who 
use  the  reindeer,  and  of  Ostiaks  (a  Finnic  tribeX 
and  Russians.  The  soil  is  frozen,  and  thaws  in 
summer  only  about  a  foot  deep. — A  town  of 
the  same  name,  the  capital  of  the  district,  is 
situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Soswa 
and  Obi.  It  is  the  most  northern  place  in  west- 
ern Siberia  in  which  the  horse  can  exist.  Bar- 
lej  and  rye  are  cultivated  with  success.    Bere- 


BEBG 

sov  supplies  Tobdak  with  dried  fish,  and  is  the 
centre  for  the  fur  trade  with  the  Ostiaks,  the 
Yoguls,  and  the  Samoyeds.  Three  of  the  fa- 
Torites  of  Peter  the  Great,  banished  by  hja 
successors,  namely,  Ostermann,  Menchikof^  and 
Dolgoroukofl^  ended  their  days  there. 

B£:RG,  a  portion  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  called 
also  Oleve-Jlllich  Ber^L  containing  the  two  dis- 
tricts of  Cologne  and  Dtksseldorfl  In  the  time 
of  the  Romans  Berg  was  populated  by  the 
Ubii.  Under  the  Franks  it  was  divided  into  4 
shires  and  belonged  to  the  Ripuarii.  Hermann, 
and  his  brother  Adolf  L,  are  the  supposed  pro- 
genitors of  the  counts  of  Berg.  £ight  Adol& 
held  the  sorereign  power  in  the  duchy,  until 
1848,  when  it  fell,  through  inheritance,  into 
the  hands  of  the  counts  of  JQlich,  who  were 
I>romoted  to  the  rank  of  dukes :  but  on  the  ex- 
tinction of  this  fiunily  in  1609,  Berg  was  tossed 
about  from  one  Grerman  power  to  the  other,  un- 
til 1666,  when  it  came  into  the  possession  of 
the  Electoral  Palatinate  till  1801,  and  eventual- 
ly, in  1806,  became  the  property  of  Prussia. 
Li  1808  Napoleon  made  a  grand  duchy  of  itL 
which  he  presented  to  Murat,  who  derived 
from  it  the  title  of  grand  duke  of  Berg,  but 
exchaufled  it  in  1808  for  the  kingdom  ^  Na- 
ples, when  Napoleon  bestowed  it  upon  the  eld- 
est son  of  his  brother  of  Holland.  Howeyer^ 
before  he  reached  his  migority,  Beig  fell,  in 
1818,  into  the  power  of  the  allies,  and  in  1814, 
at  the  congress  of  Yienna,  it  was  allotted  to  its 
present  sovereign,  the  king  of  Prussia. 

BERG.  Fbibdrioh  yoN,  count,  Rus^an  gene- 
ral of  infantry,  chief  a^utant  of  the  czar,  and 
S^vemor-general  of  Finland,  bom  in  DorpatL 
ay  27, 1790,  sprung  from  one  of  the  historical 
finmilies  of  Livonia.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sity of  his  native  town,  and  entered  the  army  in 
1812,  and  at  the  end  of  the  campaign  in  1814^  was 
captain  in  the  general's  staff  of  the  guard.  He 
now  passed  seyeral  years  in  Switzerland,  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Turkey ;  and  his  travels,  published 
on  his  return  to  St.  Petersburg  in  1819,  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  Alexander,  who  promoted 
him  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  In  the  following 
year  he  entered  l^e  diplomatic  service,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Count  Oapo  d'Istrias,  who  then 
was  secretary  of  foreign  affiura,  and  passed 
some  time  at  Munich  and  at  Naples.  In  1822 
he  was  intrusted  with  the  regulation  of  the 
affairs  of  the  goyemment  of  Orenburg  and  of  its 
nomad  tribes,  and  after  8  years  of  negotiaticm 
and  war&re  he  succeeded  in  reconciling  the  re- 
fractory Cossacks  of  the  Exrgheez  steppes  to  the 
Russian  administratiye  ^tem.  In  Dec.  1824^ 
he  was  engaged  in  a  cruise  agunst  the  pirates 
along  the  Asiatic  shores  of  the  Caspian  sea,  and 
his  services  were  recognized  by  the  emperor 
Nicholas,  who  promoted  him  to  the  rank  of 
m%|or-generaL  In  1826  he  offidated  as  secre- 
tary to  the  Russian  embassy  at  Constantinople 
until  the  outbreak  of  the  war  with  Turkey, 
when  he  joined  the  army,  and  served  in  the 
campaigns  of  1828  and  1829,  under  Wittgen- 
stein and  Diebitoh,  as  quartermaster-general. 


BERG 


BERGAMO 


166 


and  took  part  in  the  Polish  war  of  1880 ;  after 
wbicli  be  remained  for  12  years  at  Warsaw  as 
lientenant-general,  occasionally  employed  on 
diplomatio  miasions  to  Berlin  and  Yienna.  In 
1B43  be  was  appointed  general  of  infantry  and 
quartermaster-general  of  the  entire  Russian 
army,  and  removed  to  St.  Petersburg,  where  he 
occupied,  at  the  same  time,  the  post  of  chief 
adjutant  of  the  czar,  and  continued  to  act  from 
time  to  time  as  diplomatist  in  Germany.  After 
tiie  outbreak  of  the  revolutions  of  1848  and 
1849,  he  was  sent  on  a  mission  to  Austria,  and 
when  the  eastern  war  broke  out  he  was  put  in 
command  of  Revel  and  Esthonia,  and  sabse- 
quentiy  of  Finland.  In  1849  the  title  of  count 
was  conferred  upon  him  by  the  emperor  Fran- 
cis Joseph  of  Austria,  and  on  Sept.  8, 1856,  he 
was  made  a  Russian  coxmt  by  Alexander  11. 

BERG,  Jenb  Ohbibtiai7,  a  Norwegian  Judge 
and  statesman,  born  Sept  28, 1775,  whose  name 
is  connected  with  the  principal  events  in  Nor- 
way for  almost  the  last  century,  and  who  took 
a  consplcnoiis  part  in  1816-^7,  in  the  separa- 
tion of  Norway  from  Denmark.  He  was  a 
member  of  the  Norwegian  bank  administra- 
tion in  1885,  and  dde^te  from  the  city  of 
Gbristiama  in  1837.  He  also  distingnished 
bimself  in  the  sphere  of  Norwegian  archasol-* 
ogj  by  his  contrioutions  on  the  subject  to  the 
ITorwegian  press. 

BERGAMA,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  60  or 
60  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Smyrna,  and  famous  for  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  or  Pergamos,  on  the 
site  of  which  the  modem  town  is  bnilt  The 
remains  of  several  temples,  of  a  prytaneum, 
gymnasium,  amphitheatre,  and  ouier  public 
buildings,  bear  witness  to  the  magnificence  of 
the  ancient  city.  Many  of  the  buUdings  of  the 
town  are  constructed  on  the  sites  of  ancient 
edifices,  and  one  of  the  mosques  was.  probably, 
in  former  times,  a  Ohristion  church.  In  the 
graveyard,  also,  are  many  interesting  memorials 
of  antiquity.    Pop.  about  10,000. 

BERGAMI,  BART0L0M3CB0.  The  celebrated 
trial  of  Qaeen  Caroline,  wife  of  George  IV.  of 
England,  was  principally  founded  upon  a 
charge  of  adolterons  intercourse  with  Bergami, 
who,  in  1814,  upon  recommendation  or  the 
marquis  Ghislieri,  in  whose  and  Gren.  Pino's 
previous  employment  he  had  been,  was  at- 
tached to  her  household  as  courier,  and  subse- 
quentiy  promoted  in  Italy  to  the  rank  of 
baron,  chamberlain,  and  master  of  the  horse. 
Bergttxd,  who  had  fought  his  way  up  in  the 
Italian  army  from  a  common  soldier  to  the  rank 
of  qoarter-master,  belonged  to  a  respectable 
fsamj^  and  the  marquis  Ghislieri  described 
him  to  the  queen  as  a  person  of  character  and 
attainments  superior  to  his  condition,  and  be- 
spoke for  him  a  kind  treatment.  This,  and 
the  personal  advantages  of  Bergami,  who 
was  singularly  good-looking,  combining  ath- 
letlo  strength  and  stature  with  almost  femi- 
nine beauty,  naturaUy  disposed  th^  oueen  in 
bis  fiivor.  Moreover,  he  was  frill  of  loyalty 
and    devotion,   and   on   one  occasion   nearly 


became  the  victim  of  poison  which  was  in- 
tended for  her.  The  queen  not  only  shower- 
ed favor  after  favor  upon  bun,  but  also 
treated  his  whole  family,  especially  a  little 
child  of  his,  with  the  greatest  generosity  and 
kindness.  All  these  circumstances  were  used 
by  her  enemies  as  so  manv  indications  of  her 
criminality,  and  daring  the  trial  one  of  the 
Italian  witnesses,  Teodore  Mtyocchi,  excited 
special  indignation  by  his  admitting  every  fact 
imfavorable  to  the  queen,  and  by  answering 
every  question  which  might  teU  in  her  favor 
with  Nan  mi  rieordo. .  fiergami.  who  was  at 
Pesaro  during  the  trial,  exclauned,  when  he  was 
apprised  of  her  acqaittal,  but  at  the  same  time 
of  her  death,  that  she  had  been  poisoned,  and 
never  could  be  convinced  to  the  contrary.  To 
the  last  he  ever  spoke  of  the  queen  with  tbe  great- 
est reverence  and  affection,  and  his  deportment 
before  and  after  her  death  led  to  the  conclumon 
that  he  looked  upon  her  rather  as  a  benefiEtctress 
than  a  mistress.  However,  wherever  he  went 
be  became  the  observed  of  all  observers.  Dur- 
ing his  occasional  excursions  to  Paris  his  apart- 
ments were  crowded  with  visitors,  consisting 
principally  of  ladies,  who,  under  the  pretext  of 
naving  been  friends  of  Queen  Oaroune,  grati- 
fied their  curiosity  and  obtained  an  interview 
with  the  porfly  courier.  When  at  home  he 
lived  in  great  splendor ;  in  the  capitals  of  Italy, 
Rome,  Naples,  Milan,  he  was  a  lion,  and  the 
houses  of  ^'the  best  families''  were  open  to 
him.  The  only  persons  who  were  the  losers 
by  tiie  death  of  tne  queen  were  his  servants, 
many  of  whom  had  been  employed  by  that  lady, 
who  was  always  kind  and  considerate  to  aU, 
while  Bergami  lived  with  a  person  of  obscure 
birth,  who  was  formerly  a  servant-girl,  who 
had  the  superintendence  of  his  house,  and 
tyrannized  over  those  below  her  as  much  as  sHe 
could.  At  the  time  of  the  trial  many  different 
statements  about  BergamPs  character  were  cir- 
culated in  the  honse  of  lords,  but  however  con- 
tradictory in  many  other  respects,  they  all 
agreed  in  this  one  fact,  that  be  was  as  in- 
offensive as  he  was  good-looking  a  person,  who 
probably  would  never  have  been  heard  of  be- 
yond the  precincts  of  Italian  barracks  if  it  had 
not  been  for  his  relation  with  Qaeen  Caroline, 
and  for  the  peculiar  construction  which  was 
put  upon  it  by  her  enemies  at  the  trial.  His 
name  in  Eni^and  was,  by  a  curious  mistake, 
spelt  with  a  P. 

BERGAMO,  a  province  of  the  Austrian 
kingdom  of  Lombardy,  pop.  840,000,  bounded 
N.  by  the  delegation  of  Valtelino,  E.  by  those 
of  Tyrol  and  Brescia,  S.  by  Cremona,  Lodi,  and 
Crema,  and  W.  by  IDlan  and  Como.  It  is 
divided  into  18  districts,  and  these  into  872 
commnnes  or  parishes,  contains  1  city,  22  market- 
towns,  and  888  villages.  The  .north,  lying 
on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Rhfetian  Alps,  is 
very  mountainous,  and  covered  with  wood, 
but  in  the  south  are  rich  meadow  lands. 
The  rearing  of  silk-worms  is  the  principal 
branch  of  industry,  but  there  are  also  woollen 


166 


BEBGAMOT 


mannfftfttareg.  The  Bergamaaks  epeak  the 
worst  dialect  of  Italy,  and  are  notorious  for 
their  canning  and  the  drollery  of  their  man- 
ners.— ^The  capital  of  this  proyince,  also  named 
Bergamo,  population  88,000,  is  built  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  on  the  side  of  a 
rooky  hill,  with  fortifications  constructed  by 
the  most  eminent  architects  of  the  16^ 
century,  15  churches,  12  monasteries,  10  nun- 
neries, 4  hospitals,  6  orphan-houses,  a  ly- 
oeum,  a  school  of  painting  and  architecture,  a 
musical  academy,  which  produced  Donizetti, 
and  a  seminary  with  a  library  of  about  50,000 
Tolumes.  Its  most  remarkable  building  is 
the  Fiera^  containing  600  booths,  in  which  a 
great  annual  fair  is  held  in  August,  the  value 
of  tiie  goods  disposed  of  sometimes  exceeding 
$5,000,000,  ^  of  which  consists  of  silks.  The 
public  square  is  adorned  with  a  statue  of  Tor- 
<]^uato  Tasso,  whose  father,  Bernardo,  was  a  na- 
tiYc  of  the  town.  Bergamo  was  known  to 
the  Bomans,  and  was  taken  successively  by 
AttUa,  the  Lombards,  and  Charlemagne.  In 
the  12th  century,  it  suffered  much  from 
the  quarrels  between  the  Guelphs  and  Ghi- 
bellines,  and  it  fell  nnder  the  dominion  of 
Venice  in  1428.  In  1609  it  was  conquered 
by  Louis  XII.  of  France,  but  retaken  by  the 
Venetians,  in  whose  possession  it  remained  until 
1796,  when  it  passeid  into  the  hands  of  the 
French.  In  1814  it  was  incorporated  into  the 
Lombard- Venetian  kingdom,  under  the  sway  of 
Austria,  under  which  it  reluctantly  remains. 

BERGAMOT,  a  kind  of  green-colored  citron 
or  small  orange,  of  fine  flavor  and  taste,  of  round 
form ;  the  fruit  of  the  dtrua  margaritta  (limet- 
ta  of  Bisso  and  De  Oandolle).  The  rind  fur- 
nishes by  distiUation  an  essence  or  oil  which  is 
much  used  in  perftmiery,  and  to  some  extent  in 
medicine.  The  bergamot  tree  is  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  particularly  abun- 
dant in  the  neighborhood  of  J^ice.  To  obtain 
2^  ounces  of  oil,  100  bergamots  are  consumed. 
This  oil  or  essence  has  a  very  agreeable,  sweet- 
ish odor,  and  a  bitter,  aromatic  taste.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  0.885.  In  composition,  it  is  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  oQ  of  lemons.  Alco- 
hol is  used  to  adulterate  it,  and  is  not  readily 
detected  when  added  only  to  the  extent  of  8 
per  cent. — ^Also  the  name  of  a  variety  of 
pears,  which,  like  the  citron-tree  of  the  same 
name,  is  said  to  have  originated  in  Berga- 
mo, in  Italy.  There  are  at  least  9  sub-varie- 
ties of  the  bergamot  pear,  all  of  which  are 
highly  esteemed. — ^The  word  is  used  again 
to  designate  a  coarse  quality  of  tapestry,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  invented  at  the  same 
place  in  Italy  already  referred  to. 

BERGASSE,  Nicolas,  a  French  lawyer, 
bom  in  1750,  at  Lyons,  died  May  28, 1882.  He 
became  con^icuous  at  Paris  in  the  case  of 
Kommann  against  his  wife,  in  which  he  had 
Beaumarchais  among  his  opponents.  His  me- 
morials in  favor  of  his  client  had  a  success  near- 
ly equal  to  that  won  several  years  before  by 
the  witty  dramatist  in  his  struggle  against  La- 


BEBGBir 

blache  and  Goezman;  both  mixed  politics  witii 
their  pleadings,  and  while  thus  courting  public 
opinion,  augmented  that  growing  dissat&fiiction 
with  existmg  institutions  which  prepared  the 
way  for  the  revolution.  In  1789  he  was  elected 
deputy  to  the  states-general  by  the  tier9-4UU  of 
Lyons.  He  soon,  however,  became  dissatisfied 
with  the  revolution,  and  retired  to  private  life. 
He  was  arrested  in  1794,  but  the  9th  Thermidor 
saved  him  from  the  guillotine.  He  wrote  on 
various  political  and  philosophical  subjects,  but 
only  his  Mhnoire^  against  Beaumarchais  are 
now  remembered. 

BEBGEN,  a  north-eastern  county  of  New 
Jersey,  bordering  on  New  York,  and  having  an 
area  of  about  860  sq.  miles.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  E.  by  the  Hudson  river,  on  the  W.  bank  of 
which,  within  the  limits  of  this  county,  are  the 
"palisades,''  a  remarkable  range  of  trap-rock 
rising  perpendicularly  from  the  river  to  a  height 
of  nearly  500  feet  It  is  intersected  by  Bamapo, 
Hackensack,  and  Saddle  rivers,  which  afford  val- 
uable water  power.  The  surface  of  the  county 
is  uneven,  and  in  the  western  part  mountainonsw 
The  soil,  particularly  near  the  rivers,  is  produc- 
tite,  and  in  1850  yielded  150,709  bushels  of 
com,  57,686  of  oats,  166,868  of  potatoes,  16,582 
tons  of  hay,  and  828,759  pounds  of  butter, 
lliere  were  in  operation  during  the  same  year, 
1  manufactory  of  printed  calicoes,  4  cotton,  1 
woollen,  15  flour,  8  paper,  and  15  saw-mills. 
The  public  schools  contained  2,725  pupils. 
Limestone  and  magnetic  iron  ore  are  the  chief 
minerals.  The  county  was  organized  in  1710, 
and  has  since  been  much  diminished  by  the 
formation  of  Passaic  and  Hudson  counties.  Pop. 
in  1855, 17,774.    Capital,  Hackensack. 

BEBGEN,  or  Bebosn's-Stift,  a  province  and 
diocese  in  southern  Norway,  consisting  of  the 
amter  or  baUiwicks  of  Nbrdre  toASdndre 
(north  and  south)  Bergenkuv^  and  a  part  of  the 
ami  of  Bopisdal ;  pop.  in  1855,  8.  Beraenhnna, 
104^762;  N.  Bergenhnus,  81,496;  total  pop.  of 
the  province^  195,000. — ^The  capital  is  Bergen, 
a  fortified  city  and  seaport;  pop.  in  1855, 
25,797;  built  on  a  peninsula,  at  the  head  of 
a  deep  inlet,  and  has  an  excellent  harbor; 
lat.  60^  24'  N.,  bug.  5°  18'  E.  The  town 
forms  an  amphitheatre,  and  is  surrounded 
by  lofty  hills  on  tiie  land  side;  it  has  a  cathe- 
dral, churd^es,  hospitals,  a  theatre,  museum, 
diocesan  college,  naval  academy,  charitable  in- 
stitutions, and  5  public  libraries.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  court  of  secondary  jurisdiction,  of  one  of 
the  8  treasuries  of  the  kingdom,  and  of  a  branch 
of  the  Norwegian  bank.  The  harbor  is  defend- 
ed by  several  forts,  and  a  naval  squadron  is 
usually  stationed  here.  Bergen  senda  4  repre- 
sentatives to  the  storthmg  or  legislature.  The 
fisheries  form  the  most  important  interest  of 
the  place,  fleets  of  small  vessels  from  the  north 
bringing  fish,  blubber,  roes,  d»s.,  in  summer,  to 
exchange  for  goods.  Its  exports  are  stock-fish, 
lobsters,  herrings,  cod-oil,  horns,  fish-roes,  skins, 
iron,  timb^,  and  rock-moss.  Bergen  was  found- 
ed in  the  11th  century,  and  for  a  long  time  was  a  * 


BERGEN-OP-ZOOM 


BERGMAN 


167 


member  of  the  Hanseatic  leagae.  It  h&0  lost 
much  of  the  commercial  importance  which  it 
ei^yed  toward  the  dose  of  the  16th  centary. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  a  strongly  fortified  ma- 
titiine  town  of  the  province  of  North  Brabant, 
in  Holland,  situated  on  the  river  Zoom,  near  its 
confluence  with  the  East  Scheldt,  17  miles  N. 
N.  W.  of  Antwerp ;  pop.  7,000.  The  town  is  well 
bnilt,  with  spacious  squares,  has  a  good  harbor, 
2  arsenals,  earthenware  manufactories^  and  some 
trade  in  anchovies.  Its  defences,  deemed  al- 
most impregnable,  are  the  ekef-WcButre  of  the 
ftmous  Goehom,  the  rival  of  Vauban.  It  was 
besieged  unsucc^sftillj  by  the  prince  of  Par- 
ma, in  1688,  and  by  the  marquis  of  Spinola,  in 
1622.  In  1747,  the  French,  under  Marshal 
LOwendal,  took  it  by  stratagem,  and  it  was  sur- 
rendered to  Gen.  Pidhegru  in  1795.  Sir 
Thomas  Graham  attempted  to  carry  it  by  a 
night  attack,  March  8,  1814,  but  was  repulsed 
with  the  loss  of  two-thirds  of  his  force. 

BERGER AG,  Satinibn  Ctrano  dk,  a  French 
writer  and  duellist,  bom  in  1620,  in  P^rigord, 
died  at  Paris,  in  1655.  He  gained  a  briUiant 
reputation  in  his  day,  by  his  readiness  to  fight 
a  duel,  of  which  he  passed  safely  through  sev- 
eral hundred.  A  cough,  a  look,  a  tone  of  the 
▼oioe,  a  gesture,  was  irofficient  to  superinduce  a 
challenge  firom  the  pugnacious  Bergerac.  As 
his  nose  had  been  terribly  hacked  up  in  these 
reTietmtres^  and  as  people  could  never  refram 
from  smiling  at  sight  of  the  battered  and  man- 
gled feature,  Bergerac  was  never  at  a  loss  for  a 
quarreL  However,  the  sobering  influence  of 
years  turned  his  energies  into  a  new  channel — 
that  of  philosophy,  which  he  studied  under 
Craasendi,  in  companv  with  Molidre,  and  wrote 
plays,  from  which  later  writers  have  drawn 
without  acknowledgment. 

BERGHAUS,  Hkinrich  Eabl  Wilhelm,  a 
German  geographer,  bom  at  Oleves,  May  8, 
1707.  He  served  as  a  volunteer  in  the  war 
of  liberation  against  the  French,  and  entered 
France  with  the  allies,  which  gave  him  the  op- 
portunity of  making  his  first  map,  which  was 
of  France.  In  1816  he  became  geographical 
engineer  in  the  war  department  of  the  Pmssian 
ministry.  In  1824  he  was  appointed  professor 
of  mathematics  to  the  Berlin  academy  of  archi- 
tecture; and  in  1886.  director  of  the  royal 
school  of  geographical  art  in  Pottsdam.  The 
first  edition  of  his  "  Physical  Atlas,"  in  00  maps, 
was  published  at  Gol^  from  1838  to  1849;  a 
second  edition  has  since  appeared.  The  1st 
part  depicts  the  meteorology  and  climatology 
of  the  world;  the  2d,  its  hydrology  and 
hydrography;  the  Sd,  its  geology;  the  4th. 
its  magnetic  diversity;  6th,  the  geographical 
distribution  of  plants;  6th,  the  geographical 
distribution  of  animals*  7th,  anthropol<^; 
8th,  ethnography.  Prof.  Jolmston,  of  Edin- 
bnrffh,  has  made  this  great  work  of  Berghaus 
the  basis  of  his  ^^  Physical  Atlas."  He  brought 
out  a  German  edition  of  George  Oatlin's  origi- 
nal work,  **  Korth  American  Indian  Portfolio," 
^d  an  immense  variety  of  geographical  axid 


ethnographical  works,  of  which  we  will  enu- 
merate only  3,  the  Atitu  ton  Arim^  in  18  maps, 
and  the  Volker  des  BrdbaOi. 

BERGHEM,  Nikolaab,  a  Dutch  painter, 
born  at  Haarlem,  in  1624^  died  Feb.  18, 1688. 
His  flither,  Peter  Klaas  van  Haarlem,  a  painter 
of  still  life,  gave  him  his  first  instractions  in  the 
art,  after  which  he  studied  under  Van  Goyen, 
Weeniz,  and  other  eminent  masters,  whose  in- 
fluence did  not  prevent  him  from  forming  a 
style  of  his  own.  His  pictures  are  princip^y 
landscapes,  with  groups  of  figures  and  cattle, 
and  are  remarkable  for  effective  composition, 
harmonious  coloring,  and  adnurable  atmos- 
pheric effects,  in  which  he  was  unsurpassed  by 
any  painter  of  his  time,  dthough  the  brothers 
Both,  who  employed  sipular  subjects,  were 
formidable  rivals.  He  painted  rapidly,  but  his 
pictures  are  beautifully  finished,  and  command 
enormous  prices  at  the  present  day.  He  also 
executed  a  number  of  admirable  engravings 
and  etchings  with  a  nicety  of  finish  unusual  in  a 
painter. 

BERGHOLTZ,  or  Kew  Bbboholtz,  a  village 
of  Wheatland  township,  Niagara  co.,  N.  i ., 
about  15  miles  N.  of  BufBdo.  It  was  settled  in 
1848,  by  Lutheran  emigrants  from  the  Prussian 
town  of  the  same  name.    Pop.  about  2,000. 

BEBGIER,  Nicolas  Btlvxbtbb,  a  French 
priest  and  philosopher,  bom  at  Damay,  in  Lor- 
raine, Dec.  81,  1718,  died  m  Paris,  April  9, 
1790.  He  was  the  author  of  numerous  works, 
on  a  great  variety  of  subjects,  and  filled  various 
ecclesiastical  offices.  He  began  life  as  the  cur6 
of  a  little  village  of  Franche-Oomt^  and  was 
afterward  made  professor  of  theology,  superior 
of  the  college  of  Besan^on,  and  canon  of  the  ca^- 
thedral  of  Paris.  He  was  member  of  the  acade- 
my of  inscriptions  and  belles-lettres,  and  an  in- 
veterate enemy  of  l^e  encydopffidiBts. 

BERGMAN,  Torbbbh  Olof,  a  Swedish  chem- 
ist and  naturalist  bom  at  Oatharineberg,  in 
West  Gottland,  March  9, 1785,  died  at  Medevi, 
July  8,  1784.  Intended  by  his  father  for  the 
law  or  the  church,  he  was  sent  to  the  univer- 
sity of  IJpsaL  There  he  devoted  himself  with 
such  ardor  to  the  study,  not  only  of  the  hm- 
guages  but  especially  of  mathematics  and  nat- 
und  history,  that  his  health  became  disordered, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  retire  for  several  months 
from  the  university.  He  passed  the  interval 
in  the  study  of  botany  and  entomology,  and 
was  now  permitted  by  his  parents  to  pursue  that 
scientific  career  which  accorded  with  his  tastes 
and  which  the  fame  of  Ilnnnus  rendered  attrac- 
tive. He  sent  to  Linnsus  several  insects  pre- 
viously unknown  in  Sweden,  and  devised  a  new 
method  for  thefar  classification  founded  upon  the 
characteristics  of  the  larvao.  His  first  paper,  pub- 
lished in  the  memoirs  of  the  academy  of  Stock- 
holm, in  1756,  narrated  the  important  discovery 
that  leeches  are  oviparous,  and  that  the  sub- 
stance cidled  cocetu  aquatictu  was  the  ovum  of  a 
species  of  leech  containing  several  of  the  young 
animals.  Linnnus  wrote  upon  the  memoir  as 
he  gave  it  his  saoctioD,  Vidi^  0t  o^ti^i.  Berg- 


168 


BEBGMAK 


BEBINaTOK 


man  devoted  himself  from  thia  time  to  almost 
every  branch  of  scienoe,  prodaciDg  ori^al  re- 
sults in  every  department  of  his  stadies.  He 
presented  memoirs  to  the  aoademynpon  attrac- 
tion, electricity,  t|rilightj  the  rainbow,  and  the 
anroraborealis;  became  m  1761  adjunct  profes- 
sor of  physics  and  mathematics,  at  Upsal,  and 
was  appomted  in  the  same  year  one  of  the  as- 
tronomers to  observe  the  first  transit  of  the 
planet  Yenns  over  the  smi.  In  1758,  an  asso- 
ciation of  savants  was  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  advancing  a  knowledge  of  the  earth ;  to  each 
of  the  members  a  particular  portion  of  the  sub- 
ject was  assigned,  and  Bergman  received  the 
department  of  physics.  The  report  which  he 
made  after  8  years  of  study  displayed  a  master- 
ly knowledge  of  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  and 
was  rapidly  sold  axfd  translated  into  foreign 
languages.  When,  in  1766,  a  vacancy  occurred 
in  the  chemical  chair  of  the  university,  by  the 
redgnation  of  WaUer,  he  was,  by  the  favor  of 
Prince  Gustavus  III.,  {^pointed  to  that  posi- 
tion, and  he  immediately  silenced  the  murmurs 
of  Ins  opponents  by  publishing  a  curious  and 
original  memoir  on  the  manufacture  of  alum. 
From  this  time  he  devoted  himself  whoUy  to 
the  study  of  chemistry.  Accustomed  to  the 
rigid  method  of  geometry,  he  determined  to 
banish  from  chemical  science  all  preconceptions, 
and  to  proceed  only  by  observation  of  facts. 
This  purpose  he  expressed  in  his  disoourse  on 
the  search  for  truth,  in  which  he  distinguished 
the  Oartesian  or  contemplative  method  from  the 
Newtonian  or  experimental,  and  preferred  the 
latter.  His  first  step  was  to  furnish  his  labo- 
ratory with  abundant  materials  and  utensils  for 
experiment,  and  to  arrange  around  it  a  vast 
mineralogical  coUectiozL  He  published  in  1774  a 
paper  ^*  On  the  Adrial  Acid,"  subsequentiy  called 
carbonic  acid,  and  he  proved  by  a  variety  oi 
experiments  that  it  was  anew  and  distinct  acid. 
By  boiling  nitric  acid  with  sugar,  gum,  and 
otiier  vegetable  substances,  he  produced  oxalic 
add.  By  a  skilful  employment  of  unusual 
reagents  he  succeeded  in  analysing  miner- 
al waters,  and  he  formed  fiiotitious  mineral 
waters  by  a  combination  of  their  elements.  In 
his  researches  on  this  topic  he  adopted  the 
opinion  that  caloric  is  a  fluid  like  ^ectricity, 
and  was  the  first  discoverer  of  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  which  he  called  the  hepatic  gas.  He 
was  the  first  to  employ  the  humid  meth^  in  the 
examination  of  minerals,  and  by  combining  it 
with  the  dry  method  he  obtained  a  knowledge 
of  the  principal  elements  of  the  emerald,  to- 
paz, sapphire,  and  other  precious  stones.  He 
was  the  first  also  to  derive  important  results  in 
chemistry  from  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe.  All 
of  his  labors  led  him  to  a  chemical  classification 
of  the  minerals,  according  to  which  the  genera 
were  determined  by  the  prindpal  integrant 
elements,  the  species  by  the  dif»rent  degrees 
in  which  they  were  combined,  and  the  varieties 
by  the  external  form.  Applying  geometry  to 
the  forms  of  crystahs  he  laid  the  foundation  for 
the  theory  of  crystallization  afterward  develop- 


ed by  Hafly.  He  demonstrated  that  the  supe- 
riority of  certain  kinds  of  steel  was  due  to  the 
presence  of  manganese,  and  that  thebrittleness 
of  steel  in  extreme  cold  was  caused  by  siderite, 
a  substance  which  he  thought  a  new  metal, 
although  it  has  since  been  recognized  as  the 
phosphuret  of  iron.  The  theory  of  Unities,  pro* 
posed  by  Geoffroy,  in  1718,  had  been  the  first 
step  toward  giving  a  philosophical  founda- 
tion to  the  science  of  chemistry.  Bergman 
seizing  upon  this  idea,  made  it  almost  his  own 
by  an  immense  number  of  new  experiments,  and 
presented  chemical  phenomena  as  only  modifi- 
cations of  the  great  law  which  rules  the  uni- 
verse. To  the  curious  operations  of  the  ele- 
ments when  placed  in  juxtaposition— 2  united 
elements  being  separated  by  the  approach  of  a  8d 
with  which  one  of  them  combines,  and  2  com- 
pounds  as  they  meet  each  other  inter-exchanging 
some  of  thdr  elements  and  thus  forming  2  new 
compounds—to  these  elementary  movementsii 
as  if  by  power  of  instinct  or  of  choice,  heasagned 
the  name  elective,  and  introduced  the  term,  which 
has  since  passed  from  chemistry  into  sentimen- 
tal literatmre,  of  elective  affinities.  His  mathe- 
matical training  is  seen  in  the  simple  formulas 
by  which  he  described  chemical  operations. 
He  adopted  the  erroneous  though  ingenions 
ideas  of  Scheele  concerning  phlogiston,  and  in 
general  his  discoveries  of  facts  were  of  much 
more  value  than  his  theoretical  explanations. 
His  labors  distinguished  him  throughout  £a- 
rope ;  he  corresponded  with  the  principal  con- 
temporary chemists  and  physical  philosophersi 
was  a  member  of  numerous  learned  sodetiea^ 
and  received  from  the  king  of  8 weden  the  order 
of  Wasa.  He  remained  at  Upsal,  though  in- 
vited to  Berlin  by  Frederic  the  Great^  tul  the 
state  of  his  health  broken  by  his  inunense  la- 
bors obliged  him  to  repair  to  themineral  springs 
vrhere  he  died 

B£RGU£S  (Fr.  Berguet-St.-  Winoe\  a  strong- 
ly fortified  town  of  France,  department  of 
Nord,  5  miles  S.  S.  K  of  Dunkirk,  pop.  5,668. 
The  surrounding  country,  which  is  low,  can  be 
inundated  at  pleasure,  by  means  of  works  pro- 
vided for  the  purpose.  The  most  remarkable 
object  in  the  town  is  an  old  tower,  160  feet 
high,  probably  of  Spanish  origin.  Bergues  is 
connected  witii  the  sea,  at  Dunkirk,  by  a  canal 
nav^ble  for  vessels  of  250  tons  burden. 

BEEHAMPOOB,  a  town  of  Hindostan,  pres- 
idency of  Bengal,  6  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Moorshedabad,  on  the  river  Bhagruttee.  It 
contains  extensive  barracks  for  British  troops. 

BERINGTON,  Joseph,  an  English  Gatholio 
author,  bom  in  the  county  of  Shropshire,  in 
1744,  died  in  Berkshire,  Dec.  1, 1827.  He  was 
educated  at  the  coUeoe  of  St.  Omer,  in  France, 
and  exercised  sacerdotal  frmctions  in  France 
for  many  years.  His  first  work  was  *^  A  Letter 
on  Materialism,  and  Hartiey's  Theory  of  the 
Human  Mind"  (1776).  About  this  time,  the 
English  Oatholics  found  their  position  much 
Btr^iger  in  the  arena  of  public  opinion,  and  be- 
gan to  think  of  appearing  there  openly.   Bering- 


BSBIOT 


BERKKUEY 


100 


U>it»  in  1779,  pabluhed  a  letter  to  Fordyee,  on 
bis  ^'Sermon  against  Popery."  In  1780  ap- 
peared his  *^  State  aad  Behavior  of  English 
Catholics  from  the  Reformation  till  1780."  In 
1786  he  came  forward  with  **An  Address  to 
the  Protestant  Dissenters,"  who  had  lately  pe- 
titioned for  a  repeal  of  the  corporation  and  test 
acts.  In  1787  appeared  the  ^^  History  of  Abe- 
lard  and  Heloise,"  with  their  genuine  letters, 
end  ^' An  Exposition  of  Boman  Oatholio  Prin- 
dples,  in  reference  to  God  and  the  Ck>iintry," 
aiid  other  pamphlets.  In  1790,  Berinffton  gave 
to  the  world  a  **  History  of  Henry  11.'^  (of  Eng- 
landV  Tindicating  the  ciiaratiter  of  Becket  from 
Lord  Lyttleton's  attacks.  In  1798  appeared 
his  "Memoirs  of  Gregorio  Panzani,"  papal  leg- 
ate to  En£^d  in  1684-'86,  translated  from 
t^e  Italian.  This  pablication  displeased  many 
of  the  anthor's  own  persuasion,  who  called  in 
question  the  aathentioity  of  the  memoirs,  but 
withont  snccess.  In  1796  he  published  a  tract 
in  deprecation  of  using  the  derioe  of  pretended 
xnirades  as  a  means  of  rousing  the  Italian  peas- 
antry against  the  French.  But  his  most  im- 
portant work  appeared  in  181i,  a  *' Literary 
Bistory  of  the  Middle  Ages,"  giving  an  account 
of  the  state  of  learning  from  ^^the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Augustas  to  its  revival  in  the  16th 
century." 

B£RI0T,  Chablbs  AxrouBTB  de,  an  eminent 
Tiollnist,  bom  at  Lonvain,  in  Bel^nm,  Feb.  20, 
1802.  He  early  showed  an  aptitude  for  the 
violin,  and  in  1821  went  to  Paris  to  perfect 
himself  in  the  performance  of  it,  under  Yiotti, 
and  other  accomplished  masters.  Soon  after, 
he  performed  in  public,  at  the  same  time  with 
Paganini,  and  at  once  took  high  rank  as  a  vio- 
linist. Subsequ^itly  he  made  extensive  pro- 
fessional tours  over  Europe,  and  on  his  return 
to  his  native  country,  received  a  pension  from 
the  king.  In  March,  1886,  he  married  the 
celebrated  singer,  Malibran,  who  died  suddenly 
6  months  afterward.  From  liiat  time  until 
1842  he  gave  concerts,  and  in  that  year  was 
appointed  professor  of  the  violin  in  the  con- 
servatoire of  Paris.  His  style  of  playing  is  fin- 
iflJied  and  classical ;  but  as  a  composer,  he  is 
not  mudi  esteemed. 

BERKELEY,  a  county  in  the  N.  E.  comer 
of  Virginia,  on  the  Potomac,  organized  in  1772, 
and  named  after  Gov.  Berkeley ;  area,  about  260 
sq.  m.  Its  surface  is  uneven  and  broken,  and  its 
son  stubborn  and  underlaid  with  lime-stone  and 
date,  through  which  permeate  numerous  sul- 
phur and  cbflJvbeate  springs.  The  Baltimore  and 
Ohio  railroad  passes  through  it.  live  stock, 
wheat,  Indian  com,  and  wool,  are  its  prindpal 
products.  In  1850  it  yielded  856,284  bushels  of 
idieat,  171,686  of  Indian  com,  50,581  of  oats, 
6,667  tons  of  hay,  and  157,850  pounds  of  but- 
ter. There  were  50  mills  of  different  kinds,  a 
railroad  machine  shop,  4  tanneries,  80  churches, 
and  550  pupib  attending  public  schools.  In 
1850,  its  red  estate  was  valued  at  $4,408,018; 
in  1856,  at  $5,097,188,  showing  an  increase  of 
15  per  cent     Value  of  live  stook  in  1850, 


$866,140.  Pop.  in  1850,  whites,  9,566;  fne 
colored,  249 ;  slaves,  1,956 ;  totd,  11,771.  Oiq»- 
ital,  Martinsbnrg. 

BERKELEY,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
Gloucestershire,  England,  situated  about  1| 
mile  from  the  Severn,  on  one  of  its  tributaries; 
pop.  of  the  parish,  4,844.  The  town  is  built 
on  an  eminence  in  a  rich  valley,  famous  for  its 
dairy  products,  particularly  for  its  cheese.  It 
has  a  handsome  church,  in  which  Dr.  Jenner  was 
buried,  a  grammar  school,  town  hall,  and  mar- 
ket house.  The  Bristol  and  Gloucester  railway 
passes  through  the  place.  It  was  a  town  of 
great  wealth  and  importance  at  the  time  of  the 
Norman  conquest.  The  coal  trade,  formerly 
considerable,  has  fallen  off  of  late  years,  and 
timber  and  malt  are  the  articles  chiefly  dealt 
in.  Berkeley  castle.  In  wluch  Edward  II.  was 
confined  and  murdered  in  1827,  stands  on  an 
eminence  S.  E.  of  the  town.  It  is  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  an  old  feudal  castle  in  the 
kingdom,  being  in  a  perfect  state  of  preserva- 
tioa 

BEREELET,  GaoBoa,  an  Irish  prelate  and 
philosopher,  bom  at  Kilcrin,  in  the  county  of 
Kilkenny,  March  12, 1684,  died  at  Oxford,  Jan. 
18, 1768.  His  &ther,  William  Berkeley,  came 
of  a  family  noted  for  its  loyalty  to  Oharles  I, 
and  was  himself  rewarded  by  the  collector^ 
ship  of  Belfast  The  son  received  his  eariy 
education  at  Kilkenny  school,  was  subsequently 
transferred  to  Trinity  college,  Dublin,  and  be- 
came fellow  of  that  institution  in  1707.  About 
the  same  time,  he  published  a  mathematical 
tract,  which  attracted  some  notice,  and  this  was 
followed,  in  1709,  by  a  much  more  important 
work,  ^^An  Essay  toward  a  new  Theory  of 
Vision."  In  this  he  maintained  the  doctrine  that 
the  eye  has  no  natural  perception  of  space,  and 
that  all  its  perceptions  of  distance,  size,  and  po* 
sition,  are  derived  from  the  sense  of  touch. 
This  theory  has /been  very  generally  adopted, 
although  questioned  by  Sir  David  Brewster, 
one  of  the  Dest  authorities  in  modem  science. 
Berkeley  himself  vindicated  his  theory  in  a  pam- 
phlet written  24  years  after  his  essay  was  pub- 
lidied ;  Imt  this  tract  is  not  included  in  his  pub- 
lished works.  In  1710  appeared  his  work  en- 
titled, **  A  Treatise  concerning  the  Principles  of 
Human  Knowledge,'*  &c;  and  in  1718,  his 
*^  Dialogues  between  Hylas  and  Philonous."  In 
these  famous  works,  Berkeley  denies  the  exist- 
ence of  matter,  and  argues  that  it  is  not  with- 
out the  mind,  but  within  it,  and  that  that  which 
is  generally  called  matter  is  only  an  impression 
produced  by  divine  newer  on  the  mind,  by 
means  of  invariable  rues  staled  the  laws  of  na- 
ture. These  works  gained  many  converts  to 
Berkeley's  tiieory,  yet  some  writers  insist  that 
they  contain  the  strongest  arguments  against 
revelation,  whoi  they  were  in  fact  really  in- 
tended to  combat  the  fallades  of  the  enemies  of 
revealed  religion.  Beattie's  opinion  is  that  they 
have  a  sceptical  tendency,  and  Hume  expresses 
himself  even  more  plainly,  regarding  them  aa 
the  beat  weapons  of  soeptioism  to  be  found  in 


170 


BERKELEY 


any  author,  andent  or  modem.  Nothing  can 
be  more  plain,  however,  than  that  they  were 
compoBBd  by  one  who  placed  im|>Iioit  trust  in 
revelation,  and  that  no  idea  of  their  being  used 
as  arguments  against  it  was  entertained  by 
the  author.  His  writings  brought  him  into 
notice  with  the  distinguished  men  of  his 
time,  and  being  intimate  with  Swift,  he 
formed  the  acquamtance  of  Pope,  Arbuth- 
not,  Prior,  &o;  and  in  1713  he  acoompa- 
nied  the  earl  of  Peterborough  to  Italy,  as 
chaplain  and  secretary  of  legation.  He  return- 
ed next  year  to  Engird,  but  soon  again  set  out 
with  a  Mr.  Ashe,  and  on  this  tour  paid  his  cele- 
brated visit  to  Malebranche,  the  French  philos- 
opher, who  became  so  excited  in  a  discussion 
with  Berkeley,  on  the  recent  theory  of  the  non- 
existence of  matter,  that  he,  being  ill  at  the 
time,  was  rendered  worse,  and  died  a  few  days 
afterward.  Berkeley  remained  4  years  abroad 
with  his  pupil ;  he  devoted  much  time  to  Sicily, 
and  collected  materials  for  an  account  of  its  nat- 
ural history,  which  were  unfortunately  lost  at 
sea.  On  his  return  to  England  he  was  most 
cordially  received  in  learned  circles,  but  was 
entirely  dependent  on  his  fellowship  in  Trinity 
college,  until  Mrs.  Yanhomrigh,  the  celebrated 
Vanessa,  bequeathed  him  £4,000  sterling.  In 
1724  he  was  made  dean  of  Derry,  the  value  of 
the  living  being  £1,100  per  annum.  But  world- 
ly wealth  had  little  value  in  Berkeley's  esti- 
mation, and  having  formed  the  plan  of  estab- 
lishing a  college  in  theBermudas.  for  the  purpose 
of  training  pastors  for  the  colonial  churches, 
and  missionaries  to  the  Indians,  he  accordingly 
took  a  letter  from  Swift  to  Lord  Carteret,  who, 
after  long  delays,  promised  the  aid  of  the  gov- 
ernment. It  was  in  anticipation  of  the  happy 
results  of  his  scheme  that  Berkeley  wrote  his 
well-known  stamzaa,  in  which  occurs  the  oft- 
quoted  verse: 

Westward  tho  course  of  empire  takes  its  mj ; 

The  four  first  acts  already  past, 
A  fifth  shall  close  the  drama  with  the  day; 

Time's  noblest  oflkpring  is  the  last 

He  now,  Aug.  1728,  married  the  daughter  of 
the  Bight  Hon.  John  Forster,  speaker  of  the 
Irish  house  of  commons,  and  in  the  next  month 
set  sail  for  Bhode  Island,  where  he  arrived,  in 
Newport  harbor,  after  a  tedious  passage  of  5 
monUis,  Jan.  23,  1729.  The  dean  thus  writes 
of  his  new  residence:  "This  island  is  pleas- 
antly laid  out  in  hills  add  vales,  and  rising 
grounds ;  hath  plenty  of  excellent  springs  and 
fine  rivulets,  and  many  delightful  landscapes  of 
rocks  and  promontories,  and  acyacent  lands. 
The  town  of  Newport  contains  about  6,000 
Bouls,  and  is  the  most  thriving  place  in  aU 
America  for  bigness.''  Soon  after  the  dean's 
arrival,  he  bought  a  farm  about  three  miles 
from  Newport,  and  erected  a  house  which 
is  still  standing ;  and  many  interesting  remin- 
iscences exist  of  his  sojourn  in  the  island, 
where  his  memory  is  fondly  cherished.  His 
fjELmily  drde,  including  some  of  his  wife's  rela- 
tives,   was   a   huge   one,    and    among    the 


number  was  Smibert,  the  pidnter,  one  of  the 
earliest  portrait  artists  who  visited  America. 
He  painted  a  large  picture  of  the  dean  and  fam- 
ily (introducing  himself  into  the  group),  which 
now  hangs  in  the  Trumbull  gallery  of  Yale  col- 
lege. Not  far  from  his  house,  and  adjacent  to 
the  sea,  lie  the  hanging  rocks  ^  called),  where, 
at  their  most  elevated  point,  Berkeley  found  a 
natural  alcove,  roofed  and  open  to  the  south, 
commanding  a  wide  expanse  of  the  ocean, 
and  in  it,  tradition  relates^  he  meditated  and 
composed  his  ^^  Alciphron,  or  Minute  Philoso- 
pher." But  the  scheme  for  the  college  failed, 
the  government  aid  promised  by  Oarteret  was 
never  granted,  and,  after  a  residence  of  2i  years, 
Berkeley  returned  to  England,  leaving  his  in- 
fant son  buried  in  the  yard  of  Trinity  church, 
Newport,  and  giving  to  Yale  college  a  library 
of  880  volumes,  as  well  as  his  estate  in 
Bhode  Island,  called  Whitehall.  In  1734 
he  received,  as  a  special  mark  of  favor 
fr*om  Queen  Caroline,  the  bishopric  of  Goyne. 
This  place  he  held  for  nearly  20  years,  dividing 
his  time  between  the  duties  of  his  diocese, 
which  he  fulfilled  in  the  most  exemplary  manner, 
and  his  literary  labors.  In  the  latter  years  of  hia 
life,  he  became  rather  subject  to  hypochondria, 
and,  in  hopes  of  benefitmg  himself  had  re- 
course to  tar  water,  which  he  was  constantly 
drinking  and  recommending  to  his  friends; 
even  writing  a  treatise  on  its  yirtues.  His 
works,  written  at  this  period,  are,  ^'The  Anal- 
yst," directed  principally  against  Halley  and 
the  other  mathematical  sceptics ;  ^'  Queries 
proposed  for  the  Good  of  Ireland ;"  a  letter  to 
the  Boman  Oatholics  durinff  the  rebellion  of 
1745 ;  another  to  the  Gath(Mio  clergy,  entitled 
"A  Word  to  the  Wise ;"  "  Siria,  a  Chain  of  PhU- 
osophical  Beflections  and  Enquiries  concern- 
ing the  Virtues  of  Tar-water^^'  and  "Further 
Thoughts  on  Tar-water."  In  1761,  feeling  him- 
self infirm,  and  desiring  to  be  near  his  son,  who 
was  about  to  enter  Christ  church,  Oxford,  he 
wished  to  resign  his  bishopric,  which  the  king 
would  not  permit,  but  gave  him  leave  to  reside 
where  he  pleased.  He  removed  to  Oxford  in 
July,  1762,  and  died  there  after  a  rendence  of 
only  6  months.  So  peaceful  was  his  end,  that  his 
wife,  who  was  reading  to  him  one  of  Sherlock's 
sermons,  was  not  aware  of  his  having  ceased 
to  breathe,  until  some  time  after  his  family  dis- 
covered that  his  limbs  were  abeady  stiffened  in 
death.  Berkeley  is  not  alone  remembered  for  his 
works,  but  for  a  character  of  the  most  exalted 
Christian  purity.  Pope  ascribed  to  him  "  every 
virtue  under  heaven;"  and  Atterbury  wrote  of 
him ; "  So  much  understanding,  knowledge,  inno- 
cence, and  humility,  I  should  have  thought  con- 
fined to  angels,  had  I  never  seen  this  gentle- 
man." In  Trinity  church,  Newport,  Bhode 
Island,  where  he  often  preached,  is  to  be  seen 
the  organ  he  presented  to  the  society  after  he 
became  bishop ;  and  to  the  sequestered  home 
which  he  built,  now  occupied  as  a  farm-house  and 
sadly  neglected,  repair,  from  the  throng  of  sum- 
mer fashion,  many  who  reverence  the  name  of 


BTSRKKIiKY 


HTCRTTfl 


171 


Berkeley,  and  bis  mind  of  the  rarest  spiritoal 
beauty. 

BERKELEY,  Gbobob  Henbt  FBEDBBia,  a 
Britijsh  general,  bom  July  6, 1785,  died  atBiob- 
mond,  near  London,  1857.  He  served  in  the 
Peninsolar  war  and  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
His  military  abilities,  in  addition  to  his  family 
connections,  led  to  his  gradual  promotion  to  the 
rank  of  general,  in  1854.  From  Feb.  to  Dec 
1852,  he  was  surveyor-general  of  the  ordnance 
nnder  the  earl  of  Derby's  cabinet,  and  in  the 
interest  of  the  same  party,  he  was  afterward 
elected  a  member  of  pcurli^ent  for  Devonport 

BERKELEY,  Sib  William,  royal  governor 
of  Virginia  for  a  portion  of  the  reigns  of 
Charles  L  and  11.,  and  during  the  protectorate 
of  Cromwell,  was  bc»n  in  the  vicinity  of  Lon- 
don, died  at  Twickenham,  July  18, 1677.  The 
date  of  his  birth  cannot  be  ascertained  with  ao- 
caracy,  but  from  the  rolls  of  the  university  of 
Oxford,  it  ^pears  he  was  graduated  M.  A.  in 
1629,  and  immediately  afterward  he  travelled 
on  t^e  continent,  and  returned  to  England 
'^accomplished  and  learned.*'  He  was  sent 
from  England  to  Virginia  as  governor  in  1641, 
BQooeeding  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt,  which  position 
he  maintained  with  a  few  brief  interruptions 
until  1660.  He  connected  his  name  inseparably 
with  the  colonial  liistory,  exhibiting  great  abil- 
ity and  zeal,  and  maintaining  the  royal  autibor- 
ity  when  it  had  Mien  evervwhere  else.  When 
Ghromwell  sent  a  fleet  to  subdue  the  refractory 
planters,  he  was  able  to  make  terms,  and  after 
the  death  of  "  worthy  Thomas  Matthews,"  was 
elected  governor  by  the  people  of  Virginia 
without  dissent  He  remained  at  the  head  of 
affairs  for  a  long  time,  and  only  lost  popularity 
in  consequence  of  lus  high-handed  measures 
and  severity  toward  the  adherents  of  Nathaniel 
Bacon,  after  the  death  of  that  unfortunate 
leader.  Many  of  these  were  put  to  death — ^among 
them  Thomas  Hansford,  a  planter  of  wealth 
and  poation,  who  was  the  first  person  judicially 
executed  in  Virginia.  The  conduct  of  Berke- 
ley produced  great  dissatisfEMtion,  and  though 
under  his  rule  sufi&age  had  been  made  univer- 
sal, the  planters  had  influence  enough  to  have 
him  recdled,  which  was  soon  done,  c^  he  died 
in  England  before  he  was  able  to  have  an  inter- 
view with  the  king.  Charles  II.  is  reported  to 
have  said  on  his  arrival  in  England:  "The 
old  fool  I  he  has  shed  more  blood  in  his 
naked  country,  than  I  have  taken  for  my 
&ther^s  murder.'^  In  his  reply  to  oommission- 
eni  sent  to  inquire  into  the  colony,  Berkeley 
said :  '^  Thank  God  1  there  are  no  free  schools 
nor  printing  presses,  and  I  hope  there  wiU  be 
none  for  a  hundred  years,  for  learning  has 
brought  disobedience,  and  heresy,  and  sects 
into  the  world,  and  printing  has  divulged  these 
and  other  libels."  Berkeley's  elder  brother, 
John,  who  had  been  placed  by  Charles  H.  in 
the  house  of  peers,  attributed  his  brother's 
death  to  mortification  at  the  king's  reception  of 
the  commissioners'  report. 
BERKENHOUT,  John,  an  English  physi- 


cian and  naturalist,  of  Bntdi  descent,  bom  at 
Leeds,  1780,  died  1791.  His  father  sent  him  to 
Berlin  to  study  foreign  languages,  instead  of 
which  the  young  man  entered  the  Prussian 
army,  and  1^  it,  as  captain,  in  1766,  when  he 
returned  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  studied  medi- 
cine, and  subsequently  practised  with  success 
at  Isleworth,  in  Middlesex.  In  1778  he  was 
employed  on  a  mission  to  the  American  con- 
gress at  Philadelphia,  and  his  services  were  re* 
warded  with  a  pension,  which  the  English  gov- 
ernment granted  him  with  the  more  readiness 
as  he  had  suffered  imprisonment  upon  a  charge 
of  a  treasonable  character,  which  was  un- 
founded. 

BEREHAMBTEAD,  Gbbat,  a  market-town 
of  Hertfordshire,  England,  lying  on  the  Grand 
Junction  canal,  and  London  and  Birmingham 
railway,  28  miles  N.  W.  of  London.  Pop.  in 
1861,  8,895.  The  town,  which  lies  in  a  deep 
valley,  ia  irregularly  built,  and  contains  a  large 
church,  a  grammar  school,  a  blue-coat  school, 
gaol,  house  of  correction,  and  the  ruins  of  a 
strong  castle  in  which  Henry  H.  at  one  time 
resided,  with  his  court  It  is  the  birth-place  of 
Cowper,  the  poet 

BEBEHEY,  Jan  LratAHOQ  van,  a  Dutch 
naturalist  and  poet,  bom  at  Leyden,  Jan.  28, 
1729,  died  March  8,  1812.  He  was  a  skil* 
ful  anatomist,  and  his  *' Natural  History  of 
Holland"  obtained  for  him  the  professorship  of 
natural  historv  at  the  university  of  Leyden. 
His  poems,  though  somewhat  inflated,  have 
considerable  merit,  especially  one  written  in  cel- 
ebration of  the  200th  anniversary  of  the  siege 
of  his  native  city  by  the  Spaniards,  which  re- 
ceived great  applause  when  read  b^ore  a  nume- 
rous audience.  Cot  ^  1774.  Attached  to  the 
Orange  party,  he  was  subjected  to  severe  perse- 
cutions, and  after  the  outbreak  of  1807,  his 
property  was  so  reduced  that  he  died  in  a  state 
of  comparative  indigence. 

BERKS,  a  south-eastern  countv  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, intersected  by  Schuylkiu  river,  and 
drained  by  Tulpehocken,  Maiden,  Manatawny, 
and  Little  Swatara  creeks.  On  its  north-west- 
ern boundary  is  a  mountain  range,  called  the 
Eittatinny,  or  Blue  mountains ;  another  chain, 
called  here  South  mountain,  but  known  in  Vir- 
ginia as  the  Blue  Bidge,  traverses  the  south- 
east central  part,  and  between  these  two  ranges 
lies  the  extensive  and  fertUe  Eittatinny  valley, 
comprising  the  greater  part  of  the  county. 
The  soil  here  is  of  limestone  formation,  and  ia 
carefully  cultivated.  The  productions  m  1850 
amounted  to  811,947  bushels  of  Indian  com, 
677,668  of  wheat,  880,769  of  oats,  246,368  of 
potatoes,  88,267  tons  of  hay,  and  1,878,294 
pounds  of  butter.  There  were  168  flour  and 
grist  mills,  76  saw  mills,  and  a  large  number  of 
uujtories  of  various  kinds.  The  county  con- 
tained during  the  same  year  102  churches,  and 
9  newspaper  offices.  The  public  schools  num- 
bered 14^166  pupils.  There  are  a  number  of 
ridi  iron  mines,  which  are  industriously  and 
profitably  worked.    Copper  is  found  in  small 


172 


BERKSHIRE 


BERLIN 


quantities  in  connection  with  tlie  iron.  The 
exportation  of  the  yariona  prodactions  of  the 
county  is  facilitated  by  the  Schnylkill  and  the 
Union  canals,  and  by  the  Philadelphia  and 
Beading  railroad.  Berks  was  settled  by  Ger- 
mans in  1784.  It  was  organized  in  1762,  and 
named  from  Berkshire,  England.  Area,  920 
sq.  m.    Pop.  in  1850,  77,129.    Capital,  Read- 


3ERESHIRE,  a  connty  of  Massachusetts, 
area  about  1,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1855,  52,791. 
It  is  at  the  western  extremity  of  the  state,  ex- 
tending across  its  entire  breadth,  and  embracing 
a  great  yariety  of  beautiful  and  picturesque 
scenery.  The  sur&oe  is  diyeraified  by  moun- 
tains, hills,  yalleys,  and  rolling  limds.  In  Hie 
northern  part  is  Saddle  mountain,  the  highest 
summit  in  Massachusetts.  The  soil  is  fertile 
and  well  watered  by  the  Housatonic,  Deerfield, 
Farmington,  Hoosii^,  and  seyeral  smaller  m- 
ers.  }£oBt  of  the  land  is  deyoted  to  graang 
purposes.  In  1850  the  county  produced  240,899 
bushels  of  com,  869,642  of  potatoes,  92,460  tons 
of  hay,  1,060,807  pounds  of  butter,  and  2,675,- 
145  of  cheese.  There  were  a  number  of  cotton, 
woollen,  paper,  and  other  factories,  87  churches, 
5  newspaper*  establishments,  and  10,218  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  Marble,  iron,  and  lime- 
stone, are  the  principal  minerals.  Two  rail- 
road&connecting  Albany,  N.  T.,withBoston  and 
with  Bridgeport,  Oonn.,  trayerse  this  county,  and 
2  branch  railroads  are  included  within  its  limits. 
Berkshire  was  organized  in  1770,  and  named 
from  the  county  of  the  same  name  in  England. 
Oapital,  Lenox. 

BERKSHIRE,  a  central  county  of  England, 
in  the  Oxford  drouit,  almost  exdusiyely  agri- 
cultural, and  lying  in  the  basin  of  the  Thames ; 
area,  752  sq.  m.;  pop.  in  1851,  170,065.  It 
is  well  watered  1^  the  Thames,  the  Eennet, 
the  Loddon,  tiie  Ode,  and  the  Auburn,  with 
other  smaller  streams  and  riyulets.  It  is  tray- 
ersed  by  the  Great  Western  railway,  by  means 
of  which  a  direct  communication  is  opened  with 
London  and  the  west  of  Enghmd,  and  by  2 
nayigable  canals.  The  surface  is  undulating 
and  well  wooded.  The  climate  of  Berkshire 
is  one  «f  the  healthiest  in  England.  The 
soil  is  chalk  and  stiff  day,  with  a  fine  rich 
loam  in  the  yalleys.  The  land  is  well  cultiyated, 
the  yarious  improyements  in  agriculture  being 
promptly  tried  and  adopted.  Small  yeomen, 
with  fbnns  of  40  to  100  acres,  are  numerous  in 
this  county.  The  prindpal  towns  of  Berkshire 
are  Abingdon,  Newbury,  Reading,  and  Windsor. 
Reading  is  the  shire  town.  The  antiquities  of 
Berkshire  are  not  numerous.  A  caye  called 
Wayland  Smith's  caye,  in  whidi  a  fury  smith 
once  had  a  residence,  has  been  conyerted  into  a 
barrow  by  antiquarian  examination.  There  is 
a  stone  about  18  cubic  feet  in  size,  near  a  place 
called  Kingstonlisle.  which,  on  being  blown  into 
through  holes  on  tne  surface,  emits  a  powerfrQ 
sound  that  can  be  heard  some  miles  off.  The 
White  Horse  is  a  Saxon  monument  It  is  a  fig- 
ure of  a  horse  about  870  feet  in  length  out  on  the 


side  of  a  hill  in  the  chalk.  The  turf  which  ac- 
cumulates on  the  surface  is  cleared  away  eyery 
few  years.  The  royal  residence  of  Windsor  is 
in  Berkshire,  and  a  great  part  of  the  andent 
forest  is  also  induded  in  the  county.  Walling- 
ford  castle  and  Denniston  castle  are  also  places 
of  interest. 

BERLIOHINGEN.  G5tz,  or  Gk>TTFSiBD  yoK, 
one  of  the  last  of  theieudal  knights  of  Germany, 
whom  the  genius  of  Goethe  has  immortalized,  in 
an  early  drama,  founded  upon  the  autobiography 
of  Gotz.  He  was  bom  at  Jaxthausen,  in  Wflrtem- 
berff,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  15th  century; 
died  July  28, 1562.  He  was  the  contemponuy 
of  Maximilian  L,  the  predecessor  of  Charles  Y. 
A  bold,  restless,  and  reckless  warrior,  he  had 
lost  lus  right  hand  in  a  battle,  and  supplying  its 
place  by  an  iron  one,  was  thence  culed  G5tz 
of  the  Iron  Hand.  Haying  long  carried  on  pri- 
yate  war  agidnst  the  powerful  lords,  his  neigh- 
bors, he  at  last  took  part  with  the  peasants,  in 
their  bloody  insurrection  against  the  nobles; 
but  leas  from  any  feeling  of  sympathy  in  tbflir 
cause,  than  from  persoiud  motiyes,  and  hatred 
of  the  new  order  of  ciyil  life,  which  was  then 
beginning  to  be  enforced.  In  1618  he  declared 
war  against  the  free  dty  of  Nuremberg,  arrest- 
ed the  merchants  returning  from  Leipsic,  plun- 
dered their  goods,  and  consigned  many  to  the 
dungeons  of  his  stronghold  on  the  Jaxt.  In 
the  end.  his  numerous  offences  caused  the  em- 
peror to  lay  him  under  the  ban  of  the  empire, 
and  to  impose  a  fine  upon  him  of  14,000  florins. 
The  fine  was  paid,  and  he  was  again  restored 
to  his  dyil  rights ;  but  refusihg  to  desist  from 
his  turbulent  practices,  he  was  besieged  in  his 
castle  by  the  imperial  troops.  He  defended 
himself  with  stubborn  yalor,  until  he  receiyed 
a  wound,  from  which  he  died.  His  antobiog^ 
raphy  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in  1781,  in 
1775,  and,  for  the  third  time,  in  Breslau  in 
1818.  (See  AUgefMina  Gesohiehte  de$  gnmrnn 
£auemiriegiy  fxm  Dr.  W.  Zimmermann,  Stutt- 
gart, 1841.) 

BERLIN,  the  capital  of  Prussia,  in  the  pror- 
ince  of  Brandenburg,  is  situated  on  the  Spree, 
in  a  sandy  plain,  the  largest  of  Germany,  on 
a  deep  and  still  growing  deposit  of  infuso- 
ria, 180  feet  aboye  the  leyel  of  the  sea.  It  is 
one  of  the  largest  and  best  built  cities  of  Europe, 
is  renowned  for  its  uniyersity,  and  its  sdentinc, 
literary,  and  artistic  deydopments,  and  is 
a  great  industrial  and  commercial  emporium. 
It  originated  in  2  cities,  Berlin  and  Edln,  and 
is  diyided  into  11  precincts,  namely:  Old  Ber- 
lin, Old  and  New.  Kdln  (on  an  island  of  the 
Spree),  Louisenstadt  (on  the  left  bank),  Fried- 
richstadt,  Friedrichswerder,  Dorotheenstadt, 
Friedrioh-Wilhdmstadt,  Spandauer  and  Stra- 
lauer  Yiertel,  KOniffstadt,  and  the  suburbs  of 
Yogtland  and  Potsdamer-Vorstadt.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  nearly  circular  wafi  of  lOf  miles 
long,  with  17  gates,  and  2  smaller  gates,  of 
which  the  Brandenburg  gate  is  remarkable  for 
its  architectural  beauty,  and  the  statue  of  Vic- 
tory driying  4  horses,  the  whole  of  copper, 


BEBLIN 


178 


which,  in  1807,  was  removed  by  the  French 
to  Paris,  -whence  the  Pmssians  brought  it 
hack  in  1814.  Ihe  foundation  of  the  original 
cities,  whose  names  are  of  Slavonio  descent, 
cannot  be  ascertained,  but  reaches  back  to  the 
12th  century.  Among  the  architectural  mon- 
uments of  the  18  th  century,  the  Elosterkirche, 
tiie  KlcoLukirche,  and  Marienkirohe,  are  mas- 
terpieces of  art,  particularly  the  first^  and  the 
third,  with  its  tower  286  feet  high.  To  a 
somewhat  later  period  belong  ^e  Berlinische 
Bathhaus,  the  residence  of  the  margraves  and 
electors  of  Brandenburg,  and  the  later  royal 
residences  in  the  Breite-Strasse  and  Post- 
Btrasse.  The  present  royal  palace  was  begun 
in  1442,  and  was  rebuilt  after  1669.  The  city 
owes  many  improvements  to  the  **  Great  Elect- 
or,'* Frederic  William,  who  enlarged  the  popu- 
lation by  a  colony  of  French  refu^Nss,  about  the 
year  1680,  and  founded  several  of  the  new  sub- 
urbs. He  also  founded  the  library,  picture- 
gallery,  and  the  museum  of  art,  ana  many 
schools  and  churches.  The  armory,  another 
masterpiece  of  art,  was  established  in  1706,  by 
Ills  successor,  the  first  king  of  Prussia,  Frederic 
IIL,  when  Berlin  had  60,000  inhabitants.  After 
1720,  a  great  many  Bohemian  and  Saltzburgian 
refugees,  driven  out  on  account  of  Protestant- 
ism, found  an  asylum  in  the  newly  built  Fried- 
richstadt.  The  same  king  built  a  great  many 
substantial  and  ornamental  buildii^ps.  Under 
Frederic  the  Great  even  more  was  done  for 
the  city;  the  opera-house  was  built  in  1742, 
the  Catholic  Hedwig  church,  an  imitation  of 
the  Pantheon,  in  1778,  the  university  building 
in  1760,  the  cathedral,  and  the  park  called  the 
Thiergarten.  He  demolished  the  fortifications 
of  the  city.  He  and  his  successor,  Frederic 
'William  II.,  aided,  by  liberal  encouragement, 
the, ascendency  of  Prussian  and  Berlin  manu- 
fiictures,  of  which  the  French  refugees  had  laid 
the  first  foundation.  In  1800,  Uie  city  had 
already  over  200,000  inhabitants.  Since  1815, 
ihe  architect  Schinkel  has  enriched  Berlin  with 
a  nnmber  of  tasteful  buildings,  of  which  the 
Schauspielhaus,  the  Werderw^e  Kirche,  the 
architectural  school^  and  the  splendid  new  mu- 
seum, the  finest  building  of  the  city,  must  be 
mentioned.  The  new  opera-house,  bmlt  on  the 
site  of  the  old  one,  burnt  in  1843,  is  magnifi- 
cent. Since  that  time,  an  abundance  of  pal- 
ace-like edifices  have  sprung  up.  Among  the 
statues  in  the  public  squares  and  places,  the 
equestrian  statue  of  Frederic  the  Great,  by 
Bauch,  erected  in  1851,  deserves  mention;  as 
does  the  equestrian  statue  of  the  great  elector, 
en  the  elector^s  bridge ;  the  6  statues  of  the 
great  generals  of  the  7  years'  war  (Schwerin, 
Seydlitz,  Ziethen,  Winterfeld,  Keith,and  the  duke 
of  I>essan)  on  the  Wilhelmsplatz;  the  statues  of 
BqIow  and  Scharnhorst,  near  the  Ednigswache ; 
and  the  statne  of  BlQcher.  by  Bauch,  on  the  mag- 
nificent opera-place.  The  royal  palace,  with 
over  600  rooms  and  saloons,  and  several  palaces 
of  the  princes,  are  remarkable.  The  streets 
are  mostly  striught,  long^  and  regularly  laid 


out,  the  linden-StrasBe  being  the  most  splendid. 
The  whole  city  is  well  lighted  with  gas,  well 
paved,  with  granite  sidewalks,  and  well  pro- 
vided with  pleasure-grounds  in  the  environs.— 
The  city  government  consists  of  a  m^or  or  bur* 
gomasteiv  of  a  deputy-mi^or,  and  of  22  alder- 
men. The  term  of  office  jof  the  mi^jor  is  12 
years,  and  that  of  the  other  magistrates  6  years. 
They  are  appointed  by  a  municipal  board,  which 
is  composed  of  101  members,  who  are  elected  for 
6  years  by  the  permanent  residents  of  the  city. 
The  yearly  expenditure  of  the  city  is  $1,600,000. 
The  popidation  amounted,  in  1850,  to  405,000, 
in  about  14,000  buildings  (among  which  are  40 
churches),  and  in  1855,  to  426,602.  Of  these, 
880,000  were  Protestants,  10,000  Catholics, 
10,000  Jews,  and  5,200  so-called  Christian 
Catholics,  beside  some  thousands  ui  minor  sects. 
The  original  Slavonic  inhabitants  of  Berlin,  like 
those  of  the  whole  of  Brandenburg,  were  in  part 
exterminated,  in  part  Germanized,  in  the  11th 
and  12th  centuries.  The  native  Berliners  are 
renowned  for  their  quick  and  sharp  wit  and 
dry  humor,  their  literary  and  artistic  tastes, 
their  geneial  intelligence,  and  passionate  love 
of  music.  Scarcely  any  city  in  the  world  can 
rival  Berlin  in  the  number  of  its  gifted  natives, 
among  whom  Frederic  the  Great,  the  Great 
Elector,  Mendelssohn -Bartholdy,  the  Hum- 
boldts,  Heinsius,  the  German  grammarian,  L. 
Devrient,  Wolfi^  the  sculptor,  Gans,  Ziimpt^ 
AncUlon,  Bekker,  both  the  Tiecks,  both  the 
Schadows,  must  be  mentioned. — The  universi- 
ty, founded  in  1810,  has  boasted  in  speculative 
philosophy,  the  possession  of  such  men  as 
Fichte,  Hc^el.  and  ScbeUingj  in  natural  sci« 
ence,  Humboldt,  Steffens,  Juchtenstein,  liSxir 
scherlioh,  Schuberth,  Dove,  Ehrenbei^g^;  in 
mathematics,  Ohm,  Dirichlet,  Jacobi ;  in  astron- 
omy, Encke;  in  medicine,  Schdnlein,  Mtiller, 
Jungken,  DiefiCenbach,  Langenbeck ;  in  philolo- 
gy, Boeckh,  Bekker,  feopp,  Lachmann,  Zumpt, 
both  the  Grimms,  Grerhard,  BUckert;  in  his- 
tory, Baumer,  Banke;  in  ge<^^phy.  Bitter 
and  Boon;  in  jurisprudence,  Savigny,  Gans, 
and  a  host  of  others;  in  theolo^,  Dchleier- 
macher,  Marheineke,  Keander,  Nitzsch.  Dur- 
ing the  last  20  years,  however,  its  renown  has 
considerably  declined,  especially  in  theology, 
1uri£K>rudence,  philology,  and  philosophy.  Bur- 
mg  the  winter  semestre  of  1857-58  the  attend- 
ance of  students  was  as  follows:  Protestant 
theology,  812;  Catholics,  none;  poUtical  sci- 
ence, 607 ;  medicine,  808 ;  philology,  843 ;  na- 
tives, 1,090;  foreigners,  480;  hotpUanti,  851; 
total  numb^,  2,421.  The  number  of  professors 
and  teachers  at  the  university  is  l75.  The 
library,  under  the  direction  of  the  renowned 
Pertz^  nas  500,000  volumes,  and  many  valuable 
manuscripts,  and  is  the  largest  and  fo^  in  Grer- 
many;  connected  with  it  is  a  separate  univer- 
sity library,  for  the  exclusive  use  of  teachers 
and  studenia,  of  100,000  volumes.  The  dinical, 
anatomical,  and  ohemical  instituUons  and  col- 
lections, the  botanic  garden,  the  mineral  cabi- 
net, the  obstetric  establishment,  the  zoological 


174 


BERLIN 


BERLIOZ 


mnseam.  are  among  the  best  of  their  kind  in 
the  world.  Bedde  the  nniyersity,  there  is,  at , 
Berlin,  an  academy  of  soiences  and  arts,  whose 
members  also  belong,  for  the  most  nart,  to  the 
former;  among  the  6  gymnasia  tnat  of  the 
Gray  convent  is  celebrated,  and  none  are  insig- 
nificant. The  astronomical  observatory,  the 
school  for  midwives,  the  seminary  for  teachers, 
and  that  for  female  teachers,  an  architectural 
school  and  a  technical  academy,  a  missionary 
institute,  an  academy  for  military  surgeons,  9 
technical  schools,  a  school  of  farriery,  a  cadets\ 
an  artillery  and  engineer  school,  and  a  great 
number  of  public  and  private  primary  and  sec- 
ondu7  schools,  are  deservinjg  of  mention.  There 
are  scores  of  scientific,  literary,  and  artistic 
societies  of  almost  every  kind,  and  public  lec- 
tures of  the  highest  merit  are  nowhere  so  com- 
mon as  in  Berlin.  Everv  second  year  there 
is  a  public  exhibition  of  productions  in  the 
fine  arts,  while  the  sculptures  and  paintings  in 
the  ateliers  of  Oomelius,  Begas,  Magnus,  Kiss, 
Drake,  and  others,  are  generally  open  for  pub- 
lic inspection.  The  old  museum  is  a  gallery 
of  pictures  and  antique  vases;  the  new  one, 
opposite  the  king^s  palace,  in  one  of  the  finest 
public  squares  of  the  world,  comprises  the 
Egyptian  museum,  arranged  and  enriched  by 
the  celebrated  Lepsius^  a  gallery  of  pictures 
and  statuary,  and  the  celebrated  frescoes  of 
Eaulbach  in  the  stairway.  The  armory,  un- 
doubtedly the  finest  in  Europe,  in  which  there 
are  weapons  enough  to  eqmp  150,000  men,  is 
artisticiJly  arranged.  The  private  picture-gal- 
leries of  M.  Wol^  Oonsul  Wagener,  and  Count 
Baczynski,  are  rich,  and  open  to  public  inspec- 
tion. Among  the  numerous  singing  societies, 
the  singing  academy,  founded  in  1790,  and  the 
two  liedertafeln,  are  worthy  of  mention.  The 
royal  opera  and  theatre,  once  rendered  cele- 
brated by  such  artists  as  neik,  Devrient,  Wolf^ 
Orelinger,  8eydelmann,  have  sadly  declined 
since  the  reign  of  the  present  king,  and  so 
have  the  5  other  theatres,  among  ^ich  is  a 
French  one.  The  number  of  churches  is  small, 
and  though  the  present  king  has  built  3,  they  do 
not  accommodate  one-third  of  the  population ; 
but  even  these  churches  are  never  filled.  Among 
the  great  number  of  benevolent  institutions^ 
there  is  a  large  hospital  called  the  GhariU^  2 
orphan  asylums^  Wadzeck^s  institution,  the 
Louisenstiftung,  and  other  hospitals,  and  the 
institutes  for  the  blind  and  deaf^  an  insane  asy- 
lum, the  invalid  asylum,  and  many  others.— 
Berlin  is  the  largest  manufacturing,  trading, 
and  commercial  plaoe  of  Prussia,  and  owesm 
this  respect  much  to  former  kings.  Royal  man- 
ufacturing and  commercial  institutes,  like  the 
Seehandlunffy  monopolize  whole  brancJies  of  in- 
dustry, but  in  roite  of  this,  private  enterprise  is 
generally  thrivmg.  Machine-shops,  iron  foun- 
deries,  wool,  silk,  cotton,  and  otiier  manufac- 
tures, are  conducted  on  a  large  scale ;  the  dyeing 
establishments,  the  manufactories  of  ribbon. 
j;old,  silver,  looking-glasses,  carriages,  musical 
mstruments,  porcelain,  and  paper,  and  the  sugar 


refineries,  are  renowned ;  the  tapestry,  carpeting, 
wax-cloth,  tin  and  wooden  ware,  wood  and 
marble  imitation  ware,  the  composition  metal 
fabrics,  the  philosophical  instrument  manufac- 
tories, and  many  otners,  must  not  be  forgotten. 

BERLINGHIERI,  Anbbba.  Yjjdoa,  an  Italian 
surgeon,  bom  in  Pisa,  in  1772,  died  in  the  same 
city,  Sept.  6,  1826.  He  studied  anatomy  at 
Pans^  under  Desault,  Pelletan,  Baudelocqne, 
Dubois,  and  Boyer,  and  in  England,  under  Hun- 
ter and  Bell,  and,  on  his  return  to  Pisa,  receiv- 
ed the  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  and  pub- 
lished some  observations  on  Bellas  system  of 
surgery.  In  1799  he  was  appointed  to  assist 
his  father,  who  was  professor  of  surgery  in  the 
university  of  Pisa,  and,  8  years  later,  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  school  of  clinical  surgery, 
which  was  then  founded.  He  invented  usefbl 
instruments  for  performing  the  operations  of 
cystotome  and  oosophagotomy,  and  for  the 
treatment  of  trichiaas,  the  lachrymal  fistula, 
and  the  fracture  of  the  femur  bone.  He  made 
improvements  in  many  other  surgical  instru- 
ments and  processes,  and  was  the  author  of 
numerous  treatises  on  professional  topics. 

BERUOZ,  Heotob,  French  musical  com- 
poser, bom  at  06te  Saint  Andr^  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Is^e,  Deo.  11, 1808.  He  was  educated 
for  the  medical  profession,  but  devoted  his  lei- 
sure to  the  study  of  music.  At  Paris,  where 
he  had  been  sent  to  complete  his  knowledge  of 
the  healing  art,  he  neglected  the  lectures  of  the 
fEU!ulty,  and  entering  the  eongervatoire  de  mu- 
nqvs^  was  discarded  by  his  father,  a  country 
physician,  and  earned  a  bare  subsistence  by 
singing  in  the  chorus  at  one  of  the  Paris  thea- 
tres. Devoting  himself  to  music,  he  carefully 
studied  composition,  won  the  2d  prize  at  the 
conservatoire  in  1828,  and  the  1st  prize  in  1880, 
by  his  cantata  of  '^  Sardanapalus.**  This  suc- 
cess made  him  a  pensioner  of  the  academy  of 
fine  arts,  at  whose  expense  he  vidted  Italy  for 
18  months.  On  his  return  his  compositions 
showed  that  he  had  employed  his  time  advan- 
tageously. Public  opinion  was  divided  as  to  the 
merits  of  his  productions.  Liszt  declared  them 
admirable;  Paganini's  admiration  was  unusual- 
ly expressed,  in  the  form  of  a  check  on  his 
banker  for  20,000  francs  in  favor  of  M.  Berlioz. 
His  requiem,  in  1887,  performed  at  the  church 
of  the  InvalideSy  at  the  fimeral  of  Gen.  Danu^ 
mont,  established  his  reputation.  His  first 
opera)  "  Benvenuto  Oeflini,"  was  produced  in 
Sept  1838,  and  did  not  succeed,  so  much  had 
he  abandoned  the  old  rules  of  art  Yery  pop- 
ular, on  the  other  hand,  was  the  grand  dramat- 
ic symphony  of  "  Romeo  and  Juliet,"  performed 
at  the  conservatoire  in  Nov.  1839.  His  sym- 
phonies are  allowed  to  be  bis  best  composi* 
tions,  and  abound  in  grand  orchestral  combi- 
nations and  effects.  Most  remarkable  among 
them  are  the  Symphonie/ufUbre  et  triomphdU^ 
written,  in  1840,  for  the  inauguration  of  the 
column  of  July,  in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille.  As 
a  conductor,  M.  Berlioz  has  distinguished  him- 
self  in  Germany,  Russia,  and  England,  as  well 


BERME 


BERN 


176 


as  in  France.  Under  his  direotton,  in  1844, 
1^00  mnsicians  performed,  at  Paris,  the  '^  Hymn 
to  France,^*  which  he  composed  for  that  occa- 
don.  M.  Berlio2L  who  is  a  prolific  composer, 
IB  also  an  aooomplished  art  critic,  and  has  con- 
tributed Uu^Ij,  in  that  capacity,  to  the  JouT' 
fuU  des  Di^Us.  He  is  librarian  to  the  Conser-' 
vataire  de  mungue.  Soon  after  his  retnm  from 
Italy,  in  1888,  M.  Berlioz  married  the  beautiftd 
liGss  Harriet  Smithson  (bom  March  18,  1800), 
an  Irish  lady,  who,  after  performing  with  mark- 
ed success  in  the  higher  characters  of  tragedy 
and  comedy,  at  Drury  Lane  theatre,  was  prin- 
cipal actress  at  the  English  theatre  in  Pans,  in 
1829-^80.  M.  Berlioz,  who  first  saw  her  while 
he  was  yet  a  pupLL  at  the  conservatoire,  so 
greatly  admired  her  in  the  character  of  Juliet, 
that  he  formed  tiie  determination  to  attach  her 
to  him  by  the  tenderest  of  all  ties,  should  for- 
tone  ever  enable  him  to  do  so.  Madame  Ber- 
lioz, who  withdrew  from  the  stage  on  her  mar- 
riage, died  at  Paris  in  1854. 

BERME,  in  fortification,  a  horizontal  bank  of 
ground  left  standing  between  the  upper  interior 
edge  of  the  ditch  and  the  exterior  slope  of  the 
parapet  of  a  work.  It  is  generally  made  about 
8  feet  wide.  Its  principal  object  is  t6  strength- 
en the  pan^t,  and  to  prevent  the  earth  of 
which  It  is  composed  from  rolling  down  into 
the  ditch,  after  heavy  rain,  thaw,  ieo.  It  may 
idso  serve  sometimes  as  an  exterior  commoni- 
oation  round  the  works.  It  is,  however,  not  to 
be  overlooked  that  the  berme  serves  as  a  very 
convenient  resting  and  coUecting  place  for 
stonning  and  soalmg  parties,  in  oonse<^uence  of 
which  it  is  entirely  done  away  with  m  many 
systems  of  permanent  fortification,  and  in  oth- 
eiB  protected  by  a  crenellated  wall,  so  as  to  form 
a  covered  line  of  fire  for  infantrv.  In  field  for- 
tification, or  the  construction  ox  siege-batteries, 
with  a  ditch  in  firont,  a  berme  is  generally  una- 
voidable, as  the  scarp  of  the  ditch  is  scarcely 
ever  revetted,  and  without  such  an  intermediate 
space,  both  scarp  and  parapet  would  soon  crum- 
ble under  the  changes  of  the  weather. 

BERMONDSET,  a  parish  of  the  county  of 
Surrey,  England,  forming  one  of  the  suburbs  of 
London.  It  is  included  in  the  borough  of 
Bouthwark,  on  the  east.  Pop.  in  1861,  48,128. 
Shipbuilding  and  tanning  are  extensively  car- 
ried on  here. 

BERMUDAS,  or  Somxbs  Islasds.  in  the  At- 
lantic ocean,  lat  82""  15'  N.,  long.  64"^  50' W.,580 
miles  S.  S.  £.  fi^m  Oape  Hatteraa.  They  belong 
to  Great  Britain,  and  contain  above  12,000  acres ; 
pop.  in  1851,  exclusive  of  troops,  convicts,  and 
government  officials,  11,092,  of  which  6,428 
were  colored.  The  number  of  islets  is  consid- 
erable ;  the  principal  are  Bermuda,  or  Long  isl- 
and, St  George's,  St  David's,  Somerset,  and 
Ireland.  They  are  of  coralline  formation,  the 
rocks  being  in  different  stages  of  progress.  The 
islands  are  healthy,  the  dimate  is  delightful. 
Vegetable  productions  of  all  kinds  are  in  great 
abundance ;  the  potatoes  are  an  article  of  ex- 
port especially  to  the  United  States,  where  theiy 


arrive  long  before  the  native  crop  is  ripened, 
and  the  arrowroot  excels  that  of  any  other 
place.  The  fisheries  are  productive,  and  whale- 
fishing,  on  a  small  scale,  is  carried  on.  There 
are  no  fi*esh-water  springs,  and  the  rain  water 
is  stored  in  tanks.  The  situation  of  the  group 
in  the  edge  of  the  trade-wind  has  given  them 
an  unpleasant  notoriety  for  storms  and  hurri- 
caneS)  and  ^*  the  vexed  Bermoothes"  is  a  title 
which  justly  applies  to  them.  The  Bermudas 
are  a  nav£d  and  military  station,  for  which 
purpose  they  have  been  fortified.  They  are  a 
convict  setUement  of  Great  Britain,  but  the 
deportation  of  criminals  has  not  been  to  any 
considerable  extent  In  1850  there  were  1,566 
convicts.  The  islimds  are  supposed  to  have 
been  discovered  by  Juan  Bermudez,  in  1522. 
In  1609  Sir  George  Somers  was  wrecked  on  the 
Bermudas,  and  made  his  way  to  Virginia  (his 
original  destination)  in  2  cedar-built  vessels. 
He  was  sent  back  from  the  Virginian  settie- 
ment  to  procure  a  store  of  the  wild  hogs  from 
the  Bermudas,  but  he  died  in  the  islands,  and 
his  men  bore  away  for  England.  In  1 612  the  isl« 
ands  were  settied  by  charter  from  James  I.,  and 
in  1620  a  regular  government  was  established, 
and  the  poi)ulation,  having  beengreatly  increas- 
ed, was  estimated  to  amount  to  10,000  persons, 
probably  an  exaggeration.  The  government  is 
m  the  hands  of  a  governor,  council,  and  legida- 
tive  body.  In  1852  Bermuda  had  42  vessels  of 
2,952  tons.  In  1850  the  imports  were  £180,- 
500;  exports,  £19,960;  revenue,  £12,680 ;  ex- 
penditure, £16,227,  the  deficiency  being  made 
up  by  parliament.  The  military  expenditure  in 
1850  was  £70,000;  the  convict  expenditure, 
£80,000.  These  figures  are  sterling,  the  oor^ 
rency  being  one-third  less  in  value. 

BERMUDEZ,  Gebokdco,  an  old  Spanish  poet, 
supposed  to  have  been  born  about  1580,  and  to 
have  been  alive  in  1589.  He  was  born  in  Ga- 
licia,  resided  some  time  in  Portugal,  and  was  a 
professor  of  theology  at  Salamanca.  His  most 
important  works  were  2  tragedies  on  the  subject 
of  Ines  de  Oastro,  entitied  respectively  Mse 
lastimoM  (Nise  or  Ines,  of  which  Nise  is  an 
anagram,  the  unfortunate),  and  Nise  laure- 
ada^  or  Ines  triumphant  The  first  of  these  is 
copied,  indeed  almost  translated,  from  Ines  de 
Oastro^  a  tragedy  by  the  Portuguese  poet  Ferre- 
ira.  The  other  is  a  continuation  of  the  first,  and 
is  original,  but  has  littie  merit  Bermudez  was 
wdl  acquainted  with  Latin,  and  wrote  a  poem 
in  that  language  entitied  VEesperoida,  which  he 
afterward  traniglated  into  Spanish  verse. 

BERMUDEZ  DE  OASTkO,  Don  Salvador, 
a  Spanish  poet,  bom  at  Cadiz  in  1817.  He 
graduated  at  the  university  of  Seville,  where 
he  also  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  He 
was  afterward  one  of  the  editors  of  the  Beoista 
de  Madrid,  in  which  publication  appeared  many 
of  his  poems. 

BERN,  one  of  the  principal  cantons  of  Swit- 
zerland, and  the  largest  and  most  populous 
of  all ;  area  variously  estimated  at  from  2,566 
to  8|500  sq.  m.;  pop.  882,050  in  1818,  407,918 


176 


BERK 


in  1887,  458,801  in  1850,  all  of  whom,  except 
54,044  Catholics  and  1,000  MennonUes,  belong 
to  the  Reformed  church,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  perhaps  100,000  Frenchmen,  in  the  Jura,  to 
the  G^man  nationality.  Bern  is  sitoated  be- 
tween lat  46°  20'  and  47''  50'  N.,  and  long,  e"* 
60'  and  8°  27'  £.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  France, 
E.  by  the  cantons  of  Soleure^  Aargau,  Lucerne, 
Unterwalden,  and  Uri;  8.  by  Valais,  and  W. 
by  Vand,  Freyburg,  and  Neuich&teL  The  city 
of  Bern  is  the  capital;  pop.  in  1850,  26,840. 
Hie  southern  frontier  toward  Valais  is  formed 
by  the  highest  crest  of  the  main  chain  of  the 
Swiss  Alps,  the  so-called  Bernese  Alps,  with 
tibe  following  peaks  reaching  to  over  11,000 
feet  above  the  sea:  Finsteraarhom  (14,106), 
Sohreckhom  (13,386),  Wetterhorn  (12,176), 
Mdnch,  Eiger,  Jungfrau  (18,718),  and  numerous 
high  mountain  passes,  but  only  8  of  them  prac- 
licable  for  carriages,  of  which  the  Grimsel  pass  is 
the  most  commodious.  From  the  crest  north- 
ward stretch  some  dozen  of  steep  and  mighty 
mountain  ridges,  none  much  over  8,000  feetMgh. 
The  valleys  between  these  ridges  are  much 
deeper  out  into  the  mountain  base  than  any 
other  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Alps,  and 
therefore  exceedingly  fertile  and  mild,  in  spite 
of  the  general  elevation  of  the  canton,  which 
around  the  city  of  Bern  is  still  as  high  as  1,850 
fSdet  From  the  city  down  toward  the  north-west 
these  ridges  meet  with  tlie  forerunners  of  the 
Jura  mountains,  embracing  within  long  ridges 
long  parallel  valleys,  witii  a  climate  somewhat 
rougher  than  in  the  rest  of  the  canton.  There 
is  in  the  whole  canton  no  very  broad  plain,  the 
comparatively  largest  being  near  the  lake  of 
Thun ;  but  the  main  valleys,  those  of  the  rivers 
Aar,  Birs,  Doubs,  Emmen,  Simmen,  and  others, 
are  generally  extensive.  More  than  20  lakes, 
of  which  those  of  Thun,  BriemL  and  Biel  are 
noteworthy,  and  a  great  number  or  small  streamy 
water  the  canton.  The  northern  half  of  it  may 
be  said  to  be  rather  an  agricultural,  the  southern 
rather  a  grazing  region,  while  the  less  fertile 
high  valleys  of  the  Jura  form  a  maoxfaoturing 
district.  The  only  agricultural  produce  for  ex- 
port is  cheese,  while  in  many  years  grain 
IS  imported;  the  southern  valleys  produce 
chestnuts,  figs,  walnuts,  wine,  fruit;  the  forests 
consist  of  white  and  red  pine  and  beeches.  Hay 
is  produced  abundantly,  but  not  for  export. 
Gold  is  washed  in  the  Emmen  river,  iron  ore 
occurs  here  and  there,  naphtha  in  tiie  little 
brooks  of  tiie  valley  of  Habkeren,  marble  and 
sandstone  are  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  ex- 
cellent millstones  are  fabricated  from  the  gran- 
ite of  Wittlisbach.  Timber  as  well  as  carved 
wooden  wares  is  to  some  extent  exported. 
Flax  is  largely  grown  in  the  valley  of  the  Em- 
men ;  there  are  linen,  woollen,  and  silk  manu- 
factories in  the  city  and  vicinity,  and  extensive 
watch  manu&otories  are  carried  on  in  the  Jura 
mountains.  Themanu&cturingindustry  isonly 
lately  beginning  to  be  more  varied  and  exten- 
sive. The  transportation  traffic  is  lively,  espe- 
cially as  during  the  last  4  years  Switzerhmd  has 


built  8  or  4  railroad  lines,  connecting  with  the 
German  and  future  Italian  railroads.  Roads 
and  bridges  are  at  present  being  boilt  exten- 
sively ;  &e  canton  has  bad  &  bank  since  1886. 
— ^The  population  of  the  canton  belongs  in  the 
northern  portions  to  the  Alemanni  or  Swabian, 
in  the  southern  to  the  Bursundian  tribe,  which 
settled  here  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Romans 
in  the  5th  century.  The  original  political  con- 
stitution of  these  tribes  was  thoroughly  demo- 
cratic, and  remained  so  down  to  the  18di 
century  or  later,  when  it  gradually  be<w»e 
impaired  in  the  open  country  by  the  increasisg 
power  of  the  nobiuty,  and  later  by  that  of  the  pa- 
trician fiunilies  of  the  ci^.  Belonging  to  the  Bur- 
gundian  kingdom,  and  from  the  11th  oentory  to 
the  German  empire,  the  territory  of  Bera  was 
very  smalL  until  it  was  made  a  free  city  by  the 
emperor  Frederic  n.  in  1218,  and  inoreaaed 
alter  the  end  of  the  18th  century  by  suooeesfnl 
Btmgglea  with  the  emperor  and  the  more  pow- 
erful nobles,  while  the  lower  class  of  the 
nobility  found  in  the  dty  a  ready  refuge  from 
the  magnates,  and  were  absorbed  into  the 
patrician  ranks.  After  the  accession  of  Bern  to 
the  confederation  (^  the  4  original  cantons  in 
1858,  it  contributed  greatlv  to  the  aaooess  of 
the  Swiss  in  their  struggles  against  Austria, 
Burgundy,  and  Milan ;  and  it  extended  its  swi^ 
by  purchase  and  conquest  of  Aargau,  Yaud, 
and  other  districts,  and  a  century  ago  embraced 
an  area  of  nearly  double  its  present  nze.  In 
1628  the  reformation  began  to  spread  rapidly 
all  over  the  canton,  and  soon  beicame  the  ex- 
clusive religion.  The  growing  wealth  of  Bera 
and  its  aggressive  policy  could  not  be  favorable 
to  the  preservation  of  the  old  popular  liberty. 
Gradually  the  country  people  were  rednoed  to 
obedience,  firstin  the  conquered  districts,  which 
under  Austrian,  Burgundian,  and  Savoyard  sway 
had  already  become  inured  to  subjection,  after- 
ward in  the  other  districts,  and  at  last,  subse- 
quently to  the  16th  century,  even  the  poorer 
dasses  of  the  crty  and  the  country  towns.  The 
patrician  fEunilies,  possessed  of  great  wealth, 
adnunistrative  skill,  and  ancient  military  g^ory, 
had  their  standing  army,  and  after  1470,  when 
the  dtizens  rebdled  for  the  last  time  against 
them,  and  drove  them  out  at  least  for  a  single 
year,  this  aristocracy  restricted  more  and  more 
the  remaining  popular  rights,  and  became  a 
weU-cemented  oii^ohy,  proud  and  haughty  as 
that  of  Venice.  The  fint  French  revolution 
put  an  end  to  this  state  of  things  in  1798,  and 
after  the  unfortunate  battles  of  that  year  founded 
a  Helvetic  republic,  in  which  the  territory  of 
Bera  was  divided  into  4,  and  subsequently  into  8 
cantons,  Aargan  and  Vand  becoming  independ- 
ent After  the  restoration,  and  under  the 
influence  of  Austria,  the  ancient  aristocracy 
and  government  were,  with  a  few  democratic 
changes,  revived,  until  thQ  second  French  revo- 
lution, when  the  new  constitution  of  1881  was 
forced  upon  the  patricians.  The  concessions 
made  by  them  did  not,  however,  satisfy  the 
growing  democratic  soirit  of  the  masses,  and 


BERKADOTTE 


177 


in  1846,  xmder  the  inflnence  of  the  Sonderband 
excitement,  a  reyision  was  enforced  which 
waa  ratified  by  a  popular  vote  of  86,079  against 
1,267.  It  abolished  all  class  privileges,  estab- 
lished perfect  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the 
law,  granted  political  rights,  and  the  right  of 
vot^Qg,  to  every  male  citizen  of  over  20 ;  organ- 
ised the  administration  and  Judiciary  after 
modem  democratic  principles;  guarantied  the 
rights  of  man,  and  promised  trial  by  jury. 
Taxes  having  been  unknown  in  Bern  up  to  that 
time,  a  new  income  tax  of  iV  of  1  per  cent,  be- 
came indispensable  for  cairyin^  out  these  new 
institntions,  and  created  dissatisfaction  enough 
to  c^ve  a  momentary  ascendency  to  the  con- 
servative party  in  1851,  but  without  producing 
a  permanent  change  yx  the  new  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  late  civil  wars  of  Switzerland  and 
the  political  reforms  of  Bern  have  involved  the 
canton  in  a  public  debt  of  4,000,000  francs, 
which,  however,  is  overbalanced  by  a  public 
domain  and  capital  of  nearly  80,000,000,  mak- 
ing Bern  comparatively  the  richest  state  of 
Europe.  The  yearly  expenditure  is  about 
4,000,000  francs,  the  public  income  rather 
less. — The  dty  of  Bern,  at  present  the  seat  of 
the  administration  of  tne  Swiss  confederation, 
is  in  a  romantic  situation,  on  a  peninsula 
formed  by  the  river  Aar,  which  here  forms  a 
splendid  cataract,  and  is  crossed  by  a  stone 
bridge.  The  city  is  very  well  built,  with  many 
remnants  of  ancient  architeotur&  of  which  the 
oatiiedral,  the  church  of  the  Holy  €^host,  built 
in  1122,  the  citizens'  hospital,  the  magnificent 
infirmary  with  an  endowment  of  8,000,000 
francs,  are  remarkable.  The  dty  library  has 
80,000  volumes,  induding  valuable  historical 
treasores,  and  a  museum  of  natural  history,  found- 
ed in  1802.  The  university,  founded  in  1884^  has 
about  50  teachers,  and  200  students.  The 
federal  palace,  the  iron  Murtner  gate,  the  un- 
surpassed promenades,  with  one  of  the  grandest 
prospects  of  the  Alps,  are  noteworthy.  The 
dty  as  well  as  the  canton  possesses  great  at- 
tractions for  the  host  of  travellers,  from  whom 
a  condderable  income  is  derived.  The  wall 
ditches  are  renowned  for  bears,  kept  there  as 
the  heraldic  animal  of  Bern,  which  derives  its 
name  from  it,  and  are  stocked  with  deer.  The 
armory,  the  richest  in  Switzerland,  is  full  of 
ancient  weiq>ons  and  curiosities.  The  city  is, 
to  some  extent,  industrial,  and  produces  cloth, 
printed  linen,  silk  and  cotton  mbrics.  Haller, 
the  German  poet,  one  of  the  founders  of  Ger- 
man classical  poetry,  was  bom  here.  Pop.  in 
1851,  26.840. 

BEKN ADOTTE,  Jxan Baptdstb  JuLsamar- 
shal  of  the  French  empire,  prince  of  I'onte 
Oorvo,  and,  under  the  name  of  Oharles  XIY. 
John,  king  of  Sweden  and  Norway,  was  bom 
Jan.  26,  1764,  at  Pau,  in  the  department  of 
Baases  Pyr^n^es,  died  March  8,  1844,  in  the 
ro^al  palace  at  Stockholm.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  lawyer,  and  was  educated  for  that  profession, 
but  his  military  impulses  induced  him  to  enlist 
secretly,  in  1780,  in  the  royal  marines,  where  he 
VOL.  m. — 12 


had  advanced  to  the  grade  of  sergeant,  when 
the  French  revolution  broke  out.  Thence  his 
advancement  became  rapid.  In  1792  he  served 
as  colond  in  Oustine's  army;  commanded  a 
demi-brigade  in  1798 ;  was  in  the  same  year, 
through  Kleber's  patronage,  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  brigadier-^eral,  ana  contributed,  as 
general  of  division  in  the  army  of  the  Sambre 
and  Mouse,  imder  Eleber  and  Jourdan,  to  the 
victory  of  Fleurus,  June  26, 1794^  the  success  of 
Jtdich,  and  the  capitulation  of  Maestricht.  He 
also  did  good  service  in  the  campaign  of  1795- 
'96  against  the  Austrian  generals  Cla&fait,  Kray, 
and  the  archduke  Oharles.  Ordered  by  the  &- 
rectory,  at  the  beginning  of  1797,  to  march 
20,000  men  as  reinforcements  to  the  Italian 
army,  his  first  interview  in  Italy  with  Bonapute 
decided  their  future  relations.  In  spite  of  his 
natural  greatness,  Bonaparte  entertdned  a  pelfy 
and  suspicious  jealousy  of  the  army  of  the  Rhine 
and  its  generals.  He  understood  at  once  that 
Bemadotte  a^ired  to  an  independent  career. 
The  latter,  on  his  part,  was  too  much  of  a 
Gascon  to  Justiy  appreciate  the  distance  between 
a  genius  like  Boni^Nirte  and  a  man  of  abilities 
like  himself.  Hence  their  mutual  dislike.  Dur- 
ing the  invasion  of  Istria  Bemadotte  distinguish- 
ed himself  at  the  passage  of  the  Tagliamento, 
where  he  led  the  vanguard,  and  at  the  capture  of 
thefortressofGradisca,Mardil9.l797.  Alterthe 
so-QBlled  revolution  of  the  18th  Fmctidor,  Bona- 
parte ordered  his  generals  to  coUect  from  their 
respective  divisions  addresses  in  fiivor  of  that 
coup  d^itat;  but  Bemadotte  first  protested,  then 
affected  great  rductanoe  in  obeying,  and  at  last 
sent  an  address  to  tiie  directory,  but  quite  the 
reverse  of  that  asked  for,  and  without  convey- 
ing it  through  Bonaparte's  hands.  The  latter 
on  his  journey  to  Paris,  whither  he  repdred  to 
lay  before  the  directory  the  treaty  of  Oampo 
Formio,  vldted  and  cfyoled  Bemadotte  at  his 
head-quarters  at  Udine,  but  the  following  day. 
through  an  order  from  Milan,  deprived  him  oif 
half  Ms  division  of  the  army  of  the  Bhine,  and 
commanded  him  to  march  the  other  half  back 
to  France.  After  many  remonstrances,  compro- 
mises, and  new  quarrels,  Bemadotte  was  at  last 
prevailed  upon  to  accept  the  embassy  to  Vienna. 
Ther^  acting  up  to  the  instmctions  of  Tdley- 
rand,  he  assumed  a  conciliatory  attitude  which 
the  Paris  journals,  inspired  by  Bonaparte  and 
his  brothers,  dedared  to  be  fuU  of  royalist  ten- 
dencies; expatiating,  in  proof  of  these  charges, 
on  tiie  suppresdon  of  the  trioolored  fiag  at  the 
entrance  of  his  hotd,  and  of  the  republican 
cockade  on  the  hats  of  his  suite.  Being  repri- 
manded for  tins  by  the  directory,  Bernadotte, 
on  April  18, 1798,  the  anniversary  of  a  Viennese 
anti-Jacobin  demonstration,  hoisted  the  tri- 
oolored flag  with  the  inscription, "  Liberty,  equd- 
ity,  fraternity,''  and  had  his  hotel  stormed  by  a 
Viennese  mob,  his  fiag  bumt,  and  his  own  life 
endangered.  The  Austrian  govemment  declin- 
ing to  give  the  satisfaction  demanded,  Bema- 
dotte withdrew  to  Rastadt  with  dl  his  legation ; 
but  the  directory,  on  the  advice  of  Bonaparte,^ 


178 


BEBNADOTTE 


who  had  himself  beeainBinimental  in  proYoldng 
the  scandal,  hushed  up  the  afEair  and  dropped 
their  representative.  Bemadotte's  relationsnip 
to  the  Bonaparte  family  consequent  npon  his 
marriage,  in  Aug.  1798,  with  Mile.  D6sir^ 
Clary,  the  daughter  of  a  Marseilles  merchant 
and  Joseph  Bonaparte^s  sister-in-law,  seemed 
hut  to  confirm  his  opposition  to  Napoleon.  As 
commander  of  the  army  of  ohservation  on  the 
upper  Rhine,  in  1799,  he  proved  incompetent 
for  the  charge,  and  thus  verified  heforehand 
Napoleon's  judgment  at  St.  Helena,  that  he  was 
a  better  lieutenant  than  general-in-chie£  At 
the  head  of  the  war  ministry,  after  the  directo- 
rial ^meute  of  the  80th  Prairial,  Ins  plans  of 
operation  were  less  remarkable  than  his 
intrigues  with  the  Jacobins,  through  whose  re- 
viving influence  he  tried  to  create  for  himself 
a  personal  following  in  the  ranks  of  the  army. 
Tet  one  morning,  Sept.  18,  1799,  he  found 
his  resignation  announced  in  the  Moniteur 
before  he  was  aware  that  he  had  tendered  it 
This  trick  was  played  npon  him  by  Sidyes  and 
Boger  Duces,  the  directors  allied  to  Bona- 
parte. While  commanding  the  army  of  the 
west,  he  extinguished  the  last  sparks  of 
the  Yendean  war.  After  the  prodamaldon 
of  the  empire,  which  made  him  a  marshal,  he  was 
intrusted  with  the  command  of  the  army  of  Han- 
over. In  this  capacity  as  well  as  during  his  later 
command  of  the  army  of  northern  Qermany,  he 
took  care  to  create  for  himself,  among  the  north- 
em  people,  a  reputation  for  independence,  mod- 
eration, and  administrative  ability.  At  the  head 
of  the  corps  stationed  in  Hanover,  whichiormed 
the  first  corps  of  the  grand  army,  he  participated 
in  the  campaign  of  1805  against  l^e  Austriana 
and  Prussians.  He  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to 
Mau,  to  observe  the  movements  of  Archduke 
^rdinand  in  Bohemia;  then,  called  back  to 
Br&nn,  he,  with  his  corps,  was  posted  at  the 
battle  of  Austerlitz  m  the  centre  between  Soult 
and  Lannes,  and  contributed  to  baffle  the  at- 
tempt of  the  allied  right  wing  at  outflanking  the 
French  army.  On  June  6, 1806,  he  was  created 
prince  of  Ponte  Oorvo.  During  the  campaign  of 
1606-'7  against  Prussia,  he  commanded  the  first 
eorm  d^armee.  He  received  from  Napoleon  the 
order  to  march  from  Naumburg  upon  Dorxfbnrg, 
while  Davoust,  also  stationed  at  Naumburg,  was 
to  march  upon  Apolda;  the  order  held  by  Davoust 
adding  that,  if  Bemadotte  had  already  effected 
his  junction  with  hina,  they  might  oox\join11y 
march  upon  Apolda.  Having  reconnoitred  the 
movements  of  the  Prussians,  and  made  sure  that 
no  enemy  was  to  be  encountered  in  the  direction 
of  Dornburg,  Davoust  proposed  to  Bemadotte  a 
combined  march  upon  Apolda,  and  even  offered 
to  place  himself  under  his  command.  The  lattei^ 
however,  sticking  to  the  literal  interpretation  of 
Napoleon's  order,  marched  off  in  the  direction 
of  Dornburg  wiUiout  meeting  an  enemy  dur- 
ing the  whole  day ;  while  Davoust  had  alone  to 
bear  the  brunt  of  the  battle  of  Auerst&dt,  which, 
through  Bemadotte's  absence,  ended  in  an  in- 
decisive victory.    It  was  only  the  meeting  of 


the  fugitives  of  Auerstfldt  with  the  fhgitives 
from  Jena,  and  the  strategetical  combinations  of 
Napoleon,  that  counteracted  the  conse^enoee 
of  the  deliberate  blunder  committed  by  Bema- 
dotte. Napoleon  signed  an  order  to  bring  Ber- 
nadotte  before  a  court-martial,  but  on  further 
consideration  rescinded  it  After  the  battle  of 
Jena,  Bemadotte  defeated  the  Prussians  at  Halle, 
Oct  17,  conjointly  with  Soult  and  Murat,  pur- 
sued the  Prussian  general  Blftcher  to  Labeck, 
and  contributed  to  his  capitulation  at  Badzan, 
Nov.  17, 1806.  He  also  defeated  the  Buaaiana 
in  the  plains  of  Mohrungen,  not  £Br  fr<Hn  Thorn, 
Jan.  26,  1807.  After  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  ac- 
cording to  the  alliance  concluded  between  Den- 
mark and  Napoleon.  French  troops  were  to 
occupy  the  Danish  islandf,  thence  to  act  against 
Sweden.  Accordingly,  March  28,  1808,  the 
very  day  when  Busoa  invaded  Finland,  Bema- 
dotte was  commanded  to  move  upon  Seeland 
in  order  to  penetrate  with  the  Danes  into  Swe- 
den, to  dethrone  its  king,  and  to  partition  the 
country  between  Denmark  and  Russia;  a 
strange  mission  for  a  man  destined  soon  after  to 
reign  at  Stockholm.  He  passed  the  Belt  and 
arrived  in  Seeland  at  the  head  of  82,000  French- 
men, Dutch,  and  Spaniards ;  10,000  of  the  latter, 
however,  contriving,  by  the  assistance  of  an 
English  fleet,  to  decamp  under  Gen.  de  k  Bo- 
mafia.  Bemadotte  undertook  nothing  and 
effected  nothing  during  his  stay  in  Seeland. 
Being  recalled  to  Germany,  there  to  assist  in  the 
new  war  between  France  and  Austria,  he  re- 
ceived the  command  of  the  9th  corps,  mainly 
composed  of  Saxons.  The  battle  of  Wagram, 
July  6  and  6, 1809,  added  new  fhel  to  his  misun* 
derstandings  wit^  Napoleon.  On  the  first  day« 
Eug^e  Beauhamais,  having  debouched  in  the 
vicinity  of  Wagram,  and  dashed  into  the  centre 
of  the  hostile  reserves,  was  not  sufficiently  sup- 
ported by  Bemadotte,  who  engaged  his  troops 
too  late,  and  too  weakly.  Attacked  in  front 
and  flank,  Eugdne  was  roughly  thrown  bade 
upon  Napoleon's  guard,  and  the  first  shock  of 
the  French  attack  was  thus  broken  by  Bema* 
dotte^s  lukewarmness,  who,  meanwhile,  had  oc- 
cupied the  village  of  Adlerklau,  in  the  centre 
of  the  Frendi  army,  but  somewhat  in  advance 
of  the  French  line.  On  the  following  day,  at 
6  o'clock  in  the  morning,  when  the  Austriana 
advanced  for  a  concentric  attack,  Bemadotte 
deployed  before  Adlerklau,  instead  of  placing 
that  village)  strongly  occupied,  in  his  front 
Jud(B^ng,  on  the  arrival  of  the  Austrians,  that 
this  petition  was  too  hazardous,  he  feU 
back  npon  a  plateau  in  the  rear  of  Adler- 
klau, leaving  tne  village  unoccupied,  so  that 
it  was  immediately  taken  by  Bellegarde's  Aus- 
triana. The  French  centre  being  thus  endan- 
gered, Massena,  its  commander,  sent  forward  a 
division  to  retake  Adlerklau,  which  division, 
however,  was  again  dislodged  by  D'Aspre's 
grenadiers.  At  that  moment^  Napoleon  him- 
self arrived,  took  the  supreme  command,  form- 
ed a  new  plan  of  battle,  and  baffled  the  ma- 
noBuvres  of  the  Austriana.    Thus  Bemadotte 


BEE&NADOTTE 


179 


bad  aeain,  as  at  Aneniftdt,  endttigered  the  sao- 
cess  of  the  daj.  On  his  part,  he  oonmbined  of 
Napoleon's  having,  in  vioUition  of  aU  military 
rales,  ordered  Gen.  Dnpas,  whose  French  di- 
Yision  formed  part  of  Bemadotte's  oorps,  to  act 
independentlj  of  his  oommand.  ffis  resigna- 
tion, which  he  tendered,  was  accepted,  after 
Napoleon  had  become  aware  of  an  order  of  the 
day  addressed  •by  Bemadotte  to  his  Saxons,  in 
discord  with  the  imperial  bnUetin.  Shortly  af- 
ter his  arriyal  at  Paris^  where  he  entered  into 
intrigues  with  Foach6,  the  Walcheren  expedi- 
tion (July  80, 1809)  cansed  the  French  minis* 
try,  in  the  absence  of  the  emperor,  to  intrust 
Bemadotte  with  the  defence  of  Antwerp.  The 
blonders  of  the  English  rendered  action  on  his 
part  mmecessary;  bat  he  took  the  occasion 
to  slip  into  a  proclamation,  issued  to  his  troops, 
the  charge  against  Napoleon  of  having  neglect- 
ed to  prepare  the  proper  means  of  defence  for 
the  Belgian  coasts  He  was  deprived  of  his 
command;  ordered,  on  his  return  to  Paris,  to 
leave  it  for  his  princedom  of  Fonte  Corvo,  and, 
refusing  to  comply  with  that  order,  he  was 
summoned  to  Vienna.  After  some  lively  alter- 
cations with  Napoleon,  at  SchOnbrunn,  he  ac- 
cepted the  general  government  of  the  Roman 
states,  a  sort  of  honorable  exile. — The  drcmn* 
stances  which  brought  about  his  election  as 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  were  not  fully  eluci- 
dated until  long  after  his  death.  Oharles  XIII., 
after  the  adoption  of  Oharles  August,  duke  of 
Augustenburg^  as  his  son,  and  as  heir  to  the 
Swedish  thrcnoe,  sent  Oount  Wrede  to  Paris,  to 
ask  for  the  duke  the  hand  of  the  princess  Char- 
lotte, daughter  of  Lucien  Bonaparte.  On  the 
sudden  death  of  the  duke  of  Augustenburg, 
May  18,  1810,  Russia  pressed  upon  Oharles 
XIII.  the  adoption  of  the  duke  of  Oldenburg, 
while  Napoleon  supported  the  daims  of  lYede- 
rio  YL,  king  of  Denmark.  The  old  king  him- 
self offered  the  succession  to  the  brother  of  the 
late  duke  of  Augustenburg,  and  despatched 
Baron  Moemer  to  Gen.  Wrede,  with  mstruc- 
tions  ei\]oining  the  latter  to  bring  Napoleon 
over  to  the  king's  choice.  Moerner.  however, 
a  young  man  belonging  to  the  very  large  party 
in  Sweden  which  then  expected  tibe  recovery 
of  their  country  only  from  an  intimate  alli- 
ance with  France,  on  his  arrival  at  Paris, 
took  upon  himse^  in  connection  with  Lapie,  a 
young  French  officer  in  the  engineers,  with 
Seigneul,  the  Swedish  consul-general,  and  with 
Oount  Wrede  himself^  to  present  Bemadotte  as 
candidate  for  the  Swedish  throne,  all  of  them 
taking  care  to  conceal  their  proceedings  from 
Count  liigerbielke,  the  Swedish  minister  at 
the  Tuileries,  and  all  firmly  convinced  by  a 
series  of  misunderstandings,  artfiilly  kept  up 
by  Bemadotte.  that  the  latter  was  really  the 
candidate  of  Napoleon.  On  June  29,  accord- 
ingly, Wrede  and  Seigneul  sent  deepatches  to 
the  Swedish  minister  of  foreign  affiurs,  both 
announcing  that  Napoleon  would,  with  great 
pJesflore,  see  the  royal  succession  offered  to  his 
lientenant  and  relative.    In  spite  of  the  opposi- 


tion of  Charles  JUL,  the  diet  of  the  States,  at 
Orebro,  elected  Bemadotte  crown  prince  of 
Sweden,  Aug.  21,  1810.  The  king  was  also 
compelled  to  adopt  him  as  his  son,  under  the 
name  of  Charles  John.  Napoleon  reluctantly, 
and  with  bad  grace,  ordered  Bemadotte  to  ao- 
cept  the  offered  dignity.  Leaving  Paris,  S^t 
28, 1810,  he  landed  at  lielsingborg,  Oct.  2,  there 
abjured  the  Catholic  profession,  entered  Stock- 
holm Nov.  1,  attended  the  assembly  of  the  states^ 
Nov.  5,  and  fh)m  that  moment  grasped  the 
reins  of  the  state.  Since  the  disastrous  peace 
of  Frederikahamn,  the  idea  prevailing  in  Sweden 
was  the  reconquest  of  Finland,  without  which, 
it  was  thought,  as  Napoleon  wrote  to  Alexander. 
Feb.  28, 1811,  '« Sweden  had  ceased  to  exist,*^ 
at  least  as  a  power  independent  of  Russia.  It 
was  but  by  an  intimate  alliance  with  Napoleon 
that  the  Swedes  could  hope  to  recover  that 

grovince.  To  this  conviction  Bemadotte  owed 
is  election.  During  the  king^s  sicknea^  from 
March  17,  1811,  to  January  7,  1812,  Charles 
John  was  appointed  regent;  but  this  was  a 
question  of  etiquette  onfy,  since  from  the  di^ 
of  his  arrival  he  conducted  all  sffiurs.  Napo* 
leon,  too  much  of  a  parvenu  himself  to  spare  the 
susceptibilities  of  his  ex-lieutenant,  compelled 
him,  Nov.  17, 1810,  in  spite  of  a  prior  engage- 
ment, to  accede  to  the  continental  system,  and 
declare  war  against  England.  He  suppressed 
his  revenues  as  a  French  prince;  declined  to 
receive  his  despatches  directly  addressed  to  him. 
because  he  was  not  '^  a  sovereign  his  equal  ;^^ 
and  sent  back  the  order  of  the  Seraphim,  be- 
stowed upon  the  new-bom  king  of  Rome  by 
Charles  John.  This  petty  chicanery  afforded 
to  the  latter  the  pretext  only  for  a  course  of 
action  long  decided  upon.  Hardly  was  he  in- 
stalled at  Stockholm,  when  he  admitted  to  a 
public  audience  the  Russian  general,  Suchtelen, 
who  was  detested  by  the  Swedes  for  having 
subomed  the  commander  of  Sweaborg,  and 
even  allowed  that  personage  to  be  accredited 
as  ambassador  to  the  Swedish  court  On  Dec 
18,  1810,  he  held  a  conference  with  Czemi- 
cheff,  in  which  he  declared  himself  ^^to  be 
anxious  to  win  the  good  opinion  of  the  czar," 
and  to  resign  Finland  forever,  on  the  condition 
of  Norway  being  detached  from  Denmark,  and 
annexed  to  Sweden.  By  the  same  Czemi- 
cheff^  he  sent  a  most  flattering  letter  to  the 
czar  Alexander.  As  he  thus  orew  nearer  to 
Russia,  the  Swedish  generals  who  had  over- 
thrown Gnstavus  lY.,  and  favored  his  own 
election,  retired  from  him.  Thdr  opposition, 
reechoea  by  the  army  and  the  people,  threat- 
ened to  become  dangerous,  when  the  invasion 
of  Swedish  Pomerania  by  a  French  division, 
Jan.  17,  1812— a  measure  executed  by  Napo- 
leon on  secret  advice  fit>m  Stockholm— afford- 
ed at  last  to  Charles  John  a  plausible  pretext 
for  officnally  declaring  the  neutrality  of  Sweden. 
Secretly,  however,  and  behind  the  back  of  the 
diet,  he  conduded  with  Alexander  an  offen- 
sive alliance  against  France,  signed  March  27, 
1812,  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  which  the  annexation 


180 


BERNADOTTE 


of  Norway  to  Swedon  was  also  stipulated. — 
Kapoleon's  declaration  of  war  against  Russia 
made  Bemadotte  for  a  time  the  arbiter  of  the 
destinies  of  Europe.  Napoleon  offered  him,  on 
the  condition  of  his  attacldng  Bnssia  with  40,000 
Swedes,  Fmland,  Mecklenburg,  Stettin,  and  all 
tiie  territory  between  Stettin  and  Volgast. 
Bemadotte  might  have  decided  the  campaign 
and  occupied  St.  Petersburg  before  Napoleon 
arrived  at  Moscow.  He  preferred  acting  as  the 
Lepidus  of  a  triumyirate  formed  with  England 
ana  Russia.  Inducing  the  sultan  to  ratify  the 
peace  of  Bucharest,  he  enabled  the  Russian  ad« 
n^al  Tchitchakoff  to  withdraw  his  forces  from 
the  banks  of  the  Danube  and  to  operate  on  the 
flank  of  the  French  army.  He  also  mediated 
the  peace  of  Orebro,  concluded  July  18,  1812, 
between  England  on  the  one  side,  and  Russia 
and  Sweden  on  the  other.  Frightened  at  Napo- 
leon's first  successes,  Alexander  invited  Oharles 
John  to  an  interview,  at  the  same  time  offering 
him  the  command-in-chief  of  the  Russian  armies. 
Prudent  enough  to  decline  the  latter  offer,  he 
accepted  the  invitation.  On  Aug.  27  he  arrived 
at  Abo,  where  he  found  Alexander  very  low- 
roirited  and  rather  inclined  to  sue  for  peace. 
Having  himself  gone  too  far  to  recede,  he  steeled 
the  wavering  czar  by  showing  that  Napoleon^s 
apparent  successes  must  lead  to  his  ruin.  The 
conference  resulted  in  the  so-called  treaty  of 
Abo,  to  which  a  secret  article  was  appended, 
giving  the  alliance  the  character  of  a  famuy  com- 
pact In  fact,  Oharles  John  received  nothing 
out  promises,  while  Russia,  without  the  sUght- 
eat  sacrifice,  secured  the  then  invaluable  alliance 
of  Sweden.  By  authentic  documents  it  has  been 
recently  proved  that  it  depended  at  that  time 
on  Bemadotte  alone  to  have  Finland  restored  to 
Sweden ;  but  the  Gascon  ruler,  deluded  by  Alex- 
ander's fiattery,  that  '*one  day  the  imp^ial 
crown  of  France,  when  fallen  from  Napoleon's 
brow,  might  rest  upon  hia,"  already  considered 
Sweden  as  a  mere  pia-aUer,  After  the  French 
retreat  from  Moscow,  he  formally  broke  <^ 
diplomatic  relations  with  France,  and  when 
England  guaranteed  him  Norway  by  treaty  of 
March  18,  1818,  he  entered  the  coalition. 
Furnished  with  English  subsidies,  he  landed 
in  May,  1818,  at  Stralsund  with  about  25,000 
Swedes  and  advanced  toward  the  Elbe.  Dur- 
ing the  armistice  of  June  4^  1818,  he  played 
an  important  part  at  the  meeting  in  Trac^- 
enberg,  where  the  emperor  Alexander  pre- 
sented hhn  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  where 
the  general  plan  of  the  campaign  was  decided 
upon.  As  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  of 
the  north,  composed  of  Swedes,  Russians, 
Prussians,  English,  Hanseatic,  and  north  Qer- 
man  troops,  he  kept  up  very  equivocal  connec- 
tions with  the  French  army,  managed  by  an  in- 
dividual who  frequented  his  head-quarters  as  a 
friend,  and  grounded  on  his  presumption  that 
the  French  would  gladly  exchange  Napoleon's 
rule  for  Bemadotte's,  if  he  on^  gave  them 
prooft  of  forbearance  and  clemency.  Oon- 
sequently,  he  prevented  the  generals  placed 


under  his  command  from  taking  the  offensive, 
and  when  Bulow  twice,  at  Grossbeeren  and 
Dennewitz,  had  vanquished  the  French  despite 
his  orders,  stopped  the  pursuit  of  the  beaten 
army.  When  Bltloher,  in  order  to  force  him  to 
action,  had  marched  upon  the  Elbe,  and  effected 
his  junction  with  him,  it  was  only  the  threat 
held  out  b^  Sir  Ohaiiea  Stewart,  the  Enslish 
commissary  in  his  camp,  of  stopping  the  supplies, 
that  induced  him  to  move  gel  Still  the  Swedes 
appeared  on  the  battle  field  of  Leipdc  for  ap- 
pearance' sake  only,  and  during  the  whole  cam- 
p>aign  lost  not  200  men  Ixuore  the  enemy, 
when  the  allies  entered  France,  he  retained  the 
army  of  Sweden  on  her  frontiers.  After  Na- 
poleon's abdication,  he  repaired  personally  to 
Paris  to  remind  Alexander  of  the  promises  held 
out  to  him  at  Abo.  Talleyrand  cut  short  his 
puerile  hopes  by  telling  the  coundl  of  the  allied 
t±[ig8,  that  '^  there  was  no  alternative  but  Bona- 
parte or  the  Bourbons, — every  thinff  else  being  a 
mere  intrigue."  Oharles  John  havmg,  after  the 
battle  of  Leipsic,  invaded  the  duchies  of  Hol- 
stein  and  Schleswig^  at  the  head  of  an  army 
oompoeed  of  Swedes,  Germans,  and  Rusaans, 
fVederic  V I.,  king  of  Denmark,  in  the  presence 
of  vastly  superior  forces,  was  forced  to  sign, 
Jan.  14, 1814,  the  peace  of  EieL  by  which  Noz^ 
way  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Tne  Norwegians, 
however,  demurring  to  being  so  unceremo- 
niously disposed  ot  proclaimed  the  independ- 
ence of  Norway  under  the  auspices  of  Ohristii^ 
FrederiC)  crown  prince  of  Denmark.  The  repre- 
sentatives of  the  nation  assembling  at  Edisvold, 
adopted.  May  17, 1814^  a  constitution  still  in 
force,  and  the  most  democratic  of  modern  Eu- 
rope. Having  put  in  motion  a  Swedish  army 
and  fleet  and  seized  upon  the  fortress  of  Fred- 
erickstadt,  which  commands  the  access  to 
Ohristiania,  Oharles  John  entered  into  nego- 
tiation, agreed  to  consider  Norway  as  an  inde- 
pendent state  and  to  accept  the  constitution  of 
Edisvold,  carried  the  assent  of  the  assembled 
storthing  Oct  7,  and  Nov.  10, 1814^  repured 
to  Ohristiania,  there,  in  his  own  and  the  Idng'a 
name,  to  take  the  oath  upon  the  constitution. 
—Oharles  XIII.  expiring  Feb.  6, 1818,  Bema- 
dotte, under  the  name  of  Oharles  XIY.  John, 
was  acknowledged  by  Europe  as  king  both  of. 
Sweden  and  Norway.  He  now  attempted  to 
change  the  Norwec^n  constitution,  to  restore 
the  abolished  nobility,  to  secure  to  himself  an 
absolute  veto  and  the  rig^t  of  ^missing  all 
officers,  dvil  and  military.  This  attempt  gave 
rise  to  serious  conflicts,  and  led,  March  18, 
1828,  even  to  a  cavalry  charge  upon  the  inhab- 
itants of  Ohristiania,  who  were  celebrating  the 
anniversary  of  their  oonstitution.  A  violent 
outbreak  seemed  inmiinent,  when  the  French 
revolution  of  1880  caused  the  king  to  resort  for 
the  moment  to  conciliatory  steps.  Still  Norway, 
for  the  acquisition  of  which  he  had  sacrificed 
every  thing,  remained  the  constant  source  of 
embarrassments  throughout  his  whole  reign. 
After  the  first  days  of  the  French  revolution  of 
1880,  there  existed  a  sin^e  man  in  Europe  who 


BERKALILLO 


SAINT  BERNARD 


181 


thonsht  the  king  of  Sweden  a  fit  pretender  for 
the  jrrenoh  throne,  and  that  man  was  Bema- 
dotte  Mmself.  More  than  onoe  he  repeated  to 
the  Freneh  dlplomatio  asenta  at  Stockholm, 
^^How  does  it  happen  mat  Laffltte  has  not 
thought  of  me  f ''  The  changed  aspect  of  EoropCL 
and,  ahove  all,  the  Polish  insurrection,  inspired 
him  for  a  moment  with  the  idea  of  making  front 
against  Rnssia.  His  often  in  this  sense  to  Lord 
Palmerston  meeting  with  a  flat  refiisa],  he  had 
to  expiate  his  transitory  idea  of  independence 
hr  Gondnding,  June  28,  1884^  a  convention 
of  alliance  witli  the  emperor  Nicholas,  which 
rendered  him  a  yassal  of  Russia.  From  that 
moment  his  policy  in  Sweden  was  distinguished 
by  encroachments  on  the  liberty  of  the  press, 
persecntion  of  the  crime  of  JMe^majetiU^  and 
resistance  to  improvements,  even  snch  as  the 
emancipation  of  industry  from  the  old  laws  of 
gnilds  and  corporations.  By  playing  upon  the 
jealousies  of  the  different  oilers  constituting 
the  Swedish  diet,  he  long  succeeded  in  para- 
lynng  all  movement,  but  the  liberal  resoHitions 
of  the  diet  of  1844,  which  were  to  be  converted, 
according  to  the  constitution,  into  laws  by  the 
diet  of  1846,  threatened  his  policy  with  final 
discomfiture,  when  his  deam  occurred. — ^If 
Sweden,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  XIY., 
partly  recovered  from  a  century  and  a  half  of 
miseries  and  misfortunes,  this  was  due  not  to 
Bemadotte,  but  exclusively  to  the  native  ener- 
gies of  the  nation,  and  the  agencies  of  a  long 
peace. 

BERNALILLO,  a  county  in  the  E.  central 
part  of  New  Mexico,  with  an  area  of  about  900 
sq.  m.  The  Rio  Grande  and  the  Rio  Pueroo, 
which  intersect  it,  and  the  Rio  de  San  Jose, 
which  forms  its  southern  boxmdary,  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.  The  surfoce  in  the  E.  is  rough 
and  mountainous.  In  1850,  this  county  yielded 
1*7,701  bushels  of  wheat,  89,808  of  com,  2,800 
of  peas  and  beans,  S^SOO  pounds  of  wool,  and 
890  gallons  of  wine.  Pop.  7,751.  Albuquerque 
is  the  chief  town. 

BERNARD,  saint  and  doctor  of  the  Latin 
church,  bom  at  Fontaines,  in  Burgundy,  in 
1091,  died  in  the  abbey  of  Clairvaux.  Aug.  20, 
1158.  Both  of  his  parents  belongea  to  noble 
families.  His  Either,  Tescelin,  was  a  knight  of 
the  house  of  Oh&tillon,  and  his  mother,  Aleth, 
was  a  daughter  of  Oount  Bernard  of  Mont- 
bard.  Bernard  was  the  8d  of  a  fiunily  of  7 
children.  Before  his  birth  his  mother  saw  in 
her  dream  a  white  dog,  spotted  with  red,  and 
barking  fiercely.  The  dream  was  interpreted 
to  sign&y  that  the  child  to  be  bom  should  be  a 
guaraian  to  the  church,  a  foe  to  its  enemies, 
and  should  bark  loudly  against  them.  It  is  un- 
certain whether  the  name  afterwiud  given  to 
Bernard  of  "  watch-dog  to  the  church,"  pro- 
duced the  legend,  or  the  legend  produced  the 
name.  fVom  the  beginning  the  child  was  des- 
tined to  a  derical  and  scholastic  life,  to  which  he 
was  inclined  by  his  native  preference.  His  early 
thirst  for  knowledge  was  amazing.  While  his 
brothers  shared  the  martial  tastes  of  their  rest- 


lees  father,  Bernard,  busy  in  his  studies,  was 
astonishing  all  his  teachers  at  Oh&tillon.  His 
love  for  study  was  accompanied  and  sanctified  by 
ascetio  practices,  which  his  mother  encouraged. 
Visions  of  the  infant  Jesus  were  granted  to 
him,  and  both  mother  and  son  were  instant  in 
prayer  that  all  worldly  passions  might  be  extin- 
guished in  their  hearts.  On  his  return  from 
the  school  at  Oh4tillon  he  entered  into  a  sort 
of  domestic  cloister,  the  blessed  society  of 
which  was  too  soon  broken  by  the  death  of  his 
mother.  At  this  tune  he  was  19  years  old.  Hia 
youthful  friends  took  advantage  of  this  event  to 
try  upon  him  the  £ascinations  of  a  worldly  life. 
But  the  memory  of  his  mother  was  stronger 
than  their  persuasions ;  the  charms  of  splendor, 
and  fame,  and  love,  which  they  set  before  him, 
could  not  change  his  native  bias,  and  he  deter- 
mined, at  any  cost,  to  be  a  monk.  The  paasion 
which  tempted  St.  Anthony  was  cured,  it  is 
said,  in  Bemard^s  case  by  a  timely  bath  in  a 
tank  of  cold  water,  vrhiSb.  chilled  out  of  his 
body  all  impure  and  unhallowed  heat.  Like 
Augustine  and  Gregory,  and  many  of  the  early 
figtthers,  he  asserted  a  miraculous  cal(  to  the 
monastic  life.  And  he  would  not  go  alone  to  his 
convent  He  remembered,  like  Dives  in  the  par- 
able, that  he  had  **  five  brethren,"  and  his  first 
care  was  to  make  these  brethren  such  as  him- 
self, and  bring  them  to  share  his  holy  lot; 
Andrew  and  Bartholomew,  younger  brothers, 
were  easily  won.  Quy,  the  eldest,  was  for  a 
time  retained  by  his  wife,  but  a  judicious  appeal 
to  her  fears  overcame  her  reluctance,  ana  she 
consented  to  go  to  a  nunnerv  and  leave  her  lord 
to  his  religious  destiny.  A  rich  and  warlike 
uncle  was  next  the  proselyte  of  his  pious  n^ 
phew,  and  giving  up  castles,  and  retainers,  and 
treasure,  assumed  the  cowl  and  frock  of  perpet- 
ual poverty.  Gerard,  the  second  brother,  was 
more  insensible.  He  loved  the  excitement  of 
knightly  life,  and  could  not  believe  that  the 
worid  and  its  good  things  ought  to  be  deq>iBed. 
A  wonderful  vision  disarmed  hisobstinacy.  Ly- 
ing wounded  in  a  dungeon,  he  saw  and  heard 
the  Holy  Spirit  edging  to  his  mind  a  prophecy 
which  his  brother  had  made,  that  by  that  wound 
the  Lord  would  find  the  way  to  his  heart 
Then,  as  to  Paul  at  Philippi,  the  prison  doors 
were  opened,  his  chains  were  thrown  o%  and 
he  was  led  into  the  church  by  Bernard  to  join 
the  devoted  brotherhood.  The  rule  chosen  by 
the  brethren  was  the  new  Cistercian  rule,  and 
they  applied  themselves  diligently  to  fulfil  their 
season  of  novitiate.  Bernard^s  discipline  was 
rigorous  in  the  extreme.  His  labors  were  se- 
vere, his  fastings  protracted,  his  sensibilities 
were  blunted  by  various  exposure,  till  he  lost 
almost  all  sense  of  outward  impressions.  His 
meagre  and  haggard  firame  was  a  fearfhl  wit- 
ness of  the  struggle  of  the  soul  in  its  contest 
with  the  body.  Bernard  gloried  in  this  physi- 
cal  weakness,  and  used  it  as  a  proselyting  influ- 
ence. His  novitiate  year  brought  numerous 
converts.  Sons  were  separated  from  fathers, 
husbands  from  wives,  the  knight  from  his  hall, 


182 


SAINT  BERNARD 


and  the  epicure  firom  his  ple&snre,  to  try  the 
blessing  of  a  hermit  life.  A  eon  and  a  sister  of 
the  devoted  fkmilj  remained  yet  to  be  won  to 
the  churoh.  Niyard,  the  Bei^amin  of  the 
bouse,  was  left  to  comfort  the  old  father, 
forsaken  by  bis  children.  But  the  boy  pre- 
ferred a  heavenly  to  an  earthly  father,  and  the 
prospect  of  a  fuller  inheritance  could  not  keep 
mm  back.  ''It  is  too  nn&ir,"  said  Nivard; 
"you  give  me  earth  while  you  take  heaven.  I 
must  go  with  you."  Daily  new  recruits  were 
added,  and  before  Olairvauz  had  gathered 
its  company,  the  slopes  of  the  Alps  and 
Pyr6n6e3  testified,  by  their  frequent  proces- 
sions and  their  multiplied  vi^ls,  to  the  effi- 
cient zeal  of  the  youi^r  Cistercian  evangelist. 
The  year  of  novitiate  was  passed  by  the  breth- 
ren in  the  convent  of  Giteaux.  In  this  time 
several  new  convents  had  been  founded  in  the 
neighborhood.  The  abbot  of  Oiteauz.  a  shrewd 
and  skilful  judge  of  character,  had  discovered 
qualities  in  Bernard  which  indicated  him  as  the 
proper  head  of  a  new  foundation.  In  the  year 
1115,  Bernard,  with  12  monks,  among  whom 
were  his  brothers,  was  sent  out  to  find  in  the 
province  of  Champagne  a  suitable  place  for  & 
Cistercian  community.  He  chose  a  wild  gorge 
in  the  diocese  of  Langres,  noted  as  a  baunt  of 
robbers,  the  ill-omened  name  of  which  was 
the  "Valley  of  Wormwood."  Here  the  self- 
denying  brethren  built  their  cells,  arranged 
their  duties,  chose  Bernard  their  abbot,  and 
attracted  by  their  sanctity  such  crowds  of  vis- 
itors that  the  new  name  of  '' Clairvauz,"  or 
''Beautiful  Valley,"  seemed  £urly  justified. 
The  numbers  of  the  brotherhood  rapidly  multi- 
plied. Their  charities  were  ^e  praise  of  ^ 
the  region.  Their  austerities  recidled  the  le- 
gendary story  of  eastern  cenobites.  The  gifts 
which  came  to  them  were  at  once  redistributed 
to  the  poor  and  the  penitent.  In  all  their  la- 
bors, in  all  their  watchings,  in  aU  ^eir  self-de- 
nials, Bernard  was  foremost,  and  the  pride  of 
asceticism  was  shamed  by  his  ghastiy  counte- 
nance and  emaciated  frame.  The  fame  of 
mirade  was  speedily  added  to  the  evidence*  of 
such  endurance.  Men  came  to  Clairvauz  to  be 
healed  of  their  infirmities  by  one  whom  sick- 
ness had  reduced  almost  to  spiritual  propor- 
tions, and  whose  courage  and  power  no  dis- 
ease or  starvation  seemed  able  to  destroy. 
Without  the  care  of  an  earthly  friend,  however, 
it  is  probable  that  the  protection  of  the  Divine 
Spirit  would  have  fJEuled  to  rescue  the  abbot 
from  his  obstinate  self-inunolation.  This  friend 
felt  that  it  was  too  soon  for  so  rare  a  man  to 
die.  Compelled  by  superior  authority  to  sub- 
mit himself  to  regimen  and  a  phyeician,  Ber- 
nard, against  his  wilL  recovered;  but  the 
chapter  of  his  long  sickness  is  as  edifying  as 
any  of  his  life.  William  of  Champeauz,  the 
friend  who  saved  him  from  himself,  has  given 
a  glowing  account  of  his  interviews  with  the 
sufferer  in  those  hours  of  pain,  the  patience, 
humilitv,  trust,  exaltation  of  that  darkened 
cell, — ^the  visible  forma  of  saints,  angels,  and 


the  Yii^n,  which  came  to  lend  aid  to  their 
wailing  devotee, — the  celestial  music  which 
seemed  to  fioat  around,  and  the  inspired  words 
which  seemed  to  flow  like  a  heavenly  voice 
from  the  lips  of  this  dying  Christian.  The 
restoration  from  such  a  sickness  seemed  a  new 
mirade.  It  taught  Bernard  a  useful  lesson : 
that  immoderate  self-denial  was  not  less  an 
evil  than  immoderate  indulgence.  Henceforth, 
recognizing  his  own  weakness  of  body,  he  was 
less  enthusiastic  in  his  austerities.  Hie  12  suc- 
ceeding years  of  Bernard's  life  were  devoted 
to  monastic  work,  either  in  the  reform  and  di- 
rection of  the  convents  already  established,  or 
in  suggestions  concerning  new  establishments. 
His  correspondence  in  this  period. was  vast, 
and  he  gave  audience  to  great  numbers  who 
came  to  consult  him.  His  studies  were  not 
less  vigorously  prosecuted,  both  in  scriptural 
and  patristic  lore;  and  while  metropolitan 
bishops  marvelled  at  his  sagadtyj  the  monks  of 
his  convent  listened  with  admiration  to  his 
daily  religious  readings.  Augustine's  theology 
and  the  Cantides  of  Solomon  were  favorite 
themes.  In  the  year  1124  his  heart's  dedre 
was  gratified  by  the  vows  which  the  last  of  his 
family,  Hnmbetine^  his  only  sister,  offered  at 
one  of  the  convents  of  his  foundation.  Two 
years  before  she  had  visited  Clairvauz,  and 
had  been  so  impressed  with  the  sanctity  of  its 
life  that  she  returned  determined  to  renounce 
the  pomp  of  the  world,  the  charms  of  her 
high  social  rank,  and  the  society  of  her  noble 
husband,  for  a  home  in  the  doister.  A  post- 
humous sainthood  rewarded  her  devotion. 
The  eminent  fitness  of  Bernard  for  public 
affiiirs  compelled  him  gradually  to  engage  in 
labors  of  a  different  kind.  He  was  repeatedly 
called  abroad  to  reconcile  disputes  between 
bishops  and  their  dioceses,  between  the  church 
and  the  nobles.  No  arbiter  had  such  influence. 
The  prelates  of  the  church  could  depend  upon 
him  to  sustain  them  against  the  dvil  power, 
but  he  asked  in  return  that  they  should  renounce 
the  luxuries  of  secular  living.  Abbot  Suger, 
prime  minister  of  Louis  the  Fat,  was  persuaded 
by  Bernard  to  relinquish  his  secular  station  and 
confine  himself  at  St.  Denis  to  his  religious 
charge.  Henry,  archbishop  of  Sens,  and  Ste- 
phen of  Paris,  were  supported  in  their  appeal 
to  Bome,  against  the  king,  by  the  commanding 
voice  of  the  abbot  of  Clairvauz.  At  the  coun- 
cil of  Troyes,  in  1128,  he  vindicated  the  canons 
of  the  diurch,  and  took  part  in  those  stormy 
debates  about  the  excesses  of  the  Templar 
knights.  At  the  council  of  Chlilons,  in  1 129,  he 
assisted  to  d^ose  the  bishop  of  Verdun.  Ke- 
peated  offers  of  lucrative  sees  were  steadily 
refused  by  him.  He  preferred  to  dictate  Cath- 
olic &ith  and  practice  from  his  convent,  rather 
than  accept  any  bishopric.  In  the  year  1180, 
an  event  occurred  which  drew  Bernard  from 
the  sedusion  of  his  convent,  and  caused  him 
to  make  longer  journeys  and  enter  more  into 
political  life  than  ever  before.  Less  than  60 
years  after  the  death  of  Hildebrand,  the  mag- 


SAINT  BEBNABD 


183 


nificent  papal  empire  which  he  had  conaoli- 
dated  was  threatened  with  rain  by  a  sohism  in 
the  sacred  college.  Rival  claimantB  disputed 
the  divine  right  of  spiritoal  lordships.  Before 
the  death  of  Honorius  11.,  the  succession  had 
been  apx>arentl7  secured  by  Peter  of  Leon,  a 
cardinal  whose  ability,  learning,  and  eloquence, 
all  confessed,  whose  wealth  was  unbounded, 
and  whose  genius  for  management  few  could 
resist.  The  chief  objections  to  him  were  that 
he  was  the  son  of  a  Jew,  and  that  his  tastes 
were  rather  secular  than  religious.  On  the 
deadi  of  Honorius,  -mthout  making  official  an- 
nouncement or  caUing  a  regular  meeting  of  the 
college,  the  cardinals  who  were  hostile  to 
Peter  met  secretly,  and  published  simultane- 
ously with  the  announcement  of  the  death  of 
the  fbrmer  pope,  the  name  of  the  new  one, 
Innocent  n.,  whom  they  had  chosen.  The 
partisans  of  Peter,  indignant  at  the  act,  held 
at  once  a  counter  meeting,  and  chose  Peter, 
who  took  the  name  of  Anacletus.  The  strife  was 
unequal.  Wealth  and  ability  turned  the  scale  in 
f&vor  of  the  cardinal  of  Leon.  Innocent  and  his 
partisans  were  compelled  to  seek  refhge  in 
Tuscany,  and  leave  the  Jew^s  son  to  reign 
in  the  capital  of  Ohristendom.  The  king  of 
France  seized  the  opportunity  of  interfering, 
and  called  a  council  at  Stampes,  near  Paris,  to 
decide  between  the  claimants.  Bernard  came 
to  this  council,  gave  his  support  to  Innocent, 
and  procured  a  decree  in  favor  of  the  exile. 
He  sustained  the  cause  of  the  poor  claimant 
against  the  rich,  of  the  humble  Ohristian  against 
the  haughty  grandee.  It  was  easier,  however, 
to  decree  the  right  of  Innocent  than  to  rest(H-e 
him  to  Rome  or  depoee  his  rival.  The  consent 
of  the  sovereigns  of  Europe  must  first  be  ob- 
tained, and  the  pretensions  of  Anacletus  must 
first  be  set  aside  in  the  secular  courts.  Bernard 
undertook  the  task  of  doiuff  this.  He  became 
Innocent's  missionary.  I&nry,  of  England, 
who  was  first  visited,  hesitated  to  admit  the 
justice  of  Innocent's  cause,  but  yielded  to  the 
obliging  offer  of  Bernard:  *^Tou  can  answer 
to  God  for  all  your  other  sins,"  said  the  astute 
abbot^  ''leave  this  to  me;  I  will  take  the  re« 
sponsibilityl'^  From  England,  after  a  tour  of 
preaching  through  France,  in  which  he  left 
every  one  devoted  to  Innocent,  Bernard 
sought  the  German  emperor,  already  half  in- 
clined to  Innocent's  party.  At  Li^ge  the  solemn 
meeting  took  place  between  the  greatest  of  tern* 
poral  and  the  chief  of  spiritual  sovereigns  (for 
Innocent  had  accompanied  Bernard  on  this 
journey).  Holding  the  bridle  <^  the  pope's 
horse,  the  emperor  led  his  holy  guest  through 
the  s^'eets  of  the  city.  But  more  conspicuous 
than  either  pope  or  emperor  in  the  procession 
was  the  gaunt  and  bent  figure  of  that  monk, 
whose  works  and  worth  had  won  for  him, 
throughout  all  Europe,  the  renown  of  a  saint. 
Lothaire  was  willing  to  defend  the  claim  of  In- 
nocent, if  he  might  be  allowed  the  right  of  iu- 
restiture,  formerly  exercised  by  the  German 
emperors,     Bernard  would  not  n^iake  any  such 


ooncession,  or  consent  to  yield  any  point  which 
the  church  had  gained  upon  the  state.  He  ask- 
ed, and  finally  won  from  the  emperor,  an  un- 
conditional support  of  Innocent  The  grateful 
pope  in  the  next  year,  1181,  honored  his  advo- 
cate by  a  visit  to  Clairvaux,  where  himself  and 
his  companions  were  greatly  edified  and  moved 
by  the  simple  furniture,  the  coarse  garments, 
the  scanty  fare,  and  the  pious  hymns  of  the  Ois- 
teroian  brotherhood,  l^ew  privileges  to  the 
order  were  the  result  of  this  visit,  and  the  tithes 
which  they  had  paid  to  the  elder  order  of  Olu- 
ny  from  henceforth  ceased.  In  1182  Bemiu^ 
accompanied  Innocent  into  Italy.  His  labors  in 
this  peninsula  were  various  and  excessive.  The 
division  between  its  various  states  tended  to 
hinder  the  restoration  of  Oatholic  unity.  Some 
of  them  had  already  declared  for  Anacletus,  in 
hatred  to  others  who  were  favorable  to  Inno- 
cent It  was  Bernard's  joy  to  reconcile  these 
hereditary  foea.  First  Genoa,  whose  jealousy  of 
Pisa  was  obstinate  and  deep-rooted,  was  subdued 
by  the  preaching  of  the  great  apostle,  until 
the  people  almost  forced  mm  to  stay  as  their 
chief  bishop.  Then  Pisa,  in  turn,  yielded  to  the 
persuasionB  of  his  eloquence.  In  turbulent 
iGlan  he  found  a  harder  task ;  but  here,  too, 
the  prejudice  of  prelates  and  the  passions 
of  the  multitude  were  charmed  into  submis- 
sion, and  the  city  claimed  the  saintly  media- 
tor to  be  the  fit  successor  of  Ambrose  in  their 
cathedral  chdr.  Bernard  could  hardly  with- 
hold himself  from  their  urgency.  He  granted 
them  the  partial  boon  of  a  Cistercian  colony. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  indefisitigable  missionary 
was  found  negotiatmg  at  the  German  court,  to 
reconcile  an  imperial  undo  with  the  nephews 
of  his  predecessor,  Oonrad  and  Frederic;  and 
a  finer  issue  of  this  secondary  mission  was  the 
conversion  of  the  dudiess  Aloide,  sister  to  Lo- 
thaire, from  her  scandalous  life  to  the  practice 
of  piety.  Returning,  after  6  years  of  confiict, 
to  his  quiet  home  at  Ohdrvaux,  he  was  delighted 
to  find  its  aflOEdrs  peaceful  and  prosperous,  unity 
of  spirit  among  the  brethren,  and  a  welcome  as 
fraternal  as  that  which  Alpine  peasants  had 
given  him  all  along  ius  way.  If  the  shepherds 
came  down  from  their  rocks  and  begged  nim  to 
bless  their  ofadldren,  the  monks  wept  for  joy 
when  they  embraced  the  knees  of  their  holy 
director.  £Qs  hope  of  rest  was  soon  disappoint- 
ed. The  embers  of  schism  rekindled.  Count 
William  of  Aquitaine,  the  boldest  of  French 
barons,  had  sworn  an  oath  to  listen  to  no  sophis- 
tries which  should  persuade  him  and  his  people 
away  from  their  allegiance  to  Anacletus.  His 
arbitraiy  insolence,  the  terror  inspired  by  his 
gigantic  presence,  and  his  real  abuit^,  both  as 
a  statesman  and  a  general,  made  him  a  more 
formidable  enemy  than  Bernard  had  thus  far 
dealt  with.  He  had  deposed  bishops  who  sup- 
ported Innocent  Failing  in  his  argument  with 
this  bold  man,  Bernard  tried  an  experiment, 
such  as  Ambrose  had  tried  with  Theodosius. 
He  chose  the  occasion  of  the  holy  mass  in  the 
churoh  where  William  was  wont  to  attend. 


184 


SAINT  BERNARD 


Tho  mystic  rite  of  transnbstantiation  perform- 
ed, the  moi^  who  eeemed  now  to  the  multi*- 
tade  to  be  a  very  prophet  of  Gk>d,  lifted  the 
paten  with  its  wafer,  bore  it  oot  to  meet  the 
entering  count,  and,  with  stem  voice  and  flash- 
ing eye,  thus  addresed  him :  ^*  We  have  prayed 
to  yon,  and  yon  have  despised  ns.  With  many 
servants  of  God  we  have  prayed,  and  yon  have 
mocked  onr  vows.  Now  comes  to  yon  the  Son 
of  the  Virgin,  the  head  of  the  church  whom 
you  persecute.  Now  stands  here  thy  Judge,  the 
Judge  of  all  t^e  earth !  Wilt  thou  despise,  as 
thou  hast  despised  his  servants,  the  Judge  into 
whose  hands  ^y  soul  shall  fiedl?"  Trembling,  the 
crowd  waited  the  issue.  An  instant  more,  and 
the  scowling  hero  turned  pale,  and  the  haughty 
count  fell  like  a  dead  man  at  the  feet  of  the 

Erophet.  He  rose  a  penitent ;  and  two  years 
iter,  they  wondered  to  see  this  reckless  leader 
go  off  to  finish  his  course  and  die  a  martyr  in 
pilgrimage  to  the  shrine  of  the  Spanish  St 
James.  In  1187,  Bernard  was  a  8d  time  sum- 
moned from  the  quiet  of  his  convent,  to  plead 
the  (Arise  of  Innocent,  before  King  Roger,  of 
Sicily,  who  had  possessed  himself  of  the  holy 
city.  The  necessity  of  unity  in  the  church,  and 
the  right  of  m^orities  to  decide  disputed  ques- 
tions, were  arguments  which  Roger  and  his  par- 
tisans could  not  well  resist.  The  opportune 
death  of  Anacletus  weakened  the  schism  still 
further;  and,  although  the  form  of  electing 
his  successor  was  tried,  the  party  were  forced 
to  confess  themselves  vanquished,  and  the 
persevering  abbot  received  the  testimonies 
of  their  final  submission.  Innocent  was  in- 
stalled at  Rome,  and  Bernard  was  able  to  see 
the  fruit  of  his  8  years  of  toil  and  contest. 
Thus  fjEur  the  public  work  of  Bernard  had  been 
mainly  against  schism.  He  was  now  to  enter 
the  field  against  heresy,  and  in  defence  of  tradi- 
tional Oat£olio  faith.  A  visit  to  the  convent  of 
the  Paradetei,  of  which  Heloise  was  abbess,  had 
acquainted  him  with  the  views  and  principles 
of  Abelard,  the  great  scholastic  reformer. 
Through  his  influence,  in  the  year  1140,  a 
council  was  held  at  Sens  to  consider  those  opin- 
ions. From  a  conviction  that  his  cause  was 
hopeless,  or  from  fear,  as  some  say,  Abelard  did 
not  dare  to  justify  himself  before  the  council, 
and  his  default  was  pronounced,  with  his  sen- 
tence as  a  heretic.  His  death  at  Oluny,  on 
the  journey  which  he  was  making  to  Rome, 
saved  his  adversary  from  the  annoyance  of  fur- 
ther controversy.  In  this  and  subsequent  years 
Bernard's  life  was  embittered  by  misunder- 
standings with  the  pope,  who  preferred  the 
good-wiU  of  the  secular  powers  to  the  friend- 
ship of  that  religious  vassal  who  had  placed 
him  on  the  papal  throne.  In  touching  re- 
proaches Bernard  expresses  his  sorrow  at  this 
mgratitude  and  neglect.  His  influence  at  Rome, 
however,  was  soon  reguned.  After  the  short 
reigns  of  Oelestine  II.  and  Ludus  H.,  one  of  Ids 
own  spiritual  children,  another  Bernard  of 
Glairvaux,  was  called  to  the  chair  of  St.  Peter. 
Eugenius  HI.  (for  that  was  the  name  which  the 


GiBtercian  assumed)  hastened  to  declare  his  foil 
confidence  in  his  religious  father.     Bernard 
could  write  to  him   playfully,  but  proudly: 
*'  They  say  that  I  am  more  the  pope  than  yon 
are.^'    The  confidence  of  Eugene  was  speedilv 
proved  by  the  work  which  he  intrusted  to  his 
friend  of  preaching  and  organizing  a  new  cnn 
sade.    Already  the  Christian  kingdom  in  Syria, 
which  Grodfrey  and  his  followers  had  won,  was 
rent  by  internal  feuds,  and  menaced  by  the 
gathering  forces  of  the  Saracens,  who  had  made 
head  at  Edessa.    Returning  pilgrims  brought 
back  doleful  tidings,  and  the  call  for  aid  was 
too  loud  to  be  disregarded.    King  Louis,  of 
France,  was  ready  to  go,  and  only  asked  for 
the  sympathy  of  his  people  and  the  alliance  of 
the  German  emperor.    Bernard  now  took  up 
the  mission  of  Peter  the  Hermit.     He  ran 
through  France  and  Germany,  in  dties  and  vil- 
lages, stirring  up  high  and  low,  arousing  indif- 
ference, inflaming  piety,  opening  the  coffers  of 
the  rich,  promising  indulgence  to  the  profligate^ 
and  calling  all,  saints  and  sinners,  together,  to 
come  to  the  holy  war.    His  success  was  instant 
and  wonderful.    More  than  once  his  robe  was 
torn  to  shreds  in  furnishing  crosses  to  the  eager 
volunteers.    He  writes  to  Eugenius  that  the 
cities  and  castles  are  deserted,  that  the  wives  axe 
becoming  widows,  and  that  there  is  hardly  one 
man  to  7  women.    Soon  he  had  to  moderate 
the  excitement  and  check  the  excesses  of  the 
host  which  he  had  gathered.    He  strove  es- 
pecially to  prevent  the  persecution  of  the  Jews, 
which  was  the  first  sign  of  the  new  Christian 
fury.    In  the  year  1147  the  2  great  expeditions 
set  out.    Oonfrision  marked  their  way,  and  dis- 
aster followed  them.    The  Greek  emperor,  in 
his  dealing  with  Oonrad,  sustained  the  fame  of 
his  race  for  treachery,  and  suffered  the  Grerman 
forces  to  be  cut  to  pieces  by  their  Moslem  foes. 
The  French  expedition  was  equally  unfortunate, 
and,  though  a  fragment  reached  Syria  uid  laid 
siege  to  Damascus,  the  climate  and  vices  of  that 
region  finished  the  destruction  which  the  for* 
tunes  of  war  had  begun.    Mortified  and  d^ect- 
ed,  as  well  by  the  conduct  of  his  queen  as  by 
the  ruin  of  his  enterprise,  Louis  came  back  to 
his  kingdom,  bringing  witii  him  scarcely  a  tenth 
of  the  grand  army  which  had  departed.    The 
weight  of  the  blame  was  thrown  upon  the  ad- 
viser  of  the  ill-starred  expedition,  and  BemardL 
who  had  deprecated  the  evils  and  protested 
against  the  blunders  of  the  campaign,  was  curs- 
ed in  hall  and  cabin,  by  priest  and  prince,  by 
widow  and  orphan^  for  its  fatal  result.    His 
firmness  had  well-ni^h  fpyea  way  under  such 
reproaches.    His  evident  error  in  judgment  was 
treated  as  crune,  and  the  &ct  that  he  had  not 
accompanied  the  host  seemed  to  testify  against 
him.    The  fietme  of  Bernard,  tarnished  by  this 
disaster  abroad,  was  retrieved  by  his  succesafbl 
warfare  with  new  heresy  at  home.    He  cleans- 
ed Languedoc  from  the  scandal  which  Henry 
of  Lausanne  and  Peter  of  Bruis,  the  Oathari,  or 
Purist,  leaders  had  brought  upon  that  province. 
These  men  had  inveighed  against  the  vices  of 


SAINT  BEBKABD 


185 


the  cl«^,  and  proolaimed  a  retnm  to  the  sim- 
ple deoencies  of  the  gospel  age.  Bernard  hated 
liLZory  in  the  priesthood,  but  he  hated  schism 
more;  and  the  same  voice  which  had  protested 
aigainafc  the  persecution  of  Jews  counselled  the 
ezt»mination  of  rebellious  Christians.  A  rabbi 
oould  praise  the  good  monk  who  had  saved  him 
from  massacre,  but  numbers  of  men  and  women 
whose  crime  was  that  thev  exalted  virtue  above 
sabmission,  were  sent  to  death  by  the  approval 
of  this  same  monk.  It  is  the  darkest  q)ot  in 
Bernard's  life.  More  pleasant  is  the  storj  of 
his  reftitation,  at  the  council  at  Bheims,  in  1148, 
of  the  SabeDian  bidiop,  Gilbert  of  Poitiers. 
IFamed  bj  the  fate  of  Abelard,  the  heretic 
bishop  found  it  expedient  to  save  himself  by 
jodicions  concessions.  In  vain,  after  this,  did 
ihej  try  to  engage  Bernard  in  the  preaching  of 
a  new  cmsade.  His  public  life  was  finished. 
His  last  5  yean  were  passed  in  comparative  re- 
tirement, varied  only  by  literary  occupations 
and  the  visits  of  distingnished  friends.  Gu^ 
mard,  king  of  Sardinia,  and  Pope  Eogenius, 
were  at  different  times  his  guests.  The  ^^  burn- 
ing and  shiniug  light  of  the  Irish  church,^' 
Makchi,  saint  and  bishop,  died  on  a  visit  to  the 
home  of  his  early  friend,  and  it  was  Bernard's 
privilege  to  close  the  eyes  and  write  the  life  of 
this  dear  brother  in  the  faith.  That  biography 
established  Malachi's  right  to  sainthood.  The  ab- 
bess Hild^ard,  the  marvel  and  the  enigma  of 
Christian  Europe  in  all  the  12th  century,  found 
in  Bernard  a  friend  who  vindicated  her  at  Bome, 
and  believed  that  her  gift  of  prophecy  was  real 
In  these  last  years  the  most  remarkable  of  Ber- 
nard's compositions  were  written.  But  his 
eysical  powers  were  waning  to  their  end. 
riy  in  1168  a  sickness  attacked  him,  in 
whidi  distress  of  mind  aggravated  his  pains  of 
body.  His  friend  Eugenius  had  departed,  with 
his  other  friends,  before  him,  and  he  had  no 
wish  to  live  longer  in  a  world  so  full  of  sin,  and 
cara,  and  sorrow.  Sad  words  he  dictated  from 
his  ack  bed,  telling  the  trial  of  his  weary  heart. 
Yet  his  £uth  did  not  fail,  and  he  was  ready  for 
more  service  if  the  church  had  need  of  him. 
Summoned  by  the  archbishop  of  Metz  to  heal 
a  bloody  fend  which  had  arisen  in  his  dl- 
ooese,  between  the  knights  and  the  people, 
he  rose  frt>m  his  bed,  made  a  rapid  journey 
of  some  60  miles^  and  met  the  contending 
parties  as  they  stood  arrayed  on  either  side 
of  the  Moselle.  The  nobles  ridiculed  the  in« 
terferoice  ci  this  ghost,  scorned  his  words,  and 
.laughed  at  the  dream  which  he  told  Ihem. 
Bnt  that  very  night  the  prophecy  of  peace 
which  he  left  was  fulfilled,  the  hearts  of  the 
knights  were  melted,  and  the  Gloria  in  exeeUii 
was  chanted  by  the  united  hosts.  This  last 
effort  was  fatal  Bernard  returned  to  his  con- 
Yea%  to  die.  At  the  age  of  68,  surrounded  by 
his  brethren,  he  breathed  his  last  His  body 
was  buried  in  the  church  at  Clairvanx.  He 
had  been  abbot  88  years.  The  public  voice  de- 
manded his  immediate  canonization.  In  the 
year  1166|  12  years  after  his  death,  his  name 


was  set  in  the  calendar  of  the  church  by  Pope 
Alexander,  though,  from  the  great  number  of 
candidates,  it  was  not  openly  proclaimed  among 
the  saints  until  1174. — ^Few  men  have  better 
deserved  this  honor.  Few  have  loved  the 
church  with  more  steadfast  and  unselfish  devo- 
tion. Few  have  rendered  to  it  more  signal 
services.  On  his  moral  purity  no  stain  rests. 
His  stem  integrity  has  never  been  doubted. 
He  enforced  upon  others  no  rule  to  which  he 
was  not  ready  to  conform,  no  duty  which  he 
was  not  ready  to  do.  If  he  loved  infiuenoe 
and  was  not  insensible  to  praise,  he  compro- 
mised no  principle,  and  he  adopted  no  policy 
for  the  sake  of  power  or  applause.  He  was 
by  nature  loyal  to  tradition,  and  suspicious  of 
novelty.  Severe  sometimes  in  his  judgments 
of  others,  he  was  always  severe  in  his  judgment 
of  himself.  His  temper  was  that  of  a  cham- 
pion and  a  ruler,  but  not  of  a  despot.  Skilled 
m  diplomatic  arts,  he  was  yet  intolerant  of  all 
temporiring  or  hesitation  in  the  service  of 
truth.  The  church  knew  him  as  a  trusty  ser- 
vant, faithful  to  his  profession,  terrible  to  all 
its  foes.  TAnlring  that  kindness  of  manner  and 
that  broad  charity  which  made  Peter  the  Ven- 
erable, of  Cluny,  the  friend  of  the  unfortunate, 
Bernard  gained  the  ennobling  reputation  of 
guardian  to  the  fiEuth.  No  man  of  his  age  had 
a  wider  renown.  No  man  of  that  age  fills  a 
larger  place  in  its  history.  Bernard's  reputa- 
tion rests  on  4  substantial  grounds,  his  integrity 
and  consistency  of  personal  character,  his  re- 
markable executive  ability,  his  eloquence  as  a 
preacher,  and  his  affluence  and  skill  as  a 
writer.  Of  his  personal  character  we  have  al- 
ready spoken.  In  proof  of  his  executive  ability, 
apart  from  the  fJEict  that  he  was  for  a  long 
term  of  years  the  virtual  dictator  of  the  church, 
we  have  the  record  of  the  monasteries  which 
he  founded  or  gathered,  viz. :  85  in  France,  11 
in  Spain,  10  in  England  and  Ireland,  6  in  Flan- 
ders, 4  in  Italy,  2  in  Germany,  2  in  Sweden,  1 
in  Hungary,  and  1  in  Denmark.  At  Clairvanx 
at  the  time  of  his  death,  there  were  700  breth- 
ren. Such  oi^ganizing  power  was  unprecedent- 
ed in  mediffival  Christian  history,  and  seemed 
to  entitle  Benutfd  to  rank  with  Basil  and  PauL 
It  is  not  easv,  at  this  distance  of  time,  to  meas- 
ure Bernard^s  influence  as  a  preacher  and  a 
writer!  His  treatises,  authoritative  as  they 
still  are,  have  been  superseded  by  the  works  of 
Bellarmin  and  Aquinas,  and  his  sermons  do  not 
justify  or  explain  his  singular  fame  for  pulpit 
eloquence.  It  needs  nice  discrimination  to 
separate  his  genuine  writings  from  those  which 
have  been  figdsely  attributed  to  him.  Some  of 
these  latter  are  palpable  forgeries;  but  some 
are  dose  imitations  of  his  style  and  man- 
ner. The  genuine  writings  of  Bernard  may 
be  divided  into  8  classes :  episties,  sermons, 
and  treatises,  moral  and  theological.  Of  the 
episties  480  are  contained  in  the  collections  of 
Mabillon  and  Mart^e,  489  of  which  were  the 
work  of  Bernard  himself,  the  remainder  being 
either  addressed  to  him  or  drawn  up  by  his 


186 


SAINT  BEBNABD 


secretarj.  These  letters  are  addressed  to  5 
classes  of  persons :  1,  to  monks  and  abbots ;  2, 
to  archbishops,  bishops,  and  secular  priests ;  8, 
to  the  pope  and  the  yariona  officials  at  the  Bo- 
man  court ;  4,  to  princes,  nobles,  and  states- 
men ;  6,  to  private  individnals.  The  subjects 
of  the  letters  are  very  yarious.  Some  are  mo- 
nastic, dwelling  on  the  needs  and  the  methods 
of  cenobite  life.  Some  are  mystical,  descanting 
npon  the  doubts  and  struggles  of  the  soul  on 
its  way  to  perfection.  Some  treat  of  the  gen- 
eral principles  of  right  and  duty,  some  of  par- 
ticular applications  of  those  principles.  Many 
of  the  letters  are  concerned  with  matters  of 
elections  in  the  church,  gnestiixis  of  disputed 
episcopal  authority  or  fidelity.  Many  of  them 
are  political,  many  dogmatical,  some  highly 
polemic,  and  not  a  few  purely  complimentary 
and  personal  Ohronologically,  the  letters  may 
be  ranged  into  4  series:  the  first  coyering  11 
years,  from  1119  to  1180 ;  the  second  8  years, 
from  1180  to  1188 ;  the  third  7  years,  from 
1188  to  1145 ;  and  the  fourth  the  remaining 
8  years  of  the  writer's  life.  The  general  char- 
acteristics of  all  these  letters  are  earnestness, 
energy,  clearness  of  expression,  and  a  fierce 
sincerity.  One  spirit  breathes  through  them 
all.  The  style  is  unequal,  in  most  instances 
rugged  and  harsh,  quite  lacking  the  grace 
which  adorns  the  letters  of  Abekrd.  The 
efforts  at  wit  are  undignified,  especially  the 
occasional  trayesties  of  the  sentences  of  the 
Scriptures.  It  may  be  said  in  mitigation  of  the 
Judgment  of  Bernard's  rough  st^e,  that  the 
words  of  many  of  his  epistles  are  not  his  own, 
that  he  furnished  the  thoughts  to  be  clothed  in 
words  by  his  scribes.  There  are  some  in  the 
collection,  notably  those  addressed  to  Innocent 
and  Eugenius,  which  are  tenderly  pathetic,  and 
may  pass  as  fine  examples  of  this  kind  of  com- 
position. The  sermons  of  Bernard,  840  in  num- 
ber, may  be  arranged  into  4  dasses:  86  on  the 
Canticles  of  Solomon;  86  on  the  eyents  of  the 
ecclesiastical  year;  48  on  the  saints  and  the 
virgin;  and  126  miscellimeous.  Most  of  them 
are  short  The  sermons  on  the  Oanticles  ex- 
hibit Bernard's  fondness  for  allegories,  and  his 
skill  in  extracting  moral  teaching  from  erotic 
and  poetical  description.  They  explain  only  the 
first  2  chapters  of  this  book.  Gilbert  of  Hol- 
land, about  26  years  after  Bernard's  death,  pub- 
lished a  continuation  of  the  series  on  the  Oan- 
tides,  bringing  the  work  down  to  the  middle  of 
the  6th  chapter.  The  sermons  of  Bernard  can- 
not be  regarded  as  eminent  spedmens  of  relig- 
ious oratory.  They  are  c<Md,  ethical,  some- 
times eyen  obscure.  Written  in  Latin,  they 
aeem  poorly  adapted  to  maJce  impression  eyen 
npon  those  hearers  to  whom  the  Latin  tongue 
was  still  intelligible.  It  is  greatly  to  be  regret- 
ted, that  the  sermons  in  the  common  tongue,  by 
which  Bernard  was  enabled  to  awaken  suc^  a 
mighty  reyiyal  in  Europe,  have  not  been  pre- 
Beryed  to  us,  rather  than  the  uninspiring  and 
aoholastio  compositions  which  remain  to  attest 
his  gifts  as  a  preacher.    The  actual  impressiye- 


ness  of  his  preaching  is  paralleled  only  by  the 
stories  of  the  crowds  in  England  and  America 
which  were  moyed  and  swayed  by  the  f^peals 
of  Whitefield ;  while  the  written  monuments  of 
that  preaching  which  surviye  seem,  as  in  the 
case  of  Whitefield,  wholly  inadequate  to  such  a 
result  The  best  sermons  of  the  collecti<»i  are 
the  eulogies  of  departed  brethren.  Of  the  IS 
treatises  of  Barnard,  the  first  in  time  is  entitled 
the  ''Twelye  Degrcyes  of  Humility  and  Fride.*' 
This  youthful  treatise  is  yery  carefolly  drawn  up, 
and  the  antitheses,  though  redundant,  are  often 
ingenious.  The  work  on  ^  The  Loye  of  God,'' 
seems  to  show  that  Bernard  was  not  a  believer 
in  perfect  disinterestedness  of  loye.  It  is  a  log- 
ical and  accurate  treatise.  The  ^  Apdogy "  is  a 
seyere  polemic  attack  upon  the  disorders  and 
extrayaganoes  of  the  monks  of  Oluny.  The 
language  is  sharp  and  bitter.  The  treatise  on 
**  Grace  and  Free-will"  is  more  subtle  than  thor- 
ough aa  a  discussion  of  that  subject  The  trea- 
tise De  Otmnern&ne  ad  Clerico9^  exposes  the  ini« 
quities  which  had  crept  into  the  ecdeedasfcical 
life,  and  urges  a  reform.  The  ^*  Exhortations 
to  the  Knights  Templars,"  is  a  panegyric  on 
that  impetuous  order  of  religious  seryanta^ 
with  the  anomaly  of  whose  state  Bernard's 
disposition  and  taste  readily  sympathized. 
Baptism  and  tihe  Incarnation  are  treated  in 
a  work  first  addressed  as  a  letter  to  Hugo  St. 
Victor.  Another  treatise  refutes  the  "Errors 
of  Abelard."  Another,  on  "Precept  and  Dis- 
pensation," answers  interesting  Questions  of 
monastic  morality,  and  is  slill  considered  an  ex- 
cellent conyent  manual.  The  only  biographical 
work  of  Bernard  is  his  life  of  the  bishop  Mai* 
achi,  which  relates  prodigies,  and  indulges 
equally  in  pious  refiections  and  in  harshness  of 
censure.  The  last  and  most  important  of  the 
treatises  of  Bernard  is  his  work  on  ^Oonsidera- 
lion,"  suggested  by  the  yisit  of  Pope  Eugenius 
to  his  monastery,  and  dedicated  to  that  pontifi^ 
It  is  in  6  parts.  In  the  1st,  he  insistsupon  the 
necessity  of  gaining  and  presenting  the  habit  of 
religious  meditation;  in  the  2d, he  tells  what  a 
pope  ought  to  be  and  to  do ;  in  the  Sd,  he 
deals  with  the  relation  of  the  nations  of  the 
earth  to  the  papacy;  in  the  4th,  he  conuders 
the  officers  and  senrants  of  the  papal  court ; 
and  in  the  6th,  he  explains  the  relation  of  the 
pope  to  superior  intelligencea,  to  the  angeLa, 
and  to  GK}d.  The  writings  of  Bernard  giye  as 
the  idea  of  a  patient  and  diligent  scholar,  work- 
ing in  a  limited  rai^  of  study.  He  knew  well 
the  letter  of  the  bcriptores,  but  he  quotes  i^ 
chiefly  from  the  Vulgate,  and  shows  little  ac- 
quaintance with  the  Greek  or  Hebrew  text. 
Among  the  fathers,  Augustine  was  his  &yorite» 
and  his  dogmatic  system  was  a  reproduction 
of  that  great  master.  A  moderate  knowledge 
of  the  classics,  especially  of  Oyid,  cables  hmi 
to  yary  with  occasional  heathen  fancies,  the  se- 
yere force  of  his  argument  and  inyectiye.  He 
had  the  faculty  of  bringing  in  at  the  right  time 
and  place  all  his  knowledge,  and  his  singular 
memory  enabled  him  to  call  up  for  practical 


BERNABD 


187 


use  Hlxistratioiia  wbioh  another  would  have  lost. 
Yet  be  was  able  to  assimilate  his  fruits  of  stady, 
and  no  great  dootor  of  the  church  seems  less 
indebted  to  his  culture  for  his  influence.  He 
was  an  original  thinker,,  independent  in  his 
opinions,  and  his  fresh  strength  makes  the  old 
Tiews  which  he  produces  seem  new  and  pecu- 
liar. In  his  case,  a  mind  naturally  imaginative 
was  trained  and  disciplined  to  the  exigencies  of 
service  in  affisurs  and  to  the  commanding  re- 
straints of  established  institutions  and  traditional 
truth.  One  would  hardly  be  prepared  to  find 
in  such  a  writer  the  talent  of  the  hymnist^  or  to 
expect  from  such  a  source  the  stanzas  of  a  Pru- 
dentins  or  a  Gregory.  Yet  the  works  of  Ber- 
nard have  their  appendix  of  anthology.  The 
watchman  of  the  church  found  leisure  to  be  a 
poet.  And  among  the  most  praised  hymns  of 
the  Boman  breviary  is  that  long  meditation 
mton  the  Saviour  in  stanzas  of  four-fold  rhyme, 
Jmu,  dulcis  fnemoria,  which  has  the  charm  of 
musical  cadence,  if  it  lacks  the  merit  of  correct 
Latinity.— The  works  of  Bernard  have  been 
frequentiy  republished.  The  standiu^  edition 
is  that  of  Mabillon,  in  1690,  in  d  vols.,  folio. 
This  contains  valuable  notes,  in  addition  to  the 
edition  of  1667.  A  new  edition  appeared  in 
1719  and  in  1726.  Another  less  valuable  but 
more  convenient  edition,  by  the  same  &mous 
Benedictine,  is  in  9  vols.  8vo.  The  biographies 
of  Bernard,  some  of  which  descant  most  elo- 
quentiyupon  his  power  as  a  miracle-worker, 
which  in  this  sketch  has  been  left  unnoticed, 
but  which  has  been  for  ages  and  is  still  a  source 
of  the  reverence  in  which  as  a  saint  he  is  held, 
leave  nothing  to  be  desired  concerning  his  his- 
toiy.  Frend),  Italian,  German,  and  English 
writers  have  inade  his  life  a  special  study.  The 
most  recent  and  accessible  are  the  biographies 
of  the  abb6  Batisbonne  (2  vols.  Paris,  1846), 
Neander  (Berlin,  1841\  Montalembert,  Daunon, 
in  voL  IS  of  '*  French  Literary  History,^'  and 
Abel  Deqardins  (Dgon,  1845). 

BERNARD,  Olaudb,  a  French  physician  and 
physiologist,  bom  at  St.  Julien,  in  the  departs 
ment  of  Rhone,  July  12,  1818«  In  1884  he 
went  to  Paris,  intending  to  pursue  literature  as 
a  vocation,  but  not  meeting  with  success,  soon 
gave  np  the  attempt,  and  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine.  He  has  especially  distin- 
guished himself  by  his  researches  in  compara- 
tive anat<Hny  and  physiology,  and  has  been 
nrofessor  in  the  college  of  iVance  during  the 
last  10  years.  He  has  made  special  8tu£es  of 
the  liver  and  pancreas. 

BERNARD.  Edwabd,  a  versatile  English 

scholar  and  divine,  born  May  2,  1688,  near 

Towcester,  in  Nortnamptonsmre,  died  at  Ox- 

Ibrd,  Jan.  12,  1697.    Distinguished  for  a  rare 

knowledge  of  oriental  languages  and  for  his 

acjentifio  attainments,  he  graduated  with  high 

honors  at  the  university  of  Oxford,  officiated  in 

1609  aa  deputy  professor,  and  on  Christopher 

Wren's  retirement  in  1678,  as  professor  of  as- 

tranomy-y  and  finally  in  1691,  after  having  spent 

a  jear  at  Faris^  as  tutor  to  the  children  of 


Oharles  11.  by  the  dachess  of  Cleveland^  he  re- 
linquished the  astronomical  chair,  and  became 
rector  of  Brightwell,  in  Berkshire.  In  math- 
ematics he  rendered  himself  especially  useful  at 
Oxford,  while  he  left  beside  a  great  mass  of  un- 
printed  matter,  over  16  distinct  scientific  and 
theological  publications  and  annotations  on  clas- 
sical works.  One  of  his  most  valued  produc- 
tions is  on  the  su^ect  of  the  ancient  weights 
and  measures ;  and  the  OcUaloffus  Maniitcrip- 
torum  AngUm  et  JBtbemdOf  prepared  by  him,  and 

Cublished  in  1697,  for  the  university  of  Oxford, 
I  still  used  in  that  institution  at  the  present  day. 

BERNARD,  Sm  Fbakois,  an  English  lawyer, 
governor  of  the  American  province  of  New 
Jersey,  firom  1758  to  1760,  and  of  Massachu- 
setts, firom  1760  to  1769,  died  in  London,  July 
1,  1818.  It  was  his  nusfortnne  to  preside  over 
the  latter  province,  and  to  be  an  advocate  of 
the  claims  of  the  crown,  and  of  coercive  meas- 
ures, in  the  period  shortiy  preceding  tiie  out- 
break of  the  American  revolution.  With  no 
talent  for  conciliating,  and  no  insight  into  the 
spirit  which  animated  the  people  whom  he  gov- 
erned, he  fiumed  the  discontent  which  the  Eng- 
Hsh  ministry  originated.  He  brought  the  troops 
into  Boston,  and  prorogued  the  general  court 
when  it  refused  to  make  provision  for  their  sup- 
port He  secretiy  songnt  to  undermine  the 
constitution  of  the  province,  by  changing  its 
charter,  so  as  to  transfer  the  right  of  appointing 
the  council  from  the  general  court  to  the  crown. 
He  was  despised  for  his  cowardice,  duplicity, 
and  avarice,  and  his  letters  to  England  show 
the  readiness  with  which  he  distorted  facts,  and 
magnified  trivial  rumors  into  acts  of  treason. 
The  house  of  representatives  at  length  unani- 
mously voted  a  petition  to  the  king,  humbly 
entreating  that  Sir  Francis  Bernard  might  be 
removed  forever  from  the  government  of  the 
province.  He  was  recalled,  and  as  he  departed 
from  Boston,  the  bells  were  rung,  cannon  fired 
after  him  from  the  wharves,  and  the  liberty 
tree  hung  gayly  with  flags.  The  government, 
however,  manifested  its  approbation  of  his 
course,  by  creating  him  a  baronet.  He  was  a 
man  of  erudition,  had  committed  to  memory  the 
best  passages  of  the  best  authors,  and  was  a 
patron  of  Harvard  college. 

BERNARD,  Jagques,  a  French  writer,  bom 
at  Nyons,  Sept  1, 1668,  died  April  27,  1718. 
A  minister  of  the  reformed  church,  he  fled  to 
Holland  upon  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes,  and  founded  at  the  Hague  a  school  for 
belles-lettres,  philosophy,  and  mathematics. 
He  continued  the  publication  of  the  "  Universal 
Library,"  which  had  been  undertaken  by  Le- 
derc,  and,  in  1698,  succeeded  Bayle  in  editing 
the  journal  entitied  the  *^  Republic  of  Letters.** 
He  made  a  collection  of  the  treaties  of  peace, 
truce,  neutrally,  suspension  of  arms,  and  al- 
liance, and  ower  international  compacts  in 
Europe  from  the  time  of  Charlemagne. 

BERNARD,  John,  English  actor,  bom  at 
Portsmouth,  1756,  died  in  London,  1830.  He 
was  an  excellent  light  comedian,  and  had  some 


188 


BERKABD 


BERNARD  LE  TREVISAN 


ability  ob  a  dramatio  aathor.  For  many  years  he 
was  joint  manager  of  Plymouth  theatre.  His 
firat  appearance  in  London  was  in  1787,  at  Oov- 
ent  Garden  theatre,  as  Aroher  in  the  ^^  Beanos 
Stratagem,'*  and  was  very  saooessAil.  He  was 
secretary  for  9  years  of  the  celebrated  beef- 
steak clnb.  In  1797  he  appeared  for  the  first 
time  in  the  United  States,  at  Birkett's  oirons 
(then  fitted  up  as  a  theatre),  Greenwich  street, 
New  York,  as  Goldfinch  in  the  ^'Boad  to 
Rnin."  He  became  one  of  the  managers  of  the 
Boston  theatre,  in  whidi  capacity  he  continued 
for  several  years,  finally,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land. His  *^  Recollections  of  the  Stage''  (chief- 
ly written  by  his  son)  relates  his  adventures  up 
to  the  period  (June,  1797)  when  he  went  to 
America.  As  he  went  on  the  stage  in  1774. 
and  quitted  it  in  1820,  this  period  included 
exactly  28  years,  or  one-half  of  his  theatrical 
career.  The  book,  though  full  of  anecdote,  was 
not  popular,  and  the  second  part,  which  was  to 
have  related  Mr.  Bernard's  American  experi- 
ences, never  appeared. — ^Wiluam  Batlb,  son 
of  the  above,  bom  at  Boston,  Mass.,  Jan.  1, 1808. 
He  went  to  England  with  his  &ther,  and  his 
first  literary  work  of  any  importance,  was  the 
preparation  for  the  press  of  his  father's  ^^  Recol- 
lections of  the  Stage."  Soon  after  this  he  com^- 
menced  his  career  as  a  dramatic  writer,  and 
has  supplied  the  London  stage  and  actors  with 
a  quick  succession  of  original  plays,  most  of 
which  have  been  as  popular  all  over  the  United 
States  as  in  England.  Msjiy  of  the  pieces  in 
which  the  late  Tyrone  Power  made  his  most 
effective  hits,  were  written  by  Bayle  Bernard. 
Among  his  best  known  plays  are  "  The  Ner- 
vous Man  and  the  Man  of  Nerve,"  ^  The  Irish 
Attorney,"  The  Mummy,"  "His  Last  Legs," 
"Dumb  Belle,"  «  A  Practical  Man,"  "  The  Mid- 
dy Ashore"  "The  Boarding  School,"  "The 
Round  of  Wrong,"  "  A  Splendid  Investment," 
and  "  A  Life's  Trial"  With  the  exception  of 
Jerrold,  no  modem  English  dramatist  has  bor- 
rowed so  little  "  from  the  French."  Mr.  Ber- 
nard's plots  are  well  constructed,  his  leading 
characters  distinctly  individualized,  and  the 
tnorale  of  his  incidents  exemplary. 

BERNARD,  Samubl,  a  Parisian  banker,  bom 
about  1661,  died  1789.  The  son  of  an  artist, 
he  rose,  by  his  financial  abilities,  to  a  position 
of  great  influence,  and  is  said  to  have  amassed 
a  fortune  of  $6,000,000.  His  services  were  put 
in  constant  requisition  by  the  minister  of 
finance,  Ghamillard,  and  his  successor,  Desma- 
rets,  had  more  dealings  with  Bernard  than  with 
any  other  farmer  of  the  public  revenue  in  Paris. 
He  was  personally  introduced  to  Louis  XIV., 
and  afterward  to  Louis  XV.,  both  monarohs 
deeming  it  pradent  to  treat  their  plebeian  but 
powerfvd  creditor  with  the  utmost  kindness 
and  affability.  Lending  lai^  amounts  of  mo- 
ney to  poor  officers  and  other  insolvent  parties, 
without  the  least  prospect  of  return,  he  left 
the  reputation  of  a  man  who  made  a  skilfhl,  but 
also  a  benevolent  use  of  his  means.  His  pecn- 
nlaiy  ability  was  so  great  that  he  was  supposed 


to  have  been  of  Jewish  origin,  although  he 
seems  to  have  been  bom  in  the  Christian  faith. 
He  was  ennobled  for  his  public  services. 

BERNARD,  Simon,  French  general  of  engi- 
neers, bom  at  D61e,  April  28,  1779,  died  in 
Paris,  Nov.  6,  1889,  was  educated  by  chari- 
ty in  his  native  town.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  polytechnic  school,  whither  he  went  on 
foot  and  would  have  died  of  cold  in  the  streets 
of  Paris  but  for  the  care  and  kindness  of  a 
humble  woman,  who  sheltered  him  and  took 
him  to  his  destination.  At  the  school  he  profit- 
ed greatly  by  the  instractions  of  his  masters, 
among  whom  were  La  Place,  De  Fleury,  Four- 
croy,  and  Monge,  obtaining  tiie  second  position 
in  the  class  of  engineering.  He  was  appointed 
into  the  corps  de  gSnie,  and  first  served  in  the 
army  of  the  Rhine,  in  which  he  soon  became  a 
captain.  The  emperor  having  confided  to  him 
an  important  commission,  he  became  his  ude- 
de-camp,  and  during  the  100  days  was  put 
at  the  nead  of  the  topographical  bureau.  Ue 
came  to  America  with  La  Fayette  in  1824^  and 
while  in  this  country  he  was  made  chief  engi- 
neer of  the  army,  in  which  capacity  he  render- 
ed great  service  to  the  country.  He  left  here 
as  his  monuments  some  admirable  works, 
among  them  Fort  Monroe,  at  the  mouth  of 
James  river,  in  Virginia.  Many  of  the  defences 
of  New  York  also  date  from  his  superintendence 
of  the  engineers.  After  the  revolution  of  July 
he  returned  to  France,  and  was  made  aide-de- 
camp of  Louis  Philippe.  On  Sept.  6, 1836,  he 
became  minister  of  war,  having  been  previously 
made  lieutenant-general  of  engineers.  He  re- 
mained in  the  ministry  until  the  fall  of  the 
cabinet  in  April,  1887. 

BERNARD,  Sib  Thoicab,  an  English  baronet 
and  philanthropist,  bom  at  Lincoln,  April  27, 
1750,  died  July  1, 1818.  At  an  early  age  he 
went  with  his  father  to  America,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  Harvard  college.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land while  still  quite  young,  and  was  called  to 
the  bar  in  1780.  He  married,  in  1782,  a  lady 
who  subsequently  became  sole  heiress  of  a  large 
property,  and  during  the  later  years  of  his  life, 
he  devoted  himself  especially  to  philanthropic 
labors,  and  it  was  mainly  through  his  exertions 
that,  in  1796,  a  society  for  the  purpose  of  im- 
proving the  condition  of  the  poor  was  founded 
in  London.  By  his  influence,  also,  a  free  chapel 
for  the  use  of  tiie  poor  was  opened  in  the  quai^ 
ter  of  St.  Giles,  in  that  dty,  and  the  attention 
of  the  public  was  called  to  the  sufierings  of  the 
laboring  classes  and  the  means  of  alleviating 
their  miseries.  He  was  also  active  in  the  eflTorts 
which  led  to  the  foundinff  of  the  "  Royal  In- 
stitution," on  the  plan  of  the  French  academy, 
and  the  British  institution  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  works  of  art 

BERNARD,  St.,  Gbeat  and  Littul  See 
St.  Bernabd. 

BERNARD  LE  TR£VIS AN,  an  alchemist  of 
Padua,  bom  in  1406,  died  in  1490,  who  flourish- 
ed in  society  under  the  titie  of  count  de  la 
Marche  Tr^visane,  and  who  spent  his  life  and 


BKRNABDDT 


BERNAY 


189 


fortune  in  travels  and  inTestigationfl  in  search 
of  the  philosopher's  stone^  to  the  infinite  satis- 
faction  of  the  charlatans  and  adventurers  who 
abonnded  in  Italy  in  the  16th  century,  and  who 
rejoiced  in  taking  advantage  of  his  scientific 
hallncination.  His  complete  writings,  in  Latin 
and  French,  were  pnhlished  long  after  his 
death,  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  and,  al- 
though all  more  or  less  connected  with  the  phi- 
losopher's stone,  they  are  not  without  some 
crude  scientific  theories  ahout  chenustry  and 
heat,  and  were  for  a  long  time  aingnlarly  popu- 
lar with  the  adepts  of  alchemy. 

BERNARDIN,  Saist,  of  Sienna,  bom  at 
Masaa,  in  Italy,  Sept.  8, 1880,  died  at  Aquila,  in 
Abruzzo,  May  20,  1444.  He  became  a  Frands- 
can  friar,  in  a  monastery  near  Sienna,  in  1404,  but 
desiring  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
was  appointed  a  conunissary  of  that  country, 
and  thus  enabled  to  gratify  his  wish.  After 
his  return  he  ac<^uired  a  great  reputation  as  a 
preacher,  and  3  cities  were  rival  suitors  for  the 
nonor  of  having  him  as  a  bishop.  Bemardin, 
however,  was  unwilling  to  accept  the  distinc- 
tion, and  was  made  vicar-general  of  the  friars 
of  the  Observantine  order  in  Italy.  He  is  said 
to  have  founded  more  than  800  monasteries. 
In  1450  he  was  canonized  by  Pope  Nicholas  Y. 
His  works  appeared  at  Venice  in  1591  in  4  vols. 
4 to.  and  at  ^aris  in  1686,  in  2  vols,  folio.  They 
consist  of  essays  on  religious  subjects,  sermons, 
and  a  conmientary  on  the  book  of  Revelations. 
BERNARDIN  DE  ST.  PIERRE.    See  St. 

PlEBBS. 

BERNARDINES,  monks  or  nuns  of  St.  Ber- 
nard, a  branch  of  the  Cistercians,  and  hence 
allied  to  the  great  Benedictine  order.  In  France 
the  great  fame  of  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Clair- 
vaux,  and  of  its  founder  and  first  abbot,  St. 
Bernard,  led  to  the  adoption  of  Uiis  name  as 
the  common  designation  of  the  whole  Cister- 
cian order.  In  Spain  it  is  applied  to  a  congre- 
gation of  reformed  Cistercians  founded  early  in 
the  15th  century  by  Martin  Yargas,  or  Bargas. 
and  approved  by  Pope  Martin  Y .  They  had 
fiunous  colleges  at  Salamanca,  Alcala,  and  else- 
where. In  Italy,  they  owe  their  establishment 
to  a  bull  of  Pope  Julius  H.,  in  1511,  by  which 
aU  the  Cistercians  of  Lombardy  and  Tuscany 
were  erected  into  a  separate  congregation  under 
Ihe  name  of  St.  Bernard.  In  1497,  a  bull  to 
like  effect  had  been  issued,  but  soon  after  re- 
called, by  Alexander  YI.  In  process  of  time 
disorders  grew  up  in  the  brotherhood,  and  a 
reform  was  undertaken  about  the  year  1557, 
by  John  de  la  Barriere,  abbot  of  Notre  Dame 
des  FeuiUants,  in  France.  Hence  arose  the 
Fenillants,  who  soon  spread  into  Italy,  and 
were  there  called  reformed  monks  of  St.  Ber- 
nard. The  Bemardines  include  several  other 
reformed  congregations,  among  which  are  the 
Recollects,  the  sisters  of  Providence,  and  the 
sistm  of  the  Precious  Blood. 

BERNARDO  DEL  CARPIO,  a  popular  hero 
in  the  romantic  literature  of  Spain.  He  is  said  to 
^ive  f  oorished  at  the  beginning  of  the  9th  cen- 


tury, and  to  have  been  the  offspring  of  a  secret 
marriage  between  the  count  ae  Saldana  and 
the  sister  of  Alfonso  the  Chaste.  The  king^s 
wrath,  on  hearing  of  this  marriage,  knew  no 
bounds.  He  doomed  Saidafia  to  perpetual  im- 
prisonment and  to  cruel  tortures,  the  infanta 
was  sent  to  a  convent,  while  Bernardo  was  edu- 
cated as  the  son  of  Alfonso  and  kept  ignorant 
of  his  birth.  The  brilliant  exploits  of  Bernardo, 
ending  with  the  great  victory  over  Rdiand  at 
Roncesvalles — ^his  heroic  efforts  to  restore  lib- 
erty to  his  father,  when  he  learns  who  his 
father  is — ^the  treachery  of  Alfonso,  who  prom- 
ises repeatedly  to  release  the  count,  and  as  ofUai 
breaks  his  word,  with  the  despair  of  Bernardo, 
and  his  rebellion  against  the  king  and  final 
flight  to  France,  after  Saldafia's  deaui  in  prison, 
constitute  the  chief  incidents  in  the  hero's  life, 
as  represented  in  about  40  baUads  and  in  the 
accounts  in  the  *^  chronicle  of  Alfonso  the  Wise." 
Three  phiys  of  Lope  de  Yega  are  founded  on 
the«romantic  career  of  Bernardo  dd  Carpio, 
while  the  best  epic  on  the  subject,  reeembfing 
Ariosto's  Orlando  FurtMo,  was  published  in 
1624  by  the  poet  Bernardo  de  Balbuena,  under 
the  title  of  m  Bernardo. 

BERNAUER,  Aokes,  celebrated  for  her  ro- 
mantic late,  died  Oct  12, 1485.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  a  poor  citizen  of  Augsburg,  of  rare 
beauty  and  virtue,  and  captivated  the  heart  of 
the  young  Albert  of  Bavaria,  only  son  of  the 
reigning  duke,  who  met  her  at  a  tournament. 
She  returned  his  love,  and  after  a  secret  mar- 
riage, he  conducted  her  to  one  of  his  castles. 
His  enraged  father,  discovering  this  union  by 
the  son's  refusal  to  form  a  more  exalted  matri- 
monial connection,  caused  him  to  be  refused  an 
entrance  to  the  lists  at  a  celebrated  tournament 
at  Ratisbon.  The  prince  revenged  this  in- 
dignity, proclaiming  Agnes  duchess  of  Bavaria, 
and  gave  her  a  brilliantly  appointed  household ; 
but,  with  a  sad  foreboding  of  her  fate,  she  pre- 
pared a  funeral  ohaipel  for  herself  in  a  neigh- 
boring convent  At  the  death  of  an  unde,  who 
was  tenderly  attached  to  the  youne  duke,  the 
rage  of  his  father  broke  forth,  and  by  his  or- 
ders, the  beautiful  young  duchess,  during  the 
absence  of  Albert,  was  drowned  in  the  Danube. 
The  infuriated  son  took  up  arms  against  his 
father,  and  it  was  long  before  he  could  be  ap- 
peased. At  length  he  was  induced  to  lay  down 
arms,  and  to  marry  Ann  of  Brunswick,  but 
during  his  lifetime  he  paid  every  honor  to  the 
memory  of  the  unfortunate  Agnes,  and  their 
loves  have  been  the  favorite  subject  of  many 
Bavarian  poets.  Agnes  has  be^  made  the 
theme  of  an  opera,  by  Earl  ErelM.  which  was 
for  the  first  tmie  pwformed  at  Dresden,  Jan. 
17,1858. 

BERN  AT,  a  city  of  the  French  department 
of  Eure,  agreeably  situated  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Charentonne,  25  mUes  W.  N.  W.  of  the 
town  of  Evreuz ;  pop.  in  1856,  7,287.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  greatest  horse  fair  in  France,  attend- 
ed by  nearly  50,000  persons.  It  has  doth, 
woollen,  linen,  cotton,  and  paper  manufactories, 


190 


BERNBUBa 


EERNHABD 


tanneries,  md  bleacheries.  Boraay  has  2  fine 
old  churches,  a  court  of  law,  a  tribunal  of  com- 
merce, a  communal  college,  a  hoapital,  and 
interefltmg  remaina  oi  mediaaval  architeetore. 

BERNBUBG,  c^>ital  of  the  German  dnchy 
of  Anhalt-Bembnrg,  on  the  river  Saale ;  pop. 
10,000 ;  divided  into  the  old  and  new  towna, 
with  the  Bubnrb  Waldan  on  the  left  bank  and  the 
Bergstadt  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river,  which 
is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  ducal  conrt.  The  choidi  of  St  Mary  is  the 
finest  of  the  4  churches  of  the  town,  which 
h&s  a  gyninasinm,  a  grammar  school,  a  female 
high  school,  dns.  The  trade  in  corn,  fhdt,  wine, 
earthenware  mannfaotnres,  paper,  sugar,  copper, 
snafl^  iron  castings,  Ac,  is  stimulated  by  the 
branch  of  theLeipsio-Magdeburg  railroad,  which 
passes  byBemburg,  on  its  way  to  Kdthen. 

BERBERS,  Jomr  Boubohieb,  lord,  the  trans- 
lator of  Froissart*8  *^  Ohronides,"  bom  1474, 
died  1582,  the  eldest  son  of  Sir  Humphrey 
Bonrchier,  and  related  to  the  royal  family 
through  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  the  younge^ 
child  of  Edward  IIL  Lord  Bemers  made  his  d6- 
but  in  the  political  world  as  member  of  the  11th 
parliament  under  Henry  YD.,,  but  without  any 
marked  success.  Under  Henry  VXH.,  with  whom 
he  was  a  great  favorite,  he  became  chancellor  of 
the  exchequer,  and  afterwaid  governor  of  Oa- 
lais.  He  wrote  a  comedy,  lU  in  WMom  meam^ 
for  the  edification  of  those  who  attended  the 
cathedral  of  Calais,  where  it  was  usually  per- 
formed after  vespcors.  and  translated  various 
fbreign  works:  but  his  claims  to  the  notice  of 
posterity  rest  exclusively  upon  his  transktion 
of  Froissart.  with  which  he  was  charged  by 
Heniy  YHI.  The  first  volume  appeared  in 
1628  and  the  second  in  1525. 

BERNERS,  Ths  Ladt  Juliana,  an  English 
lady  of  rank  of  the  15th  century.  It  is  not  accu- 
rately known  to  what  noble  fiimily  she  belonged, 
as  her  name  is  sometimes  written  Barnes;  and 
as  the  lordship  of  Bemers  in  the  reign  of  Hen- 
ry yni.  was  in  the  famUy  of  Bourchier,  which 
is,  of  course,  the  name  of  the  cadets,  male  and 
female,  of  that  house.  Hie  lady  in  question 
was  the  prioress  of  the  nunnery  of  Sopewell, 
near  St  Albans,  in  Hertfordshire;  and  was 
either  the  author  or  compiler  of  a  work  which 
has  many  dauns  to  be  considered  among  the 
most  curious  and  interesting  of  medi»val  liters 
ature.  In  thefirst  phice,  it  is  one  of  the  ear- 
liest productions  of  the  English  press,  the  first 
edition  bearing  date  of  1481.  In  the  second, 
it  is  to  this  day,  on  one  of  the  subjects 
of  which  it  treats,  the  art  of  falconry,  or  as  it 
wascaUedin  old  times,  the  ^^Mystery  of  Rivers," 
the  recognized  authority  of  scientific  hawk- 
ers. The  second  edition  was  published  m  I486, 
in  the  abbey  of  St  Albans,  which  probably  had 
authority  over,  or  some  connection  with,  the 
nunnerv  of  which  the  lady  was  prioress.  It  is 
entided  "  The  Boke  of  Hawkyng  and  Huntyng, 
wyth  other  pleasures  dyverse,  and  also  coot-ar- 
muries."  The  edition  of  1481  has  no  treatises 
on  coats-armorial  or  heraldrv.    The  second  is 


of  a 


embelHshed  with  a  curious  wo 
man  angling,  that  ancient  art  being  included  ia 
the  ^^  pleasures  dyverse."  It  was  afterward  re- 
printed under  the  titie  of  '^  The  Boke  of  St  Al- 
bans," and  became  the  most  popular  work,  and 
the  manual  of  field  sports,  for  the  space  of  seve- 
ral centuries.  It  was  not  in  £ust  until  the  18th 
century,  when  the  improvement  in  fire-arms 

Eroduceid  a  complete  change  in  the  forms  of 
unting  and  fowlmg,  that  it  was  superseded,  in 
general;  although  it  still  continues,  as  to  all 
the  branches  of  which  it  treats,  and  which  still 
exist  in  their  old  method  unaltered,  to  be 
the  authority.  Many  editions  were  published 
during  the  16th  century,  and  in  1811  a  small 
impresnon  was  reprinted  as  a  matter  of  literazy 
curiosity,  by  a  Mr.  Hazlewood. 

BERNETTI,  Tommaso,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
statesman,  bom  at  Fermo,  Dec.  29, 1779,  died 
March  21, 1852.  He  was  one  of  the  18  cardinals 
who  refhsed  to  attend  the  marriage  of  Maria 
Louisa  and  Napoleon,  and  who  were  called 
^^  bUck  cardinals,"  as  the  emperor  forbade  them 
to  wear  purple.  For  5  years  he  was  detained 
in  Rheims,  and  returned  to  Rome  on  the  re-in- 
stallation of  Pius  Vn.  in  the  Vatican.  In 
1826  Leo  XIL  sent  him  as  nuncio  to  St  Pe- 
tersburg: Jan.  29.  1827.  the  cardinal*s  hat 
was  conferred  on  nimj  June  17, 1828,  he  suc- 
ceeded Cardinal  della  Somaglia  as  secretary  of 
state,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  oondn* 
sion  of  the  concordat  with  the  Netherlanda, 
June  18, 1827,  and  in  the  election  of  Pius  YIIL 
to  the  Holy  See.  When  the  French  revolu* 
tion  made  itself  felt  in  Italy,  and  the  pope  was 
obliged  to  call  in  the  aid  oi  the  Austrian  sol- 
diery, Bemetti  proposed  the  creation  of  a  militia 
^n  order  to  obviate  the  expense  connected  witb 
the  engagement  of  foreign  troops.  This,  how- 
ever, gave  offence  to  the  Austrian  govemment| 
which  in  1886  prevailed  upon  the  pope  to  dis- 
miss the  cardinal  When  the  revolution  of 
1848  broke  out,  he  escaped  from  Rome  in  dis- 
guise. 

BERKHARD,  duke  of  Saxe-Weunar,  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  in  the  80 
years'  war, bom  at  Weimar,  Aug.  6, 1604,  being 
the  youngest  of  the  8  sons  of  Duke  John  of  Saxe- 
Weimar,  died  atNeuburg  on  the  Rhine,  July  8. 
1689.  At  the  breaking  out  of  the  80  years^ 
war,  he  took  part  with  the  elector  Frederics 
king  of  Bohemia,  against  the  emperor,  ana 
achieved  great  fame  in  the  bloody  battle  of 
Wimpfen  in  1621,  in  which  IVly  was  totally 
routed.  In  the  autumn  of  1623,  he  entered  the 
Dutch  service ;  in  1625  he  assisted  Ohristiao, 
king  of  Denmark,  in  the  war  in  Westphalia 
against  Wallenstein,  who,  after  the  defeat  of  the 
Danish  armj,  in  1628,  reconciled  him  with  the 
emperor.  He  was .  one  of  the  first  German 
princes  who  joined  the  party  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  on  his  landing,  in  1681,  in  Germany,  and 
distinguished  himself  in  his  service  in  Hesse 
and  on  the  Rhine  in  1682,  and  joined  him  in 
his  attack  upon  Wallenstein^s  camp  at  Nurem- 
berg in  Aug.  1682.  To  the  military  genius  of  the 


BERNKABD 


BERNIEB'8  ISLAND 


191 


doke,  tUe  yvAary  was  oihieflj  dae  at  the  battle 
of  L&tzen,  in  which,  however,  Gostavns  Adol- 
phns  was  killed.  He  claimed  from  Ohancellor 
Ozenstiem  the  command  of  the  anny  and  the 
dnkedom  of  Franconia,  and  after  some  hesita- 
Uon  on  the  part  of  the  Swedish  statesman,  he 
was  eventniJly,  in  1688,  formallj  installed  in 
this  dignity,  with  the  possession  of  Bamberg 
and  Wtirzburg.  In  1633  he  took  Kegensbnrg; 
his  attempts  to  penetrate  into  Anstria  were 
frastrated  by  Walienstein,  who,  however,  long 
weary  of  his  allegiance  to  the  emperor,  made 
treasonable  overtures  to  the  dnke ;  out  Wallen- 
Btein  was  assassinated,  Feb.  15, 1684^  and  was 
succeeded  iA  May,  1684^  in  the  command  of  the 
army,  by  the  king  of  Hnngary,  afterward  Fer- 
dinand m.,  who  took  Be^nsborg  in  July,  and 
totally  defeated  the  Swedish  army  at  the  battle 
of  N5rdlingen  in  the  antamn  of  the  same  year, 
the  dnke  barely  escaping  with  his  life.  Unwill- 
ing to  accede  to  the  peace  of  Prague,  the  terms 
of  wMoh  were  accepted  by  the  minority  of  the 
German  princes,  after  the  victories  of  the  im- 
perial over  the  Swedish  army,  during  the  year 
1685,  the  duke  separated  himself  from  the  kt- 
ter,  and  resolved  to  make  a  treaty  on  his  own 
account  with  France.  By  the  terms  of  this 
treaty,  concluded  at  St  Germain-en-Laye.  Oct. 
27,  1685,  he  was  to  receive  4,000,000  francs 
yearly,  on  condition  of  ftimishing  a  contmgent 
of  12,000  foot  and  6,000  cavalry,  and  of  making 
a  peace  with  the  emperor  and  his  allies  without 
the  consent  of  the  king,  a  secret  article  se- 
curing to  him  a  considerable  additional  pension, 
and  the  possession  of  Alsace.  He  was  several 
times  obliged  to  apply  in  person  for  the  pay- 
ment of  we  subsidies,  which  led  to  unpleasant 
personal  collisions  between  himself  and  ti^e 
French  king.  In  1687  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  French  auxiliaries  and 
of  the  German  troops,  achieving  many  victories 
in  Lomdne,  Burgundy,  and  Alsace,  but  for  some 
time  was  unsuccessful  in  his  attempts  upon 
Swabia  and  Bavaria.  In  the  latter  part  of  1688, 
however,  he  succeeded,  after  a  desperate  siege, 
in  conquering  Breisach,  which  he  intended  to 
make  in  future  the  centre  of  an  independent 
principality  in  Germany.  Richelieu,  watching 
with  Argus  eyes  the  insatiable  ambition  of  the 
dnke,  stopped  the  supplies,  treating  the  con- 
quest of  Breisach  as  a  French  conquest  made 
with  French  money  and  partly  with  Frendi 
soldiers.  The  duke  soon  afterward  died,  as 
was  supposed,  by  French  poison.  Orafty  as  he 
was,  he  was  outwitted  by  the  superior  craft  of 
the  caidina],  who  did  not  even  respect  his  dying 
request  in  reference  to  the  transmission  oi  the 
duke's  conquests  to  €rermany;  these  the  cardi- 
nal apprc^riated  to  France,  by  bribing  the  offi- 
cers in  command.  The  only  privilege  (granted 
to  his  &mily  was  the  permission  of  removinghis 
remains  to  the  vaults  of  the  dukes  of  Saxe- Wei- 
mar, where  he  was  buried  in  1655. 

BERNHABD,  Eabl,  the  pseudonym  and  re- 
cognized name  of  St.  Aubin,  one  of  the  most 
excellent  of  Danish  novelists.     Many  of  his 


works  are  included  under  the  general  title  of 
^*  Pictures  of  Life  in  Denmark."  He  has  also 
written  2  historical  romances,  "  Christian  YII. 
and  his  Oourt,''  and  ^'Christian  II.  and  his 
Times,"  and  his  last  work,  the  "  Ohronioles  of 
the  Time  of  King  Eric  of  Pomerania,"  is  of 
a  political  character.  With  great  power  of  ob- 
servation, Bemhard  excels  in  sketches  of  do- 
mestic life,  and  the  delineations  of  Danisli  soci- 
ety, which  is  his  principal  theme,  are  both 
genial  and  humorous,  and  given  in  a  very  lively 
and  elegant  style. 

BEBNI,  Fbakobsoo,  an  Italian  poet  of  the 
16th  century,  bom  about  1490,  of  a  poor  but 
noble  family,  at  Gampo  Yeccfaio,  in  Tuscany, 
died  July  26, 1586,  in  Florence.  He  lived  in  the 
latter  place  in  a  state  bordering  on  indigence, 
until  the  age  of  19.  He  then  determined  to  visit 
Rome,  in  the  hope  of  receiving  aid  from  the 
cardinal  Bibbiena,  his  uncle.  In  this  he  was 
disappointed,  and  considered  himself  happy  in 
obtaining  the  situation  of  private  secretary  to  the 
chancellor  of  Pope  Leo  X.  He  now  assumed 
the  ecclesiastical  habit  Gay  and  ardent,  he 
sought  relief  from  the  austeri^  of  his  employ- 
er's household  in  the  society  of  a  circle  of  younff 
ecclesiastics,  who  devoted  themselves  to  good 
cheer,  wine,  pleasure,  and  poetir.  His  most 
celebrated  work  was  tne  Orlando  iwnamorato  of 
Bojardo,  which  he  re-wrote  entirely,  correcting 
the  style,  and  openinff  every  canto  with  lines  of 
his  own.  At  the  sack  of  Rome,  in  1627,  Berni 
lost  all  that  he  possessed.  He  retired  to  Flor- 
ence, where  he  nved  for  some  time,  but  at  last 
was  ruined  by  the  friendship  of  Alessandro  do' 
Medici,  who  wished  to  engage  him  to  poison  the 
cardinal  Ippolito  de'  Medici.  On  his  refusal, 
Alessandro  put  an  end  to  his  life  by  poiBon,  in 
the  fear  that  he  might  betray  him. 

BERiKTIER,  Frakcois,  a  IVench  traveller  and 
philosopher,  bom  at  Angers  about  the  year 
1625,  died  at  Paris,  Sept.  22,  1688.  He  first 
studied  medicine,  but  his  taste  for  travelling  led 
him  to  Syria  and  also  to  Egypt,  where  he  had 
the  plague.  He  afterward  went  to  India,  and 
resided  there  for  12  years,  during  8  of  which  he 
was  phymcian  to  the  emperor  Aurungzebe. 
Under  tiie  protection  of  this  prince  and  his 
ministers,  with  whom  he  became  a  great  fiavor- 
ite,  he  was  enabled  to  visit  countries  hitherto 
inaccessible  to  Europeans.  On  his  return  to 
France,  he  published  his  observations,  and  the 
information  he  had  collected.  A  friend  of  Ghis- 
sendi,  and  his  most  distinguished  pupil,  he  made 
a  summary  of  the  writings  of  his  master,  and 
for  the  first  time  presented  in  French  a  lumi- 
nous abridgment  of  the  ideas  of  this  rival  of 
Descartes.  He  also  aided  Boileau  in  the  com- 
position of  the  fJEonous  Arrit  Iwrlesque^  which 
saved  Aristotie  and  Ms  doctrines  from  proscrip- 
tion by  the  parliament  of  Paris.  Bernier  was 
sometimes  caHed  the  joU  phUosophe.  Among 
his  intimate  friends  were  La  Fontaine,  Kinon 
de  FEndos,  and  St  Evremond. 

BERNIER'S  ISLAND,  an  island  off  the  W. 
coast  of  New  Holland,  in  lat.  24''  50^  S.,  and  long 


192 


BERNINA 


BEBNOUELLI 


US'*  5'  E.,  near  the  month  of  Shark's  Bay.  It 
is  formed  of  horizontal  strata  of  sand  and  lime- 
stone, oontaioing  sea-shells,  and  b  scantily  sup- 
plied with  vegetation* 

BERNINA,  a  peak  of  the  Rhsstian  Alps,  in 
the  canton  of  Orison,  Switzerland,  86  miles 
S.E.  of  Char,  famous  for  its  glaciet.  The  pass 
of  that  name,  hetween  the  upper  Engadine  and 
the  Yalteline,  is  elevated  7,672  feet  above  the 
sea. 

BERNINI,  Giovanni  Lorenzo,  an  Italian 
sculptor  and  architect,  bom  at  Naples  in  1598, 
died  at  Rome,  Nov.  28, 1680.  When  but  10 
jears  old,  he  was  introduced  to  the  notice  of 
Pope  Paul  v.,  who  recommended  him  to  Car- 
dinal Barberini.  He  commenced  bj  making 
busts  of  the  pope  and  several  of  the  cardinals, 
of  extraordinary  merit,  but  soon  gave  his  at- 
tention almost  exclusively  to  architecture,  and 
during  the  pontificate  of  Urban  YIII.  executed 
the  great  altar  of  St  Peter's^  the  4  colossal 
statues  of  saints,  the  belfry,  and  the  circular 
place  before  the  church,  beside  other  works, 
which  gained  him  honors  and  emoluments  from 
the  pope,  as  well  as  a  European  renown.  Com- 
missions flowed  in  upon  him  from  all  quarters; 
he  designed  numerous  churches,  pahu^es,  and 
public  buildmss,  executed  a  statue  of  Charles 
I.  of  England,  and  at  the  urgent  request  of 
Louis  XIY.,  in  1666,  travelled  in  great  state  to 
Paris,  where  he  was  received  with  honors  sel- 
dom bestowed  upon  an  artist,  and  where,  dur- 
ing a  residence  of  8  months,  he  executed  a  bust 
of  the  king,  and  prepared  several  important 
architectursd  plans.  His  return  to  Rome  was 
the  occasion  of  another  ovation,  and  during  the 
remainder  of  his  life  he  resided  there,  busily 
occupied  in  designing  and  executing  great  works. 
The  &cility  with  which  he  executed,  and  a 
certain  brilliancy  and  quickness  of  invention 
and  combination,  doubtless  explain  the  extraor- 
dinary estimation  in  which  ho  was  held ;  but 
that  his  style  or  works  possess  no  substantial 
merit  is  certain,  from  the  fiact  that  they  have 
never  been  deemed  worthy  of  imitation  by 
artists. 

BERNIS,  FsANgoiB  Joaohim  i>b  Pibbbb  ds, 
coimt  of  Lyons,  cardinal  and  archbishop  of 
Albi,  bom  May  22, 1715,  at  St  Marcel,  depart- 
ment of  Ard^che,  died  at  Rome,  Nov.  1, 
1794.  He  was  of  a  noble  and  ancient,  but  not 
wealthy  family,  and  was  destined  from  child- 
hood for  the  church.  In  1785  he  went  to  Paris, 
having  first  been  appointed  canon  of  Lyons. 
His  pleasing  countenance,  graceful  manners, 
gay  and  amiable  disposition,  together  with  a 
ready  talent  for  making  verses,  soon  gained  him 
access  to  the  best  circles  He  did  no^  however, 
obtain  any  substantial  advantages,  and  his  gay 
life  prevented  him  from  finding  favor  with  Car- 
dinal Fleury,  and  obtaining  a  benefice.  He  did 
not  present  himself  at  court  nntU  after  tiie 
death  of  the  cardinal,  and  then,  through  the 
favor  of  Madame  de  Pompadour,  he  was  ap- 

Eointed  ambassador  to  Venice.    On  his  return, 
e  was  received  at  court  with  great  considera- 


tion, appointed  member  of  his  council  by  Louis 
XV.,  and  charged  with  the  duty  of  forming  an 
alliance  between  France  and' Austria.  The 
highest  favors  were  the  reward  of  his  success. 
He  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign  affiurs, 
and  the  king  claimed  for  him  the  hat  of  a  car- 
dinal. The  disastrous  consequences  of  this 
treaty  were,  however,  imputed  to  hirn^  notwith- 
standing his  reluctance  to  conclude  it,  and  he 
was  exiled  in  1758  to  Soissons,  where  he  re- 
mained until  1764,  when  he  was  recalled,  and 
elected  archbishop  of  AlbL  He  received  the 
appointment  of  ambassador  to  Rome  from  the 
court  of  Prance,  in  consequence  of  the  ability 
he  manifested  in  the  conclave  of  1769.  The 
object  of  this  embassy  was  the  suppression  of 
the  Jesuits;  a  measure  contrary  to  his  own 
judgment.  In  consequence  of  refusing  the 
oath  to  the  new  constitution,  he  was  deprived 
of  his  clerical  revenues,  and  reduced  to  destitu- 
tion. Through  the  influence  of  a  friend,  he 
obtained  a  pension  from  the  court  of  Spain, 
which  was  continued  to  his  death.  The  light 
poetry  of  his  youth,  although  it  obtained  for 
him  tiie  honor  of  being  made  member  of  the 
French  academy,  did  him  no  credit ;  and  even 
a  poem,  written  later  in  life,  and  graver  in  style, 
was  but  littie  superior. 

BERNOUILLI,  a  name  made  famous  by  3 
mathematicians  of  the  highest  order,  and  6  of 
a  less  distinguished  rank.  The  family  were 
driven  from  Antwerp  by  the  bloody  cruelties  of 
Philip  n.,  and  took  refrige  first  at  Frankfort, 
afterward  at  Basel,  where  Jambs  Bebnouilij 
was  bom,  Deo.  25,  1654.  He  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  there,  in  1687,  and  died 
Aug.  16, 1705.  Elegant  in  his  classical  scholar- 
ship, and  wonderful  in  mathematical  genius,  he 
was  also  a  devout  and  conscientious  man,  and 
won  the  personal  esteem  of  the  savants  of 
France,  Holland,  and  England,  during  his  visits 
to  those  countries.  His  fame  rests  chiefly  on 
his  application  of  Newton^s  and  Leibnitz^s  calcu- 
lus to  the  subject  «of  curvature  and  curves,  in 
which  he  made  brilliant  discoveries. — ^His  bro- 
ther John,  horn  July  27, 1667,  died  Jan.  1, 1748, 
pursued  mathematical  studies  to  his  eightieth 
year,  and  then  quietly  fell  asleep.  In  1695  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  Gro- 
ningen,  and^n  1705,  succeeded  his  brother  in 
the  chair  atlBasel.  Equal  to  his  brother  in  math- 
ematical power,  and  as  sincere  in  his  good 
purposes,  he  attained  the  highest  scientific  hon» 
ors ;  and  the  only  stain  on  his  memory  is  from 
the  capriciousness  of  his  temper,  which  made 
him  jealous  and  severe  to  some  of  his  friends, 
although  generous  and  tender  toward  othersi — 
His  second  son,  Djinibl,  bom  at  Groningen, 
Feb.  9,  1700,  died  at  Basel,  ACarch  17,  1782, 
was  the  8d  mathematician  of  the  family  who 
attained  the  highest  rank.  At  the  age  of  2^ 
he  was  ofiered  the  presidency  of  a  projectea 
academy  at  Genoa,  and  the  following  year  was 
appointed  professor  of  mathematics  at  St.  Peters- 
burg. Returning  to  Basel,  in  1738  (much  to  the 
regret  of  the  court  at  St.  Petersburg),  he  be- 


BEBKSTORFF 


BERRIEN 


198 


oame  professor  of  botany  aad  Anatomy,  and  af- 
terwao^  of  natoral  philosophy.  He  resigned 
bis  poet  in  1777,  and  died,  like  his  father,  in 
sleep.  His  &me  rests  on  his  ingenious  and  sno- 
oeeJEtd  application  of  mathematics  to  questions 
ti  a  mechanical  nature,  in  astronomy,  hydrau- 
lics, &c.  He  and  his  successor  at  St  Peters- 
hxxrg,  Euler,  stand  alone  in  the  number  of  prizes 
whidi  they  obtained  from  the  academy  of 
sdenoes  at  Paris. — ^His  elder  brotJier,  Nicho- 
las, bom  at  Basel,  Jan.  27,  1695,  was  ap- 
pointed professor  of  mathematics  at  8t.  Pe- 
tersburg, with  Daniel,  and  died  July  26, 1726. — 
John,  their  brother,  bom  at  Basel,  May  18, 
1710,  was  professor  of  eloquence  in  that 
€itj  5  years,  and  in  1748  succeeded  his  &ther 
iir  the  chair  of  mathematics;  was  a  distinguish- 
ed and  successful  mathematician,  and  died  July 
17, 1790. — ^His  son,  John,  grandson  of  tiie  first 
Joim^  was  bom  at  Basel,  Nov.  4, 1744^  died  July 
18, 1807.  At  the  age  of  19  he  was  i^ppointed 
astronomer  royal  at  Berlin.  After  extensiye 
travels^  during  leave  of  absence,  he  was  made 
director  of  mathematics  in  the  academy.  Be- 
fore his  death  he  had  published  valuable  works 
on  mathematics,  and  many  other  su^ects. — 
His  brother,  Jambs,  bom  at  Basel,  Oct.  17, 
1759,  died  in  St  Petersburg,  July  8, 1789.  At 
the  age  of  21  he  assumed  the  duties  of  his  un- 
cle's professorship  of  natural  philosophy.  At  29 
lie  was  appointed  professor  of  mathematics  in  St. 
Petersburg,  where  he  married  a  granddaughter 
of  Euler,  and  in  2  months  a^r  marriage  died 
suddenly  while  bathing  in  the  Neva. — ^The  5th 
of  these  Bemouillis  of  the  2d  magnitude, 
NiOHOLAfi,  was  contemporary  with  the  earlier 
of  the  fint  mentioned,  a  nephew  of  the  first 
James  and  John;  he  was  bom  in  Basel,  Oct.  10, 
1087,  and  filled  a  professorship  of  matiiematics 
St  Padua  (l7l6-'22\  formerly  filled  by  Galilea 
Returning  to  Basel,  he  filled  successively  the 
chiur  of  lo|^o  and  that  of  law,  and  died  Nov.  29, 
1769.— Jbboid^  a  member  of  the  same  family, 
bom  at  Basel,  in  1745,  died  in  1829,  was  distin- 
g^nisbed  as  a  naturalist  and  mineralogist  He 
was  for  a  time  president  of  the  oounm  of  his 
native  canton. 

BERNSTORFF,  Ohbistiak  GtorHEB,  count, 
a    Danish  diplomatist,  bom  at  Copenhagen, 
April  8, 1769,  died  at  Berlin,  March  28, 1885. 
After  having  been  ambassador  in  Berlin  and 
Stockholm,  he  was  appointed  minister  of  foreign 
aflOEurs  in  1797.     He  followed  the  poH^  of 
neatnOity,  and  went  on  a  diplomatic  misnon  to 
London  in  1801,  but  could  not  prevent  a  bom- 
bardment of  Copenhagen  by  the  English  in 
1807.    He  was  ambassador  to  Paris  in  1811, 
represented  Denmark  in  the  congress  of  Vienna, 
and  signed  the  cession  of  Norway  to  Sweden  in 
1815.     In  1818   he  paased  into  the  service 
of  Prussia.— JoHAinsr  Habtwio  Ernst,  count 
0^    a   Danish    statesman,  called  by  Frederic 
the  Qreatf  *Hhe  oracle  of  Denmark,''  bom 
in  Hanover,  May  18,  1712,  died  in  Hamburg, 
Feh^  19,  1773.    In  1782  he  was  Danish  ambas- 
ndoT  in  Saxony,  in  1787  at  the  imperial  diet  at 
TOL.  m, — 13 


Ratisbon,  in  1744  was  sent  to  Paris,  and  in 
1751  was  prime  minister.  In  1770  he  lost  the 
&vor  of  Christian  YIL,  through  the  ascendency 
of  Straensee,  was  thrown  out  of  employment^ 
and  retired  to  Hamburg.  Having  brought  about 
the  downfall  of  Straensee,  he  was  recalled  to 
Copenhagen,  but  died  just  before  setting  out 

BERCEA,  a  city  of  ancient  Macedonia,  lying 
south  of  Thessalonica,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Bermius.  It  was  founded,  according  to  tradition, 
by  the  Macedonian  princess  Berosa.  During 
the  Peloponnesian  war  it  was  taken  by  the  Athe- 
nians. After  the  battle  of  Pydna,  it  was  the 
first  to  surrender  to  the  Romans.  Saint  Paul 
preached  the  gospel  here  A  D.  49-65,  and  met 
with  a  reception  which  is  commended  in  Scrip- 
ture. Occupied  by  the  Slavonians,  and  then  by 
the  Bulgarians,  it  was  almost  ruined  by  an 
earthquake  in  904.  In  1204,  it  formed  a  part 
of  the  Latin  kingdom  of  Thessalonica.  It  fell 
nnder  the  power  of  the  Turks  in  1397,  and 
during  the  middle  ages  became  known  by  the 
name  of  Yeria. 

BEROSIJS,  a  priest  of  the  temple  of  Belua 
276  B.  C.  He  wrote  a  history  of  Cfaaldea,  cited 
by  Joeephus  and  other  ancient  writers.  An  edi- 
tion of  his  fragments  was  published  by  Richter 
(Leipsic,  1825),  and  by  Didot  (Paris,  1848). 

BERRIEN,  a  south-western  county  of  ICch- 
igan,  with  an  area  of  about  600  sq.  m.  It  is 
drained  by  the  St  Joseph's,  Pawpaw,  and 
Galien  rivers,  the  first  of  which  is  here  nav- 
igable for  keel-boats.  The  surface  is  undulat- 
ing and  the  soil  of  various  qualities.  Near  the 
St  Joseph's  it  is  remarkably  fertile,  and  con- 
sists of  a  deep,  black,  sandy  loam,  overgrown 
with  thick  forests  of  hard  timber.  The  agri- 
cultural products  in  1850  amounted  to  224,806 
bushels  of  com,  88,289  of  wheat,  78,600  of  oati^ 
59,158  of  potatoes,  and  6,165  tons  of  hay. 
There  were  15  churches,  8  newspaper  ofiices^ 
and  4,082  pupils  attending  public  schools.  The 
Central  railroad  intersects  the  county.  Pop. 
Ilj417.    Ci^ital,  Berrien. 

BERRIEN,  John  Maophebson,  an  American 
kwyer  and  statesmaui  bom  in  New  Jersey, 
Aug.  28, 1781,  died  at  Savannah,  Qa^  Jan.  1, 
1856.  He  was  the  son  of  an  officer  in  the 
war  of  the  American  revolution,  graduat- 
ed at  Nassau  Hall  in  1796,  was  admitted  to 
the  bar  of  Qeorgia  at  the  age  of  18,  and  grad- 
nally  rose  in  reputation  till  he  was  ranked 
among  the  most  able  lawyers  in  the  coun- 
try. He  was  elected  in  1809  solicitor  of  the 
eastem  district  of  Georgia,  became  judge  of  the 
same  district  the  next  year,  retaining  Uie  latter 
office  till  1822,  when  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Georgia  senate,  from  which  he  was  trans- 
feired  in  1824  to  the  senate  of  the  United 
States.  He  established  in  that  body  a  high  rep- 
utation as  an  orator  and  statesman,  was  ap- 
pointed attorney-general  of  the  United  States 
m  1829,  resigned  this  office  in  1831  when  Gen. 
Jackson's  cabinet  became  inharmonious,  resum- 
ed the  practice  of  his  profession  in  Savannah 
till  1840,  when  he  was  elected  again  to  the  na- 


194 


BEBBT 


tional  senate,  and  was  retieoted  in  1845.  He 
left  a  reputation  for  oonaistenoy  and  eminent 
ability  in  publio  life. 

BISRBT,  aBuoonlentfrnit^  having  its  seeds  Ij- 
ing  loosely  among  pulp.  The  goosebeiry  and  the 
currant  are  genuine  berries,  but  eloes  and  plums^ 
hips  and  haws,  are  not  admitted  in  this  defi- 
nition of  a  berry,  by  botanists,  although  com- 
monly called  hemes  in  popular  language.  Ac- 
cording to  Frof.  lindley,  a  berry  is  a  succulent 
or  pulpy  fruit,  containing  naked  seeds ;  a  pulpy 
penoarp  or  seed-yessel  without  valyee,  contain- 
ing several  seeds  which  have  no  covering  but 
the  pulp  or  rind;  mostly  round  or  ovaL 

BERBY,  or  Bsbbi,  an  ancient  province  of 
France,  now  forming  the  departments  of  Indre 
and  Oher,  togetlier  with  a  small  part  of  Loire- 
et-Oher,  ^d vra^  Oreuse,  and  Allier.  It  was 
divided  into  Le  Haut  Berry  and  Le  Bas  Berry, 
the  former  lying  between  the  Oher  and  the 
Loire,  and  the  latter  S.  W.  of  the  Oher.  Great- 
est length  100  miles ;  greatest  breadth  90  miles. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Loire,  Oher,  Indre,  and 
Oreuse,  the  banks  of  which  are  generally  fer- 
tile, but  elsewhere  the  land  is  either  sandy, 
marshy,  or  covered  with  heaths.  There  is 
plenty  of  timber,  good  pasturage  for  cattle, 
and  a  superior  breed  of  sheep.  Ooal,  iron, 
ochre,  marble,  and  building  stone  are  abundant. 
Berry  comprises,  the  greater  part  of  the  terri- 
tory anciently  held  by  the  Bituriges  CktU,  who 
were  styled  by  Livy,  the  chief  people  of  Oeltic 
Gaul,  and  are  described  as  having  been  &r  ad- 
vanced in  civilization  before  the  time  of  Ohrist. 
They  were  conquered  bv  Oeesar,  and  remained 
under  Roman  rule  until  about  the  year  475, 
when  their  country  was  invaded  by  Euric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths.  Olovis  united  it  to 
France  in  507,  and  it  was  afterward  governed 
by  counts  who  took  their  title  from  Bourges, 
the  capital  city.  Under  Oharles  the  Bald  it  be- 
came independent,  and  the  title  was  made  he- 
reditary. The  last  count  of  Bourges,  Eudes 
Arpin  or  Herpin,  took  the  cross  in  1094,  and 
on  his  departure  for  Palestine  sold  the  earldom 
to  King  Philip  I.,  who  made  it  an  appanage 
of  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  blood.  John 
the  Good  erected  it  into  a  duchy  in  1860,  and 
for  a  long  period  it  was  held  by  members  of 
the  royal  family,  although  since  the  time  of 
Henry  IV.,  the  title  has  been  purely  nominal. 
The  last  duke  of  Berry,  the  younger  son  of 
Oharles  X.,  was  assassinated  Feb.  18,  1820. 
During  the  religious  and  political  disturbances 
which  at  different  times  have  agitated  the  em- 
pire, Berry  has  generally  borne  a  conspicuous 
part.  In  the  Norman  invasion,  the  wars 
agdnst  the  English,  and  the  religious  struggles, 
it  suffered  greatly.  In  the  great  revolution  of 
1789  its  losses  were  comparatively  few,  but  in 
1848  it  was  the  theatre  of  considerable  disorders. 

BEBRT,  AoNBS  and  Maby,  two  sisters  cele- 
brated for  theur  relation  with  Horace  Walpole, 
who  met  them  in  the  winter  of  1787,  and  who 
became  fascinated  by  the  varied  attainments  of 
^he  ladies.     They  were  the  daughters  of  a 


Yorkshire  gentleman  of  fortune^  and  distin- 
guished alike  for  grace  of  person  and  beauties 
of  mind.  Mary,  born  in  1762,  died  Nov.  20, 
1852,  was  an  accomplished  scholar.  Agnes,  the 
elder  aster,  died  in  May,  1851,  was  a  pro- 
ficient in  the  fine  arts.  The  ladies  were  fiattered 
by  the  statesman's  attention,  and  although  he 
was  very  advanced  in  years,  they  formed  a 
Platonic  attachment  for  the  ^^  forlorn  antique 
of  71,*'  which  resulted  in  an  interchange  of  let- 
ters, and  in  repeated  visits  which  the  2  sisters 
paid  to  their  veteran  lover  at  Strawberry  HilL 
^*  Walpole,"  says  an  English  critic,  ''was  fond 
of  his  2  wives,  as  he  called  them,  would  write 
and  number  his  letters  to  them,  and  tell  them 
stories  of  his  early  life,  and  what  he  had  seen 
and  heard,  with  ten  times  the  vivacity  and 
minuteness  that  he  employed  in  telling  similar 
stories  to  Finkerton  or  Dalrymple."  In  1797, 
the  2  asters  published,  in  connection  with  their 
father,  an  edition  of  Walpole's  works  in  5  -vols. 
Mary  Berry  brought  out  in  1844  a  collection  of 
her  own  writings  in  2  vols.  8vo,  entitled  ''  £ng- 
land  and  France,'*  ''Life  of  Rachel,  Lady  Bus- 
sell,"  and  "Fashionable  Friends,"  a  comedy. 
Subsequently  she  wrote  a  "  Vindication  of  Jdso- 
aulay's  Character  of  Horace  Walpole."  The 
publication  in  1840  of  the  letters  of  Walpole  to 
herself  and  to  Agnes,  proved  the  most  popular 
of  their  literary  enterprises. 

B£BRY,  Ohablbs,  duke  of;  the  8d  son  of 
Louis,  dauphin  of  France,  and  of  Mans  Chris- 
tina, of  Bavaria,  grandson  of  Louis  XlV.,  hank 
Aug.  81,  1686,  died  May  4,  1714.  He  was 
never  noted,  except  for  having  married,  when 
24  years  old,  Mabib  Louisb  Eijzabstk,  of 
Orleans,  duchess  of  Berry.  This  most  notori- 
ous princess,  daughter  of  Philippe,  regent  of 
France,  bom  Aug.  20,  1695j  died  July  21, 1719. 
From  ner  early  youth,  she  mdicated  in  her  de- 
I>ortment  and  temper  a  strange  combination  of 
the  profligacy  of  a  courtesan  with  the  pride  of 
a  royal  princess.  She  had  been  married  but  a 
few  months,  when  she  threw  off  all  restraints^ 
and  made  herself  conspicuous  by  the  corruption 
of  her  morals  in  a  court  where  corruption  was 
the  rule.  Without  entering  into  the  details  of 
her  long  series  of  love  intrigues,  which  embrace 
persons  of  all  ranks  and  nearly  all  ages,  we 
are  constrained  to  mention  at  least  the  most 
important  in  politics,  and  the  most  criminal  in 
morals.  One  of  the  equerries  of  her  husband, 
named  Delahaye,  seems  to  have  been  the  first  ob- 
ject of  the  briei^  but  impetuous  pasaons,  wliidi 
more  than  once,  it  is  said,  found  their  satis&o- 
tion  even  among  private  soldiers.  So  utterly 
destitute  of  moderation  was  her  love  for  Dela- 
haye, that  she  proposed  to  run  away  with  him. 
But  the  equerry  prudently  declined  acceding  to 
such  a  plan,  and  soon  after,  the  duchess  enter- 
tained new  fancies,  the  best  known  and  moat 
important  of  which  is  her  intrigue  with  Riom. 
This  person  was  an  officer  of  the  guards,  a 
nephew  of  that  celebrated  Lauzun,  who,  after 
the  most  extraordinary  career,  had  married  the 
great  Mile,  de  Montpensier.    It  seems  that  the 


BEBBT 


195 


example  of  the  imole  liad  inspired  the  nephew 
in  more  than  one  respect^  for  the  latter  oeg&n 
to  treat  his  mistreas  even  worse  than  the  ror- 
mer  bad  used  hia  wife.  In  a  word^  the  officer 
beat  the  princess,  who  found  this  discipline  at- 
tractive enough  to  many  Biom  secretlj,  as  soon 
as  she  got  r£d  of  her  hoshand.  The  dake  of 
Berry  died  very  suddenly  at  Marly,  and  the 
event  gave  rise  to  the  most  serions  sospicions 
againBt  the  duchess.  The  intrigue  with  Biom 
was  not  in  fiEtct  the  only  interest  favored  hy  the 
death  of  the  duke.  The  incestuous  intercourse 
between  the  duchess  and  her  own  father,  the 
regenL  was  now  no  secretf  being  carriea  on 
publicly,  to  the  scandal  even  of  thaJt  licentious 
court  The  memoirs  of  that  time  agree  as  to 
&is  revolting  intrigue,  into  which  the  duchess 
had  been  led,  less  by  an  unnatural  passion  than 
bv  certain  ambitious  schemes,  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  which  she  needed  to  exert  an  un- 
bounded influence  over  the  regent  Still,  if 
she  succeeded  in  the  shameful  means,  she  faUed 
in  the  final  result,  and  wa^i  never  invested  with 
that  sovereign  power  which  she  so  unscrupu- 
looaly  sought  Having  been  secretiy  confined, 
and  being  particularly  anxious  to  conceal  the 
&ct,  she  offered  to  her  father  a  great  festival, 
in  order  to  disconcert  all  6Uffl)ioion.  Scarcelv 
able  to  leave  her  bed,  she  still  exposed  herself 
bold^  to  the  fresh  air  of  a  spring  night,  and  to 
the  &tiguefl  of  a  protracted  entertainment 
This  last  imprudence  proved  fatal  Being 
seized  with  fever,  she  left  the  illuminated  gar- 
dens of  Meudon  to  return  to  her  bed,  where 
ehe  died  soon  after  of  pleurisy.  She  was  then 
only  24  years  old,  but  in  so  short  a  time,  she 
had  exhausted  passions  and  practised  vices 
enough  to  disgrace  a  centniy,  ^'  having  never 
ceased,"  says  St  Simon,  '^to  combine  with 
the  tastes  of  a  Messalina,  the  ambitious  cares 
of  a  woman  who  felt  herself  called  to  ffovem 
men,  witiiout  doubt  because  she  despised  them 
Bs  much  as  they  despised  her.'' — Ohaslbs  Fbb- 
DiNAHn,  duke  of;  2d  son  of  the  count  of  Artois, 
afterward  Charles  X.,  and  of  Marie  Th^rdse,  of 
Savoy,  bom  in  Versailles,  Jan.  24.  1778, 
assassinated  at  Paris,  Feb.  18, 1820.  In  1789 
he  emigrated  witii  his  father,  and  for  9  years 
served  in  the  army  of  Oondd.  In  1798  he  went 
to  Bussia,  but  8  years  later  he  took  up  his  resi- 
dence in  England,  where  he  led  a  comparatively 
quiet  and  obscure  life.  There  he  married  se- 
cretiy an  E^lifih  ladv,  by  whom  he  had  2 
daughters.  'TmB  marriage  was  afterward  can- 
celled for  political  reasons,  when  the  nrince 
returned  to  Fnmce  in  1814.  He  landed  at 
Cherbourg^  and  at  once  produced  a  favorable 
impression.  The  abrupt  frankness  of  his  man- 
ners, and  his  military  habits,  won  the  sjmpa- 
tbies  of  the  people,  and  were  even  wdcome 
witii  the  army.  He  had  the  command  of  all 
the  troops  in  and  around  Paris,  with  the  tide 
of  oolonel-general  of  the  dragoons,  but  when 
Napoleon  returned  from  Elba,  he  could  do 
nothing  but  follow  Louis  XYIIL  to  Ghent, 
where  be  rwnained  till  after  the  battie  of  Wa- 


terloo. On  his  second  return  to  France  the 
natural  independence  of  his  temper  was  un- 
changed. He  kept  aloof  from  all  political  co- 
teries and  intrigues,  and  after  his  marriage,  the 
happiness  of  his  home,  the  liberality  of  his 
ideas,  as  well  as  his  freedom  from  all  revenge- 
ful feelings,  preserved  him  from  these  excite- 
ments. It  was  far  more  con^nial  to  lua  temper 
to  bestow  a  noble  protection  upon  arts  and 
literatTure.  This  contrast  with  the  rest  of  his 
family  had  made  him  personally  popular  in 
France.  The  assassin,  named  Louvel,  a  fanati- 
cal Bonapartist,  was  employed  as  a  saddler 
in  the  king's  mews.  He  denied  to  the  last 
having  any  accomplices,  although  the  probabil- 
ities remained  to  the  contrary.  His  actual  mo- 
tive, according  to  his  own  statement,  was  to 
strike  to  death  the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  the 
person  of  its  only  member  who  could  perpetu- 
ate the  race.  In  fact,  the  duke  of  Berry  had 
only  one  daughter,  Louise  of  Bourbon,  Made- 
moiselle, bom  Sept  21,  1819,  who  was  un- 
able to  succeed  to  the  crown,  by  virtue 
of  the  Salic  law.  The  unfortunate  prince 
was  leading  his  wife  to  her  carriage  at  the  door 
of  the  opera,  when  he  was  mortally  stabbed  in 
the  right  siae.  He  was  carried  into  a  parlor 
belonging  to  the  admimstration  of  the  theatre, 
where  he  expired  at  6  o'clock  in  the  morning 
of  Feb.  14,  surrounded  by  hu»  family,  the  high 
ofBlcers  of  the  state,  and  the  dU  king  himsd£ 
The  last  words  of  the  victim  were  to  ask  par- 
don for  his  murderer,  who  had  after  all  par- 
tially foiled  in  his  atrocious  purpose,  as  the 
duchess  was  then  in  the  second  month  of  her 
pregnancy,  and  gave  birth  to  a  son  7  months 
afterward. 

BEBBT,  Mabds  Oabounk  FxBDnrAHDB  Lou- 
IBB,  duchess  of  daughter  of  Francis  I.,  king  of 
Naples,  and  of  Maria  Clementina,  archdu<mess 
of  Austria,  bom  in  Palermo,  Nov.  5,  1798. 
When  but  littie  over  17  she  was  married  by 
proxy  to  the  duke  of  Berry,  and  soon  after 
arrived  in  Paris,  where  she  at  once  became 
popular  by  the  generosity  of  her  heart,  the  live- 
liness of  her  mind,  and  her  fondness  for  art  lit- 
eratureL  and  pleasure,  all  qualities  particularly 
congenial  to  the  temper  of  the  French  people. 
As  it  happened  tbat  her  husband  had  the  same 
natural  propensities,  they  lived  together  in  mu- 
tual affection,  but  little  troubled  by  political  cares. 
On  Sept  21, 1819,  she  gave  birth  to  a  daughter, 
and,  in  the  following  year,  she  was  pregnant 
when  her  husband  was  assassinated  in  the  night 
of  Feb.  18.  Seven  months  after  that  dreadful 
event,  she  was  delivered  of  a  son,  whose  destiny 
seemed  to  be  to  succeed  to  the  crown  of  France ; 
but  Providence  had  decided  otherwise.  In  1880, 
after  a  long  parliamentary  contest  between  the 
crown  ana  the  middle  classes,  the  revolution 
of  July  broke  out.  In  the  midst  of  the  bloody 
contest,  conscious  of  her  popularity,  and  weU 
aware  of  the  decisive  influence  that  she  might 
exert  on  the  final  result,  she  resolved  to  leave 
the  Tuileries,  and  to  go  to  the  Hotel  do  Yille^ 
Qie  head-quarters  of  the  insurgents.    There  she 


196 


BEBBT 


inteoded  to  trust  her  aon  as  their  king  to  the 
lojalty  of  the  people.  This  bold  step  might 
have  changed  the  history  of  Franoe,  esi^edflJlj 
as  several  of  the  most  inflaential  citizens, 
dreading  the  consequences  of  a  complete  over- 
throw of  the  throne,  were  prepared  to  proclaim 
the  young  duke  of  &>rdeaax  as  Henry  Y.,  and 
pacify  the  people^  who  had  taken  up  arms  at 
nrst  more  against  an  unpopular  administration^ 
than  against  the  reigning  dynasty.  The  duchess 
might  thus  hare  saved  for  her  son  the  crown, 
wmoh  was  falling  from  the  head  of  the  old  king. 
But  the  blind  obstinacy  of  the  family  destroyed 
this  last  chance.  As  uie  young  duchess  insist- 
ed with  great  energy  on  the  execution  of  her 
design,  and  did  not  seem  to  be  disposed  to 
yield  to  moral  opposition,  the  old  king  had  re- 
oourse  to  material  restraint.  The  mother  of 
the  presumptive  heir  of  a  tottering  crown  was 
put  under  arrest,  and  kept  prisoner  in  her  own 
apartments.  Soon  after,  ail  was  lost,  and  no 
ciher  alternative  was  left  to  her  but  to  follow 
the  Bourbon  family  into  exile.  She  did  not  re- 
main long  with  them  at  Holyrood,  where  they 
took  refuge,  and,  in  the  following  year,  she  went 
to  reside  at  Sestri,  in  Sardinia.  From  the  very 
moment  of  leaving  France  she  was  resolved 
to  return,  and  to  attempt  all  means  of  restor- 
ing her  son  to  the  throne.  The  new  govern- 
ment, in  its  unsetded  condition  between  the 
yet  powerM  Ibdy  of  the  legitimists  and  the 
fast-growing  republican  party,  was  specially 
uneasy  about  the  threatening  plots  of  tne  only 
member  of  the  exiled  family  who  had  any 
diums  on  the  popular  sympathy,  and  showed 
energy  enough  to  take  advanti^  of  it  By 
diplomatic  pressure,  they  prevailed  upon  the 
king  of  Sardinia  to  expel  the  dudiess  from  that 
oountry.  Wounded  in  her  feelings,  but  submis- 
sive to  necessity,  she  went  to  Modena,  where 
she  was  affectionately  received,  and  thence 
to  Rome,  where  she  soon  became  the  centre 
of  active  political  intrigues.  Those  members 
of  the  legitimist  partv,  who  dreamed  of  a  resto- 
ration bv  means  of  civil  war,  were  busy  around 
the  duchess,  whose  ideas  agreed  but  too  well 
with  theirs.  Men  of  experience  were  not 
wanting  who  did  their  best  to  dissuade  her 
from  a  rash  enterprise  of  which  the  only  possi- 
ble result  would  be  a  useless  waste  of  blood  in 
Yend6e  and  Brittany.  Deceived  bv  erroneous 
reports  and  groundless  hope,  she  left  Massa, 
^ril  21, 1832,  and  landed  secretiv  on  a  point 
of  the  French  coast,  where  she  had  to  pass  tiie 
first  night  in  the  open  air,  wriwped  up  in  a 
cloalL  without  any  followers  but  M.  de  Mesnard 
and  M.  de  Bourmont.  In  the  mean  time^  a 
movement  attempted  by  her  partisans  in  Mar- 
seilles failed  entirely,  and  should  have  been  a 
waminff  against  any  further  step.  Still,  in- 
stead of  re^mbarking,  as  she  might  have  done 
without  any  serious  difficulty,  die  resolved  to 
seek  in  the  west  of  France  that  fortune  which 
she  had  not  found  in  the  south,  and  through  im- 
minent dangers  and  extraordinary  incidents, 
she  succeeded  in  reaching  Vend^.     Before 


arriving  at  MontpdUer,  in  order  to  escape  ar- 
rest, she  boldly  presented  herself  to  the  mayor 
of  the  commune,  who,  she  was  informed,  was 
a  thorough  republican.  ^  Sir,"  said  she,  ^  I  am 
the  duchess  of  Berry ;  I  am  going  to  Yendte 
to  try  the  chances  in  &vor  of  my  son.  I  know 
what  are  your  political  opinions;  but  I  trust  in 
^our  honor,  and  I  come  to  ask  you  to  assist  me 
in  continuing  my  journey.'^  The  answer  was 
what  the  adventurous  heroine  had  expected, 
and  she  entered  the  city  in  the  wagon  of  the 
republican  mayor,  himself  driving,  ^e  stop- 
ped one  day  in  Toulouse,  and  made  her  entrance 
into  Bordeaux  in  an  open  baroudie  by  broad 
daylic^t.  But  to  penetrate  into  Yend6e^ 
where  she  was  more  doeely  watched,  she  had 
to  dioguise  herself  in  the  garments  of  a  peasant 
woman.  Her  first  proclamation  to  obU  the 
le^timists  to  armsL  issued  in  the  name  of  Hen- 
ry Y.,  was  dated  May  19.  She  met  immediately 
with  a  strong  and  decided  opposition  from  many 
of  the  most  influential  men  of  the  party.  In 
Paris,  eq>ecially,  they  disiqiproved  this  untimely 
insurrection  against  a  government  which  had  in 
hand!  all  the  means  of  suppressing  it.  Benmr, 
one  of  the  most  renowned  among  the  leaders^ 
waited  on  the  duchess,  and  respectfully  but 
eamestiy  insisted  upon  her  desisting  from  the 
fatal  enterprise.  All  was  in  vain.  The  insure 
rection,  adjourned  for  a  few  days  by  a  counter- 
order  vcom  Marshal  Bourmont,  broke  out  June 
4^  the  very  same  day  when  the  republican 
party  made  a  ramilar  attempt  in  Paris,  and  dese- 
crated the  funeral  of  Gen.  Lamarque  by  bloody 
riots.  The  first  fight  of  the  legitimists  in  Yen- 
d^  took  place  near  Yieille-Yigne,  and  is  known 
as  the  combat  du  chine.  During  the  firing,  and 
without  fear  of  the  bullets,  the  duchess  who 
was  on  the  spot  attended  to  the  wounded ;  but 
the  odds  were  against  her,  and  in  the  defeat 
of  her  followers,  she  was  so  near  bdng  taken 

Erisoner,  that  it  was  only  by  exchanging  her 
orse  for  M.  de  Oharette^s  that  she  could  esci4>e. 
After  the  equally  unsuccessful  result  of  some 
other  encounters  in  which  her  devoted  partisans 
fought  bravely,  she  gave  up  all  hope  of  over- 
throwing or  even  endangering  the  estabhshed 
government,  and  sorrowfully  confined  herself 
to  the  care  of  her  personal  safety.  Driven  from 
place  to  place  by  the  columns  of  troops  on  her 
footsteps  in  every  direction,  she  took  refuge  in 
the  city  of  Nantes,  where  she  entered  on  a 
market  day,  as  a  country-woman,  barefooted 
and  carrying  a  basket  of  eegs  ana  vegetables, 
followed  at  a  distance  by  M.  de  Mesnard  and 
Mile,  de  Kersabiec.  A  safe  asylum  had  been 
prepared  for  her  in  the  house  of  2  unmarried 
ladies  of  the  name  of  Du  Guigny,  and  there 
for  the  first  time  for  many  days,  she  could  en- 
joy rest  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the  govern- 
ment to  effect  her  capture.  About  that  time 
a  German  renegade  Jew,  of  the  name  of  Deutz, 
presented  himself  to  the  ministers,  and  proposed 
a  shameful  bargain  for  the  delivery  of  the 
proscribed  duchess.  By  dint  of  base  and 
hypocritical  steps,  he  had  previously  succeeded 


BEBBY 


197 


in  b^Djg  introdnced  to  the  dabhees  when  in 
Rome,  in  th^  preceding  jear.  He  had  obtained 
lier  protection  and  oonfidenoe  bj  feigned  re- 
ligions and  political  devotion,  and  she  had  been 
\inpradent  enon^h  to  trost  all  her  secrets  to  him, 
altnongh  it  had  been  suspected,  not  without 
good  reasons,  that  even  then  he  was  a  secret 
agent  of  Louis  Philippe.  Whatever  mmj  have 
been  his  real  character  in  Borne,  he  now  sp- 
peared  in  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  betraying  his 
benefiiotreBs.  Among  the  members  of  Uie  cabi- 
net, M.  Thiers  eagerly  acceded  to  the  pro- 
posals of  Dentz,  discussed  the  price  of  the  trea- 
son, and  when  the  bargain  was  concluded  at 
1,000,000  francs,  according  to  some  authori- 
ties, or,  what  is  more  probable,  at  half  of 
that  sum,  according  to  some  others,  the  traitor 
left  for  Nantes,  in  company  with  an  agent  of 
the  secret  police,  of  the  name  of  Joly.  &>  close 
had  the  transaction  been  kept,  wat  nobody 
suspected  it  among  the  most  distrustful  fnendls 
of  the  dnchesB.  Without  any  great  difficulty, 
Dents  snooeeded  in  ascertaining  where  she 
was;  he  was  even  admitted  to  visit  her  in 
her  asyhun,  and  at  once  gave  all  the  informa- 
tion to  the  authorities.  Suddenly  the  house  of 
the  Idles.  Du  Guigny  was  surrounded  by  a  large 
\>ody  of  troppaj  dispersed  in  such  a  wav  as  to  pre- 
Tent  .escape.  The  inside  was  invaded,  searched 
with  the  greatest  minuteness^  and  the  duchess 
was  not  round.  Still  the  most  positive  infor- 
mation left  no  doubt  about  her  presence  in  tiie 
house  at  the  time  it  was  entered,  and  the  pos- 
sibili^  of  escape  was  out  of  the  question.  For 
86  hours  every  room,  doset,  and  comer,  was  oc- 
oopied  by  the  soldiers,  gendarmes,  and  police- 
men. The  most  liberal  offers  made  to  the  2 
humble  female  servants  of  the  Miles.  Du  Guigny, 
to  the  extent  of  a  table  covered  with  gold,  to 
tempt  their  fidelity,  were  of  no  avail,  and  the 
prefect  announced  his  determination  to  destroy 
the  entire  house,  stone  by  stone,  rather  than 
give  up  the  pursuit  At  last,  2  gendarmes 
posted  in  an  attic  room,  having  kept  up  a 
fire  in  the  chimney  to  preserve  themselves 
from  the  cold  of  an  autumn  night,  heard  to 
their  utter  astonishment  a  feminine  voice  or- 
dering the  fire  to  be  put  out^  and  announcing 
that  tiie  duchess  of  Berry  was  ready  to  sur- 
render. There  she  had  been  in  fact  concealed 
with  Mile,  de  Kersabiec,  M.  de  Mesnard,  and 
M.  Gnibonrg^  4  persons,  in  a  space  less  than  4 
feet  long  hy  2  wide,  in  the  angle  of  the  walls  be- 
hind the  fire-place.  This  long  and  sharp  trial 
she  had  borne  with  the  most  extraoroinary 
bravery,  endurance,  and  even  gayety.  As  she 
was  the  last  to  crowd  into  the  place,  she  found 
herself  eloee  by  the  hot  iron  plate  of  the  chim- 
ney, and  several  times,  half  suffocated  by  the 
want  of  air,  she  had  to  extinguish  with  her 
own  handa  the  flames  communicated  to  her 
dress  by  the  burning  contact  She  was  at  first 
imprisoned  in  the  castle  of  Nantes,  and  subse- 
quently transported  to  the  dtadel  of  Blaye. 
the  royal  court  of  Poitiers  had  already  issued 
an   indictment    against   the   duchess  to   ap- 


pear at  the  aadxes  of  the  department  of 
Vend^.  This  was  quashed  without  any  leflpal 
authority,  by  her  imprisonment  without  judg- 
ment in  Blaye.  In  fact,  it  was  neither  more 
nor  less  than  the  actual  restoration  of  the  leU 
trM  ds  cachet^  abolished  by  Louis  XYI.  Hie 
liberal  legitimists  and  republicans  were  unan- 
imous in  protesting  agamst  the  proceeding 
through  all  the  channds  of  publicity,  news- 
papers, magazines,  and  pamphlets.  Numerous 
petitions  were  addressed  te  the  chamber  of 
deputies,  which  ought  to  have  been  the  natural 
guardian  of  the  public  rights  and  protector  of 
the  law.  A  report  was  presented  Feb.  S, 
1838,  and  in  answer  to  the  reclamations 
founded  on  common  justice,  M.  de  Broglie,  a 
minister  of  the  doctrinaire  school,  put  forward 
some  general  considerations  of  propriety  and 
public  tranquillity,  and  devised  an  indefinite  rule 
of  action  from  the  drcumstances.  The  cham- 
ber, apparently  satisfied,  passed  to  the  order  of 
the  day.  Al>out  that  time  rumors  began  to 
circulate,  first  among  the  people,  and  soon  after 
in  the  press,  to  the  effect  that  the  prisoner  of 
Blaye  was  pregnant,  and  even  near  her  confine- 
ment The  most  violent  discussions  arose  at 
once  everywhere  in  France,  and  soon  led  to 
many  duels,  which  an  insignificant  altboiudi 
official  report  from  Messra  Auvity  and  Orfila 
as  physicians,  sent  to  Blave  bv  the  govern- 
ment^ did  not  silence.  What'Louis  Philippe 
and  nis  cabinet  wanted  was  to  publicly  dis- 
grace the  duchess,  and  for  this  purpose  no 
means  seemed  unworthy.  Ool.  Ohousserie,  a 
brave  and  gentlemanly  old  soldier  of  Napoleon, 
who  at  first  had  the  command  of  the  citadel, 
tendered  his  resignation  rather  than  obey  his 
private  instructions,  which  he  thought  utterly  in- 
compatible with  his  honor  as  a  soldier  and  his 
delicacy  as  a  man.  Gen.  Bugeaud,  however,  at- 
tempted the  part  refused  by  his  predecessor, 
and  so  devotedly  performed  it  that  on  Feb.  22, 
the  ill-treated  princess,  in  order  to  esci^  in- 
cessant persecutions,  signed  the  following  dec- 
laration :  '^  Urged  by  circumstances,  and  by  the 
measures  ordered  by  the  government,  although 
I  had  the  most  serious  reasons  for  keeping  my 
marriage  secret,  I  owe  it  to  myself  and  to  my 
children  to  dedare,  that  while  in  Italy,  I  secretly 
married  the  count  of  Lucchesi-Palli,  one  of  the 
princes  of  Oampo-Franco.''  This  document  was 
mmiediately  published  in  the  Moniteur,  A  loud 
cry  of  indignation  from  all  sections  of  the 
opposition  answered  to  this  act  of  coercion. 
Fresh  protests  were  presented  to  the  chamber 
of  deputies,  but  were  rcjjected  by  the  ma> 
jority.  Nor  did  the  declaration  suspend  the 
work  of  the  tormentors,  till  on  May  10,  the 
duchess  gave  birth  to  a  daughter,  when  the 
presence  of  all  the  public  officers  as  witnesses 
was  forced  upon  her  by  Bugeaud,  the  ever  un- 
scrupulous soldier,  whose  ambition  contem- 
plated only  the  future  reward  promised  to  his 
seal — So  ended  the  political  career  of  the 
duchess  of  Berry.  June  8,  she  was  set  at  lib- 
erty, as  illegally  as  she  had  been  put  in  prison. 


108 


BERRYEB 


BTgRflTT^RTTBrR 


and  a  Frenoh  frigate  transported  her  to  Palermo. 
This  episode  of  modem  history  had  a  worthy 
epilogue  but  2  days  after  the  departure  of  the 
dnohess.  A  violent  discussion  arose  in  the 
ohamber  of  deputies,  when  M.  Thiera  mounting 
the  tribune,  made  the  following  bold  declara- 
tion :  **  We  are  accused  of  having  violated  the 
common  law.  I  confess  it.  The  arrest,  the  im- 
prisonment, the  release,  idl  has  been  illegal, 
nell,  where  is  then  the  excuse  for  our  conduct  ? 
It  is  in  the  very  frankness  of  our  conduct*' 
The  minority  applauded.  From  that  time  the 
duchess  of  fienry  has  lived  retired  from  the 
political  arena,  and  has  confined  herself  to  the 
quiet  enjoyments  of  domestic  life  with  her 
husband,  the  count  Lucchesi,  who  has  since 
inherited  the  title  of  Duke  Delia  Grazia,  sur- 
rounded by  4  children  bom  of  her  second  mar- 
riage, exclusive  of  the  one  that  died  soon  after 
her  release  from  Blay e.  She  resides  part  of  the 
year  in  Venice,  where  she  owns  the  beautiful 
Vendramin  palace,  and  part  of  the  year  in  her 
princely  castle  of  Bmnsee,  in  Styria.  The  con- 
oourse  of  friends  who  visit  her  constantly, 
proves  that  even  after  so  many  years,  she  is 
atill  popular  among  many  of  the  French  people, 
who  eltlier  admire  the  heroic  qualities  dbplayed 
by  her  as  the  mother  of  a  pretender,  or  sympa- 
thize with  the  womanly  graces  charaoteristio 
of  her  private  life. 

BEBBYER,  Antoinb  Pdsbbb,  a  French  ad- 
vocate and  politician,  bora  in  Paris,  Jan.  4, 
1790.  The  political  trials  which  took  place 
after  the  second  restoration  brought  him  into 
public  notice.  He  uded  his  famer  and  the 
elder  Dupin  in  the  useless  defence  of  Marshal 
Key,  while  he  alone  was  intrusted  with  that 
of  Oambronne  and  Debelle.  The  former  was 
acquitted ;  the  latter  having  been  sentenced  to 
death,' the  young  advocate  went  to  the  king, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  his  pardon.  His 
practice  became  extensive,  and  in  1830  he  was 
elected  deputv  from  the  department  of  Haute 
Loire,  and  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  debates 
preceding  the  revolution  of  J«ly.  After  the 
night  of  Charles  X.,  Berryer,  in  opposition  to 
all  the  members  of  his  pfuty,  retained  his  seat, 
in  the  chamber  of  deputies,  where,  though  the 
only  remaining  representative  of  the  fallen 
monarchy,  he  supported  the  most  liberal  meas- 
ures. In  1882,  when  the  duchess  of  Berry 
eame  to  France  to  raise  a  rebellion  among  the 
Yendeans,  he  went  to  the  princess  to  dissuade 
her  from  it  He  was  arrested  as  an  accom- 
plice in  the  undertaking  he  had  opposed ;  but 
the  charge  was  abandoned.  In  1836  he  stren- 
uously but  vainly  opposed  the  restrictive  meas- 
ures of  the  government.  On  the  question 
of  voting  25,000,000  francs,  to  satisfy  the 
daims  of  the  United  States,  he  made  a  pow- 
erful and  successful  speech  against  the  bill. 
He  held  his  position  as  leading  orator  in  tiie 
assembly  till  the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe.  Being 
elected  to  the  constituent  and  legislative  assem- 
blies, he  did  not  hesitate  to  man^est  openly  his 
monarchical  predilections,  and  declare  that  a 


republican  system  of  government  was  entirely 
repuffuant  to  the  interest,  manners,  and  tradi- 
tioniu  opinions  of  the  French  nation.  He  op- 
posed the  government  of  Louis  Napoleon;  and 
on  the  coup  Witat  of  1851,  was  vehement  in  der 
noundng  him  as  a  usurper.  6ince  then,  he  has 
abandoned  politics  for  the  law.  He  was 
elected  to  the  French  academy  in  1852.  We 
must  add  the  fiict,  that  Berryer  is  a  spend- 
thrift; and  that,  notwithstanding  the  profits 
of  his  large  practice,  he  has  been  several 
times  under  the  necessity  of  accepting  large 
sums  of  money,  contributed  by  his  party,  to  re- 
lieve him  from  pecuniary  difficulties. 

BEBSEBEEB  (Scand.  her^  bare,  and  9erhr^ 
a  coat  of  nudl),  in  Bcandinavian  mythology,  a 
descendant  of  the  eight-handed  Btarkader  and 
the  beautiful  Alphilde.  He  was  a  mighty  war- 
rior who  fought  without  coat  of  mail  or  helmet, 
contrary  to  the  custom  of  his  time.  His  rage 
supplied  the  place  of  armor,  whence  his  name. 
He  married  the  daughter  of  king  Swafnrlam, 
whom  he  had  killed  in  battle,  and  had  by  her 
12  sons,  as  ferocious  as  himselfl — ^The  name  was 
also  applied  to  the  possessed  champions  of 
the  ancient  Scandinavians.  There  is  some- 
thing extraordinary  and  incomprehennble  in 
what  is  related  of  these  persons,  in  some  re- 
spects analogous  to  what  we  read  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  concerning  the  cyrpyou/icyoi,  or  pos- 
sessed of  devils,  to  the  understaikling  which 
neither  experience  nor  science  fhmishes  any 
due.  These  Berserkers  were  persons,  who 
at  times  were  liable  to  uncontrollable  fits  of 
martial  frenzy,  during  the  occurrence  of  which 
they  could  peiform  the  most  extraordinary 
feats  of  strength  and  a^ty.  far  beyond  their 
abiUty  to  attempt  at  any  other  period.  They 
foamed  at  the  mouth,  bit  through  iron  shields, 
broke  maces  of  iron  with  their  bare  hands, 
snapped  spears  and  sword-blades  like  pipe- 
stems  or  pieces  of  (^ass,  set  assaults,  tortures, 
and  even  mortal  wounds  at  defiance,  and,  if 
not  invulnerable,  appeared  to  be  exempt  fi>om 
death,  until  at  least  the  moment  when  the  fit,  or 
whatever  it  was,  passed  away ;  when  they  were 
not  only  as  other  men,  but  were  so  exhausted, 
so  entirely  prostrated  and  debilitated  by  the  ef- 
fects of  the  reaction,  Uiat  they  could  be  managed 
and  controlled  by  a  weak  woman  or  an  infiuit 
Whether  it  was  merely  an  abnormal  state  of 
excitement  produced  by  the  maddening  effects 
of  excessive  drinking,  and  by  stimula&)g  the 
nerves  by  howling  and  firantic  exercises  into  a 
semi-cataleptio  state,  like  that  superinduced  by 
the  orgies  of  the  howling  and  dancing  dervisee ; 
or  whether  it  was  some  unknown  nervous  seiz- 
ure, rendering  for  the  moment  the  mind  impas- 
sive to  fear  and  the  muscular  body  insensible  to 
pain,  is  not  now  to  be  ascertfuned;  but  it  is 
clear  froip  all  the  accounts  of  contemporaneous 
writers,  who  mention  it  as  a  thing  of  course, 
and  as  no  subject  for  wonder,  that  it  was  nei- 
ther an  exaggerated  account  of  ordinary  occur- 
rences, nor  an  invention  of  the  priests  and 
apostles  of  a  false  religion. 


BERTAUT 


BEBTHIEB 


199 


BERTAUT,  a  French  yiolonoellist,  whose 
Ghristian  name  has  not  been  preseired,  and 
-whose  fBinily  name  also  is  nnoertaui,  being 
spelled  by  some  Berthant,  and  by  others  Ber- 
taidt,  the  first  who  ndsed  the  instrament  to  the 
dignity  of  a  sdenoe  in  France,  bom  at  Yalen- 
laennes  at  the  beguming  of  the  18th  oentary, 
died  1756.  He  possessed  a  fine  voice  and  ex- 
celled upon  the  violoncello.  His  manner  of  per- 
forming upon  this  instrament  was  diffbsed  over 
France  by  his  papils,  Cnpis,  Dnport  the  elder, 
and  the  two  Jansons.  When  Bidrtant  did  not 
sing  or  play  npon  the  violoncello,  he  paid  hom- 
age to  &i0chn8,  and  frequently  his  exploits  in 
that  department  interfered  with  the  ftdl  devel- 
opment of  his  musical  genius. 

BERTHA,  a  legendary  name  derived  from 
the  Berehta  and  JPerahta  of  pagan  times,  and 
applied  to  celebrated  women  of  the  middle  ages. 
as,  for  instance,  St.  Bertha,  the  beautifol  and 
pious  daughter  of  King  Oharibert  of  Paris,  mar- 
ried in  660  to  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  whom 
she  converted  to  Ohristianity,  and,  on  account  of 
her  nuamonary  services  among  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons, canoxuzed  by  the  see  of  Rome,  which 
fixed  her  anniversary  upon  July  4.  Again,  wo 
find  in  the  poetry  of  the  middle  ages,  a  lady 
of  the  name  of  Bertha,  or  '^  Berthrada  with  the  ' 
large  foot,"  as  with  more  truth  than  gallantry 
she  was  called,  who  figured  as  the  daughter  of 
Count  Ghoribert  of  Laon,  wife  of  Pepin  the 
Small,  and  mother  of  Charlemagne.  In  1822,  Mr. 
Paolin  Paris  discovered  an  old  poem,  of  which 
this  kdy  (who  died  at  Ohoisei^  July  12,  788, 
and  was  buried  at  St.  Denis)  was  the  theme, 
and  which  bears  the  title  oi  Berte  aus  grana 
piei.  A  sister  of  Oharlemagne,  who  married 
l£ilo  d'Angleria,  and  became  the  mother  of  Ro- 
land, also  appears  in  the  poetical  literature  of 
the  day  under  the  name  of  Bertha.  But  the 
most  celebrated  among  the  Berthas  was  the 
daughter  of  Burchard.  duke  of  the  Allemonni, 
and  queen  of  Rudolf  11.,  the  king  of  Swiss 
Burgundy,  who,  after  his  death  in  987,  was 
regent  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Oonrad, 
and  subsequently  married  King  Hugo  of  Italy. 
Queen  Bertha,  who  died  toward  the  end  of  the 
10th  century,  was,  like  her  namesake  the  old 
pagan  divinity  Berehta,  a  singularly  thrifty 
housekeeper,  and  is  represented  upon  monu- 
ments, coins,  seals^  as  sitting  upon  her  throne 
with  a  distaff  in  her  hand.  It  is  probable 
that,  with  the  spread  of  Ohristianity,  pagan 
emblems  were  in  this  manner  transferred  upon 
Ghristian  monuments;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
about  the  £fu$t  that  many  high-bred  ladies  of  the 
10th  century  were  much  addicted  to  household 
duties.  Whenever  Italians  wish  to  express  in 
a  strong  manner  their  regret  at  the  changes 
which  have  come  upon  something  good  in  the 
past,  they  say:  Berta  nonfllapiu;  and  the 
Germans^  less  pointed  and  laconic  proverb, 
In  der  guten  dUen  Zeit^  wo  die  Koniginn  Bertha 
marmy  comes  in  the  same  manner  from  good 
Queen  Bertha  and  her  love  for  the  distaff. 

BERTHELSDORF,  a  village  of  Saxony,  18 


miles  S.  E.  of  Bautzen^here  the  central  con- 
ference of  the  sect  of  nerrnhuter  Christians  is 
held. 

BERTHIER,  a  western  county  of  Canada  E., 
with  an  area  of  0,590  sq.  m.  It  borders  on  the 
St  Lawrence,  and  is  drained  by  Assumption 
river.  In  its  K  E.  part  is  Lake  Maskinonge, 
a  sheet  of  water  about  4  miles  long  and  8  miles 
wide.  A  river  of  the  same  name  rises  in  this 
lake  and  flows  into  the  St  Lawrence.  In  1852 
Berthier  produced  morefiax,  oats,  and  tobacco, 
than  any  other  county  of  Canada  E.  These 
productions,  together  with  &bric3  of  wool  and 
linen,  form  its  chief  staples.  Pop.  84,608 ;  chief 
town,  Berthier-en-Hant 

BERTHIER,  Ferdinand,  a  deaf  mute,  emi- 
nent as  a  teacher  and  author,  was  bom  at  Lou- 
has,  near  Macon,  department  of  Sa6ne  et 
Loire,  France,  about  1801.  He  entered  the 
national  institution  for  deaf  mutes,  at  Paris,  at 
an  early  age,  and  was  a  pupil  of  M.  Laurent 
Clerc.  He  was  while  quite  young  appointed 
an  instructor  there,  and  has  risen  from  one 
position  to  another  till  he  is  now  the  dean 
of  the  iastitution,  and  one  of  the  most  emi- 
nent teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  on  the 
continent.  He  has  written  a  very  interesting 
memoir  of  the  abb6  de  l'Ep6e,  as  well  as  sev- 
eral other  works. 

BERTHIER,  Louis  Axsxandbb.  marshal  of 
France,  prince  and  duke  of  Neufchitel  and  Yal- 
engiiL  prince  of  WagrauLbom  at  Yersaillee^  Nov. 
20, 1758,  murdered  at  Bamberg,  June  1, 1815. 
He  was  educated  as  a  soldier  by  his  father,  the 
chief  of  tiie  corps  of  topographical  engineers  un- 
der Louis  X YI.  From  the  topographical  bureau 
of  the  kin^,  he  passed  to  active  service,  first  as 
lieutenant  m  the  general  stafi^  and  subsequentiy 
as  a  captain  of  dragoons.  In  the  American 
war  of  independence  he  served  under  Lafayette. 
In  1789,  Louis  XYL  appointed  him  nuj^^'S^^* 
eral  of  ue  national  guard  of  YersaiUes,  and  on 
Oct  5  and  6, 171K),  as  well  as  Feb.  19, 1701, 
he  did  good  service  to  the  royal  feunily.  He 
perceived,  however,  that  the  revolution  opened 
a  field  for  military  talents,  and  we  find  him,  in 
turn,  the  chief  of  the  gen^id  stafi^  under  Lafay- 
ette, Luckn^^r,  and  Custine.  Burmg  the  reign 
of  terror  ne  avoided  suspicion  by  exhibiting 
zeal  in  the  Yendean  war.  His  personal  bravery 
at  the  defence  of  Saumur,  June  12,  1795,  se- 
cured an  honorable  mention  in  the  reports  of  the 
commissaries  of  the  convention.  After  the  9th 
Thermidor,  he  was  appointed  chief  of  the  gen- 
eral staff  of  Eellermann,  and  by  causing  the 
French  army  to  take  up  the  lines  of  Borghetto, 
contributed  to  arrest  the  advance  of  the  enemy. 
Thus  his  reputation  as  a  chief  of  the  general 
staff  was  established  before  Bonaparte  singled 
him  out  for  that  post.  During  the  campaign 
of  179&-7,  he  also  proved  himself  a  good  gen- 
eral of  division  in  the  batties  of  Mondovi  (April 
22,  1796),  Lodi,  O^ay  10,  1796),  Codogno 
(May  9, 1796),  and  RivoH  (Jan.  14, 1797).  Of  a 
weak  character,  of  a  tenacious  activity,  of  a  her- 
culean strength  of  constitution,  which  allowed 


200 


BEBTHE5R 


BERTHOLD 


Miii^lo  work  during  8  caDsecatiTe  nights,  of  a 
ftnpendoos  loemorj  for  every  thing  respecting 
the  details  of  military  operations,  such  as  move- 
ments of  corps,  nnmoer  offerees,  cantonments 
chiefe;  of  a  proroptitade  alwajs  to  be  relied 
npon,  orderly  and  exacts  well  versed  in  the  use 
of  maps,  wi&  an  acate  appreciation  of  the  pe- 
coliarities  of  the  ground,  schooled  to  report  in 
simple  and  Indd  terms  on  the  most  complicated 
military  movements,  sofficiently  experienced 
and  qmck-sighted  to  know  on  the  day  of  action 
where  to  deuver  the  orders  received,  and  him- 
self attending  to  their  execntion,  the  living 
telegraph  of  his  chief  on  the  field  of  battle,  and 
his  indefatigable  writing  machine  at  the  desk, 
he  was  the  paragon  of  a  staff  officer  for  a  gen- 
eral who  reserved  to  himself  all  the  superior 
staff  fonctions.  Despite  his  remonstrances, 
Bonaparte  placed  him,  in  1798,  at  the  head  of 
t]|p  army  destined  to  occupy  JEtome,  there  to 
proclaim  the  republic,  and  to  take  the  pope  pris- 
oner. Equally  unable  to  prevent  the  robberies 
committed  at  Rome  by  French  generals,  com- 
iasaries  and  purveyors,  and  to  arrest  the  mutiny 
in  the  French  ranks,  he  resigned  his  command  to 
the  hands  of  Hassena,  and  repaired  to  lifilan, 
where  he  feU  in  love  with  the  beautiful  Ma- 
dame Yisconti;  his  eccentric  and  lasting  pas- 
sion for  whom  caused  him  during  the  eroedition 
to  Ijgypt  to  be  nicknamed  the  duef  of  the 
faction  dm  amaureux,  and  cost  him  the  best 
part  of  the  40,000,000  francs  successively 
bestowed  upon  him  by  his  imperial  master. 
After  his  return  from  Egypt,  he  seconded  Bona- 
parte's intrigues  on  the  18th  and  19th  Bru- 
maire,  and  was  appointed  minister  of  war,  a  post 
he  occupied  till  April  2, 1800.  Acting  again  as 
chief  of  the  general  staff  during  the  second 
Italian  campaign,  he  contributed  somewhat  to 
the  apparently  false  position  in  which  Bona- 
parte luid  placed  himself  at  Marengo,  by  cred- 
iting fEilse  reports  as  to  the  route  ana  podtion 
of  we  Austrian  army.  After  the  victory,  hay- 
ing concluded  ^an  armistice  with  Gen«  Melas, 
he  was  employed  on  several  diplomatic  errands, 
and  then  reinstated  in  the  war  ministry,  which 
he  held  till  the  proclamation  of  the  empire. 
He  then  became  completely  attached  to  the 
person  of  the  emperor,  whom,  with  the  title 
of  minor-general  of  the  grand  army;  he  accom- 
panied as  chief  of  the  general  staff  during  all 
his  campaigns.  Kapdeon  showered  tidea^ 
dignities,  emoluments,  pensions,  and  donations 
upon  him.  May  19,  1808,  he  was  created 
miurshal  of  the  empire,  grand  cordon  of  the 
legion  of  honor,  grand  huntsman  of  France. 
Oct  17, 1806,  he  had  the  honor  of  stipulating 
with  Mack  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  of 
TJlm.  From  the  Prussian  campaign  of  1806,  he 
carried  home  the  dignity  of  sovereign  prince  of 
Neufch&tel  and  Yalengin.  In  1808  he  was 
ordered  to  mairy  the  princess  Elizabeth  Maria 
of  Bavaria-Birkenfeld,  the  king  of  Bavarians 
niece,  and  was  made  vice-constable  of  France. 
In  1809,  Napoleon  placed  him  as  general-in- 
chief  at  the  head  of  the  grand  army  destined  to 


operate  from  Bavaria  against  Austria.  On 
April  6  he  dedared  war,  and  on  the  15th  bad 
already  contrived  to  compromise  the  AftmjMMgn 
He  divided  the  army  into  8  parts,  posting  f^ 
voust  with  half  of  the  French  forces  at  Begens- 
burg^  Masaena  with  the  other  half  at  Augsburg^ 
and  between  them,  at  Avensberg,  the  Bavan- 
ans,  so  that  by  quickly  advancing,  the  archdoke 
Charles  might  have  vanquished  these  com 
singly.  The  slowness  of  the  Austrians  and  the 
arrival  of  Ki^leon  saved  the  French  army. 
In  his  more  congenial  functions,  however,  and 
under  the  eyes  of  his  master,  he  renderea  ez* 
cellent  service  in  this  same  campaign,  and 
added  to  his  long  list  of  titles  that  of  prince  of 
Wagram.  During  the  Russian  campaign  ha 
broke  down  even  as  chief  of  the  general  sta£ 
After  the  conflagration  of  Moscow  he  proved 
unable  even  to  interpret  the  ordera  of  his  mas- 
ter ;  but  in  q>ite  of  his  urgent  request  to  be 
allowed  to  return  with  Napoleon  to  France  the 
latter  ordered  him  to  stay  with  the  army  in 
Russia.  The  narrowness  of  his  mind  and  hia 
devotion  to  routme  were  now  fully  illustrated 
in  the  midst  of  the  fearful  odds  against  which 
the  French  had  to  struggle.  True  to  Ms 
traditions,  he  gave  to  a  battalion,  som^ 
times  to  a  company  of  the  rear-guazd,  the 
same  ordera  as  if  that  rear-guard  was  stiU 
composed  of  80,000  men;  aseagned  posts 
to  regiments  and  divisions  which  had  long 
ceased  to  exist,  and,  to  make  up  for  his  own 
want  of  activity,  multiplied  courien  and  for- 
mulas. During  the  yeara  1813~'14  we  find  him 
again  at  his  usual  post  After  the  depositioii  of 
Napoleon  had  been  proclaimed  by  ^e  senate, 
Berthier,  under  false  pretences^  slunk  away 
fix>m  his  patron,  sent  in  his  own  adhedon  to 
the  senate  and  the  provisional  government^ 
even  before  Napoleon^s  abdication,  and  pro- 
ceeded, at  the  head  of  the  marehals  of  the  em- 
pire,  to  Oompidgne,  there  to  address  Louis 
aYIII.  in  the  most  servile  language.  On  June 
4.  1814,  Louis  XYIIL  created  him  peer  of 
irance,  and  captain  of  a  company  of  the  newly 
established  royal  guard.  His  principality  of 
NeufchlU^l  he  resigned  to  the  king  of  Prussia 
in  exchange  for  a  pension  of  84,000  florins. 
On  Napdeon's  return  &om  Elba,  he  foUowed 
Louis  XYIIL  to  Ghent.  However,  having  fall- 
en into  disgrace  with  the  king  in  consequence 
of  the  concealment  of  a  letter  received  from 
Napoleon,  he  withdrew  to  Bamberg,  wheroi 
June  1, 1815,  he  was  killed  by  6  men  in  masks^ 
who  threw  him  out  of  one  of  the  windows  of 
his  father-in-law's  palace.  His  memoira  were 
published  in  Paris  in  1826. 

B£BTHOLD,  the  second  apostle  of  Ohristian- 
ity  in  livonia,  bom  in  the  first  part  of  the  12th 
century,  and  killed  in  1198  in  a  skirmish  with 
the  natives  of  Livonia,  whom  he  endeavored, 
after  his  arrival  at  YxktIlL  on  the  DOna,  the 
head-quartera  of  the  first  Livonian  Christian 
community,  to  convert  to  Christianity,  firat  by 
amicable  theological  means,  and  as  these  had 
not  tlie  desired  effect,  by  military  exertion,  in 


BERTHOLD 


BERTHOLLET 


201 


whicli    he    was   assisted  by  the  cnuaden  of 
lower  Saxony. 

BERTHOU>    TOK  RBGBNSBima,  a  German 
missionary  preacher,  bom  at  the  begimiing  of 
the   18th    oentniy,   died  Deo.  18,  1272,  and 
buried  in  the  Franciscan  convent  at  Batisbon, 
<rf  which    he    was    a  member.     From  1250 
to  the  oloae  of   his  life,  he  preached  to  im- 
mense   congregations   of  60,000  to   U)0,000 
persona,  in  Sw^itzerland,  Hungary,  Anstria,  Mo- 
ravia,  Bohemia,  Saxony,  Swabia,  &o.,  speak- 
ing to  them  from  the  smnmits  of  mountains 
or  from  the  tbps  of  tree&    In  the  Heidelberg 
mdTersity  lihrary  some  MSS.  of  his  sermons  are 
preaenred,  and  a  x>ortion  of  tiiem  was  published 
by  Eling  of  Beriin  in  1824.    The  eloquent 
manner  with  -which  he  exposed  the  iniquities 
of  bis  times  seems  to  have  produced  an  electric 
effbot  upon  his  hearers.  Near  Glatz,  in  BUesia, 
a  tent  nnder  which  he  had  preached  was  exhib- 
ited long  alter  his  death,  and  revived  the  feel- 
ings of  affection  and  reverence  in  which  his 
name  la  held  by  the  people. 

BERTHOLLET,  OLAm>B  Louis,  chemist,  bom 
Dea  9, 1T48,  at  Talloire,  near  Annecy,  in  Savoy, 
died  at  Paris,  Deo.  6,  1822.  He  received  his 
early  education  at  Ohamb^rv,  and  subse- 
qaenHy  entered  the  universi^  of  Turin, 
where  he  obbdned  his  diploma  as  doctor  of 
medidne.  8oon  after  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
made  the  acquaintance  of  Mr.  Tronchin,  a  med- 
ical practitioner  of  some  eminence,  and  a  na- 
tive of  Geneva.  Through  the  influence  of  Dr. 
Tronchin,  BerthoUet  wasappoiuted  physician  to 
the  dnke  of  Orleans,  ana  while  holding  this 
aM>ointment  he  applied  himself  diligently  to 
the  study  of  chemistry.  He  soon  became  ad- 
vantageously known  by  his  *' Essays^*  on  this 
branch  of  science,  and  in  1781  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  French  academy  of  sciences. . 
Some  years  later,  the  duke  of  Orleans  procured 
for  him  the  office  of  government  commissary 
and  soperinteodent  of  dyeing  processes — a  posi- 
tion previously  held  by  Maoquer.  To  this  ap- 
pointment chemistry  is  indebted  for  his  work 
on  the  theory  and  practice  of  the  art  of  dyeing, 
which  is  much  superior  to  any  thing  of  the 
kind  ever  published  before.  In  1785.^rthol- 
let,  at  a  meeting  of  the  academv  of  sdences, 
annoanoed  his  belief  in  the  antiphlogistic  doc- 
trines propounded  by  Lavoiner,  in  opposition 
to  the  phlogistic  theory,  then  in  voffue,  and  he 
was  the  first  French  chemist  of  ccdebrity  who 
did  so.  He  differed  from  Lavoisier,  however, 
on  one  point :  not  admitting  oxygen  to  be  the 
acidifying  principle,  he  cited  sulphuretted 
hydrogen  as  a  compound  possessing  the  proper- 
ties of  an  add ;  and  the  justness  of  Bertbol- 
let's  views  has  been  confirmed  by  the  discovenr 
of  other  acids,  into  the  composition  of  whidi 
oxycen  does  not  enter.  During  the  same  year 
he  (Sscovered  the  composition  of  ammonia,  and 
pnbhahed  his  first  essay  on  dephlogistioated 
marine  acid,  now  called  chlorine,  proposing  the 
use  of  it  in  the  process  of  bleachmg,  a  sugges- 
tion which  bas  been  extensively  applied  in 


practice.  When  the  French  revolution  in- 
volved the  coxmtry  in  war,  saltpetre,  which  had 
been  largely  imported  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder,  became  very  scarce,  owing  to  the 
difficulties  of  importation.  In  this  emergency 
BerthoUet  visited  almost  every  part  of  ^ance 
for  the  purpose  of  pointing  out  the  means  of 
extracting  and  purifying  the  salt  from  the  nat- 
ural resources  of  the  land.  He  was  also  en- 
gaged with  other  men  of  science  in  teaching 
the  processes  of  smelting  iron  and  converting 
it  into  steel,  which  processes  were  then  but  lit- 
tie  known  in  France.  In  1792  he  was  appoint- 
ed one  of  the  commissioners  of  the  mint,  and, 
in  1794,  a  member  of  the  commission  of  agri- 
culture and  arts,  and  professor  of  chemistry  at 
the  polytechnic  and  normal  schools.  In  1795 
he  became  a  member  of  the  newly  organized 
institute  of  France,  and  in  the  following  year 
he  was  appointed  by  the  directory  to  proceed 
to  Italy  with  Monge,  to  select  works  of  art  and 
science  for  the  French  capital.  On  this  occa- 
sion he  became  acquainted  with  Gen.  Bonaparte, 
and  was  led  to  Join  the  expedition  to  Egypt, 
where  he  took  part  in  the  formation  of  the  m- 
stitute  of  Cairo,  the  memoirs  of  which  body  were 
printed  in  one  volume  in  1800.  In  coi^'unction 
with  Lavoisier,  Guy  ton  de  Morveau,  and  Four- 
croy,  BerthoUet  planned  and  proposed  a  new 
and  more  phUosophical  system  of  chemical  no- 
menclature, whion,  notwithstanding  many  im- 
perfections incident  to  the  incipient  stage  of 
aU  improvements,  has  been  very  useful  to  chem- 
ical science.  He  was  the  author  of  more  than 
80  scientific  papers,  some  of  which  were  insert- 
ed in  the  memoirs  of  the  academy,  and  others 
were  printed  in  the  Annates  de  ehimie.  Journal 
de  physique^  and  the  Memoiret  de  phynque  et 
de  ehimie  de  la  eocUte  cPAreueil^  so  called  from 
the  place  where  BerthoUet  Uved,  the  meetings 
of  the  society  being  held  at  his  house.  In  some 
of  the  first  memoirs  published  by  BerthoUet 
on  sulphuric  acid,  on  the  volatUe  alkali,  and 
the  decomposition  of  nitre,  he  adopted  the 
phlogistic  theory ;  but  subsequenUy,  in  a  paper 
on  soaps,  he  showed  that  they  are  chemical 
compounds,  in  which  the  oil,  by  combining 
with  the  alkaU,  acts  the  part  of  an  add. 
BerthoUet  was  uie  discoverer  of  the  ammo- 
niuret  of  sUver,  commonlv  caUed  fulminating 
sUver.  He  also  first  obtained  hydrate  of 
potash  in  a  state  of  pxuity,  by  dissolving  it 
in  alcohoL  In  1808  he  published  his  Euat  de 
atatiqne  ekimiquey  in  which  he  attempts  to 
confute  the  opinion  of  Bergman  with  regard 
to  the  nature  of  chemical  affinity.  SirHumphiy 
Davy  in  his  "Elements  of  Chemical  PhUos- 
ophy,"  gives  a  synopsis  of  the  views  of  Berthd- 
let  on  this  point,  and  shows  them  to  be  incor- 
rect. In  a  controversy  with  Proust,  BerthoUet 
maintained  that  inorganic  bodies  are  capable  of 
combining  in  all  proportions ;  but  the  views  of 
Proust  have  been  since  corroborated  by  the 
doctrine  of  definite  proportions.— On  his  return 
from  Egypt,  BerthoUet  was  made  a  senator  by 
the  first  consul  Bonaparte,  and  afterward  grand 


BERTHOUD 


BEBTIN 


officer  of  the  legion  of  honor  and  grand  cross 
of  the  "  order  of  reunion."  He  was  created 
count  hj  the  emperor  Napoleon,  and  after  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  he  was  made  a 
peer  of  France,  though  not  by  birth  a  French- 
man. These  high  d^tinctions  did  not  affect 
the  studious  and  simple  mode  of  life  of  Ber* 
thollet;  and  being  obliged  to  adopt  armorial 
bearings,  he  selected  the  simple  figure  of  his 
faithfiU  dog.  The  latter  years  of  his  life,  how- 
ever, were  embittered  by  the  misconduct  of  his 
son,  M.  Amed^e  Berthollet,  who  had  already 
distinguished  himself  by  his  chemical  re- 
searches, but  was  ruined  by  dissipation,  and 
finally  committed  suicide.  The  shock,  no  doubt, 
affected  the  health  and  spirits  of  the  f&ther, 
who,  in  1822,  was  attacked  with  a  fever,  which 
was  foUowed  by  a  number  of  boils  and  a  gan- 
grenous ulcer  of  large  size.  He  knew,  as  a 
physician,  the  extent  of  his  danger,  and  bore 
with  fortitude  tke  sufferings  which  during  sev- 
eral months  exhausted  his  remaining  strength. 

BERTHOUD,  Fkeddtand,  a  Swiss  writer  on 
watchmaking,  bom  in  Neufch&tel,  March  19, 
1725,  died  near  Montmorency,  Jane  20,  1807. 
Intended  at  first  by  his  parents  for  an  ecclesiastic, 
his  mechanical  skill  and  tastes  gained  him  per- 
mission to  learn  the  art  of  watchmaking.  He 
went  to  Paris  in  1746,  where  he  quickly  ex- 
celled in  his  art,  especituly  in  the  construction 
of  chronometers,  m  which  he  surpassed  all 
rivals.  He  twice  visited  London,  wrote  various 
books  upon  topics  connected  with  his  labors, 
was  a  member  of  the  institute  of  France,  and 
of  the  royal  society  of  London,  and  a  chevalier 
of  the  legion  of  honor. 

BERTIE,  a  county  of  l^orth  Carolina,  at  the 
western  extremity  of  Albemarle  sound,  bound- 
ed on  the  E.  by  the  Ohowan  and  on  the  S.  by 
the  Roanoke  river,  and  drained  by  the  Oashie. 
Area,  900  sq.  miles;  pop.  12,851,  including 
7,194  slaves;  capital,  Windsor;  smface^  flat; 
soil,  fertile ;  chief  staples,  Indian  com,  cotton, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  hay.  Productions  in  1860, 
762,663  bushels  of  Indian  com,  94,886  of  sweet 
potatoes,  1)310  bales  of  cotton,  and  8,566  tons 
of  hay.  There  were  6  com  and  flour  mills,  4 
saw-mills.  7  tar  and  turpentine  distilleries,  and 
16  churcnes.  Value  of  real  estate  in  1867, 
$1^19,919. 

BERTIN,  the  name  of  a  fieunily  distingnished 
in  French  politics,  journalism,  arts,  and  letters. 
L  Lotus  I^tAsgois  the  elder,  the  founder  of  the 
Journal  des  DebaU^  bom  in  Paris,  Dec  14, 1766, 
where  he  died,  8ept  13, 1841.  He  was  intend- 
ed for  the  pulpit,  but  the  revolution  made  him 
a  journalist.  In  1793  he  formed  a  connection 
with  the  Journal  I^anfais  and  the  Courrier 
univerself  and  in  1796  the  Eclair  became  his 
principal  means  of  combating  the  excesses  of 
the  revolutionary  party.  After  the  18th  Bra- 
maire,  the  conservative  party  had  no  influential 
organ  except  the  Mercure  de  France,  Bertin 
felt  that  the  time  was  propitious  for  tiie  founda- 
tion of  a  new  and  powerftil  joumal,  and,  pur- 
ohasmg  from  the  printer  Baudoin,  for  20,000 


francs,  his  patent  for  an  advertisement  paner, 
he  founded  the  Jottmal  des  DSbaU^  the  first 
number  of  which  appeared  Jan.  20,  1800. 
But  under  the  Argus  eyes  of  Napoleon  an  inde- 
pendent political  character  was  impossible  for 
any  journal,  and  Bertin  gave  to  his  a  scien- 
tific and  literary  tendency,  employing  as  writers 
men  like  Ohateaubriand.  Royer-Oollard,  Dus- 
sault,  Feletz,  and  Geofluroy.  Tet,  carefol  as 
he  was,  he  gave  umbnu;e  to  the  emperor,  and, 
in  1800.  he  was  accused  of  royalistic  conspira- 
cies ana  confined  for  9  months  in  the  Temple, 
from  which  place,  however,  he  continued  to 
edit  the  Dihats,  which  had  already  acquired 
considerable  influence.  Toward  tiie  end  of 
1801  he  was  exiled  to  Elba,  and  after  effecting 
his  release  he  was  allowed^  on  his  return  to 
Paris,  to  resume  his  connection  with  his  paper, 
but  only  under  the  control  of  the  government, 
which  changed  the  name  from  Journal  dee  De- 
hate  to  Journal  de  VEmpire^  and  imposed 
upon  it  a  creature  of  its  own,  a  M.  Fi6v6e,  aa 
chief  director,  who  was  soon  replaced  by  a  still 
more  pliant  tool,  of  the  name  of  £tlenne.  At 
the  same  time  the  numagers  of  the  paper  had  to 
defray  the  salary  of  the  official  censor,  which 
amounted  to  24,000  firancs.  But,  notwithstand- 
ing all  these  adverse  circumstances,  the  Journal 
de  V Empire  was  prosperous,  and  the  number  of 
its  readers  went  on  increasing  from  day  to  day 
until  it  printed,  in  1811,  over  30,000  copies  per 
diem.  But  the  govemment  became  frightened 
at  the  extent  of  its  influence.  Under  the  mask 
of  literature,  theatrical  criticism,  and  fine  arts, 
it  had  actually  insinuated  itsdf  into  the  arena 
of  politics.  It  opened  its  columns  to  the  2  fore- 
most potitical  literary  characters  of  the  day, 
Madame  de  Sta6l  and  Chateaubriand*  On  evQrr 
occasion,  when  literature  or  the  stage  permitted, 
sentiments  were  put  forward  by  Bertin  which 
were  diametrically  opposed  to  the  views  of  Na- 
poleon. After  the  performance  of  Edouard  en 
JScosM  the  Debate  came  out  with  a  theatrical 
criticism  which  bestowed  great  praise  upon  the 
Btuarts ;  while  at  the  same  time  the  tfereure 
de  Eranee,  then  under  the  editorial  care  of 
Bertin  and  Ohateaubriand,  alluded  in  the  same 
complimentary  strains  to  tiie  English  pretender. 
In  such  allusions  Napoleon  detected  an  attempt 
to  support  legitimate  royalty,  and  he  took  this 
opportunity  to  vent  his  resentment  against  the 
paper,  by  confiscating  it,  and  by  senmng  Oha- 
teaubriand, Alexandre  Duval,  and  Bertin  him- 
self into  exile  in  the  island  of  Elbl^  whence, 
after  a  detention  of  nearly  a  year,  Bertin  escaped 
to  Italy,  and,  in  1814^  retumed  to  Paris  and 
resumed  the  conduct  of  his  joumal,  which 
henceforward  was  published  under  its  original 
name  of  Joumal  dee  Debate.  On  March  20, 
1816,  Bertin  foUowed  Louis  XVni.  to  Ghent, 
where,  from  April  14  to  June  21,  1816,  he  ed- 
ited Le  Monitewr  de  Oand,  After  the  2d  res- 
toration he  was  again  at  work  in  Paris,  and 
supported  the  king  until  the  dismissal  of 
Ohateaubriand,  when  the  Debate  went  over  to 
the  opposition,  and  Bertin  was  indicted  for 


BEBTIN 


BEBTRAND  DE  BOBN 


having  used  in  one  of  its  articles,  written  bj  M. 
Beooet^  the  ominous  and  memorable  words, 
Mathiturwge  France^  mdlheureux  roif  "Hq  was 
acquitted  by  the  court  of  appeal.    After  the 
advent  of  Louis  Philippe,  the  DebaU  steered 
dear  through  all  political  breakers,  by  makiDg 
itself  the  oigan  of  the  constitutioiud  bomv 
geoisie.    IL  Sertin  presided  over  it  from  the 
nrst  day  of  its  publication  until  the  eve  of  his 
deatlL  Sept  12, 1841.    Many  temptations  had 
been  held  out  to  him,  in  the  course  of  his  long 
career,  to  occupy  prominent  political  positions 
bat  he  declined  all  such  prof»rs.    He  was  fond 
of  the  society  of  literary  men  and  artists,  and 
figured  himself  as  an  author  in  the  novels,  Misa^ 
Ijok  Oloehe  de  minuit  and  La  eaneme  de  la  mort, 
partly  translated  from  the  English.  11.  Bebtin  db 
VxAUX,  Louis  FsANgois,  brother  of  the  preced- 
rag,  bom  in  Paris,  Aug.  18, 1771,  died  there, 
April  28, 1842,  took  an  active  part  in  the  foun- 
draon  of  the  Jdumal  dM  DSliaU,  after  having 
been  previously  connected  with  the  management 
of  the  Bclair.  During  the  suspension  of  Sie  I)i' 
haU,  in  1801,  he  established  a  banking  housei  and 
becameL  at  the  same  time,  vice-president  of  the 
tribunal  of  commerce.    Like  his  brother,  he 
IbBowed  Louis  XVUI.  to  Ghent,  and  on  his  re- 
turn, in  Sept.  1815,  was  elected  member  of  tiie 
chamber  of  deputies.    He  subsequently,  until 
1817,  occupied  the  post  of  secretaiy  of  the  min- 
ister of  polioeu    In  1820  he  was  reelected  to 
the  chamber,  and  in   1824  and  1827  he  was 
member  for  Versailles.    On  Aug.  9, 1829,  when 
PoUgnac  came  into  office,  he  resigned  the  post 
of  councillor  of  state,  which  he  had  held  sinoe 
1827,  and  was  one  of  the  221  deputies  whose 
hostile  vote  led  to  the  downM  of  the  cabi- 
nety  and  became  the  forerunner  of  the  July 
levolntion,  which  Bertin  prophesied  by  saying 
that  *^in  less  than  a  year  France  would  be  cov- 
ered with  tricolored  cockades."  Alter  1880,  al- 
though  the  DebaU  had  not  joined  in  the  protest 
of  the  other  louinals  against  the  July  ordinances) 
he  submitted  to  the  new  order  of  tmngs,  and  ex- 
erted a  great  influence  in  the  chamber.    He  re- 
sumed his  seat  in  the  council  chamber,  and, 
SepC  22, 1880,  was  sent  on  a  diplomatic  mis- 
aon  to  Holland  and  England.    Oct.  18.  1882, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  chamber  of  peers. 
He  did  not  long  survive  his  brother,  to  whose 
foomalistio  genius  he  was  chiefly  indebted  for 
bis  prominent  position.  HI.  Sdouabd  FsANgois, 
nephew  of  the  precedhig,  a  landscape  painter  of 
0ome  eminence  in  Paris,  where  he  was  bom  in 
1797.     When  his  brother  Louis  Marie  Armand 
died  in  1854  the  interests  of  the  iournal  re- 
quired that  tne  name  of  Bertin  should  continue 
to  appear  as  chief  editor ;  and  Edouard  Bertin, 
although  his  interest  in  the  paper,  like  that  of 
many  other  members  of  the  fiimily,  is  purely 
of  a  pecunianr  character,  and  although  entirely 
absorbed  in  nis  artistio  pursuits,  consented  to 
Bgn  bis  name  every  day  to  the  paper  as  nominal 
emtor.  IV.  Louis  ICabib  Abxako,  son  of  Louis 
Fhui^is^  bOTn  in  Paris.  Aug.  22, 1801,  died  Jan. 
11, 186^  was  employed,  from  1820,  in  the  Jowr- 


nol  (2m  2>^t«,  and  succeeded  his  fiUlier,  as  chief 
editor,  after  having  been  for  some  time  secre- 
tary of  Chateaubriand  in  the  French  legation  in 
London.  Under  his  management  Michel  Cheva- 
lier, PhilardteOhasles,  Allouiy,  Cuvillier-Heury, 
Benaset,  8t  Ange,  Berlioz,  and  other  rising  and 
eminent  men,  were  enrolled  under  the  banner 
of  the  Jowmal  de»  Dibats,    Like  his  &ther,  he 

S leaded  the  cause  of  his  political  and  literary 
riends,  but  never  accepted  a  favor  or  ofQce  for 
himself.  He  followed,  also,  his  father's  concili- 
atory course  in  politics,  yet  never  degraded  him- 
self to  the  level  of  subserviency ;  and  on  one 
occasion,  when  Louis  Philippe  sent  him  for  inser- 
tion a  laudatory  notice  of  the  duke  d' AumaJe,  he 
rejected  the  royal  MS.  Y.  Louise  Ano£uqus, 
sister  of  the  foregoing,  bom  at  Boches,  Jan.  6, 
1805.  8he  possesses  the  hereditary  intelligence 
of  her  family,  modified  by  feminine  grace  and 
delicacy.  8he  is  distinguished  both  as  a  musical 
composer  and  poetess.  Her  opera  of  '^Esmer- 
alda.'' with  the  libretto  of  Victor  Hugo,  was 
proauced  Nov.  12,  1886,  with  success.  She 
nas  composed  2  others,  and  published  a  volume 
of  poems  entitled  Lei  Olanea,  Her  poems  are 
tender,  sad,  and  hannonious,  the  versification 
peculiarly  correct  and  elegant,  and  yet,  although 
crowned  by  the  academy,  they  have  failed  of 
complete  success. 

BEBTRAND,  Hknbi  Gsatdzn,  count,  a 
French  general  bom  March  28, 1778,  at  Oh&- 
teaurouz,  died  Jan.  81, 1844,  celebrated  cbiefiy 
for  his  faithftd  devotion  to  Napoleon,  whose  ex- 
ile at  St.  Helena  was  not  only  shared  by  the 
general,  but  also  by  his  wife.  Napoleon  dic- 
tated to  him  memoirs  of  the  campaign  of  Egypt 
and  Syria,  which  were  published,  after  the  death 
of  the  general,  by  his  sons,  in  1847.  After  the 
death  of  Napoleon,  he  retumed  to  Paris,  in 
1821,  the  sentence  of  death  passed  upon  him  in 
1816  having  been  cancelled  by  Charles  X.,  who 
reinstated  him  in  his  former  position.  After 
the  revolution  of  1880,  he  was  elected  by  his 
department  to  the  chamber  of  deputies. 

BEBTRAND  DE  BORN,  a  celebrated  trouba- 
dour and  warrior  of  the  12th  century.  He  was 
viscount  of  Hautefort,  and  assembled  nearly 
1,000  men  under  his  feudal  banner.  Wars  were 
his  delight)  and  he  was  indefatigable  in  stirring 
them  up.  He  took  part  in  all  the  <]juarrels  be- 
tween Henry  H.,  of  England,  and  his  sons,  and 
urged  Henry  of  Guienne,  the  elder,  to  rebel 
against  his  father,  and  declare  himself  sover- 
eign of  his  continental  possessions;  he  even 
pursued  the  war  himself  when  Henry  had  made 
his  submission  to  his  fiither.  He  was  at  last  sub- 
dued bv  Richard,  but  managed  his  affairs  with 
so  mucn  address,  that  he  obtained  pardon,  and 
his  castle  was  restored  to  him.  He  excited  the 
weak  and  undecided  Henry  to  a  second  revolt, 
he  hardly  knew  why,  against  his  father.  Henry 
died  during  the  contest,  and  Bertrand  was  made 
prisoner  by  tbe  long  in  his  own  castle,  but  he 
succeeded  in  disarming  his  anger  by  a  few  art- 
ful words,  and  all  was  restored  to  him,  with  the 
addition  of  a  payment  in  money  to  defray  the 


204 


BfiRULLB 


BEEWIOK-ON-TWEED 


ezpeiiBes  of  the  war.  At  the  momeDt  of  the 
death  of  the  old  king,  Bertrand  was  engaged  in 
exciting  Biohard  Goanr  de  lion  to  rebellion, 
nils  event  changed  his  plana,  and  he  availed 
himac^  of  the  rivalahip  between  Richard  and 
Philip  Angoatoa,  to  engage  them  in  a  croaade. 
After  the  diaastroua  termination  of  that  enter- 
prise, history  loses  sight  of  Mm,  and  biographers 
oidy  relate  that  he  died  in  the  habit  of  a  monk  at 
Oiteaaz.  Bee  Thienj^B  (hnquetedeVAnglet&rre. 

BfiBULLE,  Pubbb  db,  cardinal,  was  bom 
of  a  noble  family  near  Troyes,  Feb.  4,  1576, 
and  died  in  Paris,  Oct  2,  1629.  He  early 
showed  remarkable  mental  acateness  and  knowl- 
edge, and  became  distingnished  for  skill  in 
controversy.  He  institnted,  and  was  the  first 
superior  ol^  the  order  of  Carmelites  in  France, 
and  also  founded  the  congregation  of  the 
Oratory  in  spite  of  the  opposition  of  the 
Jesnits.  He  was  a  statesman  as  well  as  priest, 
and  took  a  leading  part  in  politics.  He  was 
often  opposed  to  Bichelieo,  whose  jealousy 
he  excited,  and  who  could  not  conceal  his  sat- 
isfaction at  the  news  of  his  death.  He  accom- 
panied the  princess  Henrietta  to  England,  on 
her  marriage  with  the  prince  of  WeJes.  He 
shunned  elevated  positions,  and  was  very  un- 
willingly obliffed  to  accept  the  hat  of  a  car- 
dinal This  elevation  made  no  difference,  how- 
ever, in  his  humble  way  of  life,  and  did  not 
prevent  him  from  sometimes  tiJdng  part,  as  he 
had  always  done,  in  the  servile  work  of  the  re- 
ligious community  to  which  he  belonged.  He 
was  also  a  man  of  letters,  and  was  the  first  to 
appreciate  and  encourage  the  genius  of  Des 
Oartes,  urging  him,  by  his  sense  of  obligation 
to  his  Creator,  to  make  known  to  the  world  his 
discoveries. 

BERWICK,  Jamss  Fitzjahbs,  duke  of, 
natural  son  of  James  H.  of  England  and  Ara- 
bella Churchill,  the  sister  of  John  Churchill, 
the  celebrated  duke  of  Marlborough,  bom  Aug. 
21,  1670,  killed  before  Philippsburg  June  12, 
1784.  He  was  created  duke  of  Berwick  dur-' 
ing  his  father^s  tenure  of  the  English  crown. 
He  was  early  destined  to  a  military  life,  was 
educated  in  France,  and  served  his  first  cam- 
paigns in  Hungary,  under  Charles,  duke  of 
Lorraine,  who  commanded  for  Leopold  I. 
When  the  English  revolution  broke  out,  he 
was  in  attendance  on  his  father,  and  accom- 
panied him  in  his  flight  from  Rochester  to 
France.  In  the  followingyear,  1689,  he  land- 
ed with  his  father  at  K^insele,  in  Ireland, 
where  he  was,  in  spite  of  his  youdi,  at  once 
placed  in  command  of  a*  division  of  the  army. 
In  the  first  Irish  campaign  he  greatly  distin- 
guished himself,  both  in  forcing  the  passage 
of  the  river  Finn  at  Cladiford,  and  subsequent- 
ly in  the  repulse  of  the  sortie  m  masse  of  the 
defenders  of  Londonderry,  in  which  M.  de 
Mairmont  was  killed  at  the  first  fire,  and  the 
duke  had  2  horses  shot  under  him.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  conducted  the  retreat  of  the 
Irish  army  from  Dundalk  to  the  banks  of  the 
Boyne,  with  decided  skill,  and  showed  courage 


in  that  disaatrona  battle.  After  his  return  to 
France,  he  never  interfered  again  in  the  af- 
fairs of  his  native  country,  except  in  so  far  as 
he  was  opposed  to  her  generals  in  the  field, 
while  serving  the  sovereigns  to  whom  he  had 
attached  himsel£  While  on  the  continent,  he 
served  imder  Luxembourg  in  Flanders;  and 
then  in  the  campaigns  of  1702  and  1703,  under 
the  duke  of  Burgundy  and  Marshal  Villeroi, 
in  the  course  of  which  he  was  opposed  to  his 
illustrious  uncle,  the  duke  of  Marlborough. 
In  1706  he  was  made  a  marshal  of  France, 
and  sent  into  Spain,  with  an  army,  to  support 
Philip  v.,  the  bourbon  daimaut  of  the  crown. 
The  ktter  had  Just  been  driven,  in  defeat,  with  a 
broken  and  ruined  army,  from  Barcelona,  the 
siege  of  which  he  had  been  forced  to  raise,  into 
Madrid,  by  the  archduke  Charles,  also  pro- 
daimea  king  of  8p^,  under  the  title  of 
Charles  HI.,  supported  by  an  army  of  English 
and  Portuguese.  There  Berwick  gained  the 
brilliant  and  decisive  victory  of  Almanza. 
Some  12  years  later,  war  breakmg  out  between 
France,  his  adopted  country,  and  Spain,  whose 
king  was  his  personal  Mend  and  bene&ctor, 
he  did  his  duty  well  to  both ;  for  while  he  led 
his  forces  into  Spain,  he  wrote  to  his  son,  the 
duke  of  Leyria,  who  was  in  Philip's  service, 
admonishing  him  to  do  his  duty  to  that  king 
unmindful  of  his  father.  He  was  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Philippsburg  by  a  cannon-ball,  and 
di^  universally  esteemed  and  respected. 

BERWIOK-ON-TWEED,  a  town  of  Eng- 
land, and  county  in  itself^  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Tweed,  within  half  a  mile  of  its  confluence 
with  the  Oerman  ocean ;  pop.  in  1851,  12,578. 
It  formerly  belonged  to  Scotland,  and  was  the 
chief  town  of  Berwickshire,  and  the  theatre  of 
many  sanguinary  conflicts  between  the  English 
and  Scottish  armies.  It  was  finally  ceded  to 
Enghmd,  in  1502  ;  and  l^  treaty  concluded  be- 
tween Mary,  queen  of  Soots,  and  Edward  YI., 
it  was  declared  a  free  town,  and  independent 
of  both  states.  Many  privileges  still  remain, 
peculiar  to  the  town  and  its  liberties ;  one 
of  these  is  the  fact  that  it  is  mentioned 
in  the  tiUe  of  the  kings  of  England,  her 
present  midesty  beinff  D.  G-.  queen  of  Eng- 
land, Ireland,  and  ScoUand,  and  of  the  town  of 
Berwick-on-Tweed.  Berwick  was  the  gate  of 
the  two  kingdoms,  on  tiie  eastern  side  of  the 
ishmd;  and  through  it  either  of  the  hostile 
nations  had  to  pass,  on  that  frontier,  before  it 
could  invade  the  territories  of  the  other ;  which 
for  many  years  was  the  fisivorite  and  constant 
pastime,  if  not  of  the  kings,  at  least  Of  the 
border  nobles  and  moss-troopers  of  the  frontiers 
of  the  two  countries.  Oonsequentiy,  the 
first  step  preliminary  to  what  was  caMeA  a 
warden  raid,  that  is  to  say,  an  invasion  by  the 
feudal  army  of  the  marches,  under  the  com- 
mand of  the  lord  warden,  in  orcler  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  private  forays  of  individuals^ 
was  the  capture  or  the  town  and  the  slaughter 
of  its  garrison,  if  it  was  held  by  the  enemies, 
for  the  time  being,  of  the  invading  party  ;  for 


BEBWIOESHIRE 


BERZELinS 


205 


it  was  oonstantly  garrisoned,  oonstasitly  cap- 
tared  and  recaptured,  by  the  two  contendioff 
parties,  sometimes  changing  owners  aeveral 
times  in  the  course  of  a  year  or  two.  During 
tbe  furious  conflicts  between  Bobert  Bruce  on 
one  side  and  Edward  L  and  Edward  IL  on  the 
otiier,  the  town  of  Berwick  suflEbred  severely. 
On  one  occasion,  when  the  English  had  been 
driren  out^  and  the  town  stron^y  garrisoned 
with  Scots,  a  large  squadron  of  English  ships, 
which  had  been  ordered  to  oo6perate  with  the 
royal  army  on  its  advance,  but  which  had  pre- 
ceded the  land  forces  too  hastily,  and  entered 
the  river  unsupported,  was  either  taken  or 
burnt ;  and  the  indignation  of  Edward  was  ex- 
cessive. He  at  first  attempted  to  take  the 
town  by  assault,  as  soon  as  he  came  before  it, 
at  a  eoup  de  main;  but,  being  repulsed  with 
some  loss,  sat  down  before  it  and  commenced 
regular  approaches.  Here  historians  differ: 
the  English  writers  affirming  that,  on  a  second 
assault  being  delivered,  it  was  taken  by  storm : 
while  the  Scots  insist  that  Edward  had  raised 
the  siege,  and  was  apparently  in  full  retreat^ 
when  he  gained  possession  of  the  gates  by  a 
stratagem,  disguising  his  men  with  St.  Andrew's 
crosses,  and  sending  them  forward  under  Scot^ 
tish  banners,  as  if  they  were  reinforcements, 
in  which  belief  they  were  admitted.  In  this 
instance,  the  dispute  is  a  matter  of  some 
consequence,  as  on  it  turns,  in  some  degree, 
the  question  of  the  character  of  Edward ; 
since  the  bloody  sack  which  followed  the  cap- 
ture of  the  place,  and  which  in  one  case  would 
be  merely  one  of  the  terrible  and  painfbl  con- 
sequences of  waTj  would  be,  on  the  contrary, 
in  the  other,  as  it  is  charged  to  have  been  by 
the  Scottish  writers,  a  savage  atrocity  on  the 
part  of  Edward.  Those  writers  are,  however, 
obviously,  though  perhaps  naturally,  unfair  to 
Edward,  as  any  one  must  perceive  who 
reads  history  impartaally.  It  was  to  put 
an  end  to  tiiese  cruel  collisions  that,  by  the 
convention  between  Hary  and  Edward,  the 
town  was  declared  independent;  so  that,  as 
being  too  weak  to  resist  either  kingdom,  it 
could  not  be  held  guilty  by  either  for  per- 
mitting the  passage  through  its  territories  of 
the  armies  of  the  other.  It  is  now  a  fine  and 
flourishing  seaport,  driving  a  considerable  car- 
rying trade,  especially  in  eggs  and  salmon,  be- 
tween nortn  and  south  Britain ;  and  having  a 
considerable  capital  employed,  and  many  boats 
and  men  engaged,  in  the  salmon  fisheries. 

BERWIOkSHLBE,  a  county  on  the  Tweed, 
in  the  S.  £.  extremity  of  Scotland ;  area  446 
sq.  m, ;  pop.  in  1851,  86,297.  The  Lammer- 
moor  is  in  this  county.  The  diief  employment 
of  the  county  is  agriculture  pursuits.  The 
land,  being  in  the  hands  of  large  farmers  on 
long  leases,  is  cultivated  with  great  skill  It 
abounds  in  places  of  historical  int^est,  among 
which  are  the  remains  of  Cbldingham  priory 
and  of  Dryburgh  abbey,  in  which  Sir  Walter 
Scott  was  boried. 

BEBYL  (Lat  heryllus^  Gr.  i9i7pvXXof>    The 


beryl,  emerald,  and  aquamarine,  are  all  the 
same  mmeral  species,  and  only  distinguished 
from  each  other  by  their  blue  and  yellow  shades 
of  green  or  by  the  delicacy  of  the  crystals.  The 
beryl  is  sometimes  also  white.  The  emerald  is 
more  transparent  and  of  finer  colors  than  the 
beryl,  and  makes  a  handsomer  gem.  In  some  of 
the  rich  green  specimens  the  color  is  derived  fix>m 
oxide  of  chrome.  In  the  beryl  oxide  of  iron  ap- 
pears to  be  the  coloring  matter.  Aquamarine 
is  a  beautiful  sea-green  variety  known  to  the 
andents,  and  spoken  of  by  Pliuy,  as  already 
q^uoted  under  the  article  Aqua.  The  composi- 
tion of  the  species  beryl  is  that  of  a  double  nli- 
cate  of  fdumma  and  gludna,  consisting  of  silioa 
66  to  68  parts  in  100;  alumina  15  to  17 ;  and 
glucina  12  to  15.  It  crystallixes  in  regular 
6-sided  prisma,  which  are  often  striated  with 
longitudinal  channels.  Its  hardness,  rated  as  7.6 
to  8  on  the  mineralogical  scale,  is  less  than  that 
of  topaz  and  greater  than  that  of  quartz.  Its 
spednc  gravity  is  2.7.  The  crystals  are  found 
in  quartz  veins  in  granitic  rooks,  and  also  in  the 
metamorphic  limestones.  There  are  many  cele- 
brated localities  of  gigantic  beryls  and  beautiful 
emeralds  in  various  parts  of  the  world.  Upper 
Egypt  produced  the  mineral  in  ancient  times, 
and  it  is  still  found  in  the  mica  slate  of  Mount 
Zabarah.  Siberia,  Hindostan,  Limoges  in 
France,  Peru  and  New  Granada,  in  South  Amer- 
ica, have  all  furnished  splendid  emeralds.  The 
finest  in  the  world -are  probably  fh)m  the  Huzo 
mine  near  Santa  F6  de  Bogota  in  New  Granada; 
these  are  in  avein  of  dolomite  in  hornblende  rock. 
A  specimen  firom  this  locality  is  in  the  posses* 
sion  of  the  duke  of  Devonshire,  which  measures 
2  inches  in  length,  and  weighs  8  ounces  and  18 
dwts.,  and  is  r^;iu*ded  as  the  finest  emerald  Ia 
Great  Britain.  Mr.  Hope  of  London  possesses 
one  supposed  to  be  from  Goimbatoor,  which 
has  been  cut.  It  weighs  6  oxmces,  and  is  perfect 
in  color  and  transparency.  It  cost  £500.  In 
the  royal  collection  at  Madrid  are  some  splendid 
specimens  of  great  size.  The  krgest  beryls 
known  have  been  found  in  Acworth  and  Graf- 
ton, New  Hampshire,  and  in  Boyalston,  Massa- 
chusetts. One  from  Grafton  measures  4  feet 
and  8  inches  in  length,  82  inches  through  in  one 
direction,  and  22  in  another  transverse,  and 
weighs  2,900  pounds.  Another  is  estimated  to 
Weigh  nearly  2^  tons,  measuring  45  inches 
tlm>ugh-  it  in  one  direction  and  24  inches  in  an- 
other. A  ciystid  in  the  museum  at  Stockholm, 
found  in  Sweden,  is  considered  to  be  the  largest, 
in  Europe;  it  weighs  80  pounds.  The  value  of 
the  specimens  is  not  at  all  dependent  on  their 
size.  The  liu-ge  crystals  are  of  coarse  texture 
and  feeble  lustre,  and  possess  no  beauty.  Em- 
eralds are  very  successftdly  imitated  by  the 
French  lapidaries,  who  use  oxide  of  chrome  for 
giving  the  rich  green  color. 

BEBZEUUS,  -JoH^H  Jakob,  M.  D.,  baron,  a 
Swedish  chemist,  bom  Aug.  20. 1779,  at  the 
village  of  Waf^ersunda,  near  LinkOping,  in 
East  Gothland,  died  at  Stockholm,  Aug.  7, 1848. 
His  father  filled  the  office  of  government  school- 


206 


BERZELEUS 


master  at  the  Tillage  of  Wafrersonda;  an  office 
which  ifi  iisTially  more  highly  appreciated  in 
Sweden  than  in  other  European  nations,  with 
the  exception  perhaps  of  Scotland.  Berzelins 
received  his  early  education  at  home,  under  the 
care  of  his  father,  and  in  1796  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine  in  the  univenity  of  Upsal. 
The  chemical  chiur  was  then  filled  by  Afzelius, 
with  Ekeberg  for  his  aaeistant  The  lectures  at 
Upsal,  in  those  days,  says  Berzelius,  were  read 
without  any  ezperimentBl  illustrations^  and  the 
instructions  in  the  laboratory  were  of  a  super- 
ficial and  unsatisfiEictory  kind.  After  passing  his 
examinations  in  philosophy,  Berzelius  quitted 
the  uniyersity  in  1798,  and  became  assistant  to 
a  medical  practitioner  atMedeyi,  where  he  soon 
became  known  by  an  excellent  chemical  analysis 
of  the  mineral  waters  of  that  place.  This  anal- 
ysis wits  published  in  1804^  when  he  took  his 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  IJpsaL  Soon 
afterward  he  published  his  ^  Physical  Researches 
on  the  effects  of  Galyanism  on  organized  Bodies^" 
which  established  his  reputation  as  an  experi- 
mental philosopher,  and  obt^ed  for  him  the 
appointment  of  as^stant  professor  of  medidne, 
botany,  and  chemical  pharmacy  at  Stockholm. 
In  1807  he  succeeded  Spamnann,  in  the  senior 
professorship  of  this  department.  He  followed 
for  some  time  the  mode  of  teaching  which  was 
practised  at  Upsal,  but  afterward,  on  the  sug- 
gestion of  Dr.  Marcet,  who  visited  Stockholm, 
he  adopted  the  method  of  illustrating  his  lec- 
tures by  experiments,  which  gave  fl;reat  satis&c- 
tion  to  the  students,  and  rendered  Mm  popular 
as  a  teacher  of  chemical  science.  As  early  as  the 
year  1806,  in  conjunction  with  Hisinger,  he 
commenced  the  '*  Memoirs  relative  to  Physics, 
Chemistry,  and  ^Mineralogy,"  and  his  numerous 
contributions  to  those  sciences  have  obtained 
for  him  that  high  rank  which  he  holds  as  an  ac- 
curate observer  and  experimental  analyst  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  founders  of  the  medical 
society  of  Sweden,  and  in  1808  he  became  a 
member  of  the  royal  Swedish  academy,  of  which 
he  was  chosen  president  in  1810.  In  the  inter- 
vals of  his  pubbc  duties  he  paid  several  visits  to 
Paris^  and  in  1812  he  spent  some  time  in  Lon- 
don. In  1816  the  king  of  Sweden  named  Ber- 
zelius a  knight  of  the  order  of  Yasa;  and  in 
1818  he  was  appointed  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Stockholm  academy  of  sciences.  On  the  coro- 
nation of  the  king  in  the  same  year,  Berzdius 
was  ennobled ;  and,  contrary  to  the  custom  of 
the  country*  was  allowed  to  retain  his  own  name, 
the  title  of  Baron  Berzelius  being  ennobled  in  the 
lists  of  Swedish  nobility.  In  1 821  he  was  named 
commander  of  the  order  of  Yasa,  and  the 
sovereigns  of  France  and  Austria  named  him 
member  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  of 
the  order  of  Leopold.  These  marks  of 
distinction  did  not  draw  his  attention  in  the 
least  from  his  laborious  and  successful  in- 
vestigations;  his  important  and  experimental 
researches  were  never  interrupted  by  worldly 
success  and  popularity ;  and  even  when  he  re- 
signed his  professorship  in  favor  of  Mosander, 


in  1882,  he  still  oontinned  to  pursae  with  ardent 
perseverance,  his  favorite  luvestigatioiisand  ex- 
periments. In  1883,  Berzelius  married;  and 
on  that  occasion,  the  king  of  Sweden  wrote  hini 
a  letter,  in  which  he  observed  that  "  Sweden 
and  the  whole  world  were  debtors  to  the  man 
whose  entire  life  had  been  devoted  to  pursuits 
as  useful  to  all  as  they  were  ^orious  to  his  na- 
tive country." — ^The  works  of  Berzdius  are  both 
numerous  and  important  He  contributed  to 
the  **  Physical  Memoirs,"  during  a  period  of  12 
years,  some  47  original  papers  of  great  merit. 
His  treatise  on  chemistry  went  through  5  large 
editions,  and  was  partly  re-written  each  time. 
It  is  most  complete  and  best  known  in  the  edi- 
tion translated  into  French  under  his  own  in- 
spection, by  Esslinger,  and  published  in  8  vols, 
at  Brussels  in  1885.  The  last  volume  contains 
his  very  remarkable  dissertation  on  chemical 
apparatus,  with  essays  on  qualitative  and  quan- 
titative analysis,  and  the  use  of  the  blow-pipe. 
His  mineralogical  system  is  very  bighly  val- 
ued. He  considered  mineral  species  as  depend- 
ing on  the  atomic  proportions  of  their  principal 
ingredients,  and  arranged  and  designated  them 
accordingly.  At  the  request  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  in  1822,  he  undertook  those  very  re- 
markable "Annual  Reports  on  the  Progress  of 
Phydcal  Ohemistiy  and  Mineralogy"  which 
have  been  so  useful  to  the  sdentifio  world.  As 
early  as  the  year  1807,  when  tb»  atomic 
theory  of  Dalton  was  hardly  well  known  in 
Britam,  Berzelius  commenced  his  accurate  re- 
searches on  definite  proportions,  in  which 
he  extended  and  systematized  the  experiments 
of  Wenzel  and  Riohter ;  applying  ^em  not  only 
to  salts,  earths,  and  metals,  but  to  gases  ana 
organic  compounds ;  assisting  greatly  to  estab- 
lish the  truth  of  definite  proportions.  To  him. 
belongs  the  merit  of  proving  uiat  the  proportion 
of  oxygen  is  constant  in  all  the  neutral  salts  of 
the  same  acid ;  and  his  researches  gave  t^e  first 
impulse  to  modem  organic  chemistry.  Those 
who  knew  him  personally  bear  testimony  to  the 
noble  frankness  and  the  manly  simplicity  of  his 
character;  and  state  that  he  was  ever  ready  to 
impart  to  others,  without  ostentation,  his  vast 
stores  of  knowledge,  and  to  assist  the  researches 
of  those  engaged  in  kindred  pursuits,  by  his  ad- 
vice, the  use  of  his  laboratory,  and  the  unre- 
served communication  of  his  aocnrate  methods 
of  investigation.  Soon  after  his  marriage  in 
1888,  the  durectors  of  the  Swedish  iron  works, 
in  gratefU  acknowledgment  of  the  light  his  re- 
searches had  thrown  on  their  art^  and  as  a  tes- 
timony to  his  important  services  to  the  useful 
arts  of  his  country,  conferred  on  him  a  pension 
for  life ;  and  we  may  here  observe,  that  all  the 
studies  and  investigations  of  Berzelius  were 
made  with  a  view  to  their  practical  application 
in  the  useful  arts,  as  much  as  to  llie  mscovery 
of  new  truths  of  science.  In  the  latter  part  of 
his  life,  Berzelius  was  i^cted  with  paraplegia, 
depriving  him  of  the  use  of  his  lower  limbs; 
but  his  mind  was  always  dear,  and  he  bore  the 
affliction  with  calmneaw  and  resignation.  Decay 


BESANCON 


BESSABABIA 


207 


was  slow  and  gradaal  withont  aonte  snfTering, 
and  be  died  in  the  69th  year  of  his  age. 

BESANgON  iVei<mtio\  a  fortified  place  of 
great  strength,  the  chief  town  of  the  Erench  de- 
partment of  Donhs,  on  the  river  Donbs;  pop.  in 
1856,  43,644.  The  lower  town  on  the  other  side 
of  &e  river,  formerly  called  Baltaos,  is  con- 
nected with  BesanQon  proper  by  a  stone  bridge, 
the  fonndations  of  which  are  Boman.  The 
town  has  an  antique  appearance.  It  has 
several  fonntains,  one  of  which  represents 
the  apotheosis  of  Oharles  Y.  Its  public  build- 
ings and  institutions  are  numerous,  namely, 
the  cathedral  of  St  John  (possessing  as 
a  relic  the  winding-sheet  of  Christ,  which 
was  formerly  eidiibited  and  attracted  thousands 
of  pilgrims,  and  some  fine  paintings),  2  Gothic 
churches,  8  hospitals,  a  deaf  and  dumb  asylum, 
an  academy  of  mathematics  and  belles-lettres, 
a  lyceum,  a  public  library  containing  68,000 
volumes  and  many  H8S.,  a  museum,  and  a  mu- 
seum of  natural  history,  an  academy  of  sciences, 
a  society  of  agriculture  and  the  arts,  a  theolog- 
ical seminary,  a  school  of  medicine,  surgery, 
and  pharmacy,  a  school  of  drawing  and  soulp- 
*  ture,  of  artillery,  and  of  watch-making.  It 
Las  extensive  manufactories  of  watches,  thread, 
cotton  and  silk  stockings,  paper  hahgings, 
fire-arms,  leather,  hardware,  and  linen.  Be- 
san^n  appears  in  history  first,  as  Y  esontio,  in 
Osssar's  JBeUum  GaUicum.  In  the  days  of  the 
Boman  empire  Yesontio  was  the  capital  of  the 
province  oi  Main  ma  Sequanorum.  The  Ale- 
manni  destroyed  it  in  the  time  of  Julian  the 
Apostate,  and  it  was  again  ravaged  by  Attila 
and  the  Uuns.  In  886  it  defended  itself  suo- 
oessftilly  against  the  Yandals.  It  was  rebuilt 
by  the  Burgundians.  It  became  the  chief  city 
of  the  county  of  Burgundy,  more  commonly 
called  Franche  Oomt^  and  was  made  by  the  em- 
peror Frederick  I.  a  free  and  imperial  dty,  1162. 
Between  the  9th  and  18th  centuries,  it  was  called 
Ohrysopolis,  the  golden  dty .  Granvelle,  the  min- 
ister of  the  emperor  Charles  Y.,  was  bom  here, 
and  became  its  archbishop.  While  Franche  Comte 
was  under  Spanish  dominion,  Besangon  pre- 
served its  rights  as  a  German  city,  but  lost  them 
and  became  French  when  Frandie  Comt6  was 
ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Nimeguen, 
1 678.  In  1814^  Besangon  was  besieged  but  not 
captured  by  an  Austrian  army  under  Prince 
lichtenstein.  Among  the  eminent  natives  of 
Besan^n,  beside  Gnmvelle,  are  Abel  B^musat, 
Marshal  Moncey,  Yictor  Hugo,  Charles  Nodier, 
Charles  Fourier,  and  P.  J.  l^udhon. 

BESBOBODKO,  ALSXA2n)SB  Axvobtswitoh, 
a  BusBian  statesman,  bom  at  Stolnoje,  in 
little  Bnsoa,  in  1742,  died  August  9,  1799. 
He  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs  xmder  Cath- 
erine IL  and  Paul  I.;  concluded  the  treaty  of 
peace  at  Jassy,  and  other  memorable  treaties, 
and  organized  the  coalition  between  Bussia  ana 
Great  Britain  against  France.  He  was  made  an 
Austrian  count  byJoseph  H.,  and  aBusnan  prince 
by  Paul  I.  He  left  the  r^utation  of  an  able 
statesman,  and  of  a  zealous  patron  of  the  fine  arts. 


BESIEA  BAT,  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  the 
province  of  Eudavenkiar,  and  the  district  of 
Karassi,  near  the  promontory  of  Sigeum,  is  fa- 
mous in  contemporary  history  as  the  station  of 
the  British  and  French  fleets  in  1889  and  1840, 
and  again  on  June  18  and  14,  1853,  until  Oct 
22.  The  fleets  were  sent  to  Beaka  bay  as  a 
counter-demonstration  to  the  Bussian  occupa- 
tion of  the  principaUtieB,  and  were  ordered  to 
leave  it  and  advance  near  to  Constantinople, 
in  conseauence  of  the  destruction  of  the  Turk- 
ish squaoron  at  Sinope. 

BESITTOOir,  or  Bisutun,  an  escarped  preci- 
pice which  bounds  the  plain  of  Eermanshah 
in  that  part  of  modem  Persia  which  was  an- 
ciently called  Media.  On  the  lower  part  of  this 
precipice  is  a  huge  tablet  planed  smooth  by  art 
Below  there  is  a  rocky  terrace  strown  with 
blocks  of  hewn  stone.  To  these  the  name  Bes- 
ittoon  is  given,  meaning  **  without  pillars." 
About  50  yards  above  this  platform  there  are 
theremainsof  a  piece  of  sculpture  with  an  in- 
scription in  Greek  on  it  nearly  obliterated  by 
one  in  modem  Persian,  relating  to  the  grant  of 
lands.  On  the  authority  of  Diodoms  and  Cte- 
sias,  this  work  is  attributed  to  Queen  Semira- 
mis.  Further  to  the  east  is  another  pile  of 
sculpture,  exhibiting  a  line  of  12  figures,  of 
whom  1  is  a  king,  another  a  prostrate  suppliant, 
and  9  others  captives  in  his  rear.  Under  each 
is  a  short  inscription  in  the  arrow-headed  char- 
acter ;  under  these  again  are  8  deep  and  closely 
written  columns  in  the  same  character.  They 
have  not  been  deciphered. 

BESEOW,  Bebnhabd,  a  Swedish  dramatist, 
bom  in  Stockholm,  April  19,  1796,  was  en- 
nobled in  1826,  and  appointed  marshal  of  the 
royal  household  in  1888.  He  officiated  for 
some  time  as  director  of  the  royal  theatre,  and 
is  the  author  of  several  excellent  tragedies, 
which  were  translated  into  Danish  and  Ger- 
man by  Oehlenschlager,  and  of  which  Tariel 
Knut8»on  is  considered  the  best  acting  play  on 
the  Swedish  stage.  He  wrote  an  opera,  TVu- 
ladwrei^  for  which  Oscar,  the  present  king  of 
Sweden,  composed  the  music.  His  literary  rep- 
utation was  increased  by  his  books  of  travel, 
by  his  poeti<»l  works,  and  by  his  contributions 
to  the  press.  The  great  prize  of  the  academy 
was  awarded  in  1824  to  his  poem  Boeriges  anor. 
He  became  one  of  the  18  directors  of  this  insti- 
tution, and  in  1884  perpetual  secretary.  The 
rare  honor  of  receiving  a  diploma  as  doctor  of 
philosophy  from  the  university  of  Upsal,  waa 
vouchsafed  to  him  in  1842. 

BESSABABIA,  the  most  S.  W.  province  of 
the  Bussian  empira  between  Moldavia.  Tran- 
sylvania, and  the  Black  Sea,  consists  of  those 
portions  of  Turkey  lying  between  the  Dniester 
and  the  Prath,  which  were  wrested  from  the 
Turks  by  the  treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1812,  and 
formed  previously  the  N.  £.  part  of  Moldavia 
and  the  Bu^jak  or  Bessarabia  proper.  By  the 
late  treaty  of  Paris  (March  81, 1856),  a  portion 
of  Bessarabia  was  given  back  to  Turkey,  in 
order  to  give  that  power  a  safer  frontier  than 


BESSARION 


the  Prath.  Artide  20  declareiL  "The  new- 
frontier  shall  begin  from  the  Blacs  Sea  1  kilo- 
metre to  the  £.  of  the  lake  Boama  Sola,  shall 
mn  perpendicularly  to  the  Akerman  road, 
shall  follow  that  road  to  theVal  de  Trf^an, 
pass  to  the  8.  of  Bolgrad,  asoend  the  course  of 
the  river  Yalpuck  to  the  height  of  Baratsiko, 
and  terminate  at  Eatamori  on  the  Prath.  Del- 
egates of  the  oontraotlng  powers  shall  fix  in  its 
details  the  line  of  the  new  frontier."  By  arti- 
cle 21,  the  territory  ceded  by  Russia  shall  be 
annexed  to  the  principality  of  Moldavia  under 
the  suzerainty  of  the  Sublime  Porte.  A  differ- 
ence between  the  Russian  commissioners  on  the 
one  hand  and  the  Torkish,  British,  and  Aus- 
trian commissioners  on  the  other,  as  to  which  of 
2  Bolgrads  was  meant,  necessitated  the  meeting 
of  a  new  European  conference  at  Paris  early  in 
1857,  which  settled  that  question  substantially 
in  favor  of  Turkev.  Before  its  recent  dismem- 
berment, Bessarabia  contained  an  area  of  about 
18,900  sq.  m.,  and  792,000  inhabitants^  in  8 
towns,  16  villages  with  markets,  and  1,080 
hamlets.  These  towns  and  villages  contain  184 
churches  of  stone,  and  719  of  wood,  16  chapels. 
22  monasteries  and  convents,  1  ecclesiastioai 
seminary,  9  district  schools,  and  2  hospitals. 
The  commerce  is  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jews  and  the  Greeks.  The  Russo-Greek  bishop 
resides  at  Kishenev.  The  peasantry  are  sub- 
lect  to  feudal  imposts.  The  soil  of  Bessara- 
bia is  very  fruitful,  but  poorly  cultivated,  pro- 
ducing madder  and  safi&on  which  grow  wild, 
flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  maize,  millet;  wheat,  mel- 
ons, pumpkins,  apricots,  and  peaches.  The 
mulberry  thrives.  The  rearing  of  homed  cattle, 
horses,  and  sheep  is  the  great  resource  of  the 
inhabitants.  The  culture  of  wine  is  also  pros- 
ecuted. The  northern  portion  of  Bessarabia  is 
traversed  by  a  branch  of  the  Oarpathian  moun- 
tains, here  sinkins  into  the  plun.  They  are 
well  wooded,  and  abound  in  wild  animals. 
The  southern  part  of  the  province  is  prairie- 
land.  The  chief  or  only  mineral  product  is  salt, 
which  is  obtained  in  great  quantities  from  the 
lakes.  The  fisheries  are  plentiful.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  are  the  Danube,  the  Pruth,  Talpuck, 
and  Dniester.  These  rivers  form  large  lakes  or 
marshes.  The  province  is  divided  into  6  dis- 
tricts: Akerman,  Bender,  Ohoczim,  BieLd,  Is- 
mail, and  Kishenev.  Kiahenev  is  the  seat  of 
government 

BESSARION,  Jomr  or  Basil,  a  Greek  monk, 
bom  probably  at  Trebizond,  in  the  year  1889, 
died  at  Ravenna,  Nov.  19,  1472.  He  was 
titular  patriarch  of  Oonstantinople,  archbishop  of 
Nicffia,  afterward  cardinal  and  legate  to  France, 
in  the  time  of  Louis  XL  After  having  spent 
21  years  in  a  monastery  of  Greece,  devoted  to 
theology  and  literature,  he  left  it  to  follow 
the  emperor  John  Palieologus  to  Italy,  who  had 
gone  there  with  the  intention  of  being  present 
at  the  council  of  Ferrara,  in  the  hope  of  unit- 
ing the  Greek  and  Latin  churches.  They  were 
accompanied  by  many  Greeks,  distinguished  by 
their  talents  and  dignity.    Bessarion  seconded 


with  80  much  zeal  the  projects  of  Pahaologos 
that  he  became  odious  to  the  Greek  church, 
while  Pope  Eugenlus  IV.  rewarded  him  for  his 
devotion  to  that  of  Rome,  by  the  dignity  of 
cardinal-priest.  He  had  the  confidence  of  many 
popes,  and  was  near  becoming  one  himseli^  but 
was  prevented  by  the  dissenting  voice  of  one 
of  the  cardinals,  who  esteemed  it  an  indignity 
to  the  Latin  church,  to  choose  a  Greek  pope. 
He  was  sent  to  France  by  Sixtus  lY.,  to  recon- 
cile Louis  XI.  with  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  and 
obtain  aid  against  the  Turks.  He  did  not  suo- 
ceed.  and  it  is  pretended  that  he  received  a  per- 
sonal insult  from  the  king,  which  humiliation 
some  suppose  to  hare  been  the  cause  of  his 
death. 

BESSEL,  Fbikdbioh  Wilebuc,  a  German 
astronomer,  bom  at  Minden,  July  22,  1784^ 
died  March  17, 1846.  Havins  shown  in  early 
life  a  taste  for  astronomy,  and  some  skill  as  a 
computer,  he  was  appointed  assistant  to  SchrO- 
ter,  at  the  observatory  of  LilienthaL  In  1810 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  observatoiy 
building  at  KOnissberg,  and  held  that  post  to 
the  day  of  his  death.  In  1818  he  published 
^ndam&nta  Aftrtmomia^  a  discussion  of  the 
observations  made  open  the  fixed  stars,  by 
Bradley,  at  Greenwich,  60  years  before,  and 
including  dissertations  of  inestimable  value,  on 
the  me&od  of  stellar  astronomy.  He  after- 
ward published,  regularly,  his  own  observations, 
measured  the  distance  of  the  star  61  Qygni 
from  the  earth,  and  took  a  distinguished  part 
in  all  ^e  astronomical  discoveries  and  geodetic 
discussions  of  his  day,  and  was  justly  consider- 
ed, while  living,  the  leading  astronomer  of  the 
world,  blending  theory  and  practice  with  a 
master  hand. 

BESSI£RES^  Jeah  Baptistb,  marshal  of 
the  French  empire,  bom  at  Praissao,  in  the 
department  of  Lot,  Aug.  6,  1768,  killed  at 
Lutzen,  Kardi  1,  1818.  He  entered  the  con- 
stitutional guard  of  Louis  X  VL,  in  1791,  served 
as  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  mounted 
chasseurs  of  the  Pyr6n6es,  and  soon  after  be- 
came a  captain  of  diaveurs.  After  the  victory 
of  Roveredo,  Sept.  4^  1796,  Bonaparte  promoted 
him  on  the  battle-field  to  the  rank  of  colonel 
Commander  of  the  guides  of  the  general-in- 
chief  during  the  Italian  campaign  of  1796-'97, 
colonel  of  the  same  corps  in  Egypt,  he  remain- 
ed attached  to  it  for  the  greater  part  of  his  life. 
In  1802,  the  rank  of  general  of  division  was 
conferred  upon  him,  and,  in  1804,  that  of  mar- 
shal of  the  empire.  He  fought  at  the  battles  of 
Roveredo,  Rivoli.  St  Jean  d' Acre,  Aboukir, 
Marengo— where  ne  commanded  the  last  deci- 
sive cavalry  charge — Austerlitz,  Jena,  Eylau, 
and  Friedland.  Despatched  in  1808  to  assume 
tiie  command  of  a  division  of  18,000  men  sta- 
tioned in  the  Spanish  province  of  Salamanca,  he 
found  on  his  arrival  that  Gren.  Ouesta  had  taken 
up  a  position  between  Valladolid  and  Burgos, 
thus  threatening  to  intersect  the  line  of  com- 
munication of  Madrid  with  France.  Bessi^res 
attadced  Imn  and  won  the  victory  of  Medina 


BESTOUJEFF 


BETEL  NUT 


209 


del  Bio  Seooo.  After  tbe  Mure  of  the  Eng- 
lish Walcheren  expedition,  Napoleon  sabstitnt- 
ed  Bessi^res  for  Bernadotte,  in  oommand  of  the 
Belgian  army.  In  the  same  year  (1809),  he 
was  created  duke  of  Istria.  At  the  head  of  a 
cavalry  diTision  he  routed  the  Austrian  general, 
Hohenzollem,  at  the  hatUe  of  Esalinffen.  Dur- 
ing the  Baadan  expedition  he  acted  as  chief 
oommwider  of  the  mounted  guard,  and  on  the 
(mning  of  the  German  campaign  of  1818,  as 
the  commander  of  the  French  cavalry.  He 
died  on  the  battle-field  while  attacking  the  de* 
file  of  Bippacb,  in  Saxony,  on  the  eve  of  the 
battle  of  Lntzen.  His  popularity  with  the  com- 
mon soldiers  may  be  imerred  from  the  circum- 
stance that  it  was  thought  prudent  to  with- 
hold the  news  of  his  death  for  some  time  from 

the  army.    

BESTOUJEFF,  Alexandeb,  a  Bussian  poet, 
patriot,  and  martyr,  born  in  1793,  at  the  coun- 
try seat  of  his  &ther  in  the  government  of  Y oro- 
neszh,  killed  in  battle  in  the  Caucasus  in  1837. 
He  was  educated  in  one  of  the  imperial  mili- 
tary establishments,  and  as  an  officer  of  the 
cottds  was  an  aide-de-camp  of  Prince  Alexap- 
der  (tf  Wartemberg  in  1825.  Bestoiuef^  with 
Byl^efil^  with  whom,  in  1828,  he  edited  the  first 
literary  periodical  publiBhed  in  Bussia,  under 
Uie  title  of  the  ''  Northern  Star,"  was  among 
&e  toemost  leaders  in  the  conspiracy  and  in- 
sorxection  of  1825.  For  this  he  was  condemn- 
ed to  lose  his  mihtary  rank  and  to  be  sent  to 
Takootsk,  in  Siberia,  as  a  common  soldier, 
vithoat  any  daim  to  be  advanced.  In  tbe 
SDows  and  in  the  &ozen  atmosphere  of  this 
place  of  exile,  his  fiery  imagination  acquired 
new  vigor.  Under  tiie  name  of  the  Oossack 
Mailin^y  he  wrote  small  novels  and  sketches 
for  the  **  Telegraph,"  a  periodical  of  Moscow, 
and  for  some  others.  By  a  special  order  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas,  after  passing  2  or  8  years 
there,  he  was  transferred  to  the  army  of  the 
CancasnsL  There  his  adventurous  and  danger- 
ous life  had  its  effect  on  his  style,  and  he  now 
showed  a  great  talent  for  description  and  for 
analysis  of  human  character  and  passions.  The 
more  considerable  of  his  writings  during  this 
period  are  2  novels.  Mullah  Nur  and  Ammaleih 
Beg.  His  fsite  might  have  been  rendered  more 
fopportable,  but  for  the  blind  hatred  of  the 
grand  duke  Michael,  the  younger  brother  of  the 
emperor  Nicholas.  Toward  tbe  year  1836, 
Nicholas  relented,  permitted  the  advancement 
of  Bestoujeff  &om  the  ranks,  and  opened  to 
him  a  prospect  of  again  becoming  an  officer, 
and  thus  recovering  his  lost  social  condition. 
But  it  was  too  late,  as  shortly  after  he  was 
killed  along  with  a  considerable  detachment  of 
Eusoaa  soldiers,  by  the  mountaineers,  in  an 
ambush  near  Ekaterinodar.  Bestoi^ef^  like  By- 
lejefi^  Lermontejeff,  and  Pushkin,  all  stars  of 
EosBian  literature,  is  one  of  the  many  vic- 
tims who,  for  different  reasons  and  in  various 
ways,  were  devoured  by  the  reign  of  the  emper- 
or Nicholas.  Two  of  his  brothers,  Nicholas 
and  Mif-hfi^^l,  who  were  involved  in  the  conspir- 
voL.  in. — 14 


acy  and  outbreak  of  1825,  suffered  capital  pun- 
ishment in  1826. 

BESTOUJEFF-RIUMIOT;  Michel  Alexki 
Petbowitoh,  count,  a  Bussian  statesman,  bom 
in  Moscow,  in  1698,  of  a  family  of  English 
origin,  and  of  the  second  class  of  nobles  in  Bus* 
sia,  died  in  St.  Petersburg,  April  24, 1766.  He 
was  educated  in  Germany,  entered  the  civil 
service  under  Peter  the  Great,  and  became  a 
diplomatist.  Under  the  empress  Anne  he  was 
made  a  member  of  the  cabinet^  and  the  empress 
Elizabeth,  whose  ftOlest  confidence  he  possessed, 
created  him  county  great  chancellor  of  the  em* 
pire,  and  his  influence  in  the  government  was 
almost  boundless.  He  was  strongly  opposed  to 
the  Prussian  and  French  diplomatic  influence^ 
and  was  disliked  on  this  account  by  Peter  III., 
nephew  and  presumptive  heir  of  Elizabeth. 
He  concluded  several  treaties  with  England, 
Sweden,  and  Denmark,  which  were  fisivorable 
to  EuffliiBh  policy.  By  a  treaty  concluded  in 
1747,  he  paved  the  way  for  the  union  of  Schles- 
wig  and  Holstein  with  the  kingdom  of  Den- 
mark, and  thus  planted  the  first  germs  of  the 
confusion  and  dissensions  which  prevailed  in 
1848  between  that  kingdom  and  Germany,  and 
have  not  yet  been  entirely  pacified.  By  his  in- 
fiuence,  the  Bussian  troops  supported  Austria 
against  Frederic  the  Great  in  the  7  years'  war. 
But  their  commander,  Apraxin,  retired  to  Bus- 
sia, and  this  occasioned  the  fall  of  Bestoigeff. 
He  was  imprisoned  and  degraded,  but  Catharine 
n.,  in  1762,  restored  him  to  liberty  and  to  his 
previous  social  position,  creating  him  a  field- 
marshal,  but  not  calling  him  to  active  service. 
He  is  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  a  chemical 
preparation  known  in  medicine  under  the  name 
of  tinaiv/ra  tanica  Besttieh^, 

BETANgOS,  Domingo  de,  a  Spanish  mis- 
sionary, born  at  Leon  about  the  end  of  the  16th 
century,  died  in  1549.  He  emigrated  to  His- 
paniola  in  1514 ;  he  learned' the  Indian  tongue, 
instructed  the  natives  in  the  doctrines  of 
Catholic  Christianity,  and  endeavored  to  save 
them  from  Spanish  cruelty.  In  1526  he  passed 
over  into  Mexico.  Here  he  founded  a  convent, 
and  was  the  Indian^s  friend.  From  Mexico  he 
visited  Guatemala,  and  founded  another  con- 
vent there.  It  was  owing  to  his  representations 
to  the  holy  see  that  Paul  UI.  promulgated  his 
buU  (1587)  reminding  all  Christians  that  pagan 
Indiiuis  were  their  brethren,  and  should  not  be 
hunted  down  like  wild  beasts.  Betan^os  refused 
the  bishopric  of  Guatemala,  and  preferred  to 
remain  the  simple  provincial  of  his  order.  He 
died  1  month  after  his  return  to  Spain,  in  the 
convent  of  St.  Paul,  at  Yalladolid. 

BETEL  NUT.  The  leaf  of  the  betel  pepper, 
piper  hetle,  and  the  nut  of  the  areca  palm, 
areca  eatechUy  together  constitute  this  article, 
whidi  is  improperly  called  betel  nut.  But  as 
an  article  of  commerce  it  is  sold  separately 
under  the  name  of  betel  nut,  because  as  a  mas- 
ticating article  it  is  always  used  with  the  leaf 
of  the  betel  pepper.  The  habit  of  chewing  this 
compound  has  extended  from  the  islands  of  the 


210 


BETHAM 


BETHENOOUBT 


Malay  arohipelago,  where  it  ia  chiefly  foxmd,  to 
the  continent  of  Asia,  and  its  use  is  now  uni- 
versal from  the  Bed  sea  to  Japan.  Its  prepa- 
ration for  use  is  very  simple;  the  nnt  is  sliced 
and  wrapped  in  the  lea^  with  a  little  quick- 
lime  to  ^ve  it  a  flayer.  All  dasses,  male  and 
female,  are  in  the  lutbit  of  chewing  it,  and 
think  it  improves  the  digestion.  It  gives  to  the 
tongne  and  lips  a  scarlet  hue,  and  in  time  tnrna 
the  teeth  perfectly  black.  The  Malays  have  a 
hideous  appearance  from  its  ttse.  but  the  Ohi- 
nese  are  veiy  careftil  to  remove  the  stain  from 
the  teeth,    rersons  of  rank  often  carry  it  pre- 

Sared  for  use  in  splendid  cases  worn  at  the  gir- 
le,  and  offer  it  to  each  other  as  people  of 
Europe  or  America  offer  snuffl 

BETHAM,  Sib  William,  an  English  antiqua- 
ry and  genesdo^st,  bom  at  Stradbroke,  Suffolk, 
1779,  died  at  Blackrock,  near  Dublin,  Oct.  28, 
1858.  From  his  father,  the  Bev.  WiUiam 
Betham  (author  of  ^  Genealogical  Tables  of  the 
Sovereigns  of  the  World,"  and  *' A  Baronet- 
age," in  5  vols.  4to),  he  may  have  derived 
a  predilection  for  genealogy  and  heraldry. 
Brought  up  to  ^e  printing  business,  its  me- 
chanical details  annoyed  him.  Much  more  to 
his  taste  was  the  task  of  revising  a  portion 
of  Gough's  edition  of  Oamden.  In  1806  he 
went  to  Dublin  as  derk  to  Sur  Charles  For- 
tescue.  Ulster  king  of  arms ;  soon  after,  he  be- 
came nis  deputy,  and  succeeded  him  in  1820. 
He  had  previously  (July,  1812)  been  appointed 
genealogist  of  the  order  of  St.  Patrick,  and 
knighted.  He  was  also  deputy-keeper  of  the 
records  at  Dublin.  He  arranged,  dassifled,  and 
catalogued  several  hundred  volumes  of  these 
papers — ^made  an  index,  of  40  folio  vols.,  to  the 
names  pf  all  persons  mentioned  in  the  wills  at 
the  prerogative  ofSce,  Dublin;  largely  em- 
ployed his  time  in  antiquarian  researches; 
wrote  books  to  show  the  identity  of  the  Etrus- 
cans and  the  Ibemo-Oeltio  race,  and  of  both 
with  the  Phoenician;  and  also  produced  two 
standard  books— one  on  '^Parliamentaiy  and 
Feudal  Dignities,"  the  other  "  On  the  Origin 
and  History  of  the  Constitution  of  England, 
and  of  the  early  Parliaments  of  Ireland."  Sir 
WUliam^s  successor,  as  Ulster  king  of  arms, 
was  Mr.  Bernard  Burke  (soon  after  knighted), 
author  of  the  well-known  "Peerage." 

BETHANY,  a  village  of  Palestine,  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  mount  of  Olives,  15  fur- 
longs from  Jerusalem,  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament  as  the  place  where  Christ  was 
anointed,  often  lodged^  and  raised  Lazarus  from 
the  dead.  His  ascension,  too,  took  place  on  his 
way  to  and  near  Bethanv.  It  is  now  a  desolate 
village  of  about  20  famines,  called  hj  the  Ara- 
bians El-Azeryeh.  The  monks  and  Mohamme- 
dans point  out  various  objects  of  curiosity,  among 
which  is  a  ruined  tower  which  they  say  was 
the  house  of  Mary  and  Martha,  the  stone  on 
which  Jesus  sat,  the  tomb  of  L&zarus,  a  deep 
.  vault  in  the  limestone  rock,  probably  a  natural 
cave  remodelled  by  human  labor,  in  which  the 
Franciscans  say  mass  twice  a  year.    A  church. 


called  the  oastie  of  Lamms,  was  built  over  this 
grave  by  St.  Helena  in  the  4th  century.  In 
the  12th  century  it  became  the  site  of  a  very 
important  monastic  establishment.  It  was  still 
in  existence  in  1484,  but  there  now  remiun  of 
it  only  the  stone  walls. 

BETHANY,  a  post  village  of  Brooke  oo., 
Ya.,  situated  IS  miles  N.  E.  of  Wheeling.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Bethany  coUege,  founded  in  1841, 
by  the  Bev.  Alexander  Campbell,  the  founder 
of  a  new  sect  of  Baptists  called  Disciples. 

BETHEL,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  12  Bo- 
man  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  originally 
called  Luz,  and  was  named  Bethel  (house  of 
God)  by  Jacob,  who  here  beheld  in  a  vision  the 
angels  ascending  and  descending.  Bethel  was 
a  city  of  Ephraim,  lying  near  the  northern 
boundary  of  Benjamin.  The  ruins  called  Bel- 
tin  occupy  its  ancient  site. 

BETHEL,  a  flourishing  town  of  Shelby  co^ 
Mo.,  Ijring  on  the  north  fork  of  North  river, 
98  miles  N.  N.  E.  of  Jeffarson  Cilj.  It  was 
settied  in  1842  by  a  German  colony  from  Penn- 
sylvania, who  own  4,000  acres  of  fertile  land, 
and  practise  farming  and  the  mechanical  arts. 
The  German  language  is  the  only  one  used. 
They  have  a  handsome  church,  mills,  and  a 
glove  factory.    Pop.  1,000. 

BETHEL  COLLEGE,  a  flourishing  educa- 
tional institution,  established  by  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterians,  at  McLemoresville,  a  village 
of  Carroll  co.,  Tenn.,  114  miles  S.  W.  of  Na&- 
ville. 

BETHELL,  Sm  Richabd,  attorney-general  of 
England  under  Lord  Palmerston,  bom  in  1800. 
He  graduated  as  B.  A.  at  Oxford  before  ho 
was  18,  being  '^flrst  dass"  in  classics,  and 
"second  class ^  in  mathematics,  and  was  elect- 
ed a  fellow  of  Wadham  college.  In  1823  he 
was  called  to  the  bar,  and  devoted  himself  to 
equity  practice  with  much  success.  He  was 
made  a  queen's  counsel  in  1840,  and  solicitor- 
general,  December,  1852,  under  Lord  Aber- 
deen's government,  when  he  was  knighted. 
In  November,  1850,  when  Sir  Alexander  Cock- 
bum  was  appointed  chief-justice  of  the  com- 
mon pleas,  on  the  death  of  Sir  John  Jervis,  he 
was  succeeded,  as  attorney-general,  by  Sir 
Bichurd  Bethell,  who  was  also  counsel  to  tho 
university  of  Oxford,  and  vice-chancellor  of  the 
county  palatine  of  Lancaster.  As  an  equity 
lawyer  his  standing  is  high.  His  politics  are 
ultra  liberal.  He  entered  parliament  in  April, 
1861,  for  the  borough  of  Aylesbury,  which  he 
has  since  continued  to  represent  As  a  parlia- 
mentary speaker  he  has  no  reputation,  but  is 
highly  esteemed  as  ^'a  good  Dusiness  man.'' 
He  went  out  of  ofiSce  with  the  Palmerston  cab- 
inet in  February,  1858. 

BETHENCOUBT,  Jean,  seigneur  de,  the 
conqueror  of  the  Canary  isles,  bom  in  Nor- 
mandy, died  1425.  He  was  chamberlain 
of  Charles  VI.  of  France.  His  house  having 
been  pillaged  and  himself  mined  by  the  Eng- 
lish, he  mortgaged  his  estate  and  went  to  lia 
Eochelle,  made  up  a  company  and  set  sail  in 


BEXHSNOOUBT  Y  MOLINA 


BETHLEHEM 


211 


quest  of  adrentarea.  May  1,  1402.  After 
toucbing  at  the  Spaoish  porta,  and  taking  on 
board  a  Goanohe  prinoe,  Angeron,  whom  he 
found  at  Oadiz,  he  aailed  for  the  Ganariea.  He 
visited  the  iaiands  aepmteljr,  and  oonstructed  a 
fort  at  Lanzarote.  Finding  hia  forces  insuffi- 
cient to  sabdae  the  nativeti  he  retomed  to 
Spain  for  reenforcementa,  leaving  hia  compan- 
ion, Gadifer,  in  command.  On  hia  retom  nrom 
Spain  wittt  saocor,  he  fonnd  that  Gadifer  had 
already  subdned  a  considerable  nnmber  of  the 
natives.  The  Norman  nobleman  called  himself 
lord  of  the  Canary  islands,  and  had  a  native 
king  baptized  with  the  name  of  Louis,  Feb.  20, 
1404.  The  conversion  of  the  greater  number 
of  Uie  Guanchea  to  Christianity  followed. 
Bethenoourt  wished  to  extend  his  conquests  to 
Africa,  but  dissensions  arose  between  himself 
and  Gadifer,  which  resulted  in  the  return  of 
the  African  expedition  without  having  effected 
any  thing,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  Canaries 
by  Gadifer.  Bethenconrt  imported  into  the 
Canaries  many  meohanica  and  farmers  from 
Normandy,  induced  the  pope  to  send  a  bishop 
tiiere,  Dec.  15,  1406,  redeemed  his  Nor- 
man estate  from  its  indebtment,  retired  thith- 
er to  end  his  days,  1406,  and  left  the  Canaries 
in  the  hands  of  ms  nephew. 

BETHENCOUBT  Y  MOLINA,  Aousriw  di, 
a  Spanish  engineer,  bom  on  the  island  of  Tene- 
rifie,  1760,  and  descended  in  a  direct  line  from 
the  conqueror  of  the  Canaries.  He  died  at  St. 
Petersburg,  Jnhr  26,  1826.  He  waa  educated 
at  Madrid!  When  Spain  was  subjugated  by 
French  arms,  he  entered  into  the  service  ai 
Russia,  where  he  reached  the  rank  of  a  mafor- 
generaL  He  was  after  the  peace  employed  by 
the  Busman  government  to  execute  at  Nyni- 
Novgorod  the  public  buildings,  which  give  ac- 
commodations to  the  great  fair  held  there.  He 
established  the  corps  of  hydrauUc  engineers, 
and  a  school  for  the  exact  sciences. 

BETHESDA  (place  of  effVudon},  the  name  of 
a  pool  or  fountain  which,  according  to  Scrip- 
ture, waa  situated  near  the  sheep-gate,  and  hav- 
ing porches  or  resting-places  around  it  for  the 
sick.  As  the  name  imports,  the  waters  of  tbis 
fountain  are  said  to  have  been  subject  to  peri- 
odical and  intermittent  effusion,  and  were  be- 
lieved by  the  Jews  to  have  certain  medicinal 
virtues,  to  heal  the  diseases  of  those  who 
stepped  first  into  them  at  their  flow.  At  this 
pool  Jesus  is  related  by  John  to  have  performed 
the  mirade  of  healing  the  lame  man.  For  a 
long  time  travellers  have  pointed  out  a  dry 
basin  or  reservoir,  which  from  its  constmction 
was  once  evidentiv  designed  to  hold  water,  and 
lying  at  the  north-eastern  comer  of.  the  Tem- 
ple Moimt,  as  the  Bethesda  of  Scripture.  •  Its 
extent  is  about  460  feet,  including  an  excavar 
tion  extending  from  ita  somth-westem  comer 
under  the  wall  of  Temple  Mount,  as  measured 
by  Dr.  Robinson*  The  southern  point  of  the 
reservoir  extends  nearly  to  the  modem  gate  of 
St.  Stephen.  This  gate  is  supposed  by  most 
travellm  to  be  the  aheep-gate  of  Scripture. 


Dr.  Robinson,  however,  bad  some  reason  to 
suppose  that  this  was  a  mistakei  and  apfdied 
hiniself  on  the  spot  to  an  investigation  of  the 
matter.  The  result  is,  that  this  indefatigable 
scholar  and  Scripture  geographist  has  proba* 
bly.  restored  to  the  world  the  real  Bethesda. 
Since  the  days  of  Quaresmius  (1626),  who  first 
made  the  suggestion,  Biblical  schohirB  have 
surmised  that  there  was  a  connection  existing 
between  the  waters  of  the  pool  of  Siloam,  situ- 
ated on  the  south-eastern  dedivity  of  the  high 
land  on  which  the  city  of  Jerusalem  is  buut, 
and  the  fountain  of  the  Yir^,  some  1,200  feet 
to  the  north,  and  about  1,000  feet  directly  south 
of  Temple  Mount.  Dr.  Robinson  found  that 
there  waa  also  a  popular  tradition  that  such 
connection  existed,  but  which  way  the  waters 
flowed,  if  either,  waa  not  determined  even  tra- 
ditionally. He  resolved  to  ascertiun  both 
these  fiicts.  The  result  waa  that  he  actually 
made  the  passage  from  the  fountain  of  the  Vir- 
gin, to  the  north,  to  the  pool  of  Siloam  at  the 
south,  and  found  the  measured  distance  to  be 
1,750  feet,  the  channel  being  aomewhat  circuit- 
ously  cut  through  solid  rodk  for  most  of  the 
distance.  While  at  the  fountain  of  the  Yirg^, 
which  he  found  to  be  the  aupply  for  the  pool 
below,  he  actually  witnessed  one  of  the  inter- 
mittent flowhigs  described  in  Scripture  as  tiie 
troubling  of  the  waters  by  an  angel,  and  aacer^ 
tained  from  a  woman  who  came  to  the  place 
to  wash,  that  such  effosions  were  frequent,  but 
irregular,  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  though  less 
so  in  the  summer,  and  that  she  had  frequently 
seen  flocks  and  men  standing  around  it,  wait- 
ing for  the  outpourings,  when  it  was  com- 
pletely dry.  The  fountain  is  minutely  described, 
as  also  the  pool,  in  their  present  appearance,  in 
Dr.  Robinson's  ^*  Biblical  Researches*'  voL  i,  pp. 
888-848.  Littie  doubt  can  remain  that  the 
fountain  of  the  Yirg^  ia  tiie  Bethesda  of  Scrip- 
ture. The  waters  of  the  two  have  indeed  been 
pronounced  by  travellers  entirely  different 
Bat  no  force  can  be  attached  to  this,  now  diat 
the  fact  of  a  connection  is  established.  The 
irregular  flowing  of  the  fountain  of  the  Virgin 
is  yet  to  be  certainly  accounted  for.  Under 
the  grand  mosque  occupying  the  site  of  the 
ancient  temple,  there  is  known  to  be  a  well, 
which  receives  its  water  from  an  arched  cham- 
ber, and  dischaiges  it  somewhere.  It  is  sug- 
gested by  Dr.  Kobinson  that  it  may  find  an 
outiet  to  this  fountain  of  the  Yirgui.  It  is 
certain  that  the  well  is  sometimes  dry,  but  its 
connection  with  the  fountain  has  not  yet  been 
snfSoientiy  examined  to  warrant  any  decision. 

BETH-HORON,  upper  and  lower,  two  vil- 
lages  mentioned  in  Scvipture,  situated  9  milea 
N.  W.  of  Jerusalem.  The  former  ia  identical 
with  the  modem  village  of  Beit-Ur.  There  is 
a  pass  between  the  two  villages,  down  which 
Joshua  pursued  the  Amorite  kings.  Traces  of 
ancient  walla  are  still  visible. 

BETHLEHEM,  the  *^  bread-town,'*  or,  as  the 
Arabs  now  term  i^  the  "place  of  flesh. '» 
Bethlehem-Ephratah,  ao  called  to  distingniah  it 


212 


BETHLEHEM 


BETHMAlirN  BROTHERS 


from  a  Bethlehem  in  Zebnlon,  is  famons  for 
many  remarkable  events,  as  the  birth  of  David 
and  his  inauguration  and  anointing  hj  Samuel. 
But  that  which  renders  Bethlehem  eminent  in 
Christian  history,  is  the  nativity  of  Jesus.  The 
present  inhabitants  of  Bethlehem  point  out  to 
travellers  the  very  spot  where,  as  tiiey  believe, 
he  first  saw  the  light,  marked  with  a  star  in 
the  floor  of  the  grotto  under  the  church  of  the 
Nativity,  and  in  another  part  of  the  same  grotto 
they  show  a  marble  stone,  scooped  out  iq  the 
form  of  a  manger,  which  they  relate  to  have 
taken  the  identical  place  of  the  oiiginal  manger 
in  which  he  was  laid.  The  church  is  said  to  have 
been  built  by  the  empress  Helena,  and  it  was 
afterward  repaired  and  adorned  by  Oonstan- 
tine.  Just  out  of  the  city,  in  the  valley  which 
it  overlooks,  Dr.  Olarke  thought  he  discovered 
the  **  well  of  Bethlehem'*  referred  to  by  David. 
Dr.  Robinson  does  not  agree  with  him,  and 
found  no  well  to  which  he  could  assign  this 
distinction.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how  much 
value  is  to  be  attached  to  the  traditions  con- 
cerning the  exact  spot  of  the  birth-scenes  of 
Jesus.  Kitto  assigns  considerable  force  to 
these  traditions,  but  on  the  whole  deddes 
against  them.  Two  things  certainly  give  the 
town  of  Bethlehem  an  interest  to  modern 
Christians.  Here,  and  in  this  very  grotto,  that 
scholar  and  fetther  of  the  early  church,  Jerome, 
spent  many  years  of  his  time  in  meditation 
and  writing;  and  this  town  was  one  of  the 
first  possessions  wrested  from  the  Saracenic 
and  Turkish  power  in  the  crusades.  It  was 
erected  into  a  see,  but  in  1244  was  overrun  by 
the  Tartars.  Its  inhabitants  are  now  all  Chris- 
tians, and  are  divided  among  the  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Armenian  churches.  They  sell  to  travel- 
lers various  relics,  some  of  which  are  very 
curiously  and  exquisitely  carved.  The  present 
city  is  on  the  brow  of  a  hill,  or  rather  a  long 
ridge,  and  overlooks  the  opposite  valley.  There 
never  has  been  any  dispute  that  the  present 
ditj  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  one. 

BETHLEHEM,  a  township  and  post  borough 
of  Pennsylvania.  It  is  in  a  pleasant  and  com- 
manding situation  on  the  Lehigh  river,  across 
which,  at  this  place,  is  a  bridge  400  feet  long. 
Bethlehem  was  settled  by  the  Moravians,  in 
1741,  and  contains  a  Gothic  church  of  that  de- 
nomination, built  of  stone  and  of  large  dimen- 
sions, a  female  seminary  of  high  reputation, 
and  several  schools  and  benevolent  institutions. 
It  is  much  resorted  to  in  smnmer.    Pop.  2,104. 

BETHLEHEMITES.  L  An  order  of  monks 
somewhat  like  the  Dominicans,  who  came  to 
England  in  1257.  They  were  so  named  because 
they  wore  on  the  breast  a  five-pointed  star  in 
commemoration  of  the  star  that  appeared  at  the 
birth  of  Jesus.  They  never  flourished  much, 
and  had  only  one  house  or  convent  in  England. 
This  was  at  Cambridge.  11.  The  Ahbbican 
BirrsLEHSiciTBS  were  established  in  the  city  of 
Guatemala  by  a  Franciscan  monk  named  Bethen- 
conrt,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Teneriffe,  about 
1665.    Innocent  XL  (1687)  sanctioned  theorder, 


as  also  the  female  order  of  Bethlehemites, 
founded  by  Maria  Anna  del  Galdo,  who  be- 
longed to  the  Tertiaries  of  St  Francis.  Twenty 
years  later,  the  privileges  of  the  order  were 
enlarged  to  an  equality  with  those  of  the 
Augustinians,  Dominicans,  and  Franciscans. 
There  are  about  40  convents  of  Bethlehemites 
in  the  Canary  islanda,  and  a  parent  monastery 
in  Guatemala. 

BETEOJSN,  Gabob,  a  sovereign  prince  of 
Transylvania,  and  king  of  Hungary,  hcfn  in 
1680.  of  an  eminent  Magyar  Protestant  ftm- 
ilv,  died  Nov.  15,  1629.  During  the  dissen- 
sions in  Transylvania  between  the  2  Bathoria, 
Bethlen  sucoeeaed  in  seizing  the  supreme  power. 
He  owed  this  to  his  popularity,  and  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  Transylvanian  and  Hungarian  mag- 
nates, but  above  all  to  a  Turkish  army  he- 
stowed  in  return  for  having  recognized  the 
suzerainty  of  the  Porte.  Austria  could  not 
oppose  hun,  and  in  1619  he  joined  the  Bohe- 
mians, and  thus  participated  in  the  beginning 
of  the  80  years'  war.  He  invaded  Hungary,  took 
Pressbui|;,  and  the  Magyar  nobles  elected  him 
their  king.  He,  however,  concluded  a  neaoe 
with  Ferdinand  in  1620,  and  renounced  the 
royal  title  in  consideration  of  some  lands  in  the 
north  of  Himgary,  and  in  Silesia.  In  1628  he 
again  took  up  arms,  and  at  the  head  of  60,000 
men  invaded  Moravia;  but  being  unable  to  Join 
the  Protestant  army,  he  made  an  armistice,  then 
a  peace,  which  he  again  broke  in  1626,  but 
without  any  great  harm  to  Austria,  whose  army 
defeated  that  of  Mansfeld,  which  defeat  para- 
lyzed the  intended  movements  of  Bethlen.  His 
reign  was  one  of  the  most  celebrated  and 
prosperous  among  the  Magyars.  He  protected 
science,  erected  an  academy  at  Weiasenburg, 
calling  thither  several  celebrated  and  persecuted 
German  professors,  and  was  generally  considered 
as  one  of  the  props  of  Protestantism,  and  a  glory 
of  the  Magyar  race.  

BETHMAKN  BROTHERS,  a  banking  estab- 
lishment at  Frankfort-on-the-Mun,  known  by 
its  negotiations  of  loans  with  the  Austrian,  Dan- 
ish, and  other  governments.  Originally,  the 
firm  was  carried  on  under  the  name  of  Jakob 
Adamy,  an  uncle  of  the  elder  Bethmann,  who, 
to  escape  religious  persecution,  emigrated  to- 
ward tiie  end  of  the  17th  century  firom  Holland 
to  Nassau,  near  Frankfort.  Adamy  took  his 
nephews,  Johann  Philipp  and  Simon  Moritz 
Bethmann,  into  the  business,  and  after  his  death, 
Jan.  2, 1748,  they  changed  the  name  of  the  firm 
from  Jakob  Adamy  to  Bethmann  Brothers. — 
Simon  Mobtez  BsTHMAmr,  the  son  of  Johann 
Philipp,  bom  Oct  81,1768,  died  Dec.  28, 1826, 
became  the  chief  of  the  house  after  the  death  of 
his  father.  He  was  the  man  of  genius  of  the  £uni« 
ly,  a  philanthropic  citizen,  an  able  financier  and 
accomplished  courtier.  The  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria ennobled  him,  and  Alexander  of  Russia 
appointed  him  his  consul-general  One  of  his 
sisters  married  Jakob  HoUweg,  a  partner  of  the 
house,  which  union  founded  the  Bethmann- 
Hollweg  branch  of  the  family.    Another  sister 


BETHPHAGE 


BETHUNK 


218 


married  Victor  Francois  Tioomte  de  Flayigny. 
The  present  head  of  the  Frankfort  hanking 
honse  is  PmuFP  HsnoaoH  Mobitz  Alezandbb 
YOK  BKTHMABir,  horn  Oct.  8, 1811,  married  in 
1842  to  a  Saxon  gentlewoman  of  ancient  fiEtroily, 
Marie  von  Bose.  His  hrothers,  Eabl  Casab 
Lin>wio  and  Albzakbbb,  were  ennohled  and 
made  chamherlains  hy  the  king  of  Bavaria. 
The  Bethmanns,  heside  the  large  amount  of 
capital  invested  in  their  hanking  operations,  are 
owners  of  extensive  estates  in  Bohemia.  Karl 
and  Alexander  own  the  estates  of  Krzinetz, 
Ronow,  and  Dohrowan.  This  stake  in  the  Ans- 
trian  possessions,  nndouhtedly  contrihntes  to. 
their  readiness  to  ohlige  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment, in  the  prosperity  of  which  they  are  per- 
sonally interested.  The  Bethmanns,  eclipsed  as 
they  are  hy  the  Rothschilds,  are  less  involved 
than  the  latter  firm  in  stock-johhing  operations, 
and  although  the  hnsiness  which  they  transact 
is  on  a  smaller  scale,  it  is  also  less  hazardoos. 
They  have  wide-spread  relations  with  Vienna, 
Ber&n,  St.  Petershnrg,  Amsterdam,  Paris,  Lon- 
don, &C.  Of  the  great  hanking  hnsiness  arising 
through  the  Frankfort  fair,  and  the  position  of 
that  city  as  a  commercial  mediator  hetween 
southern,  central,  and  northern  Germany,  a  con- 
siderahle  share  passes  through  the  hands  of  the 
Bethmanns.  The  Bethmann  villa,  at  Frankfort, 
contains  Dannecker^soelehrated  statue  of  Ariad- 
ne riding  as  the  hride  of  Bacchus  upon  a  panther. 

BETHPHAGE.  a  place  of  Scriptural  intere||i 
which  has  passed  away,  leaving  no  trace  he- 
hind.  Its  name  was  significant  of  its  general 
location,  hut  not  of  the  particular  site.  "  The 
place  of  figs,"  it  must  have  heen  situated  some- 
where on  tiie  eastern  dope  of  that  range  of 
hills  extending  north  and  south  hetween  Je- 
rusalem and  Bethany,  at  the  foot  of  which  in 
the  western  valley  flowed  the  Kedron.  The 
principal  points  of  this  range  are  the  mount  of 
Offence  and  the  mount  of  Olives.  The  fig-tree 
still  ahounds  hoth  on  the  eastern  and  western 
slopes  of  the  range,  and  even  heyond  Bethany 
toward  Jericho.  Some  travellers  have  heen 
disposed  to  place  Bethphage  on  the  site  of  the 
modern  village  of  Abu  Dis,  lying  south,  and  a 
little  to  the  east  of  Bethany.  Dr.  Robinson 
thinks  that  could  not  have  heen  its  position, 
and  gives  as  little  credit  to  the  tradition  of  the 
monks  of  ibe  country,  who  place  it  hetween 
Bethany  and  the  summit  of  the  mount  of  Olives, 
since  there  is  no  trace  that  a  village  of  any  de- 
scription ever  existed  there.  Lightfoot  thought 
it  was  a  district  extending  from  the  mount  of 
Olives  to  Jerusalem,  and  embracing  a  village 
of  the  same  name.  Oalmet  mamly  agrees 
with  him,  and  thinks  it  is  not  certain  that  any 
thing  more  is  meant  than  a  house  or  stand  for 
selling  figs  from  gardens  on  the  slope  of  Olivet 
where  they  were  raised,  and  therefore  no  trace 
of  a  village  need  be  expected 

BETHSAIDA.  Until  the  time  of  Reland 
there  were  some  very  knotty  geographical 
questions  involved  in  the  Scriptural  accounts  of 
Mthsaida,  and  the  events  which  had  occurred 


there.  Reland  discovered  that  there  must  he 
two  Bethsaidas ;  one  situated  on  the  east  and 
n(Mrth  side  of  Lake  Gtennesaret,  near  the  embou- 
chure of  the  Jordan  into  that  sea,  and  the  other 
somewhere  on  the  western  side  of  the  same 
lake.  This  discovery  solved  the  difSculties. 
Still  no  eastern  travellers  have  succeeded 
in  identifying  the  western  city  of  this  name, 
though  it  possesses  much  the  greater  sacred  in- 
terest. It  was  the  birth-place  of  8  disciples  of 
Jesus,  and  a  freauent  aoiding  place  of  Jesus 
himself.  Here  he  wrought  many  of  his 
miracl^  and  in  Ghorazin,  a  Galilean  viUageu 
which  is  hidden  in  quite  as  great  geographical 
obscurity  at  the  present  day.  It  was  near  this 
latter  Bethsaida  that  Jesus  is  related  to  have 
fed  the  multitudes  miraculously.  No  geographi- 
cal traces  of  these  places  are  discoverable  since 
the  days  of  Jerome.  The  word  Bethsaida 
means  '*  the  place  of  fish."  It  was  on  the  lake 
on  which  Bethsaida  bordered  that  the  disciples 
toiled  all  night  and  caught  nothing,  and  tlien 
drew  a  full  net  when  they  cast  it  on  the  other 
side  of  the  ship,  by  the  direction  of  Jesus. 

BETH-SHEmESH,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine, 
which  probably  occupied  the  site  of  the  modem 
village,  Ain  Shems,  about  15  miles  W.  S.  W.  of 
Jerusalem,  where  extensive  ruins  are  stUl  re- 
maining^ 

BfiTHUNE,  a  fortified  town  of  France,  de- 
partment of  JPas-de-Oalais,  built  on  a  rock 
above  the  river  Brette,  16  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Arras.  Pop.  in  1856,  7,720.  Its  castie  was 
constructed  by  Vauban.  It  has  a  Gothic  church, 
communal  college,  2  hospitals,  and  manufac- 
tures of  linen,  cloth,  beer,  &c.  It  was  taken 
by  the  allies  in  1710,  and  restored  in  1718,  by 
the  treatyof  Utrecht 

BETHUNE,  DmE,  an  eminent  philanthropist, 
born  at  Dingwall,  Scotiand,  in  1771,  died  in 
New  York,  Sept  18, 1824.  In  early  life  he  re- 
sided at  Tobago,  and  removed  to  New  York, 
where  he  settied  as  a  merchant  in  1792,  joined 
the  church  of  Dr.  Mason,  and  was  prominent 
for  his  efforts  in  the  cause  of  religion.  Before 
a  tract  society  was  formed  in  tiiis  country  he 
printed  10,000  tracts  at  his  own  expense,  and 
commenced  their  distribution.  He  also  im- 
ported Bibles  for  distribution.  From  1803  to 
1816  he  supported  one  or  more  Sunday  schools. 
He  devoted  to  such  works  one-tenth  of  his  gains. 
— Geobob  W.,  son  of  the  preceding,  a  genial 
divine  and  poet,  minister  of  tne  Dutch  Reformed 
church,  was  bom  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in 
March,  1806.  In  1826  he  entered  the  ministry 
of  the  Presbyterian  church,  but  passed  over  the 
next  year  to  that  of  the  Dutch  Reformed.  He 
was  settied  first  at  Rhinebeck,  on  the  Hudson, 
whence  he  removed  to  Utica,  at  Philadelphia 
in  1884,  and  in  1849  over  a  large  and  influential 
congregation  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  He  is  the  au- 
thor of  severflJ  highly  esteemed  works  of  devo- 
tion, entitied  the  **  Fruit  of  the  Spirit,'*  **  Early 
Lost,"  "Early  Saved,"  and  the  •* History  of  a 
Penitent;"  of  a  volume  of  "Lays  of  Love  and 
Faith,  and  other  Poems,"  published  in  1848 ; 


214 


BJfiTHUNE 


BETBOTHMENT 


and  of  ooDectioDB  of  omtioiu,  oocasioiuil  dis- 
coimea)  and  sermons.  He  has  reputation  as 
a  scholar  and  wit,  and  edited  in  1847  an 
American  edition  of  Walton's  '^Oomplete  An- 
gler," being  himself  an  enthusiastic  follower  of 
the  **contemplatiTe  man's  recreation."  He  is 
Idghly  esteemed  as  a  soond  and  learned  divine, 
a  preacher  of  great  earnestness  and  eloquence, 
and  a  secular  orator  of  excellent  fancj  ana 
pleasant  humor. 

BfiTHUNE,  Jomr,  a  Scotch  peasant  poet, 
born  at  IConiemail,  in  the  county  of  Firo,  in 
1812,  died  Sept  1, 1889.  He  passed  his  boy- 
hood tending  his  father's  cows  on  the  shores  of 
a  small  *^  wayeless  lake,"  and,  like  most  of  his 
countrymen,  had  heard  at  an  early  age  the 
finest  stnuns  of  Bums.  A  parish  school-master, 
from  the  college  of  St  Anarews,  recited  to  him 
the  best  pieces  of  Scott,  Byron,  Moore,  and 
Campbell,  with  which  he  stored  his  memory. 
He  had  written  many  yersee  before  he  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  weaver  in  1824,  and  from  that 
time,  though  afflicted  with  feeble  health,  wrote 
in  6e<»*et  a  great  variety  of  poems,  manv  of 
which  were  afterward  published.  His  pieces 
which  had  most  success  with  the  public  were 
short  tales  and  sketches,  from  which  he  de- 
rived a  suffident  income  for  hia  [Support  dur- 
ing the  latter  years  of  his  lifd. — His  brother 
ALBXAin>EB,  bom  in  July,  1804,  died  June  18, 
1848,  cooperated  with  hhn  in  his  literary  en- 
terprises; and  also  wrote  ^^  Tales  and  Sketches 
of  the  Scottish  Peasantry"  and  other  works. 
He  was  also  a  noble  illustration  of  literary  cul- 
ture under  the  most  adverse  circumstances. 

BETHUNE,  John  Eluot  Dbinxwateb,  a 
member  of  the  supreme  council  of  India,  and 
president  of  the  council  of  education,  bom  in 
1801,  died  Aug.  12,  1851.  He  was  educated 
at  Cambridge,  called  to  the  bar  in  1827,  and 
after  occupying  different  situations  under  the 
government  of  1848,  was  appointed  to  the 
above-mentioned  place  in  Inma.  His  admin- 
istration is  memorable  for  the  success  of  a  meas- 
ure destined,  perhaps,  to  exercise  a  paramount 
influence  upon  the  Asiatic  worid,  but  hither- 
to considered  visionary,  the  establishment  of 
schools  for  the  education  of  native  females,  con- 
ducted by  Europeans,  and  in  their  method  of 
instraction.  By  pledges  that  no  interferance 
ahould  be  attempted  with  the  religion  of  the 
pupils,  he  secured  the  countenance  and  active 
support  of  several  native  gentiemen  of  rank, 
and  a  school  was  commenced  under  their  aus- 
pices. No  man  was  admitted  except  himself; 
but  it  was  an  object  of  curiosity  and  interest 
to  the  native  ladies,  to  whose  attendance  and 
approval  it  was  largely  indebted  for  its  suc- 
cess. After  the  number  of  pupils  had  increased 
to  60,  other  schools  were  opened,  and  before  he 
died  there  were  6  or  6  in  operation  in  Bengal. 
All  the  honors  due  to  a  great  benefactor  were 
paid  him  at  his  funeral  by  an  immense  con- 
course of  natives. 

BETICE,  an  important  ferry  across  the  river 
Oxus,  60  miles  S.  W.  of  Bokhara,  on  the  route 


between  Perria  and  Bokhara.  The  river  is  at 
this  point  2^000  fbet  across,  and  25  in  depth. 

BETISBOOKA,  a  river  of  Madagascar,  empty- 
ing into  the  Mozambique  channel,  on  the  N.  W. 
coast  of  the  island.  About  15  miles  from  its 
mouth  it  expands  into  a  g^ul^  dotted  with 
islands.  It  is  the  principal  route  frt)m  the  Ovah 
capital  to  the  sea-coast 

BETLIS,  or  Birus,  a  town  of  Turkish  Arme- 
nia, in  Koordistan,  lying  on  tiie  W.  shore  of 
Lake  Van,  in  laL  87^45'  K,  long.  42^  81'  S.  It 
is  ffltuated  in  a  wide  ravine,  more  than  6,000 
feet  above  the  sea  level  Pop.  about  10,000,  of 
whom  about  i  are  Armenians.  Hie  town  has 
8  mosques,  12  convents,  some  baths  and  cara- 
vansaries, and  an  ancient  castle.  It  has  mann- 
fiictories  of  cotton  cloths,  celebrated  for  their 
bright  red  dye  of  fire-arms,  and  solverware, 
and  exports  excellent  tobacco  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

BETROTHMENT,  a  mutual  ooropaet  between 
2  parties,  by  which  they  bind  themselves  to 
marry.  In  the  Orient,  where  the  climate  con- 
tributes to  the  precocity  of  the  sexes,  and  leads  to 
contracting  marriages  even  during  childhood,  the 
ceremony  of  betrothal  was  sorrounded  with 
peculiar  solemnity,  although  it  frequentiy  hap- 
pened among  the  Chinese,  Hindoos,  Persians, 
and  Syrians,  that  the  principal  parties  to  the 
contract  were  still  in  the  nursery,  and  did  not 
make  each  other's  personal  acquaintance  un- 
til the  day  of  the  weddhig.  With  the  Hebrews 
a  betrolliment  was  a  ceremony,  as  it  still  is 
in  our  days,  in  which  financial  considerations 
took  a  prominent  part  The  bridegroom  gave 
to  the  bride  a  shekel,  and  said  to  her,  MUbad'^ 
deahest^  ^  We  are  engaged."  He  was  at  liber- 
ty to  obviate  this  embarrasnng  oral  effonon  by 
writing  the  word  down  upon  papei^  and  hand- 
ing it  to  his  prospective  wife.  Rings  were 
alM>  exchanged,  but  the  chief  formality,  to  which 
the  orthodox  Jews  of  the  present  day  still  ad- 
here, consisted  in  the  solemn  reading  of  the 
marriage  contract,  in  presence  of  the  relatives 
and  friends  and  other  witnesses,  with  the  civil 
authorities  now  represented  chiefly  by  a  public 
notary  and  by  the  lawyers  who  have  drawn  up 
the  contract  This  contract  is  peculiarly  strict 
as  to  the  money  which  the  flunily  of  the  bride 
make  over  to  the  bridegroom.  When  all  par- 
ties have  signed  tiie  contract,  the  whole  pro- 
cession of  relatives  and  friends  generally  as- 
semble at  the  house  of  the  bride's  fiither,  where 
great  embracing  and  rejoicins  take  place, 
which  generally  terminate  in  luxurious  ban- 
quets, when  toasts  are  offered  to  the  young 
coupl^  whose  delicate  blushes  are  soon  obliter- 
ated by  the  convivial  flashes  which  the  cham- 
Ee  and  Rhine  wine  produce  on  such  de- 
ftd  occasions.  The  father  of  the  bride^ 
has  promised  a  large  dowry,  is  the  great 
character  at  such  Hebrew  betrothments.  On 
the  one  hand,  the  effort  of  partinsr  with  so  much 
money,  on  the  other  the  gratification  of  his 
pride  in  having  the  world  see  that  he  has  any 
money  at  all  to  part  with,  blend  in  a  most  ca- 


BETBOTHMENT 


BETTEBTON 


2ld 


rioos  manner  with  his  paternal  feelings ;  and^ 
on  the  whole,  there  is  something  in  the  im- 
portance attached  to  the  dowry  which  de- 
tracts from  the  solemnity  of  the  event  The 
oontract  is  called  hy  the  Jews  thenaim  ria- 
ehonim.  In  the  laws  of  Moees  there  are  also 
oerti^  provisions  respecting  the  state  of  the 
virgin  who  is  hetrothed.  Sclden's  Uxor  E&- 
hraka  gives  tJie  sdiednle  of  Hebrew  contracts 
of  betroUiment.  With  the  Jews,  a  yomig  lady 
is  rarely  allowed  to  enter  into  an  engagement 
without  the  cognizance  of  her  relatives,  who, 
in  fftot,  in  most  esses,  arrange  matters  for  her, 
and  generally  avail  themselveB  of  the  services 
of  marriage  brokw&  who  receive  a  percentage 
upon  the  amount  oi  the  dowry,  beside  a  gra- 
imty.  In  the  continental  cities  these  Jew  mar- 
riage brokers  have  matches  slways  on  hand, 
with  dowries  varying  from  $5,000  to  $200,000, 
and  as  soon  as  the  betrothment  has  taken  place 
they  look  npon  the  bargain  as  condnded ;  bat 
cases  frequently  occur,  in  which  on  the  day  of 
the  weddiDg  the  bridegroom  breaks  the  match 
becwise  the  Austrian  metalliqnes  or  Spanish 
Ardoios,  tendered  in  payment  for  the  dowry, 
have  fiillen  in  valne,  and  reduced  the  dowry 
periiaps  to  the  extent  of  20  or  2&  per  cent — 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  father  made  a 
eeleetion  for  his  daughter.  The  young  couple 
kissed  each  other  for  the  first  time  in  the  pres- 
ence of  their  friends,  and  it  was  customary  for 
the  bridegroom  to  bring  flowers  daily,  until 
the  wedding  day,  to  the  house  of  his  bride. — 
The  Arab  sends  a  relative  tp  negotiate  about 
his  intended  bride,  and  the  price  at  which  she 
ifl  to  be  had. — ^Ihe  bridegroom  of  Eamtchatka 
has  to  serve  in  the  house  of  his  prospective 
lather-in-law  before  an  engagement  is  allowed 
to  take  place. — ^With  the  fetts  and  Esthonians 
no  engagement  is  considered  valid  until  the 
parent  and  relatives  of  the  bride  have  tasted 
of  the  brandy  which  the  bridegroom  presents. 
— ^Among  the  Hottentots,  the  would-be  bride- 
groom is  not  allowed  to  propose  without  being 
aocompanied  by  his  father.  Father  and  son 
walk  arm  in  aim,  with  pipes  in  their  mouths, 
to  the  house  of  the  bride,  where  the  engsge- 
ment  takes  place. — ^Among  some  of  the  indige- 
nous tribes  of  America  it  was  customary  to 
keep  the  betrothed  lady  in  durance  for  40  days, 
as  the  superstition  prevailed  that  she  would  ex- 
ert an  occult  influence  upon  any  thing  she 
touched  or  any  body  with  whom  she  came  into 
contact.  During  these  40  days  the  lady  was 
ki^t  on  starvation  fare,  so  that  when  the  day 
of  the  wedding  came  she  looked  more  like  a 
skeleton  than  like  a  bride. — ^In  the  Roman  law, 
the  tponaUia^  or  betrothment,  is  defined  to  be 
a  promise  of  future  marriage,  which  could  take 
j^uice  after  the  parties  were  7  ^ears  of  age. 
The  sponsalia  might  be  made  without  the  2 
parties  being  present  at  the  ceremony,  and 
might  be  dissolved  by  one  partr  certifying  to 
the  other  in  the  following  words:  ConditioT^ 
tua  rum  utor, — The  canonists  speak  of  betroth- 
ingf  and  in  the  middle  ages  the  Roman  and 


canon  statutes  constituted  the  law  on  the  sub- 
ject While  the  Greek  church  considered  be- 
trothments  as  binding  as  weddings,  the  churdi 
of  Rome  viewed  them  simply  as  promises  of 
marriage.  But  as  much  conf^on  ensued,  the 
council  of  Trent  decreed  that  no  betrothment 
was  valid  without  the  presence  of  a  priest  and 
of  two  or  three  witnesses.  This  decree  was 
adopted  in  France  by  Loms  XIIL,  in  1639,  and 
became  known  as  the  ordonnanes  de  Blou, 
Until  the  revolution  of  1789,  when  betroth- 
ments  ceased  to  have  l^al  importance^  they 
were  generally  celebrated  in  iVance  by  pro- 
nouncing the  nuptial  blessing  in  front  of 
the  churoh,  by  reading  the  marriage  contract, 
and  by  exchanging  presents,  while  the  French 
bridegroom,  as  was  also  the  case  with  the  Ro- 
man bridegroom,  had  to  pay  a  certain  amount 
of  earnest-money  to  ratify  the  bargain.  In 
England,  formal  engagements  of  this  kind  were 
nsiud  down  to  the  time  of  the  reformation.  In 
Shakespeare  and  other  writers  many  illustra- 
tions occur,  from  which  it  may  be  inferred  that 
betrofhments  were  celebrated  by  the  inter- 
change of  rings,  the  Idss^  the  joinmg  of  hands, 
and  the  attestation  of  witnesses.  Marriage 
contracts  have  been  preserved  in  many  andent 
British  families,  with  stipulations  re^>ectinff  the 
apparel  of  the  future  bride  and  the  cost  of  the 
entertainment  which  is  to  be  provided  at  the 
wedding.  In  modem  times,  the  Hebrews  and 
Germans,  more  than  any  other  nations,  sur- 
round betrothment  with  a  i^estige  of  solemnity, 
although  even  with  them  it  has  now  seldom 
any  other  meaning  than  that  the  parties  have 
privately  engaged  themselves.  In  England  and 
the  United  States  rings  are  frequently  inter- 
changed between  the  lady  and  the  gei^emim, 
and  wherever  it  can  be  satiafiEUstorily  proved  in 
law  that  either  partv  has  sufiGared  materially  by 
any  breadi  of  promise  on  the  part  of  the  otiier, 
the  courts  will  award  damages.  In  the  United 
States,  engagements  are  made  with  more  non- 
chalance ttum  in  Europe— the  free  will  of  young 
people  is  less  interfered  with,  and  the  whole  re- 
lation is  stripped  also  in  manv  other  respects 
of  the  conventional  form  which  it  assumes  on 
the  old  continent 

BETTERMENTS,  in  law,  improvements  made 
to  an  estate  which  render  it  better,  and  are  more 
than  mere  repairs. 

BETTERTON,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  English 
actor,  bom  1685,  died  April,  1710.  He  was 
the  son  of  an  under>cook  in  the  service  of 
Charles  I.,  and  was  apprenticed  to  a  bookseller 
in  London.  His  master,  Mr.  Rhodes,  obtained 
a  license  for  a  company  of  players  in  1659,  and 
with  him  Betterton  commenced  his  career.  He 
was  engaged  by  Davenant  in  1662.  His  posl- 
tion  was  soon  preeminent,  and  he  became  an 
established  favorite.  He  seems  to  have  had  no 
personal  graces  from  nature  to  second  his  rare 
talents,  if  the  following  account  be  true :  ^  Mr. 
Betterton,  though  a  superlatively  good  actor, 
labored  imder  an  ill  flffure,  being  clumsily 
made,  having  a  great  head,  a  short,  thick  neck, 


216 


B£TTINELLI 


BETTY 


stooped  in  the  fihooldera,  and  had  &t|  short 
arms,  which  he  rarelj  lifted  higher  than  his 
stomach.  His  left  hand  frequently  lodged  in 
his  breast  between  his  coat  and  waistcoat, 
while  with  his  right  he  prepared  his  speech; 
his  actions  were  few  bat  jost;  he  haa  little 
eyes  and  a  broad  &ce,  a  little  pockfretten;  a 
corpulent  body,  and  thick  legs,  with  large  feet ; 
he  was  better  to  meet  than  to  follow,  for  his 
aspect  was  serious,  venerable,  and  mf^estic  In 
his  latter  time,  a  little  paralytic ;  his  voice  was 
low  and  grumbling,  yet  he  could  tune  it  by  an 
artful  climax  which  enforced  universal  atten- 
tion even  from  the  fops  and  orange  girl&  He 
was  incapable  of  dancing  even  in  a  country 
dance,  as  was  Mr.  Barry,  but  their  good  quail- 
ties  were  more  than  equal  to  their  deficiencies.'' 
Betterton  had  the  rare  faculty  of  identifying 
himself  with  his  part.  He  married  Mrs.  San- 
derson, an  actress  of  almost  equal  merit  with 
himseli^  whose  Lady  Macbeth  was  reckoned  a 
perfect  piece  of  acting.  He  was  prudent  and 
saving,  but  he  lost  his  small  means  in  a  com.- 
mercCol  speculation,  and  a  theatre  which  he 
afterward  opened  was  not  suocessfuL  After 
his  retirement  from  the  stage,  he  reappeared 
in  his  old  age  a  few  times  to  take  a  benefit, 
and  his  last  appearance,  April  IS,  1710,  was 
the  proximate  cause  of  his  death ;  for  having 
used  remedies  to  check  a  fit  of  the  gout,  in  or- 
der that  he  might  keep  his  engagement  with 
the  public,  he  drove  it  to  his  head.  His  widow 
died  of  grief  for  the  death  of  her  husband. 

BETTINELLI,  Bavbrio,  an  Italian  author, 
bom  in  Mantua,  July  18,  1718,  died  there  Sept. 
IS,  1808.  He  was  educated  by  the  Jesuits  of 
his  native  town  of  Bologna,  and  became  a  mem- 
ber of  their  order  in  1786.  From  1789  to  1744 
he  taught  literature  at  Brescia;  while  at  Bo- 
logna, whither  he  waa  sent  for  the  purpose  of 
attending  the  divinity  school,  he  displayed  his 
ruling  passion  by  the  composition  of  a  tragedy, 
entitled  lanatliaa.  In  1748  we  find  him  at 
Venice  as  professor  of  rhetoric,  and  in  1751  at 
a  college  in  Parma,  where  he  remained  until 
1759.  Among  his  acquidntances  were  the  fore- 
most men  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  in- 
cluding Yoltaire.  In  1767  he  preached  at 
Verona,  and  thrilled  his  congregation  by  the 
pathos  of  his  sermons,  while  in  his  house  he 
delighted  them  by  the  luxuries  of  his  table. 
When  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  abolished, 
he  immediately  threw  up  the  professorship, 
which  he  then  held  at  Modena,  and  retired  to 
his  native  town,  where  he  devoted  himself  for 
the  rest  of  his  life  to  literary  pursuits. 

BETTY,  WnxuM  Hknby  West,  commonly 
known  as  "  the  young  Bosoius,'*  born  at  Shrews- 
bury, in  England,  Sept  18, 1791.  In  infiAncy  he 
accompanied  his  father,  who  was  a  farmer,  to 
Ireland.  Here  he  was  educated  by  his  mother, 
who  encouraged  his  decided  taste  for  recitation 
by  frequently  reading  to  him.  In  1802,  at 
Belfast  theatre,  he  first  saw  a  dramatic  per- 
formance. The  play  was  "  Pizarro,"  in  which 
Mrs.  Siddons  astonished  him  as  Elvira,  and  so 


much  charmed  him,  that  he  imitated  her  i 
ner,  accents,  and  attitudes,  in  various  dramatio 
speeches  which  he  learned  for  the  purpose,  and 
declared  that  he  should  die  if  he  were  not  per- 
mitted to  be  a  player.  The  stage-struck  child 
was  taken  by  his  parents  to  the  manager  of  the 
theatre,  who,  after  hearing  him  recite,  phioed 
him  under  the  able  instruction  of  Mr.  Hou^ 
the  prompter.  Under  this  gentleman  he  studied 
the  parts  of  Osman,  young  Norva],  RoUa,  and 
Bomeo,  and  made  his  dibut  at  the  Bel&st  thea^ 
tre,  Aug.  1, 1808,  in  that  of  Osman.  At  this 
time  he  was  not  twelve  years  old.  £Gs  success 
was  dedded,  and  after  playing  the  above-named 
parts  at  Belfast,  he  performed  at  Cork  with 
even  greater  effect,  and  was  enthusJasticad- 
ly  received  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh.  At 
the  latter  place.  Home  pronounced  him  to  be 
^'the  genuine  onspring  of  the  son  of  DougUa.^^ 
From  this  time  he  travelled  over  En^and, 
with  still  augmenting  fame  and  profit,  as  ^^the 
young  Boscius.^'  In  1804  he  was  engaged  at 
Oovent-Glarden  theatre,  London,  for  12  nights, 
at  50  guineas  a  night,  and  a  dear  benefit — un- 
dertaking to  play  at  Drury  Lane,  on  the  inter- 
vening nightfiL  on  the  same  terms.  At  that 
very  time,  John  Kemble^s  weekly  salary  was 
under  86  guineas,  and  Lewis  had  only  £20. 
^'The  yjoung  Boscius"  opened  at  Oovent  Gar- 
den, Dec.  1, 1804  as  Achmet,  in  ^^Barbarossa,'' 
was  enthusiastically  received,  played  with  much 
self-possession,  and  remarkably  well — ^for  a  child. 
He  drew  inmiense  houses  in  several  oharaotera, 
Hamlet  included ;  was  presented  to  George  lU., 
the  royal  fiEanily,  and  the  leading  nobility ;  re- 
ceived numerous  and  valuable  presents;  had 
Opie  and  other  artists  pressing  him  to  sit  for 
his  portrait,  and  engravers  bualy  employed  in 
multiplying  them ;  and  so  great  was  the  Boscio- 
mania,  that  even  the  xmiversity  of  Cambridge 
so  far  went  with  the  tide  of  the  boy's  celebrity, 
as  to  make  "Quid  noster  Bosoius  eget"  the 
subject  of  Sir  William  Brown's  prize  medal. 
It  was  proposed  to  erect  statues  of  him.  In  28 
nights,  at  Drury  Lane,  he  drew  £17,210,  an 
average  of  £614  a  night,  and  at  lea^  as  mudi 
more  at  Oovent  Garden.  A  youth  of  thirteen 
who  could  draw  £84,000  in  56  nights,  must  have 
had  great  merit  or  great  luck.  After  he  had  ra^ 
idly  realized  suffident  to  secure  himself  a  hand- 
some independence  for  life.  Master  Betty  retired 
from  the  stage  in  1807,  and  was  placed  for  8 
years  at  Shrewsbury  sdiooL  He  resumed  bis 
profession  at  Oovent  Garden  in  1812,  at  the 
age  of  21;  but  the  charm  was  ended;  the 
performance  was  considered  as  very  common- 
place, and  was  not  repeated.  Ix>rd  Byron 
prophesied  before  the  reappearance  that  he 
could  not  succeed,  his  figure  being  fat,  his  fear 
tures  flat,  his  action  ungraceful,  and  no  exprea- 
sion  in  his  '^muffin  face."  He  permanently 
retired  to  private  life,  and  has  brought  up  a 
large  family  very  respectably. — ^Hbnbt  Bsttt, 
his  eldest  son,  bom  Sept  29,  1819,  was  also 
seized  with  a  passion  for  acting,  and  after  sev- 
eral years*  practice  in  the  provinces^  appeared 


BETWAH 


BEVELAND 


217 


rt  Oovent  Gkffden  in  Dec.  1844,  as  Hamlet. 
He  reminded  old  plaj-goers  of  ^Hhe  young 
Rofldns"  in  his  prime,  and  is  a  very  rtopecta- 
ble,  idihoa^  not  a  first-claas  performer. 

BETWAH,  a  river  in  E^dostan,  which  takes 
itsriseinthe  yindhyanmomitains,nearBhopatil, 
and  flowing  nearlj  840  miles  in  a  K  E.  direc- 
tion throngh  the  provinces  of  Malwah  and  Al- 
lahabad^ finally  joms  the  Jumna  below  Kalpee. 
Near  Erech  a  shght  fall  occurs.  The  countnr 
throng  which  it  flows  is  highly  cultivated. 
The  nver  at  times  is  said  to  rise  to  a  great 
height;  in  a  portion  of  its  course  it  flows 
Enough  beds  of  iron  ore. 

BEUDANT,  FKANgoD  Sttlpioe,  a  French 
mineralogist  and  natural  philosopher,  bom  at 
Paris,  Sept  5, 1787,  died  in  the  same  city,  Dec. 
9, 1850.  After  having  taught  successively  in 
the  polytechnic  school  and  the  normal  school, 
he  becune  in  1811  professor  of  mathematics  in 
^  lyoenm  of  Avignon,  and  in  1818  professor 
of  physics  in  the  lyceum  of  Marseilles.  He  had 
devoted  his  stndies  to  zoology,  and  already  pub- 
Itdied  some  curious  observations  and  ezperi- 
meufs  ooncering  the  mollusks,  when  in  1815 
he  was  sent  by  Louis  XYIII.  to  England,  to 
take  charge  of  the  transportation  to  France  of 
that  monarch's  mineralogical  cabinet^  of  which 
he  was  appointed  director,  and  from  this  time 
he  made  the  mineral  kingdom  the  chief  object 
of  his  stady.  In  1818  he  made  a  tour  to  Hun- 
gary for  mineralogical  and  geological  observa- 
tions, and  on  his  return  to  Paris  succeeded  Hatly, 
who  had  been  his  master,  in  the  faculty  of 
sdenees,  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
seiencesu  and  inspector-general  of  the  nniversity. 
He  published  numerous  works,  among  which 
were  accounts  of  researches  concerning  the  re- 
lation of  crystalline  forms  to  chemical  composi- 
tion, and  of  his  observations  in  Hungary,  ele- 
mentary treatises  on  mineralogy  and  geology, 
and  also  a  remarkable  grammar  of  the  French 


SEIJGNOT,  Abthub  Auottstb,  count,  a 
iVench  historian  and  archfl9ol<^t,  bom  March 
25,  1797,  at  Bar-sur-Aube.  He  was  bred  to 
pditics,  and  occupied  a  seat  in  the  chamber  of 
peers  under  Louis  Philippe.  He  was  a  constant 
adrocate  of  fireedom  in  public  instruction ;  the 
rev<^ution  of  1848  sent  him  to  the  legislative 
assembly,  where  he  was  instrumental  in  the 
adoption  of  a  liberal  measure  on  that  subject: 
He  has  now  fl:iven  up  politics  for  literature, 
and  is  ennged  in  superintending  some  of  the 
valuable  nistorical  publications  of  the  French 
govemn^ent. 

BEUG^OT,  Jaoquxs  Olauds,  count,  a 
Fraich  statesman,  bom  in  1761,  at  Bar-sur- 
Aube,  died  in  June,  1835.  In  the  legislative 
assembly  he  distinguished  himself  by  bold  op- 
position to  the  revolutionists;  he  was  especial- 
ly eager  in  assailang  Marat.  This  made  him  so 
unpopular  ^at,  after  Aug.  10,  he  did  not  dare  to 
i^ypear  in  his  seat.  Being  arrested  in  1 798,  he  was 
liberated  by  the  revolution  of  the  9th  Thermi- 
dor,  and  lived  then  in  retirement  till  the  18th 


Bnmiaire,  when  he  was  made  assistant  to  Lucien 
Bonaparte  in  the  home  department.  In  1 807  he 
took  part  in  the  organization  of  the  newly  cre- 
ated kingdom  of  Westphalia,  being  for  a  while 
appointed  minister  of  finance.  In  1808  he  was 
administrator  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Berg 
and  Oleves.  When  the  Senate  declared  the 
right  of  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  forfeit- 
ed, Beugnot  was  nominated  to  the  home  min- 
istay  by  the  provisional  government.  On  the 
arrival  of  Louis  XVIIL,  he  was  appointed  di- 
rector-general of  police,  then  minister  of  the 
navy,  and  being  faithful  to  his  new  master,  he 
followed  the  kmg  to  Ghent.  After  the  battle 
of  Waterloo  he  was  for  a  while  postmaster- 
general.  In  1824  he  resigned  his  .seat  in  the 
chamber  of  deputies.  The  revolution  of  July 
confined  him  to  private  life. 

BEUXELS,  WiLLEM,  a  Dutch  fisherman, 
was  bom  at  Biervliet,  in  Dutch  Flanders,  in 
1897,  where  he  died  in  1449.  He  discovered 
the  method  of  preserving  herrings.  A  statue 
was  erected  to  his  memory  by  Charles  Y. 

BEURNON  VILLE,  Pikebk  dk  Rukl,  marquis 
de,  marshal  of  France,  was  bom  at  Ghampignolle, 
in  Burgundy,  May  10,  1752,  died  April  28, 
1821.  Originally  intended  for  the  church,  he 
chose  the  profession  of  arms  and  served  in  the 
East  until  1789,  when  he  was  sent  home  by  the 
governor  of  the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  his  tem][)er 
being  quarrelsome.  Arriving  in  Paris  at  the 
commencement  of  the  revolution,  he  identified 
himself  at  once  with  it,  and  in  1792  was  ap- 
pointed aide-de-camp  to  Marshal  Luckner,  and 
was  soon  after  named  general-in-chief  of  the 
army  of  the  Moselle ;  in  1798  he  became  minis- 
ter of  war.  8ent  in  1798  to  arrest  Dumouriez, 
he  was  himself  arrested  by  Dumouriez,  and  con- 
fined at  Ehrenbreitstein,  Eger,  and  OlmtLtz 
until  1795,  when  he  was  exchanged,  and  became 
successively  general-in-chief  of  the  army  of  the 
north,  inspector-general  of  infantry,  ambassador 
to  Berlin  m  1800,  to  Madrid  in  1802,  and  count 
of  the  empire.  In  1814  he  was  commissioned 
by  Napoleon  to  organize  means  of  defence  upon 
the  frontier,  and  on  the  abdication  of  Napoleon 
was  named  minister  of  state  and  peer  of  France 
by  Louis  XVIIL  On  the  return  of  Napoleon 
to  Elba,  he  was  proscribed  by  a  special  de- 
cree, and  retired  again,  but  was  reinstated  in 
all  his  dignities  by  Louis  XVIIL  after  the  bat- 
tie  of  Waterloo.  He  became  marshal  of  France 
in  1816,  and  marquis  in  1817. 

BEVEDERO,  a  lake  in  La  Plato,  province 
of  MendoziL  consisting  of  2  distinct  bodies 
of  water,  called  the  greater  and  lesser  Bevede- 
ro,  connected  by  a  river  about  8  miles  long. 
The  greater  is  40  miles  in  length  from  N.  to  8., 
and  from  8  to  25  in  width.  The  lesser  measures 
about  22  miles  by  15.  The  lake  lies  between 
lat  82<»  45'  and  84°  17'  S.,  and  long.  66°  and  66** 
82' W. 

BEVEL,  in  carpentry,  an  angle  differing  from 
a  right  angle ;  also,  a  tool  like  a  T,  of  2  pieces, 
capable  of  being  fastened  at  any  angle. 

BEVELAND,  Nobtu  and  South,  2  islands  be- 


218 


BEYEBIDGE 


BEXAB 


longing  to  Holland,  in  the  province  of  Zealand^ 
and  formed  b^  the  mouths  of  the  Scheldt.  North 
Beveland  lies  east  of  the  island  of  Walcheren, 
and  is  separated  from  South  Bereland  by  the 
island  of  Wolfersdyke.  Sontli  Beveland,  the 
larger  and  more  fertile  of  the  2,  contains  Goes, 
the  capital,  and  several  forts  ana  YiUagee.  The 
united  area  of  the  islands  is  120  sq.  m. 

BEVERIDGE,  Wiluak,  an  English  prelate 
and  theologian,  bom  at  Barrow,  Leicester- 
shire, in  1688,  died  March  5,  1708.  At  the 
age  of  20  he  pubUshed  an  able  Latin  trea- 
tise on  the  Hebrew,  Ohaldee,  Sjriac,  Arabic^ 
«ad  Samaritan  languages.  In  1681  he  became 
archdeacon  of  Colchester ;  in  1684^  prebend  of 
Canterbury;  and,  at  the  revolution  of  1688, 
chaplain  to  William  and.  Mary.  He  declined 
the  bishopric  of  Bath  and  Wells  on  the  depriva- 
tion of  Bishop  Eenn  for  non-juring,  but  in  1704 
he  became  bishop  of  St.  Asaph.  He  published 
in  his  lifetime  a  ^^  Treatise  on  Chronology,"  a 
learned  work  on  the  ^Canons  of  the  Greek 
Church  to  the  Eighth  Centuxy,"  beside  various 
minor  works.  In  1824  the  life  and  writings  of 
Bishop  Beveridge  were  published  in  9  vols.  8vo, 
by  the  Rev.  Thos.  Hartwell  Home. 

BEVERLEY,  Jomf  ob,  an  Anglo-Roman 
saint,  archbishop  of  York,  bom  at  Harp- 
ham,  Northumberland,  near  the  middle  of 
the  7th  century,  died  at  Beverley  in  721.  He 
was  a  man  of  erudition  and  tutor  to  Bede,  and 
was  canonized  8  centuries  after  his  death.  His 
name,  like  that  of  Pindar,  saved  his  native  place 
from  being  ravaged  by  a  conqueror — William 
the  Norman  spared  the  place  for  his  sake.  He 
founded  a  college  at  Beverley  and  wrote  several 
works, 

BEVERLY,  a  thriving  post-town  of  Essex 
CO.,  Mass.,  opposite  Salem,  with  which  it  is 
united  by  a  bridge,  and  16  miles  N.  N.  K  of 
Boston,  on  the- eastern  R.  R.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  engaged  in  commerce,  and  in  the 
fisheries.  It  has,  however,  manufactures  of  car- 
riages, britannia  ware,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
fabrics.  The  village  contains  a  bank,  a  weekly 
newspaper,  an  insurance  office,  and  an  academy. 
A  branch  railroad  connects  it  with  Gloucester. 
Pop.  in  1855,6,944. 

BEVERLY,  RoBEBT,  historian  and  clerk  of 
the  council  of  Virginia,  died  in  1716,  is  noted 
only  for  having  written  a  history  of  Vurginia, 
embracing  an  account  of  its  fint  settlement^ 
government  and  productions,  with  remarks 
upon  the  Indians  of  the  province,  their  religion, 
manners,  and  customs,  published  in  1705. 

BE  VERWYK,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  in 
north  Holland,  7  miles  north  of  Haarlem,  at 
the  head  of  the  Y,  an  outlet  of  the  Zuyder  Zee. 
Pop.  2,252.  The  invasion  of  England  by  Wil- 
liam of  Orange,  in  1688,  was  planned  in  the  vi- 
cinity. 

BE  WI0K,TH0MA8,reviver  of  wood-engraving 
in  England,  born  at  Cherrybura,  near  the  village 
of  Ovingham,  Northumberland,  Aug.  12, 1753, 
died  Nov.  8,  1828.  He  was  apprenticed,  at  14, 
to  Mr.  Ralph  Beilby,  engraver,  at  Newcastle-on- 


Tyue.  Having  executed,  in  wood,  the  diagrams 
for  Hutton's  treatise  on  mensuration  (published 
in  1770)  and  other  scientific  works,  he  soon 
after  attempted  something  better,  and,  at  the 
age  of  22,  obtained  from  the  society  of  arts  a 
TO^emium  for  his  wood-engraving  of  the  "  Old 
Hound,"  one  of  a  series  of  illustrations  to  Gay's 
fables.  This  success  encouraged  him,  and,  some 
years  later,  he  illustrated  a  volume  of  select  fa- 
bles, by  Mr.  Saint.  In  1790  the  first  edition  of  the 
^^  History  of  Quadrupeds^"  illustrated^  was  pub- 
lished by  Mr.  BeUby,  who  had  received  him  into 
partnerdiip.  The  designs  in  this,  as  wdl  as  in 
Buhner's  editions  of  Goldsmith's  "  Deserted  Vil- 
lage" and  Parnell's  *^  Hermit,"  were  drawn  and 
engraved  by  Thomas  Bewick  and  his  younger 
brother,  and  pupil,  John.  Their  beauty,  nov- 
elty, and  admirable  execution  attracted  general 
attention,  and  Geoiige  HI.  would  not  believe 
they  were  wood-cuts  until  he  was  uhown  the 
blocks.  Somerville's  ^^  Chase"  was  the  next 
work.  All  the  engravings  were  by  Thomas  and 
the  designs  by  John  Bewick,  who  died  of  con- 
sumption, in  1796,  the  year  it  was  produced. 
Thomas  Bewick,  who  was  now  recogniEed  as 
possessing  a  great  deal  more  than  mere  skilL 
produced  the  first  volume  of  his  **  British  Bird%'' 
containing  the  land  birds,  in  1797.  It  ranks  as 
the  finest  of  his  works.  The  2d  volume  ^»peaj:« 
ed  in  1804,  about  which  time  the  partn^ship 
with  Mr.  Beilby  was  dissolved.  He  published 
select  fables  by  JBsop  and  others,  illustrated,  in 
1618,  alt&c  which  he  was  busy  preparing  for  an 
Ulustrated  history  of  fishes,  which  never  was 
completed.  Among  his  pupils,  who  were  nn- 
merous,  Luke  Clennel  and  Williain  Harvey  have 
most  distinguished  themselves. 

BEX,  a  small  but  beautifully  situated  town 
of  Yaud,  Switzerland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Rhone,  12  miles  above  its  entrance  into  the 
Leman;  pop.  2,854.  It  is  much  frequented  by 
touiists,  in  the  summer.  It  was  long  famous 
as  being  the  only  place  where  salt  was  deposit- 
ed in  Switzerland. 

BEXAR,  a  province  of  the  Spanish  colony 
of  Texas,  now  a  county  of  the  state  of 
Texas.  Under  the  colonial  government  Texas 
was,  in  1688,  divided  into  8  prefectures,  of 
which  Bexar  was  the  westernmost,  and  nrst 
of  all  colonized  by  misaons  and  military  posts, 
and,  in  1718,  by  a  colony  of  a  dozen  Spanish 
fEunilies,  from  the  island  of  Madeira.  At  that 
time,  and  up  to  the  creation  of  the  independent 
state  of  Texas,  Bexar  contained  over  100,000 
sq.  m.,  with  the  following  thinly  peopled  settle- 
ments :  San  Antonio,  with  the  missions  of  San 
Josi,  San  Espada,  San  i&figuel,  and  Concepcion, 
and  that  of  the  Alamo ;  Laredo,  Palafox,  Cor- 
pus Christi,  Victoria,  Gonzales,  and  a  few  vil- 
lages opposite  £1  Paso.  San  Antonio  de  Bexar 
was  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  and, 
for  some  time,  of  the  colonisd  government  of 
Texas.  At  different  times,  the  frontier  of  Bexar 
toward  Tamaulipas  and  Coahuila  was  different, 
now  the  Nueces  and  then  the  Sierra  Madre 
being  regarded  as  the  boundary,  so  that  por- 


BBXLET 


BETLE 


219 


tlons  of  these  two  states  bolonffed  to  Texas. 
Under  the  republican  goyemment  Bexar  was  one 
of  the  earliest  organised  oonntieS)  and  out  of  its 
territory  were  ^adoally  taken  over  80  of  the 
present  105  comities  of  Texas*  The  pnblio 
domain  of  Texas  is  divided  into  8  different 
land  districts,  of  whioh  Bexar  with  its  ancient 
boundaries  is  one.  San  Antonio,  its  capital,  is 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  8  Texan  luid  offices, 
where  the  largest  transactions  in  landed  prop- 
erty in  Texas  are  made.  The  population  of  the 
eomity  of  Bexar,  in  1855,  has  been  estimated  at 
about  20,000,  of  whioh  nearly  one-half  was  in  the 
city  of  San  Antonio,  being  composed  of  abont 
6,000  Germans,  8,000  Mexicans,  5,000  Ameri- 
cans, 1,000  negroes,  and  a  few  fanndred  French- 
men, and  Indiana  of  the  lipan  tribe,  now  ex* 
tingnlshed,  and  of  the  Mesoalero  tribe,  now 
settled  oat  of  the  oonnty.  In  1857,  the  *'  Texas 
Almanac'^  states  the  white  population  at  12,117, 
Mexicans  2,000,  with  1,079  negroes.  The 
oonnty  comprises  an  area  of  8,060  square  miles. 
Its  snr&oe  is  nndnlating  and  beautifully  diver- 
Bified.  Prairies  occupy  about  f  of  the  land, 
and  timber  grows  along  the  water  courses. 
The  soil  is  generally  sandy;  the  uplands  are 
chiefly  valuable  for  pasturage,  but  the  river 
bottoms  are  highlv  fertile,  producing  com  and 
sweet  potatoes.  In  1850  the  county  yielded 
82,975  bushels  of  Indian  com,  2,865  of  oats. 
1,968  of  potatoes,  18,761  pounds  of  butter,  and 
6,225  of  wooL  There  were  2  churches,  2 
newspaper  offices,  and  114  pupils  attending 
public  and  other  schools.  In  1857  there  were 
89,009  head  of  cattle,  valued  at  $277,860,  and 
8,798  horses,  valued  at  $123,820;  the  value 
of  real  estate  was  $3,398,280,  and  the  aggre- 
gate value  of  all  taxable  property,  $5,059,926. 
A  railroad  has  been  projected  from  San  Anto- 
nio, the  county  seat,  to  Powder  Horn,  and  one 
from  San  Antonio  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico  was 
commenced  about  185#. 

BEXLET,  LoBD  (Nicholas  YAirBirrABT),  an 
English  statesman,  bom  April  29,  1766,  died 
Feb.  8,  1851.  His  &ther,  descended  from  a 
German  family,  was  an  East  India  director, 
who  perished  at  sea,  in  the  frigate  Aurora, 
bound  for  India,  in  1771.  Educated  at  Oxford, 
where  he  graduated  in  1787-8,  Mr.  Yansittart 
studied  the  law,  and  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1791.  He  had  scarcely  any  practice,  but  wrote 
several  pamphlets,  including  letters  to  Mr.  Pitt, 
in  1795,  on  the  conduct  of  the  bank  directors. 
Abandoning  the  hope  of  success  at  the  bar, 
and  poasessmg  an  independent  income,  he  be< 
came  member  of  pariiament  for  Hastings  in 
1796.  By  his  speeches  and  tracts,  he  obttdned 
the  notice  of  ministers,  and  was  sent,  in  Feb. 
1801,  on  a  special  diplomatic  mission  to  Oopen- 
hagen,  but  the  Danish  government,  awed  by 
Bussia  and  France,  refused  to  receive  a  British 
minister.  Soon  after  hm  return,  he  was  made 
ioint  secretary  of  the  treasury,  which  office  he 
held  until  1804,  when  the  Addington  cabinet 
resigned.  After  this  he  was  successively  Irish 
secretary,  secretary  to  the  treasury,  chancel- 


lor of  the  exchequer,  and  chancellor  of  the 
duchy  of  Lancaster.  When  he  ceased  to  be 
financial  minister  (after  having  held  that  office 
for  11  years),  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as 
Baron  Bexley,  of  Bexley,  in  Kent.  He  retired 
from  pnblio  life  in  1828,  on  a  penaon  of  £8,000, 
whioh  he  eqjoyed  for  the  remaining  28  years 
of  his  life.  Aa  he  had  no  child,  by  his  mar- 
riage with  the  first  Lord  Auckland's  sister,  the 
title  became  extinct  at  his  death. 

BET.    8ee  Bxo. 

BEYEANEEB,  Bbbkanskb,  or  Bickanbbb, 
one  of  the  states  of  Bajpootana,  in  the  N.  W. 
of  Hindostan.  between  lat  27""  ao'  and  29*"  55' 
N.,  and  long.  72^  80'  and  75^  40'  E. ;  area  17,676 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  said  to  be  589,250.  It  is  bounded 
If.  by  the  British  districtof  Butteeana,  E.  and 
8.  E.  by  the  native  state  of  8hekawuttee,  8.  by 
Joodpoor,  and  W.  by  Jessulmeer  and  Bahawal- 
poor.  The  greater  part  of  the  province  is  a 
KMirren,  sandy  desert.  There  are  no  running 
streams,  and  water  is  only  obtained  by  sinking 
wells  to  an  immense  depth.  Grain  is  miported, 
but  horses,  bullocks,  and  camels  are  raised  in 
great  numbers.  The  chief  towns  are  Bey- 
kaneer,  the  capital  andOhooroo ;  the  former,  sit- 
uated in  the  middle  of  a  sterile  plain,  in  lat  28^ 
N.,  long.  78*^  22'  E.,  is  surrounded  by  lofty, 
white  waUs,  and  consists  chiefly  of  mud  huts 
painted  red;  .  pop.  about  60,000.  Chooroo, 
though  lying  among  sand-hills,  is  a  handsome 
town,  the  houses  constracted  of  white  lime- 
stone. The  njah  of  Beykaneer  acknowledges 
the  sovereignty  of  the  British  government 
He  maintains  an  army  of  5,000  men,  and  his 
revenues  amount  to  £65,000  per  annum. 

BEYLE,  Hbnbi,  a  French  author,  more  wide- 
ly known  under  the  pseudonyme  of  Stendhal, 
born  in  Grenoble,  Jan.  28, 1788,  died  in  Paris, 
March  28,  1842.  Under  difiTerent  fictitious 
names  he  published  several  works  more  or  less 
important  in  art  and  literature,  vie.:  a  *' His- 
tory of  the  Italian  School  of  Painting,"  the  lives 
of  Haydn,  Mozart,  Metastasio,  and  Rossini,  a 
^  Study  on  Badne  and  Shakespeare,  '^  '^Bome, 
Naples,  and  Florence ;"  Fnnnenades  dam  Bome^ 
^.,  &c.  A  volume  of  his,  entitled  De  Pamaur^ 
excited  a  good  deal  of  curiosity  at  the  time, 
and  is  yet  read  with  a  lively  interest.  But 
the  most  remarkable  of  his  writings  were 
two  romances:  Le  rouge  et  U  noir^  and  La 
ehartreuis  de  Parme^  the  latter,  a  novel  of 
Italian  life,  being  considered  generally  as  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  works  of  modem  French 
literature.  Some  critics,  among  whom  was  the 
celebrated  H.  de  Balzac,  proclaimed  it  to  be  a  mas- 
terpiece. No  Frenchman  ever  knew  Italy  more 
thoroughly  than  Henri  Beyle.  Perfectly  &miliar 
with  the  language,  so  as  to  write  in  Italian  a 
pamphlet  (Bel  romantiimo  nelle  arti) ;  passion- 
ately fond  of  that  beautiftU  and  interesting 
country,  where  he  spent  many  years  of  his  life; 
acquainted  as  well  with  the  history  of  its  past 
as  with  the  characteristics  of  its  present  condi- 
tion ;  endowed  with  a  dear  intellect  and  warm 
feeling  in  every  matter  of  art;  a  bold  thinker 


BETBAMIOH 


BEZA 


and  free  writer;  be  seemed  to  be  the  yery  man 
to  win  at  onoe  a  high  position  in  the  literary 
world.  Stillf  whether  because  of  the  different 
names  affixed  to  his  books,  or  from  the  nature 
of  his  genins  being  congenial  only  to  the  few, 
he  was  more  appreciated  and  honored  after  his 
death  than  dnnng  his  life.  His  principal  works 
did  not  attain  a  real  popularity  even  in  his  own 
country,  untif  they  were  reprinted,  including, 
beside  those  above  mentioned,  a  volume  of  Ital- 
ian chronicles  and  tales:  Vatibeue  de  Ca$tro; 
Les  Oenci;  Vanino  Vanini^  dtc.  gathered  from 
the  JRevue  des  deux  mondes^  where  they  were 
firstpublished. 

BEYRAMTOH,  the  capital  of  the  district  of 
Troas,  in  Asia  Minor,  distant  about  60  miles 
from  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  a  large  town,  reg- 
ularly laid  out)  and  well  built.  Many  anti(^ui- 
ties  are  to  be  seen  in  the  neighborhood,  indudmg 
several  monolithic  granite  sarcophagi. 

BETROOT,  or  BAXsonr,  the  ancient  Berytos, 
a  flourishing  seaport  of  Syria,  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name  in  the  pashalio  of  Acre; 
pop.  with  the  suburbs,  80,000.  It  traces  its 
foundation  to  the  Phoenicians,  occupies  a  place 
in  Roman  and  Jewish  history,  and  was  a 
school  of  law  in  the  time  of  Justinian.  It  had 
its  share  in  the  vicissitudes  of  the  crusades,  and 
is  the  scene  of  the  victory.of  St.  Gteorge  of  Oi^- 
padocia  over  the  dragon.  The  modem  Beyroot 
was  built  and  restored  bf  DJezzar  Pa^ba,  and 
considerably  strengthened  by  order  of  the  late 
Mehemet  Ali.  When  he  seized  on  Syria,  the 
town  sustained  a  bombardment,  and  was  de- 
fended by  Solyman  Pasha,  supported  by  Ib- 
rahim Pasha  with  an  army  in  the  field;  and 
on  its  evacuation,  the  allies  landed  and  defeated 
the  latter.  The  town  is  situated  at  the  com- 
mencement of  a  phun  backed  by  the  ranges 
of  Lebanon.  The  surrounding  country  is  pro- 
ductive, and  supplies  of  all  kinds  are  abundant 
and  cheap.  The  bay  is  large,  with  good  anchor- 
iige. 

BETS,  GnxBS,  a  printer  in  Paris,  died  April 
19,  1593,  was  noted  for  being  the  first  to  make 
a  distinction  in  printing  between  the  letters  % 
and  j,  and  u  ana  «. 

BEZA,  or  BsszE,  Theodobb  db,  an  eminent 
theologiaji  and  scholar  of  the  16th  century, 
bom  in  Y^zelay,  France,  June  24, 1519,  and  died 
at  Geneva,  Oct  18, 1605.  Descended  of  noble 
parents,  in  affluent  circumstances,  and  educated 
from  early  life  hj  the  profoundest  schokffs  of 
the  age,  young  Beza  found  himself  at  the  age  of 
20  years  a  thorough  Greek  scholar,  a  licentiate 
of  the  civil  law  from  the  school  at  Orleans,  and 
thrown  upon  an  exciting  life  at  Paris,  with  a 
fortune  of  700  crowns  a  year  from  2  church 
benefices,  with  a  large  addition  from  the  death 
of  an  elder  brother,  and  the  prospect  of  a  still 
^eater  one  from  the  resignation  of  a  church 
living  in  his  favor  by  an  unde ;  for  although 
he  had  been  educated  by  Wolmar,  his  tutor,  in 
the  Lutheran  doctrines,  he  contrived  to  quiet 
his  conscience  with  his  church  crowns,  and  did 
not  avow  his  faith  until  a  later  period.    His 


enemies  in  after  life,  when  he  took  his  stand  as 
a  reformer,  averred  that  his  life  at  Paris  was 
any  thing  but  creditable  to  his  moral  character. 
It  is  certain  that  he  wrote  and  published  amor- 
ous verses,  and  formed  a  secret  marriage  r^a- 
tion  in  order  not  to  lose  his  church  stipends.  Of 
more  than  this  it  is  difficult  to  accuse  him  with 
proof.  But  Beza's  conscience  was  quickened, 
under  an  alarming  disease,  to  an  activity  from 
which  his  pecuniary  relations  to  the  church  had 
deterred  it  in  health.  On  his  recovery,  in 
Oct  1548,  he  went  to  Geneva,  avowed  at  one 
and  the  san^e  time  his  wife  and  his  fiuth,  and 
henceforth  became  an  able  advocate  of  the  re- 
formed religion.  He  seems  to  have  incurred 
some  censure  in  the  early  part  of  his  career  as 
a  reformed  controversialist,  on  account  of  a  oot- 
tiun  levity  of  manners  which  was  probably  the 
result  of  his  Parisian  life,  passed,  as  it  was,  in 
the  higher  circles  both  of  literature  and  fashion. 
But  his  brilliant  talents  and  ardent  zeal  for  the 
Lutheran  doctrines  gave  him  at  once  a  high 
position  in  the  reformation,  which  he  preserved 
to  the  end  of  his  Hfe.  He  was  elected  professor 
of  Greek  at  Lausanne,  and  from  his  contiguity 
to  Geneva,  used  frequently  to  hear  Calvin.  A 
strong  intimacy  soon  grew  up  between  them. 
At  Oalvin^s  instance,  Beza,  while  at  Lausanne, 
completed  Marot^s  version  of  the  Psalms,  and 
wrote  a  defence  of  the  execution  of  Servetus,  in 
which  he  supported  the  right  of  punishing 
heresy  by  the  civil  power,  an  opinion  which  he 
very  much  modified  in  his  later  days.  In  the 
growing  division  between  the  Lutherans  and 
the  Calvinists,  Beza  assumed  the  side  of  his  pa- 
tron and  friend,  the  Genevan  professor,  whose 
professional  chair  he  so  soon  came  to  support  as 
Calvin's  assistant  lecturer,  and  finally  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  newly  organized  university. 
Durinff  the  persecution  of  the  French  Protes- 
tants, Beza  undertook  to  influence  the  king  of 
Navarre  favorably  for  the  reformed  party,  and 
was  successfld.  As  the  result,  the  conference 
of  Poiss^r  was  called  in  1561,  to  attempt  a  re- 
conciliation of  the  Protestant  with  the  Oathohc 
party.  The  edict  of  toleration  promulgated  in 
January  of  the  fbllowing  year,  made  it  safe  for 
Beza  to  proclaim  the  doctrines  of  the  reforma- 
tion in  Paris,  whither  he  had  repaired  at  the  soli- 
citation of  Catharine,  who  thought  his  native 
country  had  a  better  right  to  his  talents  than 
Geneva.  But  the  massacre  of  Y as^  pat  an  end 
to  his  prospects  in  France.  He  espoused  the 
cause  of  the  prince  of  Cond6  in  the  war  that 
followed,  and  at  its  close  returned  to  Geneva, 
where  he  took  the  chair  of  theology  vacated  by 
the  death  of  Calvin.  From  that  time  he  may 
be  regarded  as  the  head  of  the  Genevan  church, 
whose  relations  to  the  Lutheran  party  had  now 
become  sufficiently  distinct.  He  was  a  diligent 
writer,  as  the  catologue  of  59  works  collected 
by  one  of  his  biographers  abundantly  attests. 
Among  these  works  were  many  requiring  great 
research  and  patient  labor ;  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  his  Latin  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  his  treatise  on  church  polity, 


BEZA'S  OODEX 


BHAIXRINATH 


221 


which  was  the  result  of  a  oorreBtxmdenoe  be- 
tween himself  and  the  lord  chanocllor  of  Scot- 
land on  the  reTifiion  of  the  Scotch  eodeeiastical 
law,  known  as  the  ^*  Second  Book  of  DiscipliDe." 
The  name  of  Beza  also  deserves  honorable  men- 
tion in  that  sadden  and  powerful  movement  in 
Italv  and  France  in  the  16th  century,  celebrated 
as  the  Benaiasanee. 

BEZA*S  CODEX,  an  andent  MS.  containing 
the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles^ 
written  in  Greek  and  Latin,  on  opposite  pages. 
This  MS.  is  in  square  uncials  on  vellum,  and 
in  quarto  form.  It  has  many  chasms  both  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  text.  Many  parts  of  the  MS. 
are  legible  only  with  difficulty,  indicating  either 
great  age,  or  want  of  proper  care  in  preserva- 
tion ;  probably  the  former,  for  there  are  other 
^od  evidences  of  the  extreme  age  of  this  MS. 
The  Latin  version  is  the  Vetw  IMa,  or  the  old 
Latin  before  its  revision  by  Jerome,  and  his 
reviinon  was  made  toward  tiie  close  of  the  4th 
century.  To  be  sure,  it  does  not  follow  that 
this  "iSB,  was  written  before  the  Jerome  version 
(and  most  critics  have  refused  to  assign  it  so 
great  antiquity) ;  but  in  a  fac-simile  edition  of 
me  Oodex  Bezas  published  in  1798,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Oambridge  university,  to  whom  it 
belong^  the  editor  clums  for  it  a  still  greater 
antiquity  on  this  ground,  and  also  for  uie  ad- 
ditional reasons  &at:  1,  the  MS.  has  the  Am- 
monian  sections;  2,  it  has  not  the  Eusebian 
canons;  8,  it  lacks  also  the  doxology  at  the 
end  of  the  Lord's  prayer.  The  bearing  of  these 
reasons  on  the  antiquity  of  the  MS.  is  briefly 
this :  The  Ammonian  sections  were  a  product 
of  the  8d  century,  and  the  Eusebian  canons  of 
the  4th,  while  the  interpolation  of  the  dox- 
ology is  of  a  still  later  date.  But  all  these  con- 
siderations plainly  go  for  nothing.  Hence  the 
editor  maintains  that  even  the  Ammonian  sec- 
tions were  added  by  a  later  hand.  This,  he 
claims,  would  seem  to  indicate  that  the  MS. 
was  written  before  the  sections,  and  when  the 
sections  were  produced,  they  were  added  to  the 
MS.,  and  in  iJie  interim  between  the  sections 
and  the  canons^  It  is  evident  that  all  this  es- 
tablishes no  basis  on  which  to  rest  a  daim  of 
antiquity  for  this  MS.,  whidi  shall  throw  it 
back  of  the  6th  century,  to  which,  with  general 
consent,  it  is  assigned  by  paleonaphists.  Some 
connder  the  whole  thing  an  English  forgery. 
The  editor  maintains  the  opinion  that  it  was 
originally  written  in  Egypt,  while  others  think 
that  it  is  the  work  of  some  western  Latinist. 
It  has  been  charged  with  a  marked  conformity 
to  the  Anglo-Saxon  version,  which  would  make 
it  a  comparatively  modem  production.  But  the 
editor  ckims  that  its  resemblance  to  the  Syrian 
version  is  equally  great.  Afber  all.  the  matter 
is  of  slight  importance  to  Biblical  literature, 
as  not  much  stress  has  ever  been  laid  upon  this 
Codex  Bezss.  Beza  presented  it  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Oambridge  in  1581.  From  the  donor  it 
has  received  its  name,  though  sometimes  it  is 
designated,  from  its  present  ownership,  Codeo 
CantdbrigieMU.    Beza  says  it  was  found  in  the 


monastery  of  8t.  Irenssus,  in  Lyons.  It  is  with- 
out punctuation. 

BEZANT,  a  round  unstamped  gold  coin, 
without  impress  or  legend.  It  was  brought  into 
European  circulation  by  the  crusaders,  but  had 
probably  been  current  in  Venice,  which  had  a 
large  eastern  commerce,  before  that  time.  It 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the  ordinary  coin  of 
the  later  Byzantine  empire,  and  its  name  Be- 
zant, quasi  Byzant,  records  its  ori^.  Its  ster- 
ling value  was  9«.  4i<2.,  or  about  |2  American 
currency. 

B£ZEBRS,  a  French  city,  department  of 
H^rault;  pop.  in  1856,  28,657.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  bit^opric,  has  a  Gk)thio  church,  college, 
and  cavalry  barracks,  an  aqueduct  of  Roman 
origin,  and  the  ruins  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre, 
a  pubUc  library,  a  tribunal  of  commerce,  manu- 
factories of  silk  stockings  and  gloves,  doth, 
brandy,  parchment^  veraigris,  vinegar,  vxA 
wine.  It  has  a  considerable  commerce  in  tropi- 
cal fruits,  cork,  and  sardines.  The  Languedoc 
canal  runs  near  it.  In  Roman  times  the  town 
was  called  BmterrcBy  also  Oolania  S^timanorum, 
The  Visigoths.  Saracens,  and  Franks  possessed 
it  in  turns.  Tne  count  of  Septimania,  who  re- 
sided at  B^ziers,  dedared  his  independence  in 
the  10th  century,  and  then  put  himself  under 
the  protection  oi  the  coun^  of  Barcdona.  In 
1258,  it  was  ceded  to  Louis  IX.,  king  of  France. 
In  1209,  this  city  was  the  scene  of  an  Albigen- 
sian  massacre.  In  the  rdigious  wars  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries^  it  sutfered  much.  An  ec- 
desiastioal  synod  was  held  here  A.  D.  856,  to 
consult  about  the  Arians.  In  the  18th  century 
many  synods  were  hdd  here  in  consequence  of 
the  reliflnous  fermentation  of  the  neighborhood. 

BEZOAR  (Persian  pagar^  a  goat,  or  paga^ar, 
against  poison),  a  substance  formerly  used  for 
medicinal  purposes.  It  is  a  concretion,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  oile  and  resin,  and  is  met  with,  as 
a  calculus  of  a  round  or  orbicular  form,  in  the 
stomach,  the  intestmes,  the  gall  bladder,  the* 
salivary  ducts,  and  even  in  me  pineal  gland, 
but  mostly  in  the  intestines  of  certain  animals 
of  the  order  ruminantia.  They  were  once 
celebrated  for  their  supposed  medicinal  proper- 
tieS)  distinguished  by  the  names  of  the  animals 
in  which  they  were  found,  or  the  countries  from 
which  they  were  brought^  and  eagerly  bought 
for  ten  times  thdr  weight  in  gold.  Beside 
being  taken  internally  as  medicines^  they  were 
worn  around  the  neck  as  preservatives  from 
contagion.  It  was  customary  in  Portugal  to 
hire  them  at  the  price  of  10  shillings  per  day. 
Modern  investigation  and  experiment  have 
destroyed  the  charm  of  these  wonderful  calculi. 

BHADRIKATH,  a  town  in  northern  Hindos- 
tan,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Bishen- 
gunga,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  Vishnu, 
with  a  hot  mineral  spring  in  whose  waters  both 
sexes  bathe  indiscriminately,  to  wash  away  their 
sins.  Some  50,000  pilgrims  visit  the  place  an- 
nually. The  temple  has  been  frequently  over- 
thrown by  earthquakes.  The  principal  idol  is  a 
figure  of  black  marble,  dothed  m  gold  and  silver 


BHAGAVAT-GITA 


BHAMO 


brocade  'while  the  season  of  pilgrimage  lasts, 
and  then  stripped  and  stowed  away  in  a  vanlt 
the  rest  of  the  year.  The  Hindoos  belieye  that 
in  the  neighboring  monntains  some  holy  an- 
chorets have  lived  for  several  thousand  years. 
Their  place  of  habitation  is  a  cavern  perpetual- 
ly choked  with  snow,  which  forbids  the  ap- 
proach of  the  curious  and  the  sceptioaL  The 
bhadrinath  peaks  in  the  neighborhood  are 
above  22,000  feet  high. 

BHAGAVAT-GITA,  (divine  song,  orKrish- 
na^s  revelation,  dccnrea-iov  tMXot)^  or  simply 
Gita,  is  the  most  important  of  the  episodes  of 
the  Ifahabharata  (great  India,  so  named  from 
Bharata,  the  son  of  Dushyanta  by  Sakontala, 
being  his  patrimony),  which  is  the  second  sa- 
cred Itihasa  (traditional  heroic  history  or  epos, 
of  the  ancient  Hindoos,  the  first  being  the  Bama^ 
yana,  or  Rama's  dwelling,  by  the  poet  Y almiki), 
written  in  the  Sanscrit  (concrete,  perfec^lan- 
guage,  about  4,000  years  ago,  by  Veda  Vyasa 
Rishi  (science-coUecdng  patriarch),  who  also 
collected  the  scattered  leaves*  of  the  8  older 
genuine  Vedas  (science  of  religion)  and  the 
older  Puranas  (ancient  myths).  The  Maha- 
bharata  contains  the  legendary  history  of  the 
Bharata  dynasty,  espec&ly  the  wars  between 
the  Pandus  and  Earns,  the  2  branches  of  the 
progeny  of  the  moon.  Five  Panduvi  brothers, 
having  been  nnjustly  exiled  by  their  uncle,  re- 
turn, after  many  wonderful  adventures,  with  a 
powerftil  armj^  against  the  lOOKurus,  and,  be- 
ing aided  by  Kri&na  (the  8th  avatar  or  incar- 
nation of  Vishnu,  one  of  the  Trimurti  or  tri- 
morphy,  trinity,  proceeding  from  Bram,  his 
milder  iform,  descended  from  heaven  in  the 
beginning  of  the  Kali-yuga,  or  counted  age — 
viz.,  the  {H'esent  age  of  vice  and  of  iron — about 
5,000  years  ago,  for  the  redemption  of  man- 
kind), defidat  their  more  numerous  host,  on  the 
plams  of  Kurukshetra,  near  Delhi;  thus  be- 
coming the  lords  of  India,  fh>m  Persia  to 
•China,  and  from  the  Himalaya  to  Eanyaknmari 
(virgin's  cape,  now  Oomorin).  Anquetil  du 
Perron  supposes  the  Gita  to  be  an  independent 
work;  and  it  is,  indeed,  absent  from  several 
manuscripts  of  theMahabharata,  in  some  others 
different  from  its  other  parts,  and  unconnected 
with  them  in  the  sixth  book.  The  aim  of  this 
metaphy8ical,dogmatic,  and  ethical  work  appears 
to  have  been  the  union  of  all  worships,  and  the 
abolitionof  the  idolatrous  Yedic  dogmas.  Though 
not  polemic  against  the  prejndiceB  of  men, 
it  offers  eternal  bliss  to  true  Brama-adorers, 
while  it  sends  the  worshippers  of  Devatas  Qo w- 
er  gods,  angels)  to  the  lower  temporal  heaven, 
if  they  deserve  it.  On  the  whole  there  is  an 
inkling  of  Buddhism  in  this  magnificent  Thes- 
pesian  poem,  containing  all  the  grand  mysteries 
of  the  Braminic  religion.  It  consists  of  18  sec- 
tions on  the  following  subjects;  1,  grief  of 
Arfuna  (gainer,  the  8d  son  of  Pandu,  called 
also  son  of  Bharat,  of  Eunti;  frtvorite  disciple 
of  Kriflhna,  after  whose  ascension  to  heaven 
he  is  inconsolable,  although  appointed  execu- 
tor of  the  revelation);  2,  nature  of  the  soul. 


specQlatioD;  8,  works;  4,  forsating  of  worin; 
6,  forsaking  of  the  fruits  of  works;  6,  exercise 
of  the  soul;  7,  principles  of  nature,  vital  ^ir- 
it;  8,  purush  (mankind);  9,  chief  of  secrets^ 
prince  of  science ;  10,  diveruty  of  divinenatnre ; 
11,  display  of  divine  nature  in  the  forms  of  the 
nniverse ;  12,  serving  God  in  his  viable  and  in- 
visible forms:  18,  explanation  of  jSaAo^tra (de- 
fender, wamor;  man  of  the  second  or  regal 
class)  and  JBihaUriya;  14^  8  ffun  Equalities); 
Ifi^  purtuhoUama  (excellent  man) ;  16,  good  and 
evil  destiny;  17,  8  speciesof  faith;  1^  foraak- 
ing  the  fruits  of  action,  for  attaining  eternal 
salvation. — ^Pantheistic,  unitarian,  and  antive- 
dic,  it  is  kept  secret  fix>m  the  vulgar  castes  by 
the  Jealous  and  overbearing  Bramins,  who 
dread  lest  by  its  tenets  becon^g  popular  they 
might  lose  their  own  control  over  the  minds  of 
the  people.  The  form  of  the  work  is  a  dia- 
logue between  Erishna  and  Aijuna,  reported  by 
one  Sai^aya  to  Dhrisharaahtra,  one  of  the  Eu- 
rus.  Aijuna  does  not  wish  to  fight  his  kindred 
and  bosom  friends,  but  Erishna  niges  him  to  do 
this  as  his  highest  duty.  This  takes  place  oa 
a  splendid  chariot  drawn  by  white  horsey 
standing  between  the  2  hostile  armies,  just  be- 
fbre  the  battie.  ^'  Wise  men  are  only  sensible  to 
duty,  and  not  to  pleasure  or  pain.  I  (Erishna) 
formed  all  existing  things,  dothing  the  incor- 
ruptible soul  in  the  city  with  9  gates  (viz.,  the 
body,  with  9  openings  for  the  admission  of 
external  things),  the  which  is  corruptible.  If 
slain,  thou  (^una)  wilt  go  to  heaven ;  if  vic- 
torious, thou  wilt  gain  the  world.  Think  not 
of  consequences  in  acting.  Be  nnselfiah,  sub* 
due  yonr  senses  and  passions,  which  obscnre 
reason  and  lead  to  deceit.  Low  men  follow  ex- 
amples, great  men  give  theuL  The  wise  does 
things  homogeneous  to  his  nature.  He  who 
follows  me  is  saved  by  wisdom  and  even  by- 
works.  As  often  as  virtue  declines  in  the 
world,  I  make  myself  evident  to  save  it.  The 
soul  ought  to  free  itself  from  the  bonds  of  ao- 
tion  and  act  absolutely  according  to  its  divine 
origin.  There  is  bat  one  God,  ail  other  Deva- 
tas being  inferior  and  mere  Ibrms  of  Bram 
or  of  myself.  Worship  by  deeds  predominates 
over  that  by  contemplation.  The  mortifications 
of  the  Sannyasin  (4lh  or  mendicant  order  of 
Bramins)  and  of  the  Yogis  (joined  to  GodX 
are  subordinate  to  those  of  the  21yaffin  (re- 
nouncers),  who  work  but  forsake  the  fruits  of 
their  deeds  and  go  mmiediately  into  Bram,'' 
&c.,  &C.  The  Gita  was  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Charles  Wilkins  in  1785.  The  Bhaga- 
vat-Purana  is  the  18th  and  last  of  the  Puranas^ 
containing  the  history  of  Erishna;  it  was 
translated  into  French  by  Eugtoe  Bumou^ 
Paris,  1840. 

BHAMOJ  a  town  of  Bnrmah,  situated  on  the 
Irrawaddy,  40  miles  W.of  the  Ohinese  frontier, 
and  180  miles  K  N.  £.  of  Ava.  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  the  trade  with  China,  recdving  woollen, 
cotton,  and  silk  fabrics,  by  we  winter  caravans, 
from  that  country.  The  Shan  tribes  come 
hither  to  exchange  their  produce  for  salt,  rice. 


BHATOAN 


BIALYSTOK 


228 


md  dried  fish.    Bharao  has  some  2,000  hoosesi 
chiefly  oocapied  by  Ohioese. 

BKATGAN,  or  BflATGOira,  a  town  of  north* 
em  Hindostan,  in  the  valley  of  Nepanl,  lat  27'' 
87'  N.,  long.  86**  22'  E.  It  is  the  favorite  resi- 
dence of  the  Bramins  of  Nepaal,  and  is  sud  to 
contain  valoable  Sanscrit  libraries.  It  has  about 
12,000  houses^  of  a  description  superior  to  those 
found  in  most  of  the  cities  of  Nepanl. 

BHAVANI  KUDAL,  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Bhavani  and  Oavery  rivers,  contain- 
ing famous  temples  of  Vishnu  and  Siva. 

BH££LS,  one  of  the  rude  tribes  of  Hindos- 
tan,  inhabiting  chiefly  the  mountains  of  Can- 
deish,  and  the  wild  country  along  the  Nerbudda 
and  Taptee.  They  are  spare  but  active,  and  of 
dark  complexion.  They  are  addicted  to  robbery 
and  disorder,  and  the  British  government  have 
endeavored  to  reclaim  them  by  organizing  amili- 
tary  oorpa  from  am<»g.  them,  and  subjecting 
the  dis^ct  to  strict  police.  They,  together 
with  theOooUes  and  Ghoonds,  ai)p  believed, 
upon  good  authority,  to  have  been  the  abori^- 
nes  of  India,  driven  out  of  the  plains  into  their 
mountain  fiistnesses  by  the  invasion  of  the  Hin- 
doos. The  Bheeb  joined  in  the  great  Indian 
mutiny  of  1857-68,  and  met  the  British  in 
sevend  battles.  lieut  Henry,  the  superintend- 
ent of  police,  was  killed  in  an  attempt  to  dis- 
lodge them  fixnn  a  strong  position  in  Gandeish, 
and  another  engagement^  fought  Jan.  20, 1858, 
near  the  frontier  of  the  nizam*s  territory,  where 
the  Bheels  had  mustered  in  great  force,  resulted 
in  the  loss  of  50  European  troops. 

BHIBJAIT,  a  town  in  the  eastern  part  of 
Persia,  atnated  180  miles  S.  of  Meshed,  in  the 
desert.  It  contains  about  5,000  houses,  of 
brick,  a  citadel,  governor's  palace,  caravansa* 
ries,  mosques,  and  baths.  Garpets  of  excellent 
quauty  are  made  here. 

BHGOJ,  a  strongly  fortified  city  of  Hindos- 
tan,  capital  of  tiie  province  of  Gutch,  lat.  23^ 
15'  N.,  long.  699  52'  E.,  85  miles  N.  of  the 
gulf  of  Gutch;  pop.  about  20,000.  It  is  en- 
dosed  by  a  strong  wcdl  of  stone,  flanked  with 
towers,  and  contains  a  castellated  palace,  a 
mausoleum,  and  several  temples.  Bhooj  is  &- 
mous  for  its  manufactures  of  gold  and  sUver. 

BHOPAUL,  or  Bopal,  an  Indian  state  in  Mal- 
wa,  prendency  of  Bengal,  between  lat.  22°  82' 
and  28^  46'  K,  and  long.  76°  25'  and  78°  50'  E. ; 
area,  6,764  sq.  m. ;  pop.  666,872.  It  is  ruled  by  a 
nawanb,  with  a  revenue,  in  1848,  of  £220,000. 
The  Vindhya  mountains  traverse  the  province. 
Bhopaul  has  a  fertile  soil,  and  is  well  watered 
by  the  Nerbudda,  and  several  smaller  streams. 
The  capital,  of  the  same  name,  is  surrounded  by 
a  stone  wall,  much  dilapidated  from  neglect. 
In  conmion  with  nearly  every  part  of  Bengal, 
this  state  witnessed  a  rising  of  the  sepoys 
against  tiieir  British  rulers,  in  1857.  Gen. 
Roee  marched  against  the  mutineers,  and  dis- 
armed them  at  Seehore,  Jan.  12, 1858.  About 
150  were  tried  by  court-martial  and  shot,  while 
many  others  were  killed  in  trying  to  escape. 


BHOWANIPOOR,  a  village  of  Hindostan,  in 
the  Bengal  presidency,  96  nmes  W.  of  Dinage- 
poor.  A  fkir  is  held  here  annually,  in  April, 
often  attended  by  100,000  persons. 

BHURTPOOR,  a  state  of  Hindostan,  lymg 
between  lat  26°  48'  and  27°  50'  N.,  and  long. 
76°  54'  and  77°  49'  E.,  bounded  on  the  N.  and 
N.  £.  by  the  British  district  Goorgaon,  S.  E« 
and  S.  by  the  Gwalior  dominions,  and  W.  by 
Maoherry ;  area,  1,978  sq.  m. ;  pop.  estimated 
at  600,000.  Yearly  revenue  of  the  ngah, 
£170,000.— Bhurtpoor,  the  capital,  88  miles 
W.  of  Agra,  is  nearly  8  miles  in  circuit  The 
fort  was  formerly  considered  a  place  of  great 
strengtJ^  and  with  the  to¥ni  was  surrounded 
by  a  mud  wall  and  wide  ditch.  Lord  Lake 
made  4  attempts  to  storm  it  in  1805,  without 
success,  losing  in  tJie  several  attacks  over  8,000 
men.  It  was,  however,  flnally  surrendered  by  the 
rajah,  who  feared  to  prolong  the  defence.  Lord 
Gombermere  stormed  Bhnrtpoor  in  1826,  having 
first  destroyed  a  part  of  the  wall  by  mining. 
The  fortifications  were  afterward  dUmantled. 
Throughout  the  sepoy  rebellion  of  1857- 8, 
the  dty  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  British. 

BIAJTiA,  a  kingdom  in  the  western  part  of 
Africa,  on  the  bay  or  bight  of  the  same  name^ 
in  upper  Guinea,  between  the  kingdom  of  Guan 
and  the  river  Gktboon.  It  is  intersected  by  nu- 
merous wide  river  channels,  which  are  the  out^ 
lets  of  the  river  Niger,  and  the  country  be- 
tween Benin  and  the  capital  town  Biafra  forms 
the  delta  of  the  Niger.  The  tract  near  the 
shore  is  low  and  swampy,  .but  in  the  interior  is 
the  elevated  region  of  the  Gameroon  mountains ; 
the  principal  rivers  are  the  Gaboon,  Gross,  and 
Malinda,  and  the  place  most  resorted  to  by 
European  traders  is  George's  town  or  Naango, 
on  a  creek  of  the  Gaboon,  about  45  miles  from 
the  sea.  Lander  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  several  mouths  to  the  Niger, 
since  in  descending  that  river  he  left  the  main 
channel  and  arrived  by  a  branch  in  the  bight 
of  Biafra. — ^Biobt  of  Biafba,  an  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic,  forming  the  eastern  part  of  the  gulf  of 
Guinea,  on  the  western  coast  of  Africa,  between 
long.  5  and  10°  E.,  and  extending  from  Gape 
Formosa  on  the  N.,  to  Gape  Lopez  on  the  S.  It 
contains  the  islands  of  Fernando  Po,  Prince, 
and  St  Thomas,  and  receives  the  waters  ot 
the  Gameroons,  Malimba,  Mooney,  Gld  Galabar, 
and  several  other  rivers. 

BIAGIOLI,  NiooLo  Josafhat,  an  Italian 
linguist  and  critic,  bom  near  Genoa  in  1768, 
died  Dec.  18, 1880.  At  the  time  of  the  Austro- 
RusMan  invasion  of  Italy,  in  1798,  bis  patriotism 
rendered  him  obnoxious,  and  he  was  driven 
from  his  professorship  and  forced  to  abandon 
his  country.  He  then  retired  to  Paris,  where 
he  immediately  obtained  a  professorship,  and 
in  that  oflloe  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  on 
the  poets  and  prose-writers  of  Italy,  which 
drew  crowds  of  hearers.  His  annotated  edi- 
tions of  Dante,  Petrarch,  and  Michel  Angelo, 
are  highly  esteemed. 

BIALYSTGB;  a  province  of  western  Russia, 


224 


BIANOHI 


BIBB 


in  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Poland,  between  lat. 
62°  8'  and  63°  88'  K,  and  long.  22°  80' and  24° 
12'  E.  It  is  bounded  K  and  W.  by  Poland,  and 
S.  and  E.  hj  the  Russian  province  of  Grodno ; 
area,  8,424  sq.  m. ;  pop.  227,106.  Its  surface  is 
flat,  studded  with  sandliills,  formerly  densely 
wooded;  climate  temperate  and  moist. — ^The 
capital  is  of  the  same  name.  It  lies  on  the  little 
river  Bialy ;  pop.  9,217. 

BIANOHI,  Franobsoo,  called  II  FraH,  an 
Italian  painter,  born  at  Modena,  in  1447,  died 
in  1610.  He  was  the  instructor  of  Clorreggio, 
according  to  Yidriani,  and  his  works  were  es- 
teemed for  graceful  design  and  agreeable  coloring* 
— Fedbbiqo,  an  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Milan, 
toward  the  dose  of  the  16th  century.  His 
paintings  are  numerous  in  Milan,  and  through- 
out northern  Italy,  and  are  held  in  high  esteem. 
He  wrote  a  volume  of  biographies  of  painters. 

BIANOHINI,  Fbakoesco,  an  Italian  astron- 
omer and  antiquary,  bom  at  Verona,  Dec.  13, 
1662,  died  in  Bome,  March  2,  1729.  He  was 
greatly  favored  by  Alexander  YIH.,  Olement 
Al.,  and  Innocent  XHI.  He  spent  8  years  in 
drawing  a  meridian  from  sea  to  sea  in  Italy. 
He  left  many  valuable  works. 

BIARD,  AxjonsTB  EnANgoia.  a  French  paint- 
er, bom  at  Lyons,  in  1800,  nrst  destined  for 
the  pulpit,  and  for  many  years  of  his  boyhood 
attached  to  the  choirs  of  the  Lyons  churches, 
studied  in  the  drawing  schools  of  his  native 
city.  In  1827  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
drawing  on  board  a  French  corvette,  which  af- 
forded him  opportunities  to  visit  Greece  and 
Syria,  and  gave  him  so  much  taste  for  travd- 
ling,  that  he  tendered  his  resignation  in  1828, 
and  went  on  an  artistic  exploring  tour  over 
Europe,  Africa,  Russia,  Norway,  Lapland,  Fin- 
land, Spitzbergen,  and  Greenland.  Spain  sug- 
gested his  pictures  of  Uhs  avberge  JaspagnoU^ 
and  Uhe  attaque  de  voleun  BspctgnoU  dam  la 
Sierra  Marena;  Aboukir,  DeafemmesprSa  d'une 
cUeme^  in  the  vicinity  of  that  city ;  Arabia,  Le 
wnt  du  dSsertj  and  Uh  santon  au  milieu  dee 
Bedouins^  and  Une  carctoane  pr^  d^une  mare 
d?ea/u,  and  Le  dkert;  Egypt^  Uh  concert  de 
FeUalu  aux  ermrona  d^Alexavdrie;  Africa,  La 
traite  dee  nigrea;  Hindostan,  Za  neute  cPun 
Brahmine  aUant  au  bdcAer;  Lapland,  Le  due 
tPOrUana  receixmt  rhaapitalite  aana  une  tente 
de  Lofona;  Spitzbergen,  an  Aureola  Borealiey 
Sso.  m  1832,  his  IhmiUe  de  mendianta  received 
a  gold  medal  at  the  Paris  exhibition,  and  was 

Eurchased  by  the  government  for  2,000  francs, 
a  1833,  his  reputation  was  increased  by  the 
exhibition  of  his  picture  of  the  Arabian  over- 
taken by  the  simoom  in  the  desert  His  most 
remarkable  production  at  the  exhibition  of  1839 
was  the  combat  with  the  polar  bears;  and  in 
the  exhibition  of  1841,  especial  admiration  was 
excited  by  his  "  Norwegian  Minister  teaching  the 
Laps,"  which  is  considered  one  of  his  most  suc- 
ce^ful  efforts.  Some  of  his  pictures,  as,  for  in- 
stance, the  "Slave  Trade,''  are  marfcad  by  a  terri- 
ble sense  of  reality,  which  produces  a  powerful 
impression,  especially  upon  the  masses  of  people. 


Numerous  as  his  achievements  are  in  this  branch 
of  art,  his  popularity  in  France  is  due  rather  to 
his  burlesque  pictures  of  French  characteristios 
and  incidents. 

BIAfiRITZ,  amaritime  village  of  France,  de- 
partment of  Basses-Pyr^n^es,  pop.  2,410, 6  miles 
S.  of  Bayonne,  with  curious  grottoes,  a  &vorite 
annual  resort  of  bathers,  who  come  from  all 
parts  of  Europe,  and  especially  of  the  Basque 
mountaineers^  who  deem  it  an  obligation  to 
drink  of  the  mineral  waters  once  a  year,  aa 
well  as  to  bathe  in  the  sea  at  Biarritz.  Since 
1866,  the  place  has  had  additional  importanoe 
from  being  the  summer  reddence  of  Napoleon 
in.  and  his  court.  Among  the  most  important 
edifices  in  Biarritz  is  the  new  diurch,  buHt  in 
1866.  The  villa  Eugenie,  as  the  imperial  resi- 
dence is  called,  is  an  insignificant  bmlding,  bat 
convenient  for  bathing  purposes.  It  occupies 
a  low,  barren  spot^  so  dose  to  the  sea,  that 
when  the  wind  is  high,  the  spray  dashes  against 
the  windows. 

BIAS.  I.  Son  of  Amythaon,  and  brother  of 
the  seer  Itfdampas,  wooed  Pero,  the  daughter 
of  Neleus ;  but  her  father  declared  that  no  one 
should  have  her  save  the  man  who  brought  him 
the  oxenof  Iphiclus.  Bias  obtained  ti^eoxen 
by  the  craft  and  courage  of  Mdampus,  and  thus 
won  the  hand  of  the  princess  Pero.  The  daugh- 
ters of  ProBtus,  king  of  Argos,  and  other  Ar- 
give  women  being  afflicted  with  madness,  Me- 
lampus  undertook  to  cure  them,  on  condition 
that  ProBtns  should  surrender  a  third  of  hia 
kingdom  to  Bias.  The  condition,  however 
unpalatable,  was  acceded  to,  and  the  brother 
of  Mdampus  became  an  Argive  potentate. 
IL  Bias  of  Pbienb,  fiourished  about  the 
middle  of  the  6th  century  B.  0.  He  was  not  only 
numbered  among  the  7  wise  men,  but  was  one 
of  the  unmortal  4  to  whom  the  term  *'Sophi'' 
was  universally  applied.  Ho  was  by  profession 
an  advocate.  His  abilities  and  doquence,  how- 
ever, were  only  at  the  service  of  those  who  had 
right  and  justice  on  then:  side.  He  died  amidst 
hu  feUow-dtizens,  at  a  very  advanced  age,  after 
defending  triumphantly  the  cause  of  a  client, 
and  while  Uie  officers  of  the  court  were  collect- 
ing the  votes  of  the  dicasts,  whose  province  it 
was  to  pronounce  sentence. 

BIBB.  L  Acentralcountyof  Georgia,  with 
an  area  of  260  sq.  miles,  and  traversed  by  the 
Ocmulgee  river,  and  several  small  creeks.  The 
surface  is  uneven.  The  soil  in  the  valley  of  the 
Ocmulgee  is  fertile,  but  in  other  places  is  un- 
productive. In  1860,  this  county  produced 
8,894  bales  of  cotton,  226,2T6  bushels  of  corn, 
80,812  of  oats,  and  80,240  of  sweet  potatoes. 
There  were  a  number  of  factories  within  its 
boundaries,  16  churches,  6  newspaper  officesi 
and  668  pupils  attending  schools.  Vdue  of 
real  estate  in  1866,  $1,069,888.  Pop.  12,881, 
of  whom  6,004  were  slaves.  Named  in  honor 
of  Dr.  William  Wyatt  Bibb,  a  former  member 
of  congress  from  Georgia.  Capital,  Macon. 
IL  A  central  county  of  Alabama,  with  an  area 
of  1,080  sq.  milesi  comprising  a  liilly  and  pro- 


BIBBIENA 


BIBLE 


225 


dndAve  traet  of  country,  watered  bv  the  Oa- 
bawba  and  Litde  Oahawba  riverSy  which  nnite 
ml^iin  its  limits.  It  is  rioh  in  iron  ore  and  ooal. 
In  1850,  it  prodooed  4,648  bales  of  cotton,  848,- 
465  bushels  of  com,  and  80,547  of  sweet  pota- 
toes.  There  were  several  nulls  and  factones  in 
operation,  38  ohoroheS)  and  400  popils  lA  the 
pobllo  schools.  Pop.  9,969,  of  wnom  2,861 
were  slaves.    Capital,  Oentreville. 

BIBBIENA^  Fkrdihjlsdo  Gaixi  da,  an  Italian 
architect  and  painter,  born  in  Bologna  in  1657, 
died  in  1748.  He  was  called  Bibbiena  from  the 
name  of  the  Tillage  in  which  his  father  was 
bom.  His  designs  were  of  the  most  smnptaons 
eharaoter,  and  procnred  him  employment  ibr 
many  years  with  the  dnke  of  Parma  and  the 
emperor  Charles  VL  of  Germany,  for  whom 
he  painted  decorations  and  architectural  pieces, 
arranged  public  festivals,  and  conducted  tri- 
umphal processions  which  were  famous  over  idl 
Europe.  To  him  the  stage  is  indebted  for  the 
invention  and  deo(»^on  of  movable  scenery. 
In  1725  he  published  a  work  on  civil  architec* 
tore.  His  uther,  Giovanni  Maria,  his  brother, 
Francesco,  and  his  son,  Antonio,  were  all  dis- 
tingoished  for  the  same  tastes,  and  a  consider- 
able degree  of  the  same  facility  and  invention. 

BIBi&ACH,  a  town  oi  Wartemberg,  is  situ- 
fliied  on  the  Biss,  23  miles  S.  8.  W.  of  Ulm, 
pop.  4^600.  It  contains  4  churcfaea  a  hospital, 
a  college,  and  other  institutions,  witn  manufiM- 
tories  of  linen,  woollen,  and  piq^r,  beside  brew- 
eries and  tanneries.  Biberach  was  the  birth- 
place of  Wieland,  and  near  the  town  are  the 
mineral  waters  of  Jordansbad. 

BIBLE  (Gr.  fitfikof,  a  book),  a  name  applied 
to  the  collection  of  sacred  writings  in  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments.  The  Greek  word, /9i/3Xor, 
appUed  equally  to  every  book,  primarily  denot- 
ed the  reed  piq>ynis,  which,  among  other  uses, 
was  prepared  in  leaves  or  aheets  for  writing. 
The  Bible,  then,  is,  by  way  of  eminence,  the 
book,  the  book  of  books,  or  the  best  book. 
This  name  was  given  to  the  collection  of  writ- 
in^iheld  sacred  by  the  Jews  and  Christians,  in 
tlie  5th  century  by  Chrvsostom,  previous  to 
which  time  it  had  been  called  by  various  tides, 
the  ^Scripture,"  the  '' Sacred  Bcripture,'*  the 
^Divine  Scrijpture,"  and  each  separate  portion 
ot  the  ooUecbon  had  its  own  name.  The  book 
lies  before  us  in  2  general  divimona,  the  Old 
Testament  and  the  liew;  the  word  testament^ 
which  means  covenant  or  bond,  being  used  in 
both  portions  of  the  Bible  to  gifpafy  the  terms 
of  compact^  or  the  conditions  of  conmiunion, 
between  man  and  God.  The  Old  Testament, 
called  the ''Law,'^  the  ''Law  and  the  Proph- 
etB^"  the  ''  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  Psalms," 
the  *'  Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  other  Books,'' 
also,  the  ''  Scriptures,"  the  ''  Holy  Scriptures," 
the  ''Old  Covenant,"  the  "Books  of  the  Old 
Covenant^"  was  divided  by  the  Jews  into  8 
parts^  viz.,  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  sa- 
oied  writings.  The  law  comprised  the  5  books 
of  Hoees ;  the  prophets  comprised  the  earlier 
prophets,  so  called— the  books  of  Joshua,  Judg- 
yoL,  m. — 16 


es,  Samuel  and  Eings— and  the  later  prophets, 
8  mi^or,  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  and  IS 
minor,  as  enumerated  in  our  present  collection. 
Under  the  writings  were  included  the  "Five 
Books,"  Cantides,  Ecdeeiastes,  Bntb,  Lamenta* 
tions,  and  Esther,  with  the  poetical  books,  Job, 
Proverbs,  and  Psalms.  In  this  latter  cdleotion 
were  counted,  beside,  the  books  of  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,  Chronioles,  and  DanieL  The  number  of 
the  books  varied  with  their  grouping.  In  our 
English  Bibles  we  count  80.  Josephus  arranges 
them  80  as  to  equal  in  number  the  letters  of  the 
Hebrew  alphabet,  which  was  23:  according 
to  his  classification,  Judges  and  Ruth  make  one 
book ;  the  2  books  of  Ssmuel,  2  of  Kings,  and  2 
of  Chronicles  make  8  in  all ;  Ezra  and  UTehe- 
miah  are  1,  Jeremiah  and  Lamentations  1,  and 
the  12  minor  prophets  1.  By  another  ar- 
rangement they  counted  24 ;  b v  yet  another,  27. 
There  was  a  aifTerence,  also,  m  regard  to  the 
order  in  which  the  hooka  ahould  be  placed.  The 
Jews  were  not  agreed  on  this  point  among  them- 
selves. The  Aiezandrian  translators  varied 
again  from  the  Jews.  The  order  existing  in 
our  Hebrew  Bibles  is  very  ancient,  and  seems 
to  have  been  adopted  by  the  Greek  Jews,  not 
according  to  the  chronological  succession  of  the 
several  writings,  for  books  oi  widely  different 
dates  are  placed  side  by  side,  bat  with  a  view 
to  grouping  the  similar  classes  of  composition 
together,  the  historical  being  placed  first,  the 
prophetical  next,  and  the  poetical  last  The 
writings  in  the  first  division  contain  a  hlstorv 
of  the  theocracy,  or  of  the  dealings  of  God  with 
the  people  of  Israel,  and  his  rule  over  them, 
embracing  a  period  of  8,500  years — a  history 
in  some  jwrts  fragmentary,  but,  on  the  whole, 
wonderfully  continuous  and  complete  when 
viewed  as  the  work  of  many  diffbrent  hands,  in 
widely  distant  epochs.  This  collection  <^>ens 
with  the  book  of  Genesis,  which,  beginning 
with  the  creation  of  all  things,  takes  up  the  af- 
fiiurs  of  Imel  as  the  matter  of  central  interest 
on  tiie  earth,  gives  a  £unily  history  of  Abraham 
and  his  descendants,  and  tells  how  the  people 
of  God  were  separated  firom  other  nations  and 
prosperously  established  in  Egypt.  The  2d 
Dook,  ExoduS)  describes  the  deliverance  fiK>m 
Egyptian  bondage,  the  passage  through  the  des- 
ert^ and  the  covenant  on  Sinai,  with  the  main 
features  of  the  legislation.  Leviticus  continues 
the  legidation.  giving  the  laws  which  relate  to 
the  priesthood,  the  festivals,  and  the  sacred  or- 
dinances. The  4th  book,  Kumbers,  contains  a 
supplement  to  the  divine  laws,  and  narrates 
the  weaiy  march  through  the  wilderness,  and 
the  opening  of  the  contest  for  the  possession  of 
the  promised  land.  In  Deuteronomy,  Moses, 
approaching  the  close  of  his  career,  reminds  the 
people  of  their  past  experiences,  recapitulates 
and  amplifies  the  laws  already  given,  exhorts 
them  to  obedience,  appoints  a  successor,  takes 
his  first  and  final  look  at  the  promised  land, 
and  dies.  Thus  end  the  5  books  which  recount 
the  deeds  of  Hoses.  The  book  of  Joshua  con- 
tinues the  narrative,  describes  the  conquest  of 


226 


BIBLE 


Oanaan,  the  partation  of  it  among  the  tribes,  the 
kader^B  fSeffewell  exhortation  to  the  people,  and 
death.  In  the  next  book,  Jadges,  we  read  of 
anarchy  and  apostasy,  which  followed  the  death 
of  Joshua,  the  consequent  defeat  and  snbjaga- 
tion  of  the  Jews  by  the  Philistines,  and  the  ex- 
ploits of  heroes  who  were  raised  np  fbr  their 
deliverance.  The  books,  or  book,  of  Samuel 
contain  the  history  of  his  administration  as 
prophet  and  judge,  the  stoiy  of  Saul's  govern- 
ment as  king,  and  the  narrative  of  David's  youth, 
advancement^  and  reign,  till  toward  its  close. 
The  last  passage  of  his  reign  we  read  about  in 
the  opening  chapters  of  the  book  of  Kings, 
whldi  covers  also  the  brilliant  period  of  Solo- 
mon's rule,  and  the  dark  ages  that  succeeded, 
the  revolt  of  the  10  tribes,  the  establishment  of 
2  hostile  kingdoms,  the  overthrow  of  Israel,  the 
continuance  and  the  fall  of  Judah,  and  tiie  fate 
of  that  portion  of  the  nation  which  remained  in 
the  land.  In  this  book  we  have  also  particular 
notice  of  the  prophets  who  flourished  in  Israel 
and  maintained  tiie  law  of  Jehovah,  in  conflict 
with  wicked  kings.  The  Chronicles  are  called  in 
the  Alexandrine  version  ParalipomeTiaf  things 
left  over,  or  supplements,  and  seem  to  be  com- 
posed of  materia  partiy  new  and  partly  taken 
from  the  elder  writings.  These  are  accompa- 
nied by  the  book  of  Ruth,  an  episode  in  the 
long  history,  narrating  with  exquisite  grace  the 
drcumstances  attending  the  marriage  of  Boaz, 
David's  great-grandfather,  to  Ruth,  the  beauti- 
ful Moabitess.  And  then,  in  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah,  books  which  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  Jews 
regarded  as  one,  we  take  up  the  fortunes  of  the 
chosen  people  after  their  exile  is  ended,  read 
the  story  of  the  restoration  and  tiie  temple- 
building,  and  the  changes  effected  by  Ezra,  the 
"  scribe ;"  read,  also,  of  JTdiemiah's  return,  the 
fortification,  repeopling,  and  consecration  of  the 
dty,  and  the  various  reforms  introduced  by 
him.  Thus  the  history  is  brought  down  to 
about  404  B.  0.  The  book  of  Esther  attempts 
to  supply  a  gap  by  recording  events  supposed  to 
have  occurred  in  Persia  during  the  captivity. 
But  the  historical  writings,  strictiy  speaking, 
dose  with  Kehemiah. — ^While  the  historical 
books  present  the  past  fortunes  of  the  Hebrew 
people,  and  trace  the  development  of  the  rdi- 
gious  ideas  which  lay  at  the  foimdation  of  tJieir 
national  life,  the  prophetic  books  ^ow  us  the 
same  ideas  actually  at  work  with  the  fears  and 
the  hopes  of  living  men,  show  them  as  inspiring 
the  friends  of  the  old  religion  in  their  conflicte 
with  unbelief  and  apostasy,  and  <uiiTnfl.ting  the 
nation  with  bright  hopes  of  the  future.  In  all 
literature  there  are  no  books  like  these,  so  se- 
vere in  moral,  so  lofty  in  religious  tone,  so  sub- 
lime in  conception,  so  grand  in  expression,  so 
rich  in  poetical  imagery.  They  contain  the  ut- 
;teranoes  and  writings  of  the  prophets,  given  in 
different  seasons  of  need,  when  intermd  faith- 
lessness or  external  dimger  called  urgentiy  for 
.  the  delivery  of  Jehovah's  message.  Goveringa 
great  extent  of  time,  they  are,  of  course,  various 
in  style  and  date,  and  they  exhibit  to  us,  not 


only  the  struggles  of  the  popular  heart,  but  the 
foreign  relations  of  the  nation,  in  a  way  not  at- 
templted  by  the  historical  books. — ^The  poetical 
books  express  the  same  ideas  with  the  pro- 
phetic, partlv  in  didactic  and  partly  in  lyrio 
form.  The  didactic  portion  of  them  consists  of 
8  books,  viz. :  Proverbs,  a  collection  of  senten- 
tious maxims  and  wise  discourses,  recommend- 
ing a  good  life ;  Ecdesiastes,  an  eloquent  wail 
over  the  transientness  of  earthly  things;  and 
Job,  a  philosophical  poem  upon  Providence, 
wonderAilly  rich  in  thought  and  diction,  and 
pervaded  by  the  Hebrew  doctrine  of  resigna- 
tion to  the  will  of  the  mysterious  Jehovah. 
The  book  of  Psalms  comprises  the  devotional 
lyrics  of  David  and  other  bards.  Lamentations 
is  a  collection  of  elegiac  verses  of  a  patriotic 
strain,  resembling  much  the  psalms  of  com- 
plaint. The  only  specimen  of  Hebrew  amatory 
poetry  of  an  idyllic  cast  is  the  Song  of  Solomon, 
which  has  been  explained  by  many  scholars, 
and  perlxaps  was  read  by  the  Jews,  as  an  al- 
legory.— ^The  New  Testament  supplies  us  with 
the  only  existing  account  of  the  origin  and 
early  spread  of  Ohristianity,  and  is  compos- 
ed of  27  books.  Four  contain  the  personal 
memoirs  of  Jesus ;  one  (Acts)  relates  the  actions 
and  experiences  of  the  apostles,  especially  of 
Peter  and  Paul;  twenty-one  are  apostolical 
letters  addressed  to  the  several  churches,  14  of 
which  are  ascribed  to  Paul,  2  to  Peter,  8  to 
John,  1  to  James,  and  1  to  Jude;  and  the  col- 
lection closes  with  the  Apocalypse.  An  ancient 
division  of  the  New  Testament  books  was  into 
2  portions,  the  Gospels  and  the  Apostle,  to 
which  last  were  added  the  Acts  and  the  Apoc- 
alypse. In  the  earliest  period  the  1st  of  Peter 
and  the  1st  of  John  were  united  in  the  same 
collection  with  the  epistles  of  Paul ;  but  subse- 
quently the  episties  were  divided  into  the 
Pauline  and  the  Gatholic.  A  later  classification 
mskoa  8  divisions :  1,  the  historical ;  2,  the  doc- 
trinal ;  8,  the  prophetic.  Of  the  historical 
bookS)  two,  the  GK)spels  of  Matthew  and  of  John, 
are  held  to  be  the  works  of  Ghrist^s  immediate 
disciples,  and  two,  Mark  and  Luke,  of  disciples  of 
his  apostles.  The  6th  is  ascribed  to  Luke.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  specify  the  contents  of  these 
writings.  The  episties  are  letters  called  forth 
by  the  peculiar  exigencies  of  the  time,  and 
while  containing  incidentally  historical  infor- 
mation of  value,  throw  light  upon  the  way  in 
which  the  Gospel  was  commended  to  tiie  Gentile 
world,  and  exhibit  the  developments  of  Ohris- 
tian  doctrine  in  the  apostolic  and  post-apostoho 
age.  The  Apocalypse  is  the  only  book  of  a 
strictiy  prophetic  character  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment It  holds  substantially  the  same  plaoe 
there  that  the  writing?  of  Isaiah  and  Ezekiel 
hold  in  the  Old  Testament,  differing  from  those 
chiefly  in  the  symbolical  and  allegorical  form  of 
representation.  It  was  written  shortly  after 
the  death  of  the  emperor  Nero,  and  was  de- 
signed to  strengthen  the  heart  of  Christiana 
agdnst  a  threatening  persecution,  by  the  in- 
spiring hope  of  the  sp^dily  approacliing  king- 


BIBLE 


227 


dom  ci  Christ. — For  a  period  of  not  less  than 
1,000  years,  learned  men  have  been  engaged  in 
selecting,  aathenticating,  and  arranging  in  one 
Yolnme  tiie  constitaent  portions  of  the  Bible. 
The  history  of  this  undertaking,  which  is  the 
history  of  the  canon  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
taments, will  be  found  in  its  appropriate  place. 
Bat  the  labor  that  has  been  spent  upon  this 
department  of  study,  is  as  nothing  compared 
with  tibat  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  the 
correction  and  establishment  of  the  Scripture 
text  The  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament, 
as  we  have  it,  presents  these  ancient  writings 
after  having  been  passed  through  many  hands, 
and  sutjected  to  manv  revisions.  Of  the  prim- 
itive t^  in  fact,  of  its  condition  previous  to 
the  formation  of  the  canon,  175  B.  0.,  there 
exists  little  information  of  a  positive  kind* 
The  books,  when  first  committed  to  writing, 
whenever  that  may  have  been,  were  probably 
inscribed  on  skins  or  linen  doth,  later  on  the 
3>apyru8,  and  were  preserved  in  the  form  of 
rolls.  The  letter  used  was  the  old  Hebrew 
character,  as  it  is  caUed,  the  same  as  that  found 
upon  the  coins  of  the  Maccabees,  and  was  prob- 
ably of  PhoBnidan  origin.  The  numerous  in- 
stances of  words  wrongly  divided  firom  each 
other,  furnish  one  reason  among  others  for  be- 
lieving that  they  were  generally  run  together 
in  a  continuous  line;  though  to  this  there 
seem  to  have  been  exceptions.  There  were 
no  vowel  points  nor  accents;  the  words  were 
composed  of  consonants,  the  vowel  sounds 
being  supplied  by  the  usage  of  the  living 
speech.  It  was  not  until  the  time  of  Ezra, 
after  the  Babylonish  exile,  that  the  books  of 
the  law  were  subjected  to  a  careful  and  crit- 
ical examination.  From  this  time  to  the  dose 
of  the  5th  century,  great  changes  took  place  in 
the  sacred  text  The  written  character  of  the 
ancient  Hebrew  language  was  modified  by  the 
Aramaic  diirography,  until  it  took  the  square 
form,  more  nearly  resembling  the  Palmyrene 
letters,  which  was  adopted  perhaps  on  account 
of  its  beauty.  Shnultaneoudy  with  this  alter- 
ation in  the  written  text,  came  another  arrange- 
ment of  it,  with  a  view  to  its  public  reading, 
though  tms,  too,  became  finally  established 
only  in  the  course  of  generations.  Tradition,  it  is 
supposed,  had  in  a  general  way  prescribed  the 
manner  in  which  the  reader's  voice  should  em- 
phasize words  and  baJance  sentences,  but  it 
was  long  before  that  mode  was  declared  by 
any  togas  upon  the  MSB.  The  first  step  to- 
ward this  was  the  separation  of  words  from 
each  other,  and  it  was  taken  early  in  the  Chris- 
tian era.  it  was  followed  by  the  division  into 
verses,  which  was  suggested  by  the  sense  of 
the  writing,  and  was  marked  in  poetry  very 
early  by  lines  or  blank  spaces  measuring  the 
rhythm.  In  prose  it  was  introduced  later  for 
the  convenience  of  the  synagogue,  and  was  es- 
tablished by  the  close  of  the  period  we  are 
considering.  Before  the  distribution  into  sen- 
tences was  completed,  the  necessity  was  felt  of 
breaking  np  the  text  into  sections  of  less  or 


greater  length.  The  paragraphs,  or ''parashes,*' 
as  they  were  called,  were  indicated  upon  the 
page  \^  blank  spaces,  and  were  of  2  kinds,  the 
open  and  the  shut  All  the  books  of  the  canon 
were  then  portioned  off  into  sections.  The 
book  of  the  law  consisted  of  669  parashes, 
and  these,  in  the  absence  of  headings  and  run- 
ning indices,  were  known  and  referred  to  by 
the- subject  that  was  most  prominent  in  each ; 
for  example,  parash  "  BaUam,''  parash  ^^Bush,'* 
or  "  Deluge.'^  For  the  careful  reproduction  of 
the  text  thus  written  and  distributed,  strict 
provisions  were  made.  Nothing  must  be  added, 
nothing  taken  away,  nothing  changed;  letters, 
words,  verses,  sections  were  counted.  Rules 
were  made  respecting  calligraphy ;  special  ^- 
rections  were  given  in  regard  to  the  way  in 
which  the  MSS.  were  to  be  written ;  every 
letter  that  was  larger  or  smaller,  suspended  or 
inverted,  or  otherwise  unusual  in  its  mrm,  even 
if  accidentally  so  written,  was  to  be  heedf  nlly 
copied  according  to  Talmudic  law. — ^The  next 
period  in  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament 
text  is  the  Masoretic.  and  is  commonly  reck- 
oned from  the  6th  to  tne  11th  century.  It  had 
become  necessary  to  complete  the  studies  of 
older  scholars,  and  to  nerpetnate  the  traditions 
which  then  existed  orally  respecting  the  sacred 
writings.  The  living  knowledge  of  the  He» 
brew  speech  was  dying  out,  tiie  number  of 
learned  men  was  decreasing.  Who  the  schohirs 
were  that  undertook  the  labor  of  the  Masora, 
and  what  was  the  course  of  their  labor,  we 
cannot  know.  They  were  probably  Jews  of 
Palestine,  and  bdonged  to  the  academv  whidi 
flourishea  at  Tiberias  after  the  time  of  Christ 
The  word  Kasora  means  a  ^'  coUection  of  tradi- 
tions," and  the  main  object  of  the  laborers  in 
this  fidd  was  to  gather  up  and  arrange  the 
critical  materid  of  an  older  time.  But  the 
Hasorites  did  more  than  this;  they  aimed  at 
completing  what  had  been  commenced  before; 
they  would  ^  the  reading  of  the  text  in  all  its 
parts,  and  their  scrupulous  care  did  much  to 
finish  and  perfect  it,  particularly  in  regard  to 
its  grammaticd  construction.  They  collated 
IfSS.,  noticed  criticd  and  orthographicd  diffi- 
culties, and  ventured  upon  conjectures  of  their 
own.  The  notes  they  made  were  at  first  writ- 
ten in  separate  books,  and  jotted  down  without 
any  attempt  at  order  or  arrangement;  after- 
ward for  convenience  sake  they  were  copied 
as  well  as  they  could  be,  upon  the  margin  of 
MSS.,  or  even  at  the  end  of  a  book,  a  practice 
that  led  gradually  to  vast  confudon.  At- 
tempts were  even  made  to  crowd  the  whole 
Masora  upon  the  margin  of  MSS^  and  when 
the  space  was  too  small,  as  often  it  was,  the 
annotations  were  appended  to  the  text  or 
omitted  entirely.  Since  the  completion  of  the 
Masoretic  period,  that  is,  from  the  11th  century, 
the  labors  of  scholars  have  been  spent  in  eluci- 
dating and  perpetuating  the  Masoretic  text. 
The  MSS.  had  been  divided  into  2  dasses, 
the  sacred  and  the  vulgar.  The  former  con- 
tained the  Pentateuch,  and  were  very  care- 


228 


BIBLE 


follyreyised.  The  others,  in  yarioas  forms,  Bome 
written  upon  common  pi^rinthe  sh«>e  of 
books,  contamed  more  or  less  of  the  liiisora, 
And  passed  through  several  hands.  They  were 
all  more  modem  than  the  first  dass.  None  of 
these  date  back  as  fiar  as  the  Masoretlo  period : 
4  or  5  belong  to  the  12th  century ;  some  60  be- 
long to  the  18th,  and  for  the  following  centuries 
the  number  increases.  The  oldest  are  the  best 
As  these  private  copies  were  not  so  careMly 
guarded  as  the  rolls  of  the  synagogue,  mistakes 
more  easily  crept  in.  Many  of  the  most  eminent 
Jewish  sdiolars  of  the  middle  ages  devoted 
themselves  to  the  task  of  purifying  the  sacred 
text  by  the  largest  possible  collation  of  MSS. ; 
and  in  their  writings  mention  is  made  of  famous 
copies  now  lost  of  whose  use  they  ei\}oyed  the 
benefit.  The  work  of  Meyer  Halevi  of  Toledo, 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  restore  a  correct 
reading  of  the  Pentateuch,  was  celebrated  in  the 
18th  century.  When  the  invention  of  printing 
had  made  easy  the  exact  reproduction  and  ex* 
tensive  multiplication  of  copies,  an  attempt  was 
made  to  compare  carefully  the  best  MSS.  extant, 
to  collate  with  them  the  Masora,  and  thus  to 
bring  out  a  true  and  pure  Masoretio  text;  an 
undertaking  too  large  to  be  accomplished  at 
once,  and,  therefore,  but  imperfectly  executed 
at  that  time.  The  books  were  produced  singly. 
The  earliest  printed  portion  of  the  Bible,  the 
Psalter,  was  done  in  1477,  in  small  folio  form, 
very  carelessly,  with  many  abbreviations,  and 
not  a  few  grave  omissions.  Later,  about  1480, 
it  was  reprinted  in  12mo,  witibout  date  or  place, 
and  again  in  the  same  form  with  an  index.  The 
whole  Pentateuch,  with  the  pdnts,  the  Ohaidee 
paraphrase,  and  JarcM's  commentary,  was  print- 
ed in  1483,  in  folio,  at  Bologna.  In  1486  appeared 
in  2  folios,  at  Soncino,  the  Prophets,  early  and 
later,  with  Elmchi's  commentiuy.  The  entire 
Hebrew  Bible  was  first  printed  at  Soncino,  in 
1488.  It  was  made  partly  from  MSS.,  neither 
very  old,  probably,  nor  veiy  good,  and  partly 
from  editions  of  separate  books  already  pub- 
lished. It  was  of  unequal  merit.  This  edition 
was  stricter  followed  by  the  Gerson  edition 
printed  at  Bresda,  in  1494,  from  which  Luther 
made  his  translation.  It  was  the  parent  of  the 
first  rabbinical  Bible  of  Bomberg,  1517  and  1518, 
and  of  Bomberg's  manual  editions  from  1518  to 
1521--of  the  editions  of  Robert  Stephens,  4to, 
1589  to  1544,  and  of  Sebastian  Munster's,  pHnt- 
ed  at  Basel,  in  2  vols.  4to,  1586.  The  next 
Independent  edition  prepared  from  a  fresh 
comparison  of  MSS.  was  the  famous  Ck)m- 
plutensian  Polyglot  (1522),  the  work  of 
Oardinal  Ximenes.  assisted  by  the  most  em- 
inent biblical  sonolars  in  Spain.  Fo  ex- 
pense was  spared  to  procure  Hebrew  MSS. 
from  different  countries.  The  Vatican  and  other 
libraries  lent  their  treasures;  and  14  years  of 
preparatory  labors  were  spent  before  the  1st 
volume,  numbered  as  the  5th  in  the  collection, 
was  issued.  The  whole  comprises  6  volumes : 
the  first  4  contain  the  Old  Testament  in  Hebrew, 
Latin,  and  Greek,  with  a  Ohaidee  paraphrase,  a 


Latin  rersion  of  which  is  given  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page.  The  5th  volume  contains  the  New 
Testament,  with  the  Latin  Vulgate.  The  6th  is 
occupied  with  indices,  vocabularies,  and  other 
aids  to  interpretation.  The  text  of  the  Oom- 
plutensian  !mble  agrees  closely  with  that  of 
Bomberg's  first  edition  of  1518.  The  third  gt^at 
original  edition  is  the  second  of  Bomberg's  rab- 
bimcal  Bible,  printed  in  foHo  at  Venice.  1525-^0. 
This  embodies  the  labors  of  Babbi  Jacob  ben 
Ohigim,  who  revised  the  Masora  word  by  word, 
arranged  it,  made  an  index,  and  availed  himself 
systematioaily  of  its  whole  apparatus.  It  was 
reprinted  several  times  in  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries.  After  these  8  independent  editions, 
all  that  follow  contain  a  mixed  text  The  Ant- 
werp Poh^ot,  published  1569-1572,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  £jng  Philip  11.  of  Spain,  and  tiierefore 
called  the  royal  Pdyglotwas  composed  from 
the  Oom^utensian  and  Bomberg's  just  men- 
tioned. Beside  the  texts  in  5  volumes,  4  con- 
taining the  Old  and  1  the  New  Testamenl^ 
8  other  volumes  gave  a  valuable  apparatus,  crit- 
ical, philological,  and  antiquarian.  The  various 
editions  of  Plantin  followed  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot, as  did  those  of  Ohrist.  Reineccius.  It 
was  the  basis  also  of  the  Paris  Polyglot  (10  vols, 
folio,  1645),  which  gave  the  text  in  Hebrew. 
Samaritan,  Ohaidee,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Greelc,  ana 
Latin,  containing  for  the  first  time  in  print  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch.  It  was  repeated  again 
in  the  London  Polyglot  (6  vols.  folio,1657).  Eliaa 
Hutter,  in  his  first  edition  published  at  Ham- 
burg in  1587^  and  8  times  reprinted,  used 
the  copies  of  Venice,  Antwerp^  and  Paris.  In 
1611  the  manual  edition  of  Buxtorf  was  printed. 
Buxtorf  undertook  to  improve  upon  Bomberg's 
Bible,  and,  as  feur  as  he  could,  conformed  to  me 
Masora,  for  whose  text  he  had  the  highest  re- 
spect, regarding  it  as  the  only  perfect  and  in- 
roired.  The  next  important  edition  for  which 
the  oldest  and  best  MbS.  were  collated  was  that 
of  Joseph  Athias,  printed  at  Amsterdam,  1061 
and  1667.  Among  the  later  editions  that  have 
followed  this,  the  most  noted  from  its  new  col- 
lation of  MSS.,  careftd  selection  of  readings,  and 
thorough  correction  of  points^e  those  of  Ja- 
blonski,  Berlin,  1699 :  Van  der  Hooght,  Amster- 
dam, 1705 ;  of  J.  H.  Michaelis,  Halle,  1720;  Hou- 
bigant,  Paris,  1768 ;  Simon,  Halle,  1752, 1767 ; 
Kennicott,Oxford,  1776, 1780 ;  Aug.  Hahn,  1883, 
and  G.  Theile,  1849.  Beside  these  editions  which 
mm  at  bringing  the  Masoretic  text  near  its  per- 
fection, critical  helps  are  found  in  the  Masora 
contained  in  the  rabbinical  Bibles  of  Bombei^ 
and  Buxtorf^  and  the  various  readings  which  are 
found  in  all  the  best  editions.  The  toil  and 
treasure  expended  upon  this  long  series  of  edi- 
tions, each  of  which  was  a  triumph  in  its  time, 
have  not  been  wasted.  The  result  on  tlie  whole 
is  a  text  of  these  ancient  and  venerable  books, 
not  indeed  perfect  in  every  point  and  particle, 
but  more  excellent  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, a  text  that  nearly  corresponds  with  that 
of  the  booics  which  Ezra  collected  and  which 
constituted  the  oldest  Hebrew  canon. — ^The  task 


BIBLE 


229 


of  pntifyiiig  the  Gredc  of  the  New  TestameDt 
and  bringing  it  to  the  perfection  in  which  it  19 
presented  to  ns  in  our  latest  and  best  editions, 
was  much  lees  difficult  than  that  of  recovering 
the  tme  text  of  the  Old  Testament.  Still  it 
was  a  work  of  no  small  magnitude.  Not  a  frag- 
ment of  writing  from  the  hand  of  an  evangelist 
or  an  anostle  survived  the  early  genen^ons 
that  used  the  original  MSS.  and  wore  them  out. 
The  primitive  OhristiaDS,  though  setting  a  high 
value  upon  these  productions,  did  not  feel  the 
importance  of  laying  them  sacredly  aside.  The 
greater  their  value,  we  more  extensive  their  dr- 
oulation,  the  briefer  consequently  their  existence. 
Thebooka  of  the  New  Testament  w^re  written 
after  the  custom  of  the  time  upon  ptmyrus  (2 
John,  12th  verse),  or  upon  parchment,  nner  and 
more  durable,  which  was  beginning  to  take  the 
place  of  papyrus  (2  Tim.  iv.  18\  and  were  in 
the  roll  form.  The  writing  itseli^  done  with  a 
reed  and  ink,  was  in  uncial  or  laige  letters, 
and  ran  in  oontinuous  lines.  There  were  no 
apaoes  between  the  words,  there  were  no  capi- 
tals or  stops,  and  very  few  sentences :  iota  sub- 
eoript,  accents,  and  breathings  were  all  omitted. 
The  heading  of  the  books,  ^^  according  to 
Matthew,'*  *^  according  to  Luke,"  ^,  was  added 
later,  probably  not  before  the  whole  collection 
of  gospels  was  made.  The  epistles  may  have 
had  their  address  marked  upon  them,  though  it 
was  perhaps  inferred  from  the  opening  chapters. 
The  titie  ^'  cathdic"  was  bestowed  on  an  epistle 
by  the  end  of  the  2d  century.  The  earliest 
copies  of  these  books  were  sought  by  individu- 
als for  private  use.  Hence  it  might  easily  hap- 
pen that  as  copies  multiplied  they  would  vary 
more  or  less  from  the  originals  and  from  each 
other,  through  the  carelessness,  the  mistakes,  or 
the  stupidity  of  many  writers,  who  confounded 
letters,  omitted  and  repeated  words,  or  falsely 
divided  them.  Doctrinal  pr^udices  had  like- 
wise some  effiMst  in  corrupting  the  text  during 
this  uncritical  and  irresponsible  period,  but  yet 
more  injury  was  done  oy  the  caprices  of  calli- 
graphista  who  took  liberties  with  the  spdling 
or  the  adornment  of  the  MSS.  Here  and  there 
they  und^took  to  insert  historical  and  geogra- 
phical amendnfents;  or  again,  inthdr  anxiety 
to  make  the  several  books  harmonize,  they  ven- 
tured npon  interpolations  or  corrections  which 
were  by  no  means  calculated  to  preserve  the  in- 
tegrity of  the  writing.  We  must  add  to  all  this 
the  gloSBes  that  were  inserted  in  the  text,  and 
the  marginal  notes  made  by  some  learned  scribe, 
and  afterward  by  some  dull  transcriber  intro- 
duced into  the  body  of  the  MS.  The  number 
of  the  copyists  was  greats  Ignorant  men  un- 
dertook the  work  because  there  was  much 
of  it  to  b^  done ;  and  learned  men  undertook 
it  to  ptevent  its  being  done  badly,  but  the 
amendmenta  of  the  latter  were  sometimes  as 
injadiciona  as  the  blunders  of  the  former. 
The  moet  flamoua  copyists,  the  calligraphists  of 
Alexandria^  were  not  well  acquainted  with 
Greek  or  Latin,  and  no  care,  skill,  or  beauty 
of  ezeoatioD,  could  make  amends  for  that  de- 


fect A  custom  grew  np  very  early  of  sub- 
mitting every  copy  to  an  authorized  revision, 
but  it  offered  omj  a  partial  check  to  these  cor- 
rupting causes.  In  the  4th  and  6th  centuries, 
the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  seemed  to 
be  arranged^Qi  groups  according  to  certain  lit- 
erary or  geographical  affinities.  They  were 
divided  into  the  eastern  and  the  western,  or, 
according  to  another  description,  into  an  Alex- 
andrine and  a  Latin,  an  Asiatic  and  a  Byzan- 
tine text.  The  Alexandrine  type  of  the  Greek 
text  was  in  use  among  the  orients  Jewish 
Ohristians  who  used  the  Greek  version  of  the 
Old  Testament.  The  Latin  type  was  common, 
not  only  in  t&e  Latin  copies  but  in  the  Gre^ 
copies  which  the  Latins  used.  These  groups 
were  not  wholly  distinct  from  one  another,  and 
it  19  difficult  to  fix  upon  the  peculiar  read* 
ing  that  belongs  to  eadi.  The  MBS.  of  the  By* 
zantine  class  present  the  most  uniformity. 
Toward  the  dose  of  the  4th  century  no  single 
MS.  was  known  that  comprised  the  whole  New 
Testament.  At  a  considerably  later  period 
they  were  rare,  and  most  of  tiie^  contained 
also  the  Old  Testament  in  Greek.  The  4  Go»- 
pels  were  commonly  written  in  one  collecticm, 
and  the  Pauline  episties  in  one.  The  catholic 
episties  were  classed  with  the  Acta,  though 
sometimes  these  2  last  collections  and  the  Pau- 
line were  united.  MSS.  of  the  Apocalypse 
were  the  rarest.  The  Gospels  were  generally 
found  in  the  succession  in  which  we  have 
them,  though  in  some  copies  they  were  trans- 
posed. A&ir  the  Acts  usually  came  the  cath- 
olic episties.  The  order  in  which  the  letters  of 
Paul  stood  varied  much.  The  place  of  the 
Apocalypse  was  fixed  by  Athanasius  at  the  end 
of  the  collection,  as  it  stands  at  present.  By 
the  4th  century  the  papyrus  had  given  place 
to  parchment,  and  the  form  of  the  roll  to  that 
of  the  book.  Breaks  in  the  line  and  simple 
points  were  used.  To  meet  the  convenience  of 
the  public  lecture,  the  books  were  measured  off 
into  pauses  and  sentences  by  lines,  after  the  same 
manner  with  the  poetical  books  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament* It  was  not  long,  however,  before  other 
divisions  of  the  text  were  adopted.  In  the  8d 
century  Ammonius  in  making  his  harmony  of 
the  Gospels  had  broken  up  the  text  into  hun- 
dreds of  sections,  and  after  the  5th  century  his 
arrangement  was  indicated  upon  the  margin  of 
nearly  all  the  MSS.  The  Gospels  were  por*- 
tio^Qbed  out  into  chapters  from  a  very  early  pe- 
riod, but  the  arrangement  of  chapters  which 
prevailed  most  extensively,  by  reason  of  its 
being  afterward  printed,  originated  in  the  13th 
century  with  Cardinal  Hugo,  who  devised  it 
while  making  a  Latin  concordance.  Erasmus 
noted  it  in  the  margin  df  his  Latin  translation. 
It  was  repeated  in  we  Oomplutensian  Polyglot. 
Later  still  was  the  subdivision  of  the  chapters 
into  verses.  The  italic  letter  was  not  generally 
substituted  for  the  uncial  until  the  10  th  cen- 
tury.— We  have  41  cdleotions  of  New  Testis 
ment  books  in  MS.  from  the  4th  to  the  10th 
century,  their  age  being  ascertained  with  con- 


230 


BIBLE 


Biderable  oert^nty  by  the  paleographers.  To 
the  4th  century  belongs  1 :  the  Vatican  MS.  (B), 
containing,  with  the  Old  Testament  text,  the 
whole  of  the  New  Testament,  except  the  Apoca- 
lypse, the  epistles  to  Timothy,  Titos,  and  Phile- 
mon, add  the  last  4  chapters  and  t  half  of  He- 
brews. To  the  6th  oentory  belong  4:  the 
Alexandrine  (A),  presented  by  the  patriarch  of 
Constantinople,  in  1628,  to  Charles  I.,  and  pre- 
served in  the  British  museum ;  it  is  somewhat 
mutilated  by  the  omission  of  nearly  all  Maib- 
tiiew,  and  portions  of  John,  and  2  Corinthians ; 
the  codex  Ephraim  (0),  known  also  as  the  Pari- 
sian palimpsest,  almost  unintelligible ;  28  leaves 
of  an  Armenian  palimpsest;  and  some  fragments 
of  the  Grospel  of  John,  now  in  the  college  of  tho 
Pi^paganda  at  Rome.  To  the  6th  century  be- 
long 9 :  the  codex  Bezsa  (D),  containing  the 
€k>spels  and  Acts  almost  entire  in  Greek  and 
ILiatin;  2  palimpsest  fragments  of  the  4  Gos- 
pels ;  8  fragments  of  an  ornamented  parchment, 
part  of  which  is  at  Vienna,  part  in  London,  and 
part  in  the  Vatican;  a  palimpsest  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin ;  a  codex  of  PauPs  epistles  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  the  Latin  representing  the 
oldest  form  of  the  translation  undertaken  m  the 
2d  century,  formerly  in  possession  of  Beza,  now 
in  the  royal  library  at  Paris ;  a  MS.  of  the  Acts, 
the  gift  of  Laud,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  to 
the  Bodleian  library,  containing  the  Greek 
and  Latin  text  of  the  book  ahnost  m  perfection ; 
the  Coislin  codex  in  the  royal  library  of  Paris, 
14  leaves  fbom  a  MS.  brought  from  Mount 
Athos,  containing  fragments  of  6  epistles  of 
Paul ;  and  a  palimpsest  comprising  portions  of 
the  Gospel  of  Luke,  brought  from  a  Coptic 
cloister  to  the  British  museum.  From  the  7th 
century,  we  have  but  2 :  one  of  them  contain- 
ing nassa^es  from  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and 
PauTs  epistles;  and  one  known  as  the  codex 
Tischendorf  L,  in  the  university  library  at  Leip- 
aic,  4  leaves  with  fragments  of  the  Gospel  of 
Matthew.  From  the  8th  century,  7  MSS.  have 
come  down  to  us :  2  leaves  with  a  portion  of 
Luke;  a  palimpsest  whose  14  leaves  contain 
part  of  Mark ;  fragments  of  the  Gospel  of  John 
in  the  Barberini  library  at  Bome ;  a  MB.  with 
Luke  and  John  complete,  and  scholia,  partly 
critical,  upon  the  margin,  brought  by  Tischen- 
dorf from  the  East;  the  Basel  codex,  with  a 
text  of  the  4  Gospels  nearly  complete ;  a  MS.  of 
the  Gospels  almost  perfect  in  the  royal  library 
at  Paris,  the  text  resembling  closely  that  of  the 
Vatican  MS. ;  and  a  copy  of  the  Apocalypse, 
the  Basilean  codex,  now  in  the  Vatican.  The 
9th  century  gives  us  18  MSS. :  a  complete  one 
of  the  4  Gospels  presented  by  the  Abb6  des 
Camps  to  Louis  XIV.;  8  leaves  with  some 
verses  of  the  Gospel  of  John  from  Mount 
Athos ;  a  MS.  in  the  university  library  at  Munich, 
with  numerous  fragments  of  tiie  Gospels  and  a 
patristic  commentary ;  a  MS.  of  Gospels  as  far 
as  John  vii.  89  at  Moscow;  a  fragment  of 
Gospels,  with  Luke  entire,  and  portions  of  the 
rest;  a  MS.  of  Gospels  with  Latin  versions  in- 
terlined, which  corresponds  with  the  Vulgate 


rather  tlian  with  the  Greek ;  tho  codex  Boreell 
in  the  university  library  at  Utrecht^  containing 
4  Gospels  with  many  omissions;  the  codex 
Cyprius,  brought  from  Cyprus  to  Paris,  1673, 
comprises  the  unmutilated  Gospels;  the  oodex 
Augiensis,  bought  in  Switzerland  by  Richard 
Bentley,  and  presented  by  Thomas  Bendey  to 
Trinity  college,  Cambridge,  contiuns  Paul's 
epistles  nearly  entire  in  Greek  and  old  vnlgate 
Latin,  and  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews  in  Latin ; 
a  MS.  of  Paul's  epistles  in  Greek  and  Latin;  a 
codex  of  Acts  at  Modena,  7  chapters  wanting ; 
a  MSb  of  the  catholic  epistles  and  those  of  Paul, 
at  Moscow ;  a  MS.  containing  tiie  Acts,  the 
catholic  eiiistles.  and  Paul's,  sl^htiy  mutilated, 
in  a  library  of  the  Carthuaan  monks  at  Borne. 
From  the  10th  century  we  have  5 :  a  perfect 
copy  of  the  Gospeb  in  the  Vatican  library ;  a 
MS.  in  the  library  of  St.  Mark's,  at  Venice, 
with  the  text  of  4  Grospels  complete;  a  codex 
of  the  Grospels  in\he  British  museum,  brought 
firom  the  East,  defective;  another  in  the  dty 
library  at  Hamburg;  a  copy  of  the  Clermont 
codex  (Beza's),  now  in  St  Petersburg,  in  Greek 
and  Latin,  of  small  value.  Of  all  these  MSS., 
only  8  embrace  the  whole  New  Testament, 
and  neither  of  these  without  considerable  de- 
ficiencies. Of  the  rest,  27  contain  the  (xospels 
alone,  9  have  small  fragments  of  them,  10  have 
large  fragments,  and  only  8  embrace  the  text 
wholly  or  nearly  perfect.  The  book  of  Acts 
exists  in  ftill  in  but  8  codices.  The  catholic 
episties  are  found  in.  5.  The  episties  of  Paul 
are  comprised  more  or  less  completely  in  12,  9 
of  which  give  them  almost  entire. — Space  does 
not  allow  us  to  dwell  upon  the  labors  of  Chris- 
tian scholars  of  the  earlier  centuries,  to  estab- 
lish the  text  of  the  New  Testament  We  can 
do  no  more  than  mention  the  names  of  Ire- 
nffius,  Clement,  and  Origen,  of  Athanasius,  Su- 
sebius,  Epiphanius,  the  Cyrils,  Chrysostom, 
and  Theodoret,  among  the  Greeks ;  of  (M>rian, 
TertuUian,  Ambrose,  Augustine,  and  Bufinus 
among  the  Latins ;  of  Bede,  who  worked  at  the 
Acts  of  the  Aposties;  of  Alcuin,  who  endea- 
vored to  purify  the  Latin  text;  of  Photins  in 
the  9th  century;  Suidas  in  the  10th ;  of  Theo- 
phylact  Acumenius,  and  others,  in  aubsequent 
ages.  The  fruit  of  their  labors  was  not  abun- 
dant. Fifty  years  elapsed  after  the  invention 
of  printing  before  an  attempt  was  made  to  pub- 
lish, by  means  of  it,  the  original  text  of  the 
New  Testament.  The  5th  volume  of  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot  contained  the  Greek  and 
Latin  of  the  Christian  Scriptures,  based  on 
MSS.  of  no  very  eminent  worth,  so  fieur  as  mBj 
be  Judged.  The  volume  was  printed  first  of 
the  whole  set  in  1514,  but  was  reserved 
until  the  rest  were  finished  in  1622.  Before 
this,  in  1516,  Erasmus  had  issued  the  first 
Greek  and  Latin  edition  of  the  Now  Tes- 
tament at  Basel,  constrnctmg  his  text  from 
6  MSS.  there,  one  of  which  contained  tiio 
Apocalypse.  A  second  edition,  changed  in 
some  hundred  passages,  appeared  in  1619 ;  a 
third  in  1522,  in  which  he  for  the  first  time  in- 


BIBLE 


2S1 


Krted  the  text  1  John  t.  7,  from  the  oodez  Mont- 
fort.  A  fourth  edition  (1527)  was  altered  further, 
especially  in  the  Apooalypse,  according  to  the 
Gomplatenman,  and  in  1685  vas  repeated  with- 
out much  change.  These  two  arrangements  of 
the  text  were  nequentlj  reproduced.  That  of 
Eraanua,  in  particular,  was  reprinted  6  times 
in  different  cities.  Famous  at  this  time  were 
tiie  editions  of  Robert  Stephens,  aleamed printer 
of  Paris:  One  of  these,  printed  at  Geneva, 
1551,  presented  for  the  first  time  the  Greek 
text  diyided  into  verses.  Theodore  Beza's 
numerous  editions,  great  and  small,  1565  and 
onward,  sprang  from  Stephens's,  and  after  Beza^s 
anin  were  made  those  of  the  Leyden  book- 
sdlera,  the  Elzevirs,  of  which  the  first  2  ap- 
peared in  1624  and  1683,  and  eave  what  has 
sinoe  been  called  ''the  received  text."  The 
Bzeivir  text,  borrowed  from  Stephens'  third  edi- 
tion of  1550,  which  in  turn  rested  upon  the 
fifth  edition  of  Erasmus,  had  been  in  authority 
100  jears,  when  8  editions  appeared,  dis- 
tinguished by  a  more  thorough  collation  of 
M».  and  versions,  and  byleamed  dissertations, 
histoiical  and  oriticaL  Ihe  first  of  these  was 
Brian  Walton's,  contained  in  the  5th  volume  of 
his  Polyglot  Bible,  1657.  It  nresented  the  New 
Testament  in  Greek,  Latin,  Syriac,  Arabio,  and 
EtMopic ;  a  6th  volume  contained  the  learned 
^paratus.  The  2d  was  that  of  John  Fell, 
published  at  Oxford,  1675.  The  8d  and  most 
famous  was  that  of  John  lUll,  printed  at  Ox- 
ford, 1707.  An  improved  edition  was  issued 
at  Ainsterdam,  1710,  by  Ludwig  KOster.  But 
much  more  thorough  and  rich  than  any  of. 
these  was  the  edition  of  J.  J.  Wetstein,  which 
was  printed  at  Amsterdam  in  2  vols,  folio, 
1761-'2.  The  dissertations  had  been  issued 
anonymously  21  years  befbre.  This  critical 
apparatus^  derived  from  old  MSS.  and  versions, 
from  the  frithers,  from  former  editions  and  the 
notes  of  scholars,  ancient  and  modern,  long 
renudned  a  treasury  for  biblical  students. 
Contemporaneously  with  Wetstein,  Joh.  Alb. 
Bengel,  a  Swabian  theologian,  attempted  to 
amplify  the  text  by  a  new  arrangement  of  MSS. 
and  a  separation  of  them  into  2  fiimilies,  the 
Asiatio  and  the  African.  His  chief  edition  ap- 
peared in  1784.  Semler  followed  in  the  track 
of  Bengel,  and  both  prepared  the  way  for  Joh. 
Ja&  Griesbach.  This  mgenious  and  erudite 
scholar  divided  the  autiiorities  for  settling  the 
text  of  the  Gospels  into  8  principal  classes, 
the  western,  the  eastern,  and  the  Byzantine ; 
each  representing,  with  more  or  less  exactness, 
a  standard  text  or  its  own.  The  first  of  these 
'^recensions"  he  supposed  to  be  the  oldest, 
dating  back  in  its  origin  to  the  time  in  the  2a 
century  when  the  2  collections,  the  ^  Grospel '' 
and  the  '^  Apostie,"  were  distinct.  The  eastern 
group,  he  supposed,  sprung  from  the  union  of 
tiiese  2  collections,  and  was  very  ancient.  The 
less,  which  composed  the  Byzantine  group 
arose  in  the  4th  century,  from  the  mingting  of 
the  eastern  and  western  standards.  Having 
thus  qrstematically  classified  his  authorities, 


Griesbach  laid  down  a  series  of  rules  for  the 
recovery  of  the  genuine  text^  and  upon  these, 
with  vast  research  and  critical  ability,  built  his 
famous  editions,  the  first  of  which,  containing 
the  first  8  Gospels,  was  publidied  in  1774 ;  the 
second,  the  great  edition,  in  1796  and  1806. 
The  basis  of  Griesbach's  text  was  the  Elzevir 
tex^  reeeptiis,  which,  however,  he  altered 
much,  at  the  same  time  placing  various  readings 
at  the  foot  of  the  page.  Griesbaoh's  system 
was  vehdnentiy  opposed  by  0.  F.  Matthai, 
who  examined  more  than  100  MSS.  at  Mos- 
cow, representing  munly  the  so-called  By- 
zantine text)  and  published  his  results  in  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  in  12  volumes, 
1782*'88.  tSichhorn,  on  the  other  hand,  sus- 
tained Griesbach  in  his  main  positions.  Eioh- 
hom's  theory  of  the  formation  of  the  Gospels, 
by  additions  to  one  original  document^  which 
each  of  the  evangelists  is  supposed  to  have 
used  and  worked  over,  no  longer  holds  a  place 
in  the  regard  of  the  best  scholiu*s.  In  1880-'d6, 
Aug.  Scholz,  who  had  travelled  much  and  ex- 
amined many  MSS.,  published  an  edition  of  the 
Kew  Testament  upon  the  basis  of  the  Byzan- 
tine text  This  work  has  been  very  highly  es- 
teemed. To  describe  the  critical  labors  of  Karl 
Lachmann,  whose  stereotyped  edition  of  the 
bare  text  was  followed  in  1842  and  1850  by  his 
great  Greek  and  Latin  edition,  with  its  array 
of  authorities,  would  carry  us  too  far.  Some 
have  looked  upon  his  work  as  marking  an  era 
in  textual  criticism,  and  finally  establishing  the 
genuine  reading  of  the  New  Testament ;  others, 
again,  have  criticized  it  severely,  and  pro- 
nounced it  of  littie  value.  Between  these 
Judgments  it  is  not  our  duty  to  decide.  At 
present,  tiie  most  conspicuous  name  in  this  de- 
partment of  scholarship  is  that  of  Dr.  Tisoh- 
endori^  of  Leipsic  He  published  an  edition 
in  1840.  In  1842,  this  was  followed  by  another 
at  Paris.  But,  meanwhile,  the  author's  views 
had  been  maturing ;  he  had  conceived  a  plan 
of  reforming  the  criticism  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment text;  under  the  patronage  of  the  king 
of  Prnssia,  he  travelled  over  Europe  and  in  the 
East,  making  researches,  the  results  of  which 
appeared  in  a  second  critical  edition  of  the 
New  Testament,  in  1849.  In  1850  he  put  fortii 
an  edition  of  the  text  alone,  and  again,  in  1854, 
airevised  edition,  with  an  attempted  restoration 
of  theVnlgate. — ^The  ancient  translations  of 
the  Old  Testament  have  been  of  great  value  in 
preserving  and  interpreting  the  genuine  He- 
Drew  text,  for  they  were  made  in  some  cases 
from  MSS.  that  dated  back  far  beyond  the 
Masoretic  period,  and  were  executed  with  a 
very  literal  exactness.  Of  these,  the  oldest  and 
most  celebrated  is  the  Greek  version  called  the 
Septuagint,  from  the  70  members  composing 
tiie  Jewish  sanhedrim,  or,  perhaps,  from  the  70 
fabled  translators,  who,  as  the  Jewish  legend 
went,  being  shut  up  in  separate  cells,  executed 
70  distinct  versions,  which  corresponded  with 
each  other  word  for  word.  It  was  commenced 
by  Jews  of  Alexandria  as  early  as  285  B.  0., 


BIBLE 


«nd  was  finiflhed  in  the  eonne  of  yean  by  dif- 
ferent hands,  as  is  evident  from  the  hinguage 
in  the  several  porti<Hi8)  and  from  the  style 
which  characteruEes  the  separate  books.  The 
Pentatench  is  prononnoed  by  scholars  the  best 
portion  of  the  work ;  other  portions  are  nne- 
qnal;  here  and  there  it  is  said  to  betray  an  im- 
perfect knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  langoaoe. 
The  Greek  Jews,  in  the  declining  state  of  the 
Hebrew  tongne,  made  great  nse  of  the  Septoa- 
gint,  and  even  the  Jews  of  Palestine  held  it  in 
high  esteem  until  the  OhristiaDs  in  the  2d  cen- 
tury quoted  it  against  them.  From  that  time 
its  reputation  diminished.  In  Jerome^s  day 
there  were  8  differing,  yet  authorized  editions 
of  the  Septuagint  in  use:  1  in  Palestine,  1  at 
Alexandna,  and  1  in  Constantinople.  Hence 
the  corruptions  that  mar  the  MBS.  m  our  pos> 
seasion.  Th«  Septuagint  was  the  parent  of 
many  translations  in  Latin,  Syriao,  Ethiopic, 
I^C^tian.  Armenian,Georgian,  Blavonic,  Arabia 
Many  oriental  Tersions  were  made  from  the 
Hebrew,  of  uncertain  date ;  among  them  the 
Targums,  or  **  admirable  Tendons,''  m  Ohaldee, 
theBamaritanPentateuch,  the  Byriao  translation 
called  the  Peshito,  or  *^true,"  ^^simplCi"  one  of 
the  oldest  translations  of  the  Bible,  several  in 
Arabic,  and  one  in  Persian.  There  were  also 
other  Greek  versions,  of  which  the  most  cele- 
brated was  that  of  AquUa,  made  about  A.  D.  140, 
and  valuable  on  account  of  its  anxious  liter- 
alness.  Fragments  of  it  are  preserved  in  Ori- 
gen's  Hezapla.  But  after  the  LXX.  the  meet 
£unous  version  from  the  Hebrew  was  the  Latin 
version  of  Jerome,  the  basis  of  the  present 
Vulgate.  Jerome  had  previously  undertaken 
a  revision  of  the  old  Lsitin  translation  from 
the  LXX.  called  the  Itala^  but  the  text  of  this 
ancient  version  was  so  miTch  mutilated,  and 
the  text  of  the  LXX.  itself  was  so  corrupt, 
that  he  was  led  back,  or  perhaps  driven  back, 
by  the  pressing  urgency  of  his  friends,  to  the 
original  Hebrew,  and  conmienced,  A.  D.  885, 
the  new  version,  which  he  completed  in  406. 
The  work,  though  hastily,  was,  on  the  whole, 
well  done.  The  translator  made  use  of  the 
Greek  versions  that  were  before  him,  as 
well  as  of  the  Arabic  and  the  Syriac,  always, 
however,  comparing  them  with  the  Hebrew. 
The  translation,  having  to  contend  with  a  su- 
perstitious reverence  for  the  LXX.,  met  with 
a  doubtfal  reception,  and  made  its  way  slowly 
into  favor,  but  in  the  course  of  200  or 
800  years,  it  was  highly  regarded  at  Bome, 
and  in  other  places ; — not  so  highly  that 
it  escaped  corruption  f^m  careless  copyists, 
indiscreet  revisers,  ambitious  critics,  and  reck« 
less  theologians.  The  old  Yulgate  (the  Itala) 
and  the  new  injured  each  other.  Alcuin,  early 
in  the  9th  century,  bidden,  and.  as  some  think, 
aided  by  Oharlemagne,  revised  and  corrected 
J^me's  version  by  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals.  Lanfrano,  archbishop  of  Oanterbury 
in  the  11th  century,  revised  it  again,  and  ^*  all  the 
church  throughout  the  western  world  rejoiced 
that  it  was  lUuminated  by  the  light  of  tins 


emendation.'*  Thecooneilof  Trent,  which  mat 
in  1545,  apparentiy  with  a  view  of  preventing 
the  confusicm  that  resulted  from  promiscnons 
labors  upon  the  Vulgate,  took  it  under  the  p^ 
ouliar  patronage  of  the  church,  and  decreed 
(1546)  that  the  edition  **  should  be  printed  aa  a<^ 
curately  as  possible."  As  it  had  become  neces- 
sary to  prepare  an  authentic  edition  of  the 
authorized  version,  two  popes,  Pius  IV.  and 
v.,  addressed  themselves  to  this  task ;  learned 
men  were  assembled,  a  printing  press  was  erect- 
ed in  the  Vatican,  a  pontiff  looked  over  the 
printed  sheets,  and  the  work  was  published  in 
1590;  but  it  proved  to  be  so  imperfect  that 
Gregory  XIV.  called  another  assemldy  of  sclu^- 
ars  to  make  another  revision.  This  time  the 
duty  was  more  thorouriily  discharged,  and  the 
Biblia  Sacra  Vulg.  JEd.  Tett.  F.  PtmJL  Mm. 
JU88U  reeog.^  dsa,  the  basis  of  every  subsequent 
edition,  was  issued  in  1592.  The  flunous  Bel- 
larmin,  one  of  the  translators,  wrote  the  pre&oei 
Translations  of  the  New  Testament  were  made 
very  early  into  all  the  tongues  then  spoken  by 
Ohristians,  but  these  are  more  interesting  to 
the  biblical  scholar  than  to  the  general  reader. 
A  few  words  upon  some  of  the  more  modon 
vendons  will  however  be  in  place  here. — Por- 
tions of  the  Bible  were  translated  into  Saxon 
by  Aldhelm,  Ilgbert,  Bede,  and  others,  between 
the  8th  and  10th  oentories.  The  first  En^ish 
versioA  known  to  be  extant,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  made  in  1290.  Wydiffe's  literal  trana- 
lobion  of  the  Bible  from  the  Vulgate  into  the 
popular  Endish  speech  was  finished  in  1860^ 
and  multiplied  by  copying.  This  vernon 
has  recentiy  been  printed  in  England.  The 
first  volomo  produced  by  Guttonberg's  types, 
1450-'55,  was  the  Latin  Bible,  and  it  waa  a 
prodigious  effort  for  the  times.  Hardly  had  the 
press  completed  it,  when  versions  began  to  multi- 
ply. In  1528,  William  Tyndale,  ^^finding  no  place 
to  do  it  in  all  Exijriand,"  went  to  the  continent^ 
and  there,  at  Worms,  in  1525,  printed  his 
version  of  the  Kew  Testament  fr^m  the  original 
Greek.  Ooverdale^  his  fellow-laborer,  finuhed 
his  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  in  1585, 
and  this  was  followed  by  several  editions  of 
''Mattiiew's  Bible,"  caUed  also  the  ''Great" 
Bible,  or  ''  Oranmer's,"  according  to  its  editom. 
This  was  the  authorized  version  under  Edward 
VI.  The ''  €knevan  Bible  "  was  a  new  and  care- 
fill  revision  of  Ooverdale'%  with  annotations, 
and  not  being  perfectiy  satisfSactery  to  Biah<^ 
Parker,  he  undertook  another  vergion  by  the 
help  of  eminent  scholars,  which  was  called  the 
''Bishop's  Biblcwl'  published  in  1568,  with,  pre- 
face  and  notes.  Its  basis  was  the"  Great  BiMe^^ 
and  the  "Genevan."  A  littie  later  app^oed 
the  Douay  Bible,  the  New  Testament  in  1582, 
at  Rheims,  the  Old  Testament  in  16O9-'I0L  at 
Douay,  upon  the  ba^  of  the  authorised  Vul- 
gate. Oar  present  English  version  was  made 
by  direction  of  James  I.,  who,  on  motion  of  Dr. 
Reynolds,  of  Oxford,  in  the  conference  at  Hamp- 
ton Oourt,  commissioned  54  divines  to  under- 
take the  labor.    Seven  of  the  54  died  before 


BIBLE  S00IETIE8 


283 


the  task  was  oomm^oed,  but,  in  1606,  the 
boolm  were  distnbated  among  the  remainder  in 
6  portiona.  and  the  translation  was  diligently 
pressed.  The  "  Bishop's  Bible  '^  was  the  basis, 
faithfully  compared  with  the  original,  and  cor- 
lected  where  it  was  defeotiye.  The  whole,  with 
dusters  and  headings  marginal  glosses,  and 
parallels,  was  completed  and  sent  from  the  press 
of  Robert  Barker,  in  1611. — ^In  Germany,  Mar- 
tin Luther  spent  10  laborionsyears,  from  1522  to 
1582.  in  executing  that  wonderfiil  translation 
whicn  has  done  so  much  for  the  Bible  and  for 
the  language  into  which  it  was  rendered.  Sey- 
eral  portions  of  the  Scriptures  he  had  translated 
into  German  before,  for  the  use  of  the  people, 
-m^  the  penitential  and  other  Psalms^  the  Lord's 
prayer,  tne  Ten  Commandments,  and  other  pas- 
aaeee^  which  were  often  printed.  It  was  not 
tiu  toward  the  dose  of  1521  that  he  conceived 
the  plan  of  translating  the  whole ;  but  having 
commenced,  the  work  nroceeded  rapidly.  The 
New  Testament  was  finished  first;  in  a  year 
came  the  Pentateuch ;  another  year  completed 
the  historical  books  and  the  Hagiographa ;  two 
years  more  brought  Jonah  and  HiS>akkuk,  and 
the  prophets  were  finished  in  1582.  It  was  all 
Luther's  work.  As  the  foundation  he  used  the 
Brescia  edition  of  1494  (his  copy  is  stiU  pre- 
served at  Berlin),  and  with  this  the  LXX.,  the 
Volgate,  and  other  Latin  versions,  while  for  the 
New  Testament  he  took  the  text  of  Erasmus, 
1519.  Many  versions  have  been  made  since 
Luther's,  in  Crermany,  but  for  vigor,  simplicity, 
and  beauty,  his  haa  n^  been  surpassed,  not  even 
by  the  noble  one  of  Augnsti  and  De  Wette. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES,  societies  and  associa- 
tions having  for  thei%obJ6Ct  the  circulation  of 
the  Bible  in  the  vernacular  of  the  people,  or 
a  language  which  they  understand.  So  early 
as  1698,  a  society  for  the  promotion  of  Christian 
knowledge  had  been  organized  in  Great  Britain, 
oat  of  which  several  similar  organizations  haa 
sprung,  in  dififerent  parts  of  the  kingdom,  pre- 
vious to  1792.  All  these  societies  embraced  the 
circulation  of  the  Scriptures,  as  one  of  their 
objects.  But  it  is  believed  that  no  society  had 
been  organized  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of 
circulating  the  Bible  without  note  or  comment^ 
previous  to  the  era  of  the  "  British  and  Foreign 
Bible  Society"  (1804).  But  the  work  which  the 
^^  Sodety  for  the  Promotion  of  Christian  llnowl- 
edge"  had  been  doin^,  and  perhaps  more  es- 
pecially that  which  it  refused  to  do,  when 
solidted,  prepared  the  way  for  a  new  era  in 
Bible  distribution.  The  sodety  for  the  pro- 
motion of  Christian  knowledge  had  publiabed 
an  edition  of  Wdsh  Bibles.  The  supply  was 
exhausted,  and  the  destitution  great  A  mis- 
sionary named  Thomas  Charles,  who  had  labor- 
ed for  20  years  in  the  gospel,  travelling  through 
Wales,  preaching  and  organizing  Sunday  schoola, 
mged  the  matter  of  a  new  supply  on  the  society. 
After  many  decays,  i^e  society  issued  an  edition 
of  10,000  in  1796.  This  exhausted,  Charles 
called  for  more.  The  call  was  disregarded,  and 
he  attempted  an  edition  by  subscription.    This 


aboMed.  Charles  then  went  to  London  (1808), 
where  he  was  introduced  to  the  executive  com- 
mittee of  the  tract  society,  related  to  them  the 
destitution  of  Wales,  his  desire  for  a  new  edition 
of  the  Welsh  Scriptures,  and  proposed  to  orga- 
nize a  society  for  the  puipose.  Oneofthecom> 
mittee,  the  Bev.  Joseph  Hughes,  a  Baptist  min- 
ister, much  afiected  at  Charleses  account,  replied, 
'^  Certainly :  and  if  for  Wales,  why  not  for  the 
worlds"  On  this  idea  the  committee  acted. 
Hughes  sent  out  a  call  for  a  meetiDg  to  take  the 
project  into  consideration,  and  Steinkop^  a  Ger- 
man preacher,  offered  to  gather  iaformation  con- 
cerning tiie  foreign  destitution  of  the  Scriptures, 
while  others  were  to  collect  similar  data  at 
home,  for  the  purpose  of  laying  it  before  the 
meeting.  The  meeting  met  pursuant  to  call,  in 
London  tavern,  March  7, 1804,  about  800  per- 
sons of  all  denominations)  even  Quakers,  who 
till  that  time  had  never  acted  but  in  one  instance 
with  other  Christian  sects,  Steinkopf  made  his 
report.  It  disdosed  an  nnexpected  state  of 
aftairS)  and  many  influential  persons  present 
were  so  affected  by  it,  that  they  immediately 
lent  their  cooperation  to  the  work.  The  sodety 
conunenced  operations  with  a  subscribed  fund 
of  £700,  ^pointed  a  president,  vice-president^ 
secretary,  treasurer,  and  an  executive  committee 
of  16  church  of  En^and  laymen,  15  dissenting, 
and  6  foreigners.  The  members  were  to  pay  a 
guinea  annually,  and  have  a  discount  on  Bibles. 
The  first  object  was  to  supply  Wales.  The  so- 
ciety, therefore,  at  once  pnohshed  an  edition  of 
20,000  Bibles  and  5,000  Testaments.  So  great 
was  the  interest  of  the  Welsh  population  in  the 
matter,  that  they  drew  the  firat  load  by  hand 
through  the  citv,  with  great  rejoicing.  The 
society  soon  had  auxiliaries,  both  at  home  and 
on  the  continent.  The  greater  part  of  these, 
however,  were  formed  after  1812,  in  which 
year  the  foreign  secretary  of  the  home  society 
visited  the  continent,  and  travelled  through 
Denmark,  Germany,  and  Switzerland.  Nearly 
80  such  associations^  with  numerous  branches, 
existed  in  different  parts  of  the  contin^t  pre- 
vious to  1816,  or  the  era  of  the  American 
Bible  society.  Many  of  these  embraced  both 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  and  several  were 
instituted  by  Catholics  themselves,  though 
the  authorities  of  the  church  did  not  always 
look  with  either  favor  or  forbearance  on  the 
movement.  A  society  formed  in  Ratisbon 
(1805),  for  translating  into  German  and  circu- 
lating the  Bible,  was  abolished  by  a  papal  buU. 
(1817).  Another  formed  in  Presburg,  for  the 
curcidation  of  the  Scriptures  in  Hungarian,  was 
similarly  dealt  with.  In  many  countries,  the 
royal  fovor  and  cooperation  were  extended  to 
the  enterprise  of  the  societies,  as  in  Norway  and 
Bussia,  though  the  society  in  Busda  was  abol- 
ished by  royal  ukase,  in  1826,  and  the  same  year 
a  Russian  Protestant  Bible  society  was  formed* 
Now  (1858)  there  exist  72  Bible  societies  with 
numerous  auxiliaries,  agencies,  and  branches^ 
and  these  sodeties  are  distributed  in  almost 
all  parts  of  the  inhabited  globe.— In  1816,  the 


284 


BIBLE  SOGIETIES 


^'Amerioan  Bible  Socieiy*'  was  fonned.  Ita  first 
object  was  to  sapply  the  destitution  of  the  Bible 
la  the  United  States,  and  then,  aocording  to  its 
ability,  extend  its  inflnenoe  to  other  conntries, 
whether  Christian,  Mohammedan,  or  pagan. 
Previous  to  the  American  Bible  society,  the 
Bible  society  of  Philadelphia  had  been  ^rmed 
(1808),  and  also  one  in  Connecticut,  and  one  in 
Massachusetts  (1809),  also  one  in  Halifiiz  (1818), 
and  one  in  Antigua  (1814).  The  American 
Bible  society  was  formed  in  New  York,  and  its 
receipts  for  the  first  year  were  $87,779  85,  and 
its  circulation  of  Bibles  and  Testaments,  6,410 
volumes.  After  an  existence  of  42  years,  its 
receipts  for  the  year  ending  April  1858,  were 
$886,960,  and  its  issues  reached  712,114  vol- 
umes. In  1858-%  the  issues  were  815,899 
volumes.  The  total  circulation  of  the  Scriptures 
by  the  society  up  to  the  present  year  (1858), 
has  been  12^04,083  volumes  of  the  Bible,  or 
parts  of  the  Bible,  in  all  oases  without  note  or 
comment.  In  1852,  the  society  oommenoed  the 
construction  of  a  new  building  to  accommodate 
its  enlarged  operations.  The  corner-stone  was 
laid  on  May  11,  and  in  a  few  days  leas  than  one 
year  the  new  premises  were  ready  for  occupancy 
at  a  cost  of  $808,000.  The  immense  structure 
occupies  an  entire  square,  bounded  by  Third 
and  Fourth  avenues,  and  Eighth  and  Ninth 
streets,  and  covers  nearly  f  of  an  acre  of  sur- 
£Ace,  is  6  stories  high,  built  of  brick,  with  free- 
stone copings,  and  commands  attention  by  its 
magnitude,  proportions,  and  finish.  In  1858 
the  constitution  of  the  society  was  amended. 
In  1847  the  managers  of  the  American  Bible 
society  found  that  their  Bibles,  and  those  of 
England,  had  many  small  discrepancies  which 
embarrassed  the  proof-readers.  They  therefore 
entered  on  a  thorough  collation  of  the  English 
Scriptures,  under  durection  of  theur  committee 
on  versions.  That  committee  made  a  report 
of  their  doings  in  1851.  Their  collator  found 
but  little  short  of  24,000  minor  discrepancies  in 
the  text,  but  no  one  of  which  affected  the  sense. 
The  committee,  in  addition  to  tiie  collation  of 
the  text,  which  was  thoroughly  done,  dedded 
also  to  prepare  a  now  series  of  dtiapter-head- 
ings.  This,  in  1857,  caused  great  complaint 
on  the  part  of  many  local  societies  and  mem- 
bers, so  that  in  January,  1858,  the  board  felt  it 
their  duty  to  collate  the  headings  of  the  Eng- 
lish Bibles  (as  well  as  the  text),  and  remove 
those  which  had  been  made  new.  The  society 
sells  and  distributes  its  books  in  this  country 
chiefly  through  its  auxiliary  societies,  of  which 
it  has  in  the  states  and  territories  nearly  8,000. 
Twice  in  the  course  of  its  existence  have  the  en- 
ergies of  the  society  been  directed  by  special  ac- 
tion to  the  work  of  supplying  the  destitute  in  our 
own  country  with  the  Bible,  in  1829  and  1856. 
In  addition  to  the  intention  of  the  society  to 
8ui»>ly  eveij  family  with  the  Bible,  where  it 
finds  a  willmgness  to  receive  it,  its  funds  are 
also  expended  in  the  work  of  translating  and 
circulating  the  Scriptures  in  foreign  land^  In 
pursuance  of  this  work,  the  American  Bible 


society  has  aided  foreign  misdonary  societies  in 
all  parts  of  the  world,  with  its  own  issues,  and 
also  with  funds  to  enable  them  to  translate  and 
print  on  missionary  ground. — ^The  *'  American 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society"  was  established  in 
1887,  and  incorporated  by  the  legislature  of 
New  York,  April  12, 1848.  It  was  formed  by 
a  secession  of  the  Baptists  from  the  American 
Bible  society.  The  design  of  the  latter  society 
was  stated  at  its  organization  to  be  the  dissem- 
ination of  the  Scriptures  in  the  reed ved  versions 
where  they  exists  and  in  the  most  faithful  trans- 
lations, where  they  may  be  required.  The  latter 
clause  left  it  to  the  discretion  of  the  managers 
to  decide  what  verdons  should  be  deemed 
worthy  of  patronage,  and  in  the  exercise  of  tfaia 
discretion  they  refused  aid  to  the  existing  Ben- 
galee and  Burmese  versions,  because  the  Greek 
word  /3affTc(»  was  translated  in  those  vermona 
by  a  word  corresponding  to  the  Euglish  "  im- 
merse.'' During  the  year  1856~'57  the  Ameri- 
can and  foreign  Bible  society  put  into  circulation 
98,000  copies  of  the  Scriptui^  beside  employ- 
ing 92  Bible  readers,  or  persons  who  visit  iuni- 
lies  for  the  purpose  of  readiog  to  them  the 
Bible,  for  religious  conversation  and  prayer, 
who  wei-e  distributed  through  this  oountary, 
Canada,  Mexico,  Germany,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
China,  and  Greece.  The  whole  amount  of  re- 
ceipts for  the  same  year  was  $56,649  49.—**  The 
American  Bible  Union"  was  organized  in  New 
York,  June  10,  1850.  Its  object  is  **to  procure 
and  circulate  the  most  fiuthftd  versions  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures,  in  all  kinguages  throughoat 
the  world."  Its  founders  seceded  from  the 
American  and  foreign  Bible  society  May  28, 
1850,  when  that  body  dedded  that  it  was  not  its 
province  or  duty  to  revise  the  English  BibkL 
nor  to  procure  a  revision  of  it  from  others ;  aha 
that  in  its  future  issues  it  would  only  circulate 
the  existing  commonly  received  version.  The 
membership  is  composed  of  voluntary  con- 
tributors, $80  constituting  a  member,  $100  a 
director  for  life.  Its  contributors  for  member- 
ship in  1858  are  about  15^000  persons,  found 
in  every  portion  of  the  United  States,  in 
Canada  and  Great  Britain,  and,  indeed,  wher- 
ever the  English  language  is  spoken.  The 
field  of  its  operations  is  the  world.  It  has 
aided  extensively  in  the  preparation  or  cir- 
culation of  versions  made  on  its  principles, 
for  the  Chinese,  Karens,  Siamese,  French,  Span- 
ish, Italian,German,  and  English.  It  has  just  com- 
pleted a  revision  of  the  Spanish  New  Testament^ 
which  is  said  to  be  superior  to  any  other  version 
in  that  language.  A  revision  of  the  Italian 
New  Testament  has  been  published  and  widelj 
drculated.  But  the  primary  aim  of  the  uni<Hi 
is  to  prepare  atilorough  and  fieiithful  revision  of 
the  common  English  veraon.  To  accomplish  this 
it  has  employed  the  aid  of  scholars  of  nme  evan- 
gelical denominations.  Though  mainly  com- 
posed of  Baptists,  it  professes  to  act  without 
reference  to  denominational  differences.  The 
principle  adopted  for  the  guidance  of  translatora 
u :  Ej^ressin  language  most  readily  understood 


BIBLE  SOOIETIES 


285 


by  the  people  ^  the  ezftot  meaning  of  the  inspired 
originci."  No  views  of  expediency  are  allowed 
to  withstand  the  iDYariabie  operation  of  this 
rule.  The  preliminary  revision  of  the  entire 
New  Testament  is  in  the  oonrse  of  publication, 
being  sent  forth  for  oritioism  among  all  classes 
of  scholars,  who  are  willing  to  examine  it,  and 
suggest  any  improvement.  No  expense  has 
been  spared  in  procnring  books  or  supplying 
every  possible  aid  for  the  greatest  perfection  of 
the  work.  This  preliminary  revision  is  subjected 
to  careful  examination  and  correction,  by  a 
learned  committee  composed  of  eminent  biblical 
critics.  The  society  publishes  a  quarterly  jour- 
nal, gmng  details  of  its  progress,  and  a  monthly 
witii  the  revised  Scriptures,  as  they  may  be  ready 
for  public  examination.  Since  its  origin  it  has 
issued  of  the  Sacred  Scripture.  287,800  copies, 
48,109,600  pages;  of  quarterues,  tracts,  te., 
880,801  copies,  11,689,204  pages.  Total  copies, 
668,601 ;  total  pages,  59,T48,804.  The  receipts 
have  now  reached  the  sum  of  $45,000  per  annum, 
and  are  steadily  increasing.  The  library  collected 
for  its  trandators'  use  numbers  more  than  4,000 
Yolomes,  and  comprises  some  of  the  rarest  works 
on  biblical  critioism  which  can  be  found  in 
the  world— The  ^' Bible  Revision  Association^' 
was  organized  in  Memphis,  Tenn.,  April  2, 
1853.  Its  location  is  in  Louisville,  Ky.  It 
has  a  board  of  80  managers  and  executive  offi- 
cers. It  occupies  the  southern  and  south- 
western of  the  u  nited  States.  It  Jias.a  member-* 
ship  of  about  8,000  persons,  and  is  rapidlv  ex- 
tending its  operations,  in  conjunction  with  the 
American  Bible  union,  with  which  it  cooper- 
ates in  the  objects  of  its  organization.— When  the 
British  and  foreign  Bible  society  was  formed, 
the  Bible  was  printed  and  droulated  in  50 
tongues;  now  it  is  printed  and  circulated  in 
166  vermons,  and  in  nearly  all  of  these  the 
British  and  foreign  Bible  society  aided  direct- 
ly or  indirectly,  and  in  many  of  them  tiie 
American  Bible  society  had  an  important 
riiare.  Ninety-nine  new  versions  have  been 
made,  including  14  European  languages,  16 
AsiadoL  11  Polynesian,  11  African,  and  7  Amer- 
ican. Many  of  these  were  first  made  written 
languages  by  the  societies.  By  the  efforts  of 
Bible  societies,  since  1804,  have  been  eiroulated 
about  48  millions  of  copies  of  the  Bible,  either 
entire  or  in  part^-But  the  history  of  Bible 
aooieties  would  be  incomplete  without  mention 
of  the  controversy  with  regard  to  the  Apocry- 
pha, in  which  they  were  involved  fi'om  about 
1811,  and  which  was  not  finally  settled  until 
1827.  The  one  idea  of  Bible  societies,  the  cir- 
culation of  the  Scriptures  without  note  or  com- 
ment, had,  to  a  oertiun  extent,  engaged  all 
parties  indiscriminately,  and  espedally  all 
parties  of  the  reformation.  The  Oatholic 
church  had  a  different  canon  of  Scripture  from 
the  Protestant  On  the  continent  various  causes 
liad  conspired  to  separate  the  Protestants  less 
in  this  matter  from  the  Oatholics  than  their 
brethren  in  Great  Britain..  Consequently,  on 
the  continent,  the  Catholic  canon  was  in  use 


among  Protestants.  At  first,  the  London 
society  had  connived  at  this  difference  of 
sentiment,  or  at  least  had  not  allowed  itself 
to  interfere  with  its  free  exercise.  Thus 
the  German  auxiliary  societies  had  from  the 
outset  purchased  for  circulation  the  Can* 
stein  Bible,  in  which  the  f^>ocryphal  books 
were  intermingled  with  the  canonical  (Protes- 
tant). A  feeliag  began  to  be  manifest  on  this 
subject,  perhaps,  first,  and  certainly  with  great- 
est violence,  in  Scotland.  The  parent  society 
decided,  therefore,  to  request  its  auxiliaries  to 
leave  out  the  Apocrypha  (1811).  This  request 
produced  some  feeling,  and  it  was  rescinded 
(1818).  The  apocryphal  war  was  thus  fairly 
commenced;  for  the  passing  and  subsequent 
rescinding  of  the  resolution  of  1811  brought  the 
parties  into  position.  The  inroiration  of  the 
apocryphal  books  was  discussecl,  and  the  cus- 
tom of  the  Protestant  churdi  dted,  which  had 
translated  the  Apocrypha,  and  even  in  the 
establishment  appointed  it  ''to  be  read  in  the 
churches."  While  the  general  sentiment  was 
in  &vor  of  the  non-inspiration  of  the  apocry- 
phal books^  one  party  insisted  on  the  propriety 
of  their  circulation,  on  the  ground  that  the 
catalogue  of  the  canon  was  not  inspired,  and 
that  even  the  Protestant  canon  itself  was  not 
an  artide  of  faith,  but  might  contain  uninspired 
books.  On  the  other  hand,  the  anti-apocry- 
phal party  rigidly  defined  the  difference  be- 
tween the  canonical  and  apocnrphal  books, 
deaisnating  the  apocryphal  as  ''  tar  below  the 
level  of  many  human  writings,  full  of  false- 
hoods, errors^  superstitions,  and  contradictions, 
and  the  more  dangerous  for  assuming  to  be  a 
Divine  revelation.'^  The  Scotch  party  was  vio- 
lent)  the  continental  unyielding.  The  publica- 
tion of  the  Catholic  Bible  in  Italian,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese,  in  1819,  with  the  coopera- 
tion of  the  sodetv,  added  fresh  fuel  to  the 
flames.  It  was  thought  by  the  Edinburgh 
society  a  violation  of  the  act  of  1818.  It  was 
urged  that  to  publish  a  Bible  in  which  the 
apocryphal  books  were  made  canonical,  was 
worse  than  merely  to  publish  them  as  apocry- 
rbal  at  the  end  of  the  Old  Testament  canon, 
ilie  London  society,  on  a  revision  of  its  course, 
decided  it  to  be  erroneous,  and  resolved,  Aug. 
19,  1822,  that  the  moneys  of  the  society  should 
henceforth  be  used  only  in  printing  the  canoni- 
cal books,  and  that  if  the  auxiliaries  published 
the  Apocrypha,  they  should  do  it  at  their  own 
expense.  When,  in  accordance  with  this  act, 
Leander  Van  Ess  asked  aid  in  publishing  his 
Bible,  and  promised  to  include  the  Apocrypha 
at  his  own  expense,  the  society  appropriated 
£500  for  the  purpose  (Sept  24,  1824).  The 
anti-apocryphal  party  procured  the  rescinding 
of  the  act  the  following  December,  on  the 
ground  that  the  apocryphal  books  were  still 
undistingui^ed  from  the  canonical,  and  that, 
therefore,  although  the  society's  money  was 
not  used  to  pubUsh  them,  they  nevertheless 
had  the  apparent  sanction  of  inspiration  by  the 
good  company  in  which  the  society  allowed 


280 


BIBLE  SOCIETIES 


BIBLICAL  GEOGRAPBT 


them  to  be  put,  hj  oonsei&ting  to  hAve  them 
intermingled  with  the  inspired  books.  The 
society,  in  reficinding  the  above  aot  of  appropri- 
ation, advanced  only  one  step  farther  in  the 
apocrTphal  refonn.  It  had,  in  the  act  of 
reschiding,  dedlared  that  the  money  of  the 
society  might  be  applied  to  aid  those  editions 
of  the  Bible  in  which  the  apocryphal  books 
were  printed  at  the  end  of  the  canon.  The 
anti-apocryphal  party  had  akeady  achieved  too 
many  victories  to  be  satisfied  with  so  moderate 
ground.  The  Edinburgh  society  now  protested 
(Jan.  17,  1826)  against  this  compromise  of 
Protestantism,  and  procured,  in  the  following 
February,  a  rescinding  aot  which  swept  the 
records  of  the  London  society  oi  ail  former 
acts  on  the  subject  The  matter  stood  now 
where  it  had  before  1811,  but  the  anti-apocry- 
phal sentiment  was  conscious  of  its  strength, 
and  now  initiated  positive  proceedings.  A  two 
years^  contest  followed,  in  which  the  ground 
was  all  reviewed,  and  the  end  of  which  was  a 
resolution  of  the  London  society  (May  8, 1827), 
that  no  association  or  individocd  circulating  the 
apocryphal  books  diiould  receive  aid  from  the 
society,  that  none  but  bound  books  should  be 
distributed  to  the  annliaries,  and  that  the  aux- 
iliaries should  droulate  them  as  received,  and 
that  all  societies  printing  the  iqK>cryphaI  books 
should  place  the  amount  granted  them  for 
Bibles  at  the  disposal  of  the  parent  society. 
Thus  ended  the  controversy,  a  controversy 
which  threatened  for  a  lime  to  split  the  par- 
ent society  itself^  and  which  did  result  in  the 
secession  of  many  audliaries  on  the  con- 
tinent. Previous  to  this  controversy,  the 
Boman  Catholic  church  had  in  many  instances 
(especially  on  the  continent)  acted  with  the 
Protestants.  But,  as  already  mentioned,  that 
church  had  abolished  the  Bible  society  of 
Batisbon  (1817)  in  the  midst  of  the  contest. 
Meanwhile  the  London  society  continued  the 
aid  of  its  funds,  under  its  successive  prohibi- 
tions in  reference  to  the  Apocrypha,  to  the 
individual  enterprise  which  still  persisted, 
at  Munich,  in  the  circulation  of  the  Bible. 
Gradually  the  Boman  Catholic  church  with- 
drew its  favor  from  an  enterprise  that  refused 
its  aid  in  the  cbrculation  of  that  which  she 
deemed  the  canon  of  Scripture,  until,  from  the 
cooperation  which  had  characteriased  the  early 
history  of  Bible  societiesLthe  movement  became 
easentiaUy  Protestant  The  American  Bible  so- 
ciety, made  up  of  materials  more  thoroughly  Pu- 
ritanic and  less  Lutheran  and  continental,  from 
the  outset,  was  free  from  the  distractions  grow- 
ing out  of  this  dispute.  That  society  has  never 
published  any  other  than  the  canonical  (Protes- 
tant) books;  and  the  only  instance  in  which 
it  has  departed  (if  it  be  a  departure)  from  the 
avowed  principle  of  circulating  the  canoni- 
cal Scriptures,  without  note  or  comment,  is  in 
the  headings  it  has  given  to  the  chapters.  In 
both  the  London  and  American  societies  the 
standard  English  version  followed  is  that  of 
King  James. — One  thing  more  remains  to  be 


noticed,  and  that  is  the  extreme  cheapness  of 
the  Bible,  under  the  auspices  of  the  .Ajnerioan 
Bible  society.  A  good  Bible  for  family  use 
(the  '*  brevier  Bible"  of  the  society)  can  now 
be  had  for  46  cents,  while  a  nonpareil  edition 
costs  only  25  cents,  and  Testaments  are  as 
cheap  as  6}-  cents.  This  is  partiy  the  result  of 
the  donations  the  society  receives,  but  more 
eq>ecially  of  the  immense  circulation  the  Bible 
Yiia  under  its  action  attained. 

BIBLICAL  GEOGBAPHY.  In  the  heart  of 
the  eastern  continent^embraced  by  5  seas,  the 
Mediterranean,  the  Jj^gsaan,  the  Euxine,  the 
Caspian,  and  the  Persian  gulf^  lies  a  section  of 
the  globe  which  has  been  the  arena  of  most 
of  l£e  events  recorded  in  Scripture.  Here 
the  scene  opens  in  Genesis,  here  the  curtain  of 
the  flood  Ms  on  the  first  act,  and  here,  in  one  of 
the  coast-islands  of  the  JSgfloan.  occurs  the  dos- 
ing vision  of  the  Apocalypse.  On  the  north,  the 
great  Caucasian  wall  ^ans  the  breach  between 
the  waters  of  the  Caspian  and  the  Euxine,  tiie 
desert  of  salt  flanks  the  eastern  border  from  the 
Caspian  to  the  Persian  gul^  and  the  arid  sands 
of  Arabia  complete  the  endosore  on  the  south. 
The  territory  thus  bounded  was  unequalled  la 
the  fertility  of  its  soil,  the  variely  of  its  products, 
the  facilities  of  its  commerce,  and  the  salubrity 
of  its  climate.  It  was  fit  to  be  the  cradle  of  the 
race.  A  single  mountainous  system,  the  Taurus, 
cuts  centraSy  across  the  entire  area,  dividing 
it  into  2  nearly  equal  northern  and  southern 
portions.  THis  chain,  bifurcating  in  Ararat, 
sends  one  of  its  spurs  to  the  head  of  the  Per- 
sian gul^  and  unites  the  other  with  the  great 
Persian  range.  Dividing  similarly  at  the  head 
of  the  Mediterranean,  it  sends  the  southern  or 
Libanus  spur  along  Uie  eastern  shores  of  that 
sea,  and  distributes  the  other  into  those  scatter- 
ed and  broken  peaks  which  like  sentries  flank 
the  semicircular  coast  of  the  Anatolian  penin- 
sula, until  they  meet  the  Caucasus  on  the 
north.  Thus  this  whole  sea-girt  section  is  one 
vast  water-shed  with  two  culminating  points^ 
Arakut  in  the  north  and  Lebanon  in  the  south. 
It  is  well  watered  by  large  and  numerous 
rivers,  emptying  into  all  these  encircling  seas, 
among  which  are  prominent  the  Euf^ratea, 
the  Tigris^  the  Barada,  the  Orontes,  and  the 
Jordan.  Add  to  the  territory  thus  described, 
a  narrow  strip  on  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  peninsulas  of  Italy  and 
the  Peloponnesus  on  the  northern^  and  the  area 
of  biblical  geography  is  complete.  In  this  ex- 
panse are  induded  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  Chaldea  in  the  east,  the  extensive 
regions  of  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia  in  the 
north,  Greece  and  Italy  in  the  west^  and  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai  and  Egypt  in  the  south, 
while  Palestine  glitters  in  the  centre  of  the 
whole.  The  more  specific  geographical  features 
of  these  several  kingdoms  will  be  found  under 
their  appropriate  heads.  The  study  of  biblical 
geography  has  a  repulsive  feature  to  the  sta« 
dent  in  the  almost  universal  changes  of  the 
names  of  localities  in  modern  works^  and  the 


BmUOGRAPHT 


287 


ooDflequent  inabifity  to  identify  many  places 
poeBessmg  the  profonndest  interost  and  impor* 
tanoe.  Mnoh  has  hMj  been  done  by  the  re- 
searches of  trayellers  in  the  Eastmade  in  the 
special  interest  of  Bible  history.  We  may  here 
mention  with  the  hidbest  encomimn,  the  *'  Bib- 
lical Besearches  inPalestine  and  in  the  adia- 
cent  regions^**  by  that  inde&tigablesoholar,  Dr. 
Bobinson  of  this  country ;  as  aJso  an  admirable 
treatise,  "Sinai  and  Palestine,''  by  the  Bev.  Mr. 
Stanley,  canon  of  Canterbnry,  £ngUnd«  Mr. 
Stanley  well  remarks  in  his  prefatory  adver- 
tisement: ^^Mnch  has  been  written,  and  still 
remains  to  be  written,  both  on  the  history  and 
geography  of  the  chos^  people.  Bnt  there 
hare  been  comparatiyely  few  attempts  to  illns- 
trate  the  relation  in  which  each  stands  to  the 
other."  The  inflaenoe  of  the  geography  of  a 
country  on  its  history,  its  poetry,  and  even  its 
philosophy  and  religion,  is  yeiy  great,  and  it  is 
not  easy  to  oyerrate  tne  yalue  of  such  works 
aa  those  ahoye  mentioned  in  illostrating  the 
narratiye  and  teachings  of  the  Bible. 

BIBLI06RAPHT  (Or.  /3c/9Xioir,  a  book,  and 
ypo^  to  describe),  hterally  signifies  the  de- 
acription  of  books.  Among  the  Greeks  the  term 
PtfiSkwypa^  signified  only  the  writing  or  tran- 
scription of  books;  and  a  bibliographer  witji 
&em  was  a  writer  of  books,  in  the  sense  of  a 
copyist.  The  French  term  Bibliographie  was 
long  nsed  to  signify  only  an  acquaintance  with 
ancient  writings,  and  with  the  art  of  decipher- 
ing them.  In  its  modem  and  more  extended 
soise,  bibliography  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
science  or  knowledge  of  books,  in  regard  to 
the  materiBlw  of  which  they  are  composed,  thehr 
difBsrent  degrees  of  rarity,  curiosity,  reputed 
and  real  yalue,  the  subjects  discussed  by  their 
respectiye  anthon,  and  the  rank  which  they 
ought  to  hold  in  the  classification  of  a  library. 
It  is  therefore  divided  into  2  branches,  the  first 
cf  which  has  reference  to  the  contents  of  books, 
and  may  be  cidled,  fbr  want  of  a  better  phrase, 
intellectnal  bibliography ;  the  second  treats  of 
their  external  character,  the  history  of  particu- 
lar copies  deo^  and  may  be  termed  material 
Ublio^phy.  The  object  of  the  first  kind  is  to 
aoquamt  hterary  men  widi  the  most  valuable 
bo^  in  eYerr  department  of  study,  either  by 
means  of  eatcuoffueiraisonTUs  simply,  or  by  sim- 
ilar or  alphabetical  catalogues,  accompanied  by 
oritieal  remarks.  Ck>ncndered  as  a  distinct 
science,  bibUogrltpby  has  been,  and  still  is,  oul- 
tivated  most  extensively  in  France,  G-ermany, 
and  Italy.  This  is  owing,  in  a  great  degree,  to 
the  riches  of  the  large  public  libraries  of  those 
conntries^  which  are  freely  accessible  to  all  the 
great  number  of  fine  private  collections,  and  the 
familiarity  of  their  scholars  and  literary  men 
with  boolcs  of  an  ages  and  nations.  To  the  re- 
sesches  of  Barbier  and  Brunet,  Ebert  and 
Erach^  Ilraboschi  and  Gamba,  the  history  of 
fiteratnre  is  deeply  indebted.  Great  Britain 
can  indeed  boast  of  its  rich  public  and  private 
colleotions ;  but  the  use  of  them  is  limited,  and 
hence  the  aoience  has,  until  within  comparative* 


ly  a  recent  period,  received  less  attention  there 
than  upon  the  continent  The  labors  of 
Lowndes,  Home,  I>ibdin,and  Watt,  have  of 
late  years  done  much  to  promote  its  cultivation. 
In  this  country  the  science  has  been  very  nat- 
urally neglected.  But  the  general  diffusion  of 
knowled^  and  wealth  has  led  to  the  formation 
and  rapid  increase  of  public  and  private  libraries ; 
bibliography  is  therdore  receiiong  increased  at- 
tention, and  the  importance  of  its  claims  as  a 
practical  science  is  frequentiy  and  success- 
fully urged  by  our  leading  educational  and  lite* 
rary  men.  It  is  the  fault  of  many  of  the  vota- 
ries of  bibliography,  especially  in  France,  that 
they  have  exaggerated  the  value  of  their  favor- 
ite pursuit  far  beyond  that  rank  to  which  it  is 
fairly  entitied  in  the  scale  of  human  knowledge ; 
and  Peignot,  Achard,  and  others,  have  repre- 
sented it  as  the  most  extensive,  and  even  uni- 
versal, of  all  sciences.  Nothing  certainly  can 
be  more  absurd  than  to  view  it  in  this  light, 
merely  because  it  treats  of  books,  and  because 
books  are  the  vehicles  of  all  sorts  of  knowledge. 
Tet  this  is  the  only  foundation  that  can  be 
discovered  for  these  extravagant  representa- 
tions, which  tend,  as  in  all  other  cases  of  exag- 
gerated pretennon,  to  bring  ridicule  upon  a 
subject  which  cannot  be  regarded  otherwise 
than  highly  important,  when  simply  and  cor- 
rectiy  defined.  Ck)nfbrmably  to  what  has  now 
been  stated,  it  is  the  province  of  the  bibliogra- 
pher to  be  acquainted  with  the  materials  of 
which  books  are  composed,  and  their  dififerent 
forms,  the  number  of  pages,  the  typographical 
character,  the  number  and  description  of  the 
plates,  the  completeness,  correctness,  and  all 
the  other  external  peculiarities  or  distinctions  of 
an  edition.  He  knows  not  only  the  treatises 
that  have  been  written  on  anv  particular  topic, 
their  comparative  value,  and  the  various  edi- 
tions of  books,  but  also  m  what  important  re- 
spects one  edition  differs  from  another ;  when 
and  from  what  cause  omissions  have  been  made, 
deficiencies  supplied,  errors  corrected,  and  ad- 
ditions subjoined.  When  books  have  been 
published  anonymously,  or  pseudonymously,  he 
indicates  the  real  name  of  the  concealed  author ; 
and  with  regard  to  the  rarity  of  books,  he  is 
acquainted  with  all  the  causes  which  have  con- 
tributed to  render  them  scarce.  Finally,  as  a 
libraiy  destitute  of  arrangement  is  a  "  chaos 
and  not  a  cosmos,^  he  disposes  the  hooka 
which  it  comprises,  in  such  an  order  as  will 
present  an  agreeable  appearance  to  the  eye; 
and  in  compiling  a  catalogue,  he  assigns  to 
them  that  place  which  they  ought  to  hold  in 
the  system  of  dassification  adopted  for  arrang- 
ing a  public  or  private  coUectioii  of  books. 
Such  are  the  legitimate  duties  of  the  bibliogra- 
pher, requiring  a  variety  and  extent  of  knowl- 
edge, selaom  if  ever  possessed  by  a  single  indi- 
vidual. Hence  different  writers  have  discussed 
particular  topics  of  bibliography;  and  from 
their  united  labors  can  be  collected  the  multifiir 
rious  ii^ormation  requisite  to  constitute  the 
weil-infonned  bibliographer.     A  collection  of 


BmUOGRAPHT 


all  the  works  belon^^  to  the  yarioos  depart- 
ments of  this  soienoe,  indudiiur  general  and 
special  bibliography,  wonld.  it  has  been  es- 
timated, exceed  20,000  Yommes.  The  more 
important  of  these  are  indicated  or  described  in 
Namor's  BibUoffraphie  pdUographic(hdiploffM' 
tieo-hiblwgrtxphiqueginlralsj  2  vols.  870.  Li^ge, 
1838;  also  in  reignot^s  Bepertoire  inbUoatra- 
phique  univ&nelf  8vo.  Paris,  1812;  Homers  *'In- 
trodactionto  the  studj  of  Bibliography,"  yol.  ii.. 
8vo.  Lond.  1814;  Bonn's  ^'General  Oatalogae,'^ 
vol  i.,  8vo.  Lond.  1847 ;  and  Petzholdt's  Jjum- 
ger/ur  Literaturder  JBibliothebwisaenscha^  an 
important  German  periodical  conmienoed  in 
1840.  For  information  upon  certain  points  con- 
nected with  bibliography,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  articles  Book,  Book-skllino,  BooK-BiNoma, 
OA.TixoonBS,  DiPLOMiiTios,  Enosayino,  Libba.- 
BiBS,  Makubobxpts,  Papbb,  Pbuttino,  and  Wbi- 
TiSQ.  The  following  elementary  works  treat 
generally  upon  all  matters  appertaining  to  this 
science.  Althoogh  not  yery  recent^  and  a  part  of 
them  not  well  digested,  they,  neyertheless,  con- 
ta'm  much  corioos  as  well  as  useful  information : 


^      (0.  F.)     Cmn   ^Itenentelre  do  BlbttognoUa 

BovLAEJ)  (8.)  Triiltr6l6mentaire  de  BfbUognphia.  8to. 
Paris,  ISO*. 

DsHB(BL)  Elnleitang  in  di«  Badherknnde.  8d6d.STol& 
4to.    Wl6n,17M-'«. 

BiBDZH  (T.  F.)  Blbliognphical  Decameron.  8  toIb.  royal 
8va    London,  IBIT. 

HoBKB  (T.  H.)  An  Introduction  to  the  Btady  of  BlbUogm- 
phy.    2  Toli  8Ta    X^ndon,  1814 

PsxoHOT  (G.)  Dlotlonnalre  BalsonnA  de  BiUlologie  (with 
Bupplement>    8  toIa  Sto.    Paria,  18QS-*A 

MoBTXLLARo  (y.)  Stttdlo  Bibliogia&oo.  2d  ed.  8to.  Pa- 
lermo, 1882. 

We  purpose,  in  the  fhrther  discussion  of  this 
article,  to  ^ve  a  select  list  of  some  of  the  sources 
of  information  upon  a  few  of  the  most  import- 
ant branches  of  bibliography,  arranging  them 
in  alphabetical  order  under  their  appropriate 
heads,  and  adding  occasionfll  explanatory  notes 
and  remarks. 

I. — The  Origin  <md  Progress  qf  Writing^  Mcmur 
scripts  and  DiphmaUcs^  Monograms  amd  Aur 
tographsy  MatericUsfor  Writing  or  Printing^ 
Bngravtng  on  Wood,  Copper,  Stone,  Ac 
The  subjects  belongmg  to  this  section  haye 
furnished  topics  for  much  elaborate  research, 
and  some  of  them  for  speculations  and  disputes 
not  yet  brought  to  any  satisfactory  conclusion. 
Our  obiect  is  simply  to  indicate  the  inquiries 
which  belong  to  dm»rent  departments  of  bibli- 
ography, witn  some  of  the  best  guides  to  in- 
formation upon  each,  leaTing  the  discnssion  of 
the  topics  themselyes  for  separate  artides. 
1.  Writiho. 

AtTLi  CI^oa)  The  Origin  and  Progress  ofWritlnft  as  weU 
hieroglyphic  as  elementary.  A  new  edition  or  thia  Im- 
portant work  haa  been  pablished  by  Bowe,  in  1  toL 
royal  ooarta  Illastrated  by  Engravings.  8ded.4to.  Lon- 

CsAMPOLUOH-FiosAO  (J>^*)    Pr^ds  dn  Bysttaie  Hl^ro- 

glyphiqno  des  anclens  Egyptiens,  aToo  planchea.    2d  ed. 

royal  8to.    PariSi  1888b 
FoBHA  D'UnBAif.     Easai  sar  IXMglne  de  ITfteritnre,  snr 

son  Introdaction  dana  la  Ordoe,  et  son  Usage,  jnaqa'aa 

Temps  d'Homdre.    Sro.    Paris.  1882. 
FsT  (JL)    Pantographla;  containing  aoenrate  ooplea  of  all 

the  known  alphabets  In  the  world,  together  with  an  Eng- 


lish explanation  of  the  ibree  or  power  of  each  letter. 
Boyal  8to.    London,  17M. 

fixLTBTKi  (J.  B.)  PalAographle  uniTersellA  CoUectlon  do 
ihc-simile  d'£eritares  de  tons  lea  Peuples,  et  tons  let 
temps,  etc,  et  aoeompagnte  d*Expllcationa  hfstoriqnea 
et  deseriptlves  par  MML  Champollion-Figeao  et  llaA 
Champolllon  Fils.    4  toIs.  foUo.    Psria,  18N. 

WAIU.T  (M.  N.  Ds.)  Elements  de  Pal6ognphiA  %  TOk. 
royal  4to.    Paris,  188& 

2.  Manuscripts  and  DiFLOHAncs. 

DxLAKDorx  (A.  FO  Mannscrits  de  la  BibUotheqne  de  Lyon. 
Pr6cM6s  d^  nn  Essai  snr  les  MSB.  en  gtodrsL  Stc  8  to1& 
8vo.    Leon,  1818. 

Edbbt  (F.  a.)  Znr  Handachriftenkonde.  9  yola.  Sto. 
Leipzig,  ISSS-'ST. 

HvMPHUTB  (H.  N.)  The  Illnmlnated  Booka  of  the  Mlddlo 
Agea:  An  Aoeoant  of  the  Development  and  Prttneaaof 
the  Art  of  lUamination,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  Fictorial 
Ornamentation,  kc  Illastrated  by  a  series  of  exampleSi 
of  the  siio  of  the  originals,  by  Owen  Jones.  Folia  Lon- 
don, 1848, 

A  tplMidid  ud  cotllT  work. 

Mabuxoh  (J.)  De  Be  DiplomatlGa  Libri  Bex,  enm  Bt 
^  mento.    8d  ed.  8  vols,  fcdlo  (fine  plates).    Neapoli,  I'l  - 
H0MITI.VOON  (DoM  B.  DB.)     Bibliotheca  BibUothecarom 

Mannacriptoram  Nova.    SvoUfbUo.    Paris,  1788. 
NovvKAv  Traits  de  Dlplomatigne.     Par  deux  Beligtenz 

B6n6dlctins,  de  le  Gong,  de  S.  Maor.    (MM  Toustaln  and 

Tassin.i    6  vols.  4to.    Paris,  176a 
Yijms  (DoM  Di.)  Diotionnaire  Baisonn6  de  Diplomatiqiw. 

8yola.8vo.    Paris,  1774. 

A  oooMMiMlimB  of  Ui«  UriK«r  and  moN  wsUr  frarkitf  MmW!l«w,  Moa- 

tee(ai,BiAi,ToaitaiB,TMib,*«. 

8.   MOMOORAliS  AHD  AUTOORAPHB. 

BsuiuoT  (F.)   Diotionnalro  dee  Monogiammes,  MaraneA 

flgar6es,  Lettres  initiales,  ^oms  abr«g6a,  etc.  avee  lea- 

qnels  les  Pelntres,  Dessinateun.  Oravenrs  et  Bonlptenim 

^nt  d68lgn6  lenrs  Noms.    9d  ed.  8  parts,  4ta    Mniiiah, 


et  d« 


"  Oanaf*  trt*  Inportant"— BTQnei. 
FoKTAnrx  (P.  J.)    Des  Collections  des  Aat<  „ 
l'CJtilit6  qn'on  pent  en  retiier.    8vo.    Paris,! 
FonTAiKx  (P.  J.)    Mannel  de  TAmatenr  des  AatographsL 

8vo.    Paris,  1»M. 
PxxojiOT  (O.)    Beoherehes  hlstoriones  et  bibliot   . 
snr  les  Autographos  et  sur  rAniogn^hle.    8va 
1888. 
4.  Matkriais  ior  Writiko  or  pRnmvo. 

Koops  (M)  Historical  Aooonnt  of  the  Bnbstanoes  which 
have  Deen  need  to  describe  events  and  to  convey  ideaai, 
from  the  earliest  date  to  the  Invention  of  paper.  8vo. 
London,  1801. 

La  NoBMJjm  (L.  8.)  Mannel  dn  Fabricant  de  Papers,  tto. 
(with  plates.)    8vols.l2ma    Paria,  1884. 

Peionot  (G.)  Essai  snr  llOistoire  dn  Parehemln  et  da 
YeUn.    8vo.    Paris,  1818. 

Tatlok  (ISAAa)  History  of  the  Transmission  of  Anoleiii 
Books  to  modern  times  (oontaining  the  history  of  mann- 
B<slpta,  an  accoont  of  the  materials  of  ancient  hooka,  io- 
stroments  of  writing,  inks,  Ac.)    8vo.    London,  1887. 

Wkhbs  (G.  F.)  Yon  Papier,  Ac.  (With  aapplement)  8  vols. 
8vo.    Halle  and  Hanover,  1789->90. 

6.  Enoratino  on  Coppir,  Wood,  Stokx,  &g. 

Bartboh  (A.  dx.)    Le  Pointre  Oravenr.    81  vds.  Svow 

Vienne,  Degon,  et  Mechettl.  1806.'91. 
Bbtan  (M.)    A  Biographlod  and  Critioal  DieUonaiy  of 

Painters  and  Engravers;  with  the  Ciphers,  MonogramiL 

and  Marks  nsed  by  each  Engraver.    (New  ed.  revised  and 

enlarged  by  Stanley.)   BoytuSvo.   London,  1849. 
EvoxuiANK  (Q.)    Iraitd  th^oretiqne  et  pratique  de  Lltho- 

graphic.    8ded.4to.    Paris.  1889.     • 
HBirxcKKH  (M.  LX  Baxon.)  Idee  ^frn^ral  dMne  Collection 

oogipl^  d'Satampes.  avec  one  Dissertation  snr  IHM- 

gine  de  la  Gravnre.    8va    Leipsic,  177L 

A  Tidnbl*  work,  illnttraUd  wilh  48  fiiM  enKimTinp.  ..  ^     , 

FiBLDXKO  (t.  H.)  The  Art  of  Engraving;  being  an  Uston- 
cal  and  distinct  aooonnt  of  the  various  styles  now  prac- 
tised, with  instmctions  as  to  the  various  modes  of  operao 
tion,AcL    BoyslSvo.    London,  1840i  ^    . 

Jaoksox  (J.)  A  Treatise  on  Wood  Engraving,  historicsd 
and  prscUcal.  Boyal  8vo.  London,  18»).  With  upward 
of  80O  illustrations. 

Tb*  Mthor  io  tha  3d  cbcpUr  dlwaMC«  tba  cUbm  of  Gatonbcw  nd 
Cotter  to  th«  boDor  of  tha  JavMitioa  of  printliif ,  njkportiog  IhoM  of  (a* 
formor.  ^ 

Kaolxx  (Dr.  G.  K.)  Kenes  Allgemeines  Kdnstler-Lexlooa. 
83  vols.  8va    Munchen,  1885-^58. 

n*  b«tt  and  BHWt  •stenriTc  work  of  th«  kind  extant,  bemir  •  bifipvphi- 

eal  dictiooanr,  with  rritieal  notie««,  of  the  worka  of  i«iQlen,  icul^tun,  «•- 
ran,  <l#«ifrn«n  *'"' 


^ , ,. -oia,  liihoKTRphwa,  *r. 

OxTUBT  (W.  Y.)    History  of  Engraving  upon  Copper  and 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Wood,  with  ta  Aofioant  «f  EngnTsn  tad  tholr  Worlu. 
9  Tola.  TOjal  4to.    Londoii,  1814. 

BOTBBBT  (d.  M  PrIndpU  Typogrtphleft.  The  Block- 
Books  UBUcd  fa  Holland,  Flandera,  and  CMrmany,  during 
the  15th  oentaiy.    8Tol8.4ta    London,  1858. 

Spoovkb  (80  A  Blographleal  and  Critical  Dietionary  of 
Painters,  Elngravers,  Bcnlptors.  and  Architects,  with  the 
Monograms^  Ciphers,  and  ICarka  used  by  Distinguished 
ArtlsU  to  CertlOr  their  Works.    8to.    New  York,  1858w 

n. — The  Origin  and  Progrea  of  Printing^  and 

Early  JMnUd  Boohs. 
The  bistory  of  the  origiii  of  this  most  im- 
portant of  all  human  inventions  is  enveloped  in 
mystery,  the  most  widely  opposite  opinions  npon 
the  sabject  being  still  entertained.  Although 
within  twenty  years  from  its  disoovery  it  was 
spread  all  over  Europe,  commemorating  all 
other  inventions^  and  handing  down  to  posterity 
every  important  event,  it  has  unfortunately 
fiuled  to  record  in  decisive  terms  the  name  of 
its  own  inventor.  To  determine  this,  as  well 
as  the  place  where  the  discovery  was  made,  has 
given  employment  to  the  studies  and  researches 
of  the  most  learned  men  in  Europe  during  the 
last  2  centuries.  We  can  only  point  out  some 
of  the  most  important  publications  on  the  sub- 
ject, together  with  manu^  and  dictionaries  of 
the  art,  and  such  works  as  are  particularly  de- 
scriptive of  early  printed  booka 

Am  (J.)  Trpogn^hloal  Antiquities;  being  an  Historical  Ae- 
coont  of  Printing  in  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  8d 
edition,  enJargedhy  Herbert  8Tols.4to.  London,  1785-'9a 

A  thifri  «Bd  TMy  co«aj  •diU4n  vu  nraparad  by  Dibdin,  fnaUy  «b> 
JarfSd,  with  e«piaM  BOtM,  Ac    4Tob.4to.    I.«iidoii,  ISIO-'IS. 

AvDiTFRSDi  (J.  Bw)    OUalogns  Historioo-Criticus  Bomana- 

rum  Bdltionum  Bccnli  XV.    Also,  Specimen  Hlstorico- 

Orltieun  Editionum  Itallcanim  Baonli  XV.   S  Tola.  4to. 

Boma,  IfSS-'Vi. 
Bavdihi  (A.  IL)   Do  Florentina  Juntamm  lypbgraphla. 

9  vols.  8 vo.    Lnocaa.lT9L 
CoTTOir  (HsirmT.)    Typogz^>hlcal  Oatetteer.    8d  edition, 

8to.   Oxford,  ISSSb 
l>Aimoir  (P.  G.  F.)    Analyse  des  Opinions  diyenea  sor  rOri- 

gine  de  rimprimerie.    Bra  Paris,  1808. 
PiBDDf  (T.  F.S    Bibliothoca  Spencorlana;  or,  a  Descriptiyt 

Gatalogne  m  Early  Printed  BookL  and  of  many  Important 

first  emtions  in  the  Ubrary  of  Earl  Spencer.    4  Tola,  royal 

8Ta   London,  1814->ia. 

ThU  hbnrj  wwlai— d  iifiOO  TohmiM,  wttMj  of  laiv  and  9oMy  woika. 
VALXsmTura  (Kabi.)    Geschiehte  dor  Buchdmekerkuaflt 

4ta    Leipzic,  1840. 
OBmrBLLCWP.)   Annals  of  Parisian  Typognmhy.    8to. 

London,  181&    Also.  View  of  the  Early  Parisian  Qreek 

Preos.    Sto1s.8tol    Oxford.  188a 
Haxh  (Lu)   Bepertorlum  BlDliognphleain.    4  toIs.  Sto. 

Btattgart,  1886-*88. 
CoottuBtDf  l«,9M  ailldM  d««eribiBf  tHtli  grtat  M«Bnej  all  th*  adl' 

tioB«  of  tiM  IMh  oMrtory  kaowo  to  the  aaUior. 

HAjnASD  (T.  C.)  Typographia:  An  Historical  Sketch  of  the 
Origin  and  Progress  of  Printing.  Boyal  8to.  London,  182& 
Also,  History  of  the  Art  of  PrtnUng,  Copperplate  Print- 
tnc,  Type  Founding;  and  Lithographio  Printing.  8to. 
Edinhuncb,  1840. 

HooGsoir  (THoe*)  An  Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of 
Stereotype  Printing,  including  a  description  of  the  Tarions 
8to.    Mewcastlo,  1880. 

Only  SM  oopiM  printed. 

*^'     ^ther 


JoanoH  (J.)  Typographia,  or  t 
Tola.  8to^  London,  ISiL 


i  Printer*^  LBstmctor.    9 


Laibb  (F.  X.)  Index  Librorum  ab  Inrsnta  Typogrq>hiA  ad 
Annum  IfiOO  (with  »  BupplementV.  8  toIs.  Sto.  Paris, 
ITM-'Sl 

MAXTTina  (IC)  Annales  Typographic!  ad  annum  1664,  com 
Bnpplomento  DenlsiL  T  toIs.  (or  11  when  the  parts  are 
bound  up  separatelyX  4to.  Hag.  Com.  et  Yiennffi,  1710-'80. 

Mbbsmajc  (O.)  Origlnos  Ty^ognfUdom.  2  toIs.  4ta  Hs& 
Com.l769L 

Tb«  fTMi  wvfriC  in  nimort  of  tho  put— iln—  of  LmmiiM  Cotter  M 
th«  mvantor,  rimI  ot  Hanmm  m  tho  Mrth.plMO  of  tho  art  of  pfinUnr. 

PAjran  (O.  WO  Annales  Typographic!  ad  annum  1686. 
llT0]s.4to.    Norimb.  1798-lbOC 

Tbo  moot  •ztooMvo  work  •stent oo  th«  prodnrtieia  of  tho  ISth  eootarj*. 

EwsrovARD  (A.  A.)  Annales  de  rimprimerie  des  Aide,  id 
edition,  3  vols.  Sto.  Parts,  1825.  Also,  Annales  de  Tim- 
primorlo  dM  fi»tlonnew   2partB,8yo.  Pari^  ISST-'SL 


BAXTAjrDn  (U.  db  la  Bbbm a.)   An  Historical  Essay  on  tbo 

Origin  of  Printing.    Translated  IW^m  the  French.    8va 

Newcastie.  Hodgson,  1819. 
Bataob  (w.)    DIcUonary  of  the  Art  of  Printing.    Thick 

8vo.   London,  1811. 
Btowbb  (C.)    The  Printer^s  Grammar  (with  pUtes).    8to. 

London,  180& 
TnoiLAs  (Isaiail)     History  of  Printing  in  America,  with 

Biographies  of  Printers,  and  an  Aooount  of  Newspapers* 

&c    2to1s.6to.    Worcester,  ISIO. 
TncPBSLT  (C.  H.)    EnoTolopsQdiA  of  Literary  and  Typo> 

graphical  Anecdote.  8d  edition,  thick  royal  bTa  London, 

WiLLBTT  (B.)  a  Memoir  on  the  Origin  of  Printing.  8to. 
Newcastle,  1820,  pp.  72. 

Only  ISO  AjfiM  printed. 

WoLiiuB  (J.  C.)  Monumenta  Typognphiea.  2  thick  TOla. 
Bra   Hamburgl,  1740. 

ni. — Eare^  Anonymous^  and  JPieudanymouB 
Books. 

1.  Ram  Books. 

One  of  the  objects  of  bibliographT*  is  to  in- 
dicate those  books  which,  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree,  come  nnder  this  category.  With  regard 
to  these  compilations  we  may  remark,  that 
though  in  most  of  them  the  epithet  rare  la 
sometimes  applied  too  vagaely  and  lavishly, 
they  are  nevertheless,  as  a  class,  extremely  nse- 
foL  It  is,  indeed,  exceedingly  oifficnlt  to  speak 
in  all  oases  with  precision  in  regard  to  rare 
books,  and  hence,  perhaps,  impossible  to  com* 
pile  a  work  of  this  kind  which  shall  not  some- 
times mislead  those  who  consult  it.  A  distino- 
tion  should  always  be  made  between  the  terms 
rare  and  precious,  which,  while  at  first  they 
appear  to  mean  the  same  thing,  are  yet  essen- 
tially different  A  book  may  be  rare  because 
it  is  with  difficulty  to  be  procured,  and  hence 
highly  valued  by  amateurs  who  desire  the  ex- 
clusive possession  of  it,  regardless  of  cost.  On 
the  other  hand,  books  may  be  precious,  and  to 
be  obtained  only  at  a  high  price,  without  being 
rare.  Such  are  the  splendid  ooUections  of  ar- 
chitectural engravings  published  by  Piranesi 
and  others;  the  collections  called  galleries  and 
cabinets ;  the  great  collections  of  works  on  an- 
tiquities by  Gronovius,  Grsvius,  Montfaucon, 
Muratori,  and  others.  The  following  may  be 
noticed  as  among  the  principal  bibliographical 
works  under  this  head,  in  addition  to  Audiffre- 
d^  Dibdin,  Hain,  Laire,  Midttaire,  and  Panzer, 
described  under  the  previous  head. 

"Bajto,  (J.  J.)  Bibllotheca  Librorum  Bariorum  UnlTeraalia. 

(With  supplement)    7  toIs.  8to.   Nortmb.  1770-'91. 
Cubaxn  (Daytd.)  BibUotheone  Curiense ;  ou  CaUlogue 

Baisonne  des  LiTres  rares,  et  dliBdles  k  trouTcr.    9  Tola. 

4to.   GOttingen  and  Lelpsio.  ITSO-'SO. 

CouM  dowa  no  Anther  than  to  Um  hUar  H. 

DiBDDr(T.  F.)  A  Bibliogn^hical,  Antiquarian  and  Picta> 
resqno  Tour  In  France  and  Germany  (containing  a  ftmd 
of  information  in  regard  to  manuscripts,  rare  books,  Jte.). 
8  Tols.  royal  8Ta   London,  1821. 

DzBDor  (T.  F.)  A  Bibliographical  and  Picturesque  Tour  in 
the  counties  of  England  and  In  Scotland.  8  toIs.  royal 
8tol    London,  1888. 

FotruHm  (F.  J.)  NouTeau  Bietionnaire  portatlf  de  Blblio- 
* '      oontenant  plus  de  Tlngt-trois  mille  Articles  do 


▼ros  rares,  curious,  estimds,  et  rocherch^s,  Ao,    8d  edi- 
tion, 8to.    Paris,  1809. 
OxBOBSiuB  (D.)     Florileglnm   Hlstorico-Criticum  Libro- 
rum Rariorum,  Ac  8d  eidition,  Svo.   Groninne,  1768;. 

"~  EL)    Book  Raritios  of  the  UniTerslty  of 


HAVEsaoBira  (C. 
Cambridge.    Sto.    London,  1S29. 


OsMoNT  ('T.  B.  L.)  Dtctionnalro  typographiqne,  histor 
et  critiquo  des  Livres  rares,  slnguUers,  es*;im6s,  Ac.  2 
Sto.   Paris,  17fla 


historique, 
"Tola. 


240 


BIBUOGRAFHT 


Pbohot  (G.)   B§m1  de  Chnioaiiis  BfbUognphiqaea.   Sra 

Paria,18(M. 
PziOKOT  (G.)    Yari6t^  Notiees  et  Baratte  Mbliogn^biqaM. 

8to.   Paris.  1898. 
PnOHOT  (G.)    E^pertoire  de  BibUognphles  speoUlea,  ea- 

rleoAM,  et  iiistnictlr^a.    8ro.   Paris,  1810. 
Bahtakdbb  (M.  db  la  Sbbva.)  Bietionnalre  Bibliographlqne 

choisl  da  Qninzi^me  Slide;  oa  Deacrijptton  des  Edltlona 

lo8pliianrea,dEO.  Syola.  8va   BnizeliM  et  Pails,  18(K^7. 
Tn«  flnt  ToluoM  eooUias  an  akboimto  hlstoiy  of  priDtiog,  aotioad  aadar 


G.)    AnMsnltates  Utenils  (notteiiig  : 


■  preriou  haad. 

BonLHOsir  (J.      ,  , 

books,  Ac).    2d  edit    Uvols.    8va    lips. 
Yah  Pear  (B1)    CatalMnie  des  Llrres  Imprimte  sar  Tdlln, 

deUBiblloth^qnedaBol.    6to1sl8to.   Taxis.  18M-'& 
Yan  Psaxt  (M.)    Catalogue  des  Llyres  impilm6s  sar  Y6' 

lln,  qni  se  troavent  dans  des  Blbiiotbdqiies  pabliqaes  et 

particulidres.    4  TolSb.  8yo.    Paris,  1824-%. 
YoGT  (J.)    CataloKos  Hlstorlco-Critleas  libronmi  Barlo- 

rnsL   5th  ed.  tluok  6yo.    Norlmb.  1798. 

2.  Anovtmous  JlKd  PnuDONrxous  Books. 

Anonymoas  books  are  those  which  are  pub- 
lished without  any  author's  name.  Orypton- 
ymous  books  are  those  whose  names  are  con- 
cealed under  an  anagram,  or  similar  contrivance. 
Pseudonymous  books  are  those  which  bear 
false  names  of  audiors.  The  great  number  of 
works  embraced  under  these  classes  renders 
this  a  very  important  branch  of  bibliographical 
inquiry. 

Babbixb  (A.  A.)   DteUonnain  des  Oavragea  Ahobtxiim  et 

pBeodonyme&    2ded.   4toIs.   8ro.    Parls,182^T. 
Tha  baal  work  oqUm  aul^aot;  flanflaad,  hotriTar,  to  Fkaneh  and  UHa 

book*. 
LAKOvnx  (Y.)    Psoadontmla  Orvero  TaTole  Allkbetlche 

de'Noml,Aa    8vo.  Milan,  1886. 
MAKini  (M.  Di.)   Noaveaa  Becaeil  d'Oaymges  Anonymea 

et  Pseadonymes.    8vo.   Paris,  1884w 
Plaooxitb  (Y.)    Theatrom  Anonymoram  et  Paendonj 

nun.     (Edited  br  Fabrldoa  and  Breyer.)    2d 

Hambarg,  1708. 
To  whieh  tlioald  ba  addad  a  aapplamaDt  hj  J.  C.  Mylioa,  pobUihad  In 

:T40,  folio. 
QviRARD  (J.  K.)    Les  £crIvalDS  Pseadonymes  et  aatres 

Mystlfleateais  de  la  Lltt^ratore  Francaise,  Ac    Sto.    Pa- 
ris, 185i-'fi. 
SoHXiOT  (A.  G.)    Gallorle  Dentsober  Pseudonymor  Bchrlf t- 

steller,  ^be.    870.  Grimma,  184a 

lY. — Oriental  and  Clamcal  LatiguageB, 

Bomr  (H.  G.)    General  Cataloffue.    Part  second.    Greek 

ud  Latin  GlassiGs,  Oommentanes,  and  Translations.    Sto. 

London,  18M. 
OLAun  (A.)    BibUograpbieal  Dictionary,  vlth  supplement 

8  vols,  small  8to.    London,  180a-^ 
DiBDiN  (T.  F.)   Introduction  to  a  Knowledge  of  rare  and 

▼alnable  Editions  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Claasios.    4th 

ed.  2  vols.  8to.   London,  1827. 
SiroKLiiABrK  (W.)   BibUvtheca  Bcviptonim  dsssloonun,  et 

Grecorum,  et  Latlnomm.    (6th  ed.  of EnsUn's  Bibllotheoa, 

enlarged,  Ac.,  with  a  snpplement.)  8to.   IJps.  18l7-*08. 
Fabbioius  (J.  A.)    Bibllothoca  Graoa,  ed.  Barles.    4th  ed. 

12Tola.4ta    Hambnrg,  1790-1809. 
Fabuoiitb  ( J.  AO   BlbUotheoa  Latlna,  ed.  BmestL   StoIs^ 

8va   Llpe.l77i-'4 
Fabuoxus  (J.  A.)   BIbliotheea  Lattna  Hedin  et  Inflmn 

^tatis.    6To1s.4to.   PataTil,  1754. 
HAJZ-KHALrA-MuBTArA   (B.  A.  K.  L)     Lezioon  biblio- 

graphlcam  et  encydopndienm,  Ao.  (A  work  on  oriental 

bibliography,  edited  by  G.  FlttgeL)    6  toIs.  4to.    Leipslo 

and  London,  1885-'52.  '  ^    '  "^ 

HauuLOT  (&  ]>\)    Blblloth6qne  Orientale,  angment6e  par 

Schultens.    Best  edition,  4  T0I&  4ta    La  Haye,  1772-m 
Homi AKX  (S.  F.  W.)    BIbllographlsches  Lezioon  der  ge- 

sammten  Literatnr  der  Gfiechen.    2d  ed.  8  toIs.  Sto. 

Leipiig,  1888-'45. 
HorPMAKH  (8.  F.  W.)    Handbnch  car  BQcherkande  far 

Lohre  nnd  Stndiom  der  beiden  alten  Klassisohen  and 

Dentsehen  Bprachei    8vo.    Leipzig.  188a 
Hofls  (J.  W.)  llannal  of  Classical  Blbllognphy.    Kew  ed. 

2  vols.  Sto.   London,  1887. 
BcHwxiou  (F.  L.  A.)    Handbnch  der  Klassischen  Blblio- 

enphie.    8yo]s.8To.  Leipzig,  1880-'4. 
WoLnu8(J.  C)    BibUotheca  Hebraa.    4Tols.4ta    Hamb. 

lT15-'8a 
ZsncsE  (J.  T.)   Mannel  da  Bibllognohlo  Orientale.   Sto. 

Leipsio,  1846w 


ilogue  dee  OiiTrages  snr  l*Hlstolre  de 
Jly  pertaining  to  thoee  ports  of  Amer* 
wsession  of  the  French.)   8  pta.  Stol 


4toL 


Y,—Btblioffraphy  of  Modem  NdUoru,  or  Na^ 
Uenal  Bibliographies, 

1.  Amsbioa. 

AsHn  (G.  M.)   Bibliographical  and  Historical  Essay  on  the 

Batch  Books  and  Pamphlets  relating  to  New  NetihezlaBd. 

6  pts.  small  4to.   Amsterdam,  18&9. 
ABPiirwALL(J.)  BIbliotheea  America}  Septentrionalls.    Sto. 

Paris,  1820. 
BzBuooKApHXOAL  Catax-oovb  of  Books,  Tranalattonsof  tke 

Scriptores,  and  other  Pablications  in  the  Indian  Tongnet 

of  the  United  SUtea.    Sto.  Washington,  1849. 
BiBUovHBOA  Ambbioaita;  or,  a  Ohronological  OatalogneoC 

the  most  ooriona  and  interesting  Books,  Paxdphlet^  Ao, 

upon  North  and  Bonth  America.    4to.    I/ondon,  1789. 
Dalbtxplb  (A.)    Gatalogae  of  Authors  who  haTe  written  on 

the  Bio  de  la  Plata,  dea    4to.    London,  1807. 
BvTOKnroK  (B»  A.  and  G.  L.)    Cyclopedia  of  Amerf can  U^ 

ezatore.    2to1s.   royal  8to.    rTew  York,  18561 
FABiBAirur,  (B.  G.)  Catalof  ~  "* 

VAmfoiqae.  (Eapedally. 

lea  formerlT  in  toe  possession  c 

Qnebec,  1887. 
B:BKirBr  (W.)    BIbliotheea  Amerloantt  PrUnoidla. 

London,  1718. 
LuDBwio  (H.  E.)   The  Literature  of  American  Local  Hla* 

tory;  a  BibHographioal  Essay.    8to.   New  York,  18i6L 
Mbubbl    BIbliotheea  Historica.    Yob.  8  and  la 

Doaeribad  onder  aoothar  head. 

NoBTON'A  Literary  Beglster;  or,  Annoal  Book  Ust  fcr  thd 
yearlS&fi.    8to.    New  York,  1896. 

BiCH  (O.)  A  Catslogae  of  Books  reUitlnff  principally  to 
America,  arranged  nnder  the  years  in  which  they  wera 
printed,  fh>m  loOO  to  1700.    8to.  London,  1881 

CoiitaidaK4W  arttel«a. 

BxoH  (p.)  BIbliotheea  Americana  Notb,  since  ITOO.    Sra 

London,  188S. 
Bzoh(0.)    Bupplement.    1701-1800.    8to.  London,  184L 

Tha  Bibliotheea  and  Snpplammt  eontain  <,618  artideiu 

BiCH(0.)  BIbliotheea  Americana  NoTa.  1801-1844.  (With 
an  index).    8to.    London,  1846. 

Boobb  AOB(0.  A.)BibIlotheca  Americana :  Catalogue  of  Amer- 
ican Publicationa,  including  Beprints  and  Original  Worka, 
from  1820  to  1852;  with  supplement  to  1855.  I^xge  8vo» 
New  York,  1865.   Addenda  to  March  1, 1858. 

Tbrxaux-Gompaks  (H.)  Biblioth^ue  Amdricalne.  Sto. 
Paris,  1887. 

Cootaina  tha  tiUe*  of  1.1SS  worin  pabllthad  prerioaa  to  tlia  rear  ITOO. 

TbvbkbbIs  Bibliographical  Guide  to  American  Literature. 

12mo.    London,  1856. 
Wabden  (D.  6.)    BIbliotheea  Americana;  being  a  ohoioo 

oolleetlon  of  American  Books,  dsc    8to.   Paris,  184a 

The  inquirer  under  this  head  will  also  consult 
Literary  World,  16  vols.  4to.  New  York,  1847- 
'58 ;  Norton's  Literary  Gazette^  8  vols,  small 
foUo,  and  1  vol.  4to.  New  York,  1861-'4;  Nor- 
ton's Literary  Almanac  and  Register  for  1852, 
1858,  and  1854;  Puhlishers'  Circular,  a  weekly 
periodical  commenced  in  New  York  in  1855, 
and  still  continued;  Portfolio,  5  vols.  4to  and 
42  volB.  8vo.  Phila.  1801-'27;  Analectic  Ma- 
gazine, 16  vols.  8vo.  Phila.  1813-'20;  North 
American  Beview,  Christian  Examiner,  Meth- 
odist Quarterly,  New  York  Review,  Silliman's 
Journal,  Democratic  Review,  Southern  Quar- 
terly Beview,  and  other  leading  periodicals  of 
the  day. 

2.  Qkkas  Britain. 

AiTDKBSOK  (C.)  Annals  of  the  EnsUsh  Bible.  (Containing 
a  list  of  the  Tarioos  editions,  4bcO  2  toIs.  8to.  London, 
1845.* 

Bbloi  (Wx.)  Anecdotes  of  Literatare  and  Scarce  Bookai 
8to.    London,  ISOT-'li. 

Bomr  (J.)  Catalogae  of  an  ExtensiTe  Collection  of  EngUah 
Books.    8TO.    London,  1829. 

Bbtdob  (8.  R)  Gensnra  Literaria ;  containing  Titles,  Ab- 
stracts, and  Opinions  of  old  English  Books.  10  toIs^  Stol 
Lond.l816L 

Bbtdobb  (S.  E.)  The  British  Bibliographer.  4  vols.  Srok 
Lend.  1810-'14. 

Bstdoks  (8.  S.)  Bestitata:  or,  Titles,  Extracts,  and  Char- 
acters of  old  books  in  English  Literature,  rsTised.  4  to1& 
8to.  Lond.  1814-'1«. 

COTTOK  (H.)  Editions  of  the  Bible  and  Parts  thereof  in 
SngML.    8ded.8T0.    Oxford,  1868. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


241 


(A.  P.)    BiUloUiees  Anglo-Poeties ;  or,  a  De- 

icrlptive  Catalogue  of  a  rare  and  rich  oolleetion  of  early 
Sa^isb  Poetry.    8vo.   Lond.  ISlfi. 

Hincs  (A.)  The  Learned  Soeietlee  and  Printing  Clube  of 
the  United  Kingdom  (with  lists  of  their  pablicationa,  Jto.). 
9d  ed.  post  8vo.    Lond.  1858. 

LovBoir  CATALoaus  of  Books,  with  their  sins,  prices,  and 
pabUsheis;  eontsining  the  books  published  in  London, 
from  ITOQ  to  18U.    8Ta    Lond.  varloas  dates. 

LoxDOK  Cataloous  of  Books  published  in  Great  Britain, 
1881>96i    8va    Lond.  T.  Hodgson,  18S6. 

Loan>09i  Cataijooitk.  BlbliothecaLondlnensis:  A  Classified 
Index  to  the  Literature  of  Great  Britain  during  80  years; 
arranged  from  and  serving  as  a  key  to  the  London  Cata- 
logue, 1814-'4C    8TO.    Lond.  T.Hodgson,  1848. 

Low  (9.)  The  British  Catalogue  of  Books  published  ft^nn 
Get  18S7  to  Dec  18&L  YoL  1.  General  Alphabet  8Ta 
Lond.  1859. 

LowvDBB  (W.  T.)  The  Bibliogn^her^s  Manual  of  EngUsh 
Literature.    4  toIs.  8to.    Lond.  1681 

CammmuigiwiieMatufwmMdaHOflMikikmeihookB.  AiMwcdiUonii 
»>w  priatinf  bv  Boho,  Utn  flnt  voloma  of  wliich  hsa  alrtady  apMar«d. 

Kaokat  (W.  D.)    a  Manual  of  British  Historians  to  A.  B. 

KOa    8TO.    Lond.lS45L 
MAft-mr  (J.)    BibllograDhlcal  Catalogue  of  Books  Drlratdy 

printed  la  England.    8  toIs.  imp.  8Ta    Lond.  1881 
MouiA  rr.)  Bibllotheoa  Heraldloa  Magnn  Britannln:  An 

Analracu  Catalogue  of  Books  on  Genealogy.  Heraldry, 

Nobuity,    KnlghUiood,   and   Ceremonies.     Boyal   8yo. 

KicBOLa  (J.)  Literary  Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury.   16to1a8vo.    Lond.  Idl9-'4d. 

PmsusHKca*  Cisoulak  and  General  Beoord  of  British  snd 
Foreign  Literature.    Vols.  1-90.    8to.   Lond.  1887-*57. 

Rod  (f.)  Bibliotheca  Scoto-Celtlca;  or.  an  Account  of  aU 
the  Books  which  have  been  published  in  the  Gaelic  Lan- 
guage.   8tol    Lond.  1889. 

Savaob  (J.)  The  Librarian ;  being  an  Account  of  Scarce, 
Talnabio,  and  Usefhl  English  Books.  8  yols.  Sva  Lond. 
180»-*19. 

Smith  (J.  B.)  A  BibHographloal  List  of  all  Works  illustrat- 
ing tJM  ProTindal  Dialects  of  Englaad.    8ro.  Lond.  184& 

Snarwsn  (H.)  Catalogue  of  my  English  Library.  Post 
8roi    Lond.  1858. 

Gvnrn  a  MU^t  list  of  S.TSl  Toldnm. 

UrooTT(W.)  Bibliography  of  Works  on  British  Topography. 

8  TolA  8to.    Lond.  1818. 
Wau*oiji  (H.)    Catalogue  of  Boyal  and  Noble  Authors  of 

^     '      *  ;  enlarj^ed  by  Park.    5  rols.  8vo.    Lond.  180(i. 

'  ■      ~  ltAnnl<>ft,    TJtArvia.      Angl'_ 

fworksJAo.) 

Watt  (B.)  Bibliotheca  Britannlca ;  or,  a  General  Index  of 
British  and  Foreign  Literature.    4  vols.  4ta    Edin.  18M. 

Tola.  1  umd  S,  alfhalxtMal;  Tola.  Sand  4,  iadax. 

8.  Fbancb. 

BzsxioGBArBxs  DC  LA  Fbahox.  (A  bibliographical  periodi- 
cal eommenoed  in  1810,  and  publlshod,  at  Paris  in  an  oc- 
tavo Ibrm.) 

BosaAjroBCH.)    Ma  BIblloth6que  Fran^alse.     Post  8to. 

Grraff  •  s^lMl  lial  of  aboat  7,000  Tolnaea  of  tha  bMl  •ditioaa  of  itaBi. 
■H  FreSck  anthora.  Bomn<r<  alao  pobliahad  in  1845  a  laiya  oetaro  toI- 
aa*  d  fcraign  book%  inoaily  Franeh,  arraagad  aeeordinf  to  nl^ioeta,  wHh 
pkai^  a  gvoaral  indsx,  dkc    H«  haa  ■inea  poblUbod  two  wpplemaDla. 

DnassABia  (N.  L.  M.)  Les  Siricles  Littdraires  de  la  France. 

(Bibliographical  dlctionarr  of  French  writers  to  the  end 

of  the  ISui  century,  with  supplements.)     T  toIs.  8to. 

Paris,  1800^*8. 
DiononAiKB  Biographlquo  et  BlbUographique  des  Pr6dl- 

cattora  et  Sermonnaires  Fran^als,  par  TAbbd  de  la  P. 

8T0.  Paris,  1824 
GxaAiTLT  Ds  SAnrr-FABOXAV  (A.)  Bibliosraphle  Hlstoriqne 

etTopocraphiqoodelaFranoe.    4to.    Pans,  1845. 
GoxAS  <P.  M.)    Blbliographie  Historique  de  la  YlUe  de 

Lron  pendant  la  B^volution  Fran^aise.      Syo.     Lyon, 

Lblovo  (Le  P.  J.)  Blblioth^ne  Historique  de  la  France. 
6Tols.i>liA.    Pails,  17«8-7a 

Cmtaimug  MLtQO  artielaa^  iodrna,  wid  a  tablo  of  aixnyinoaa  aotkora. 

QriiAXD  (J.  M.)  La  France  Litt^raire,  ou  Dictionnaire 
BtbDographiaue,  4(0.  (18th  and  19th  centuries.)  IOtoLi. 
8to.    Paris,  1827-'89. 

QuiaAXO  (J.  M.)  La  Lltt^rature  Fran^aise  contempo- 
raLne,  18s7- 49.  (Commenced  by  (^u^rard,  and  continued 
by  Felix  Bonrquclot)    6  yols.  8Ta    Paris. 

QrimABO  (J.  M.)  Les  Supercheries  Littdraires  D6Tol]«es, 
Galeriee  des  Anteurs  apooryphes,  suppos6s,  d^gnlste, 
Ac,  de  la  LittAxatore  Fran^alse.  4  yols.  8yo.  Paris, 
1347-'8«. 

VmnovLSLLAO  (L.  T.)  The  French  Librarian.  8yo.  Lond. 
18n. 

VOL.  m. — 16 


WaiCBT  (T.)     Blographia  Britannlca  Literaria.     Anglo- 
and  Norman  Periods.    (With  lists  of  woi 
8  yols.  8yo.     Lond.  134d-*«. 


Saxon  and 


1  tha  book*  pohU^bad  ia  G«n 


Brnnet's  Manuel  du  Libraire^  desoribed  under 
another  head,  although  a  general  work,  is  ver^ 
rich  in  Frencn  bibliography ;  so  also  is  the  Bt- 
oyraphie  Unitenelle^  a  bibliographioal  as  well 
as  biographical  work,  of  the  highest  authority. 

4.  Gbrsiant. 

Abrib  (A^  A  Bibliographical  Essay  on  the  Bcrlptoret 
Berum  Germanioamm.    4to.    London  and  Berlin,  1848. 

BucufXB  (R.)  Bibliographisohes  Handbuch  der  Dentschen 
Dramatischen  Literatur.    4ta    Berlin,  1887. 

Ehoxlmanv  (W.)  Bibliotheca  Geographioa.  2  yols.  Syo. 
Lips.l8B8. 

a  claMiflod  catalona  of  all  tlia  worki  oa  gaompby  and  traTcIa  pab. 
llahad  In  Oannaoy,  frttm  tba  middla  of  tha  Uta  eantanr  down  to  IS5S; 
wHh  pcieaa,  bdcx.  Ac 

Ekoi!lma:vw  (W.)  Blbllothck  dcr  Scbrmfln  WbKiuQluift. 
(A  ^ii^L  st{  Oeniiiiii  ruimkDd'ji,  play^,  nDil  pa(<ms>  pubtl^od 
IniNi  Um  to  I'vWJ   %  Tols.  8vo.    LclpEig,  l&«T-'la 

Eva  KL3IA  H  K  ( W . )  BLbllatheca  Pbltolc^ea.  (A  list  of  Greek 
oj^t  LalH;  iicraminarai  dtctloaarl«^  Ac«^  pubUjhDd  nrom 
1T£0  to  ISF^.)  9A  ed,  Svo.  DpiL  1S53.  AIjo,  BIIiUo- 
tbcca  Mcchanlco-Techaologtca,  1  tqL — Bibliotheca  Bcrfp^ 
torum  ClMsiooninv  1  voL— Medico- ChlTurgicn^  1  yoL — 
CEconomlcai,  1  toI— VelL'rinariiv,  1  vol— Zoiiloetca  ct 
FttijLHiatologlca,  1  vol.— Bihlkabet  *ltr  For&t  tind  Jogd- 
wlsfenKhftnorij  1  vol.— Bibliotliolt  *ior  EtUidLiiagawtsstiU- 
B^haft,  1  voL— fMbllottii>k  der  Neutfrn  Spmcben^  1  voL 

Efiiirn  f^  B,)  Haadbuch  der  Dtntacbeti  Lit^nitur.  M  ed. 
4  Tols,  ^To^    i^Lplfz,  lS22-'45. 

A  ekMaad  eatalogua  of  all  t 
middle  of  tha  18th  eantury. 

HnnsiiTB  (W.)  AUgemelnes  B&cherlexlkon.  (With  5  sup- 
plements.)   18yob.,4to.    Leipzig,  1812-'49. 

An  alphabatlcal  eatalofu*  of  all  tha  booka  poblithod  in  Qannaoy,  flrooi 
ITOO  to  1846;  with  «xe«,  prir«>a,WKi  pablitbaia' aamea. 

HnrmiOBS  (T.  0.)  Yerzeiohniss  der  Bflcher,  Lsndkarten,  Ae. 
(Catalogue  of  all  the  books,  maps,  Ac,  including  new  edi- 
tions, published  in  Germany  from  year  to  year,  with  sizes, 
prices,  publishers,  and  dasslAed  Indexes.)  63  yols.  ISmo. 
LelpKi|g,  1797-1858. 

Publiabad  bv  Hinrieht,  in  eommon  with  other  boolttellen. 

JiruirB(N.H.)  Bibliotheca  Germano-Glottlca.  Syo.  Ham- 
burg, 1817. 

EATsaB(G.G.)  Yollstandlges  Bacher-Lexicon,  dec  (With 
8  supplements.)    18  yols.,  4to.    Leipzig,  1884-'68. 

An  alphabeUoal  catalogna,  lika  that  of  Hauwiaa,  of  all  books,  Ao.,  pab- 
lifthad  from  1700  to  1853. 

BoHWAB(G.)  Wegweiserdurehdie  Literatur  der  Dentschen. 
Ein  Handbuch  fQr  Laien:  herausgegeben  yon  Gustay 
Schwab  und  Karl  KiapfeL    Sded.8yo.    Leipzig,  1847. 

An  ioduMDMbl*  RQida  in  tha  Iwraatkm  of  a  Mlaot  0«rmiia  library. 

Tatlob  (W.)    Historic  Suryey  of  German  Poetry.    8  yolsL 

8to.    London.  ISSS-'dO. 
Tbucm  (F.  L  J.)    The  Literature  of  Germany,  flt>m  Its  ear- 

Best  period.    (With  blbUographleal  notes,  Am.)    ISmo. 

London,  1844. 

Ebert's  "  General  Bibliographical  Dictionary," 
described  under  another  head,  is  espeoiallj  rich 
in  earlj  German  literature. 

6.  Italt. 

BiBLxoGBArxA  Italiana.     (A  bibliographioal  perlodlcsL 

oommenced  In  1880,  and  continued  until  the  close  of  1846i) 

13yols.8yo.  Milan,  1885-^46. 
BiBuooBArxA  od  Elenco  Baglonato  dello  Opere  contenute 

neUa GoUezione  de*  CUMsiclItalianL    8yo.    MiUn,181A 
BxBUOOBAFiA  del  Bomanzl  e  Poemi  CayaUereechl  ItallanL 

(By  G.  do*  Conti  MelzL)    8ded.8ya    Milan,  1888. 
Bbtmb  (E.)    Bes  Literarle,  BlbUographleal  and  OitlcaL 

(Principally  ui^n  Italian  literature.)   8  yols.  8yo.    Naples, 

Bome.  and  Geneya,  1821-*2. 
Cabtu  (J.)    Lltalla  Sdentlflca  Contempontnea.    8yo.    MI- 

FoMTAXim  (G.)  Blblloteca  dell*  Eloquensa  Italiana,  oon  lo 
Annotazionl  del  Slgnor  Apostolo  Zeno.  2yoIs.4ta  Par- 
ma, 1808-*4. 

An  iadaz  to  thia  laat  aditkm  was  pablidiad  in  1811. 

Gamba  da  Bassako  (B.)  Delle  Noyello  Italiane  In  Prosa 
Blbliografla.    9ded.8yo.    Firense,  188S. 

A  datailad  aeeoont  of  tba  works  of  tba  Italian  aoralitta. 

Gaxba  da  Bassako  (B.)    Serle  del  Testl  dl  Lingua.    4th 
ed.  royal  8ya    Tenezia,  1889. 
A  gaoatal  Italian  bibliographical  dietiooarj,  with  copiaaa  Botaa  and  In* 

HaiiKN.  F.)  Blblloteca  Italiana,  osU  NotizU  de*  Libri  rari 
ItallanL    Syols.4to.   Milan,  1771-*9. 

For  the  latest  publications  in  Italy,  the  read- 
er is  referred  to  Arehivio  Storico  ItalianOy  a 
periodical  published  in  Florence. 


242 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


6.  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Kortbirh  Eubopk. 

A21TOXI0  (K.)    BlbUotheea  Hispana  YetoB  ad  ammm  1800. 

S  vols,  folio.    MatritL1788L 
AxTOHXO  (N.)    BIbliotneca  Hlapana  NoTa,  ab  anno  1600  ad 

annum  16Si    STol3.foUo.    Matrlti,  1788-'a 
BxNTKOWBKixao  (F.)  HistoryaLlteratanrPolakler.    ^ 

torv  of  Polish  Uterature,  exhibited  in  a  Hat  of  writ 

Ac^    9  Tola.  8to.    Wanaw  and  Wilna.  1814 
BoLsnir BibUograaoo  EBpaftoL    ISmo/lIadild,  1840- 

A  {MriodiciU  umilM-  to  th*  BiUiScrada  Italtaaa. 

BoTTTBBWXK  (F.)  Hlfltory  of  Bpaniah  and  Portngaese  lite- 
ratore,  tranalaied  by  Roes.    S  vola.  8to.    London,  1828. 

Cabtbo  (J.  B.  D&)  BibUoteca  Espanola.  StoIs.  folia  Ma- 
drid, 1781-'6l 

Casisx(M.)  BlbUotheea  Aiabioo-HispaDa  EiciuialenBi&  S 
T0l8.foUo.  Matritl,  1760-70. 

Maooado  (P.  D.  B.)  Bibliotheca  Loaitaaa  Giltlea  et  Chro- 
nologica.    4Tol3.ibUa    LUboa,  1741-'M. 

Ntzkup  (B.)  Almindeligt  Litteratnrlezloon  fOr  Denmark, 
Aa    STol&4to.    Kjobenk,1820. 

A  uiTtiwl  literary  kzkoo  of  Doanark,  Monray,  tod  letlaad,  (iTiqg 
•a  ■fronnt  of  aathora  and  thair  works. 

Ono  (F.)    History  of  Bnsstan  literatare,  with  a  Lexicon 

ofBnsBlanAaihon.    8ya    Oxford,  1889. 
BxoxB  and  Napzbbskt.     AUsemeines  BehriftsteUer  nnd 

Cklehrten-Lexikon  der  ProTinzen  Liyland,  BstUand,  and 

Burland.    4  yols.  thick  8yo.    Mitao,  1827-^ 
SALyA  (V.)    Catalogue  of  Spanish  and  Portngneae  Books, 

with  bibliographical  remarks.  Syols.8yo.  London,  182<^7. 
TiOKKOB  (G.)    The  History  of  Spanish  Literature.    8  yols. 

8yo.    New  York.  1849. 
Waxxholtz  (C  O.)    Bibliotheca  Hlstorica  Bueo-Gothica. 

ID  Tols.  8to.    Stockholm,  1789-1817. 

YL—GeMral  BtbUogra^hiM. 

The  works  which  are  to  be  oonridered  under 
this  section,  and  the  one  foUowing,  sometimes 
called  dictionaries,  sometimes  catalogaes,  and 
sometimes  bibliotheMC®,  constitate  the  most  gen- 
erally nsefnl  and  interesting  daas  of  biblio- 
graphical pablications.  By  snowing  what  has 
been  written  in  all  the  varions  branches  of  hu- 
man knowledge,  in  every  age  and  country,  they 
act  as  gaides  to  the  inquiries  of  the  learned; 
while  by  pointing  out  the  differences  of  edi- 
tions, ^.,  they  constitute  manuals  of  ready 
information  for  the  professed  bibliographer. 
Works  of  this  dass  are  called  general  or  spe- 
cial, according  as  their  object  is  to  indicate 
books  in  all,  or  in  one  only,  of  the  departments 
of  science  or  literature.  The  former  only 
aspire  to  point  out  rare,  remarkable,  or  im- 
portant books;  for  no  attempt  has  yet  been 
made,  or  probably  ever  will  be  made,  to  com- 
pile a  complete  universal  bibliographical  dic- 
tionarv.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  object  of 
special  bibliographies  to  notice  all,  or  the  greater 
part  of  those  books  that  have  been  published 
on  the  subjects  which  they  embrace ;  and  hence 
their  superior  utility  to  such  as  are  engaged  in 
the  study  or  investigation  of  any  particular 
topic.  It  is  by  means  of  such  works,  says  Dr. 
Johnson,  that  ''the  student  comes  to  know 
what  has  been  written  on  every  part  of  learn- 
ing ;  that  he  avoids  the  hazards  of  encounter- 
ing difficulties  which  have  already  been  cleared ; 
of  discussing  questions  which  have  already  been 
•decided;  and  of  digging  in  mines  of  literature 
which  have  already  been  exhausted."  The  fol- 
lowing are  some  of  the  most  important  works  of 
this  class: 

Afplitok'b  Libntiy  Manual:  oontalninff  a  Catalogue  Bal- 
8onn6  of  upward  of  12.000  of  the  most  Important  works  In 
every  department  of  knowledge.    8yo.    l^ew  York,  1S17. 

BiBLiornsoA  Qrenvllllana;  by  J.  T.  Payne  and  11.  Foas. 
Part  i.,  2  yola.  8vo.    Lond.  1842.    Part  U.  8yo.  1848. 


BOHv(H.O^  AGenenaCatdogat  of  Books.  8m  London, 
1841,  pp.  <100l  ^ 

Coounooly  kno wa  a*  tha  <•  ObIdm  CaUlofii«.»    It  to  bow  npifallM  fa 
t  TolaiuM,  9  of  which  hava  altwdjr  b«#n  piibliilMd. 

BxinnR  (J.  G.)  Manuel  du  Libraire  et  de  TAmateur  de 
Liyres.    4th  ed.  6  yols.  thick  8ra    Paris,  1842-'4. 

Tba  meet  azUaulT*  and  na*(nl  work  of  tha  kiad  axUut.  «^<^t^^far  ■«. 
ti(mofSS,OOOaeparate  works.  • 

Dx  Birxa  (Q.  F.)   BibUogi^hie  Instructlyou    Tyolai  Sro. 

Paris,  nas-'a 

BiBniN  rr.  F.)    The  library  Companion ;  or,  the  Young 

Man's  Gnidei and  the  Old  Man*s  Comfort  in  the  choiceol 

a  Library.    Thick  8yo.    London,  1824. 
DiOTioxTKAXBB  BiBuooBAPHXQVB.    (Complied,  according  to 

Barbier,  by  the  Abbd  du  CIos.)    8  vols.  8to.    Paris,  lAa 
Ebbbt  (F.  a.)    a  General  Bibliographical  Dictionary,  Ihnn 

the  German.    4yola.8ya    Oxford,  1887. 

Th«  oiwinal  adithn  was  pubUshwl  al  Loiptie  in  18tl-*M,  h  9  vola.  4caw 

Gbobox  (J.  T.)  Allgemeines  Europusches  Bacher-Lexicon, 
1500-1767.  (With  supplements.)  8  yols.  folio.  Leinsia, 
174!^'68.  *^* 

6BABS8B  (J.  G.  T.^  Tr68or  des  Llyros  rares  et  prgdeax, 
ou  Nouveau  Dictionnalro  Blbllographique.  Liyr.  1., 
in  large  4to  (to  be  completed  in  about  16).  Dresden, 
185SL 

Mbttsxl  (J.  G.)  Bibliotheca  Hlstorica.  22  vols.  In  IL  Syow 
Lips.  1782-1801 

NoDun  (C.)  Description  Salsonn6  d'une  Jolie  CoUeetion 
deLiyres.    8yo.    Paris,  1844. 

BxHOVABD  (A  A.)  Catalogue  de  la  Biblioth^ue  d'un  Ama- 
teur, ayec  notes  blbliographique^  ^ec  4  yols.  8yo.  Paris, 

Bastandxb  (M.  C.  db  la  Sxbha.)  Catalogue  des  Llyres  da 
la  Bibliothequo  de  Bantander,  r6dig6  et  mis  en  ordre  par 
lui-m6me ;  avec  notes,  ^bc.    6  yols.  8yo.    Bruxellea,  18061 

YIL — Special  BihliographiM. 

The  dictionaries  and  catalogues  applicable  to 

S articular  branches  of  knowledge,  and  compris- 
ig  the  works  published  on  the  subjects  dis- 
ciussed,  would  of  themselves  constitute  a  libraiy. 
In  the  present  article,  alreadv  extended  beyond 
its  original  limits,  we  can  only  mention  a  few  of 
the  more  important,  in  addition  to  those  which 
have  already  been  noticed  under  previous  heads. 

Atkxkbon(J.)  Medical  BibIiogrtt>hy.  AandB.  8yo.  Lon- 
don, 1884. 

Baoxbb  (A  and  A.  sx.)  Bibliothdques  des  iftcrivains  do  la 
ComMcnie  de  J^sus.    Vols.  1  and  2.    Boyal  8tow    Lidge, 

Tobeoom^atadoiSTnloinMorMOpairnMek. 
BixABD  (A  B.  L.)    Essai  Blbllographique  snr  les  Sditions 

desElzeyira.    8ya  Paris.  1822. 
Blax QUI  (M.)    Hlstoire  de  riicononiie  Politique  en  Europe. 

2ded.2yola.    6vo.  Paris,  1842. 
Blaxb  (C.)    Blblioffraphie  Musicals  de  la  France  et  de 

r£tranger.    8yo.  Paris,  1822l 
BouGHXB  DB  LA  BioHABDBBiB  (G.)   Biblloth^ue  uniyersoUo 

des  Voyages.    6  yols.  8ro.    Paris,  1808. 
Bbidoxman  (B.  W.)    Short  View  of  Legal  Bibliognphy. 

8va    London.  1807.  -» -r*v 

Camttb  (A  G.)    Profession  d*Ayocat  5th  ed.  2  yols.  %wo. 

Paris,  1882. 

Ab  «xa»UaBt  work  oa  jartopradaiiM  and  lis  biWofrniphy. 
Clabkb  (A.  and  J.  B.  B.)    A  Concise  View  of  the  Sucoessioil 

of  Bacrod  Literature.    2  yols.  8yo.  London,  Ib80-'2L 
Dabuko  (J.)    Cyclopedia  Blbliographica:  A  Library  Man- 
ual of  Theological  and  General  Idtezature.    2  vols,  royal 

8vo.    London,  18&4-*56. 
Db  MoBAAir  (A.)    Notices  of  Arithmetical  Books  and  An- 

thors.    Post  8va    London,  1847. 
DirpiH(M.)    Manuel  des  £tudians  en  Droit    12mo.    Paris. 

1886. 
Dupix  (M)    Manuel  du  Droit  public  ecdisiastique  Fran- 

pais.    12mo.    Psris.  1844 

Containtnir  bibUrtrranhieal  notice*  of  work*  upon  bw,  Ac. 

Duplbbsis  (G.)  Bibliographio  Par6miologlque.  (Bibliogra- 
phy of  Proverbs.)    8yo.  Paris,  1847. 

Dbtaitokb  (J.)  Catalogus  Bibliotbecn  Historico-Naturalia 
Josephi  Banks.    5  yols.  8vo.    London,  179^1800. 

The  moat  eomplata  cauUogua  of  books  oa  natural  lu»i<  ry  onr  pab- 
litbad.    The  i*one«tion  bow  ktma  a  part  of  tli«  Rrttish  muse^.m. 

Ellib(H.)  Catalogue  ofBooks  on  Angling.  8to.  London, 
1811. 

EucBS  (J.)  General  and  Blbllomphical  Dictionary  of  the 
Fine  Arts.    Svo.  London,  182t. 

FoKBBB  (JO  Manual  ofSelectMediosl  Bibliography.  Boy- 
al 8vo.    London,  1886. 

HoRNx  (T.  H.)  Manual  of  BIbUcal  BlbUography.  2d  ed. 
bvo.     London,  li>4«. 


BIBUOMANOT 


BIBLIOMANIA 


248 


HoTBft  (pr.  J.  Q.  Ton.)    litontar  der  KriMrwiaMDfloliaf- 

ten  and  KriegagescUehteL    ISma    Beiiin,  ia»-'40. 
liiL  LiAKDB  (J.  Ds.)    BibUogiapfaie  Astronomlqua.   4to.   Pv 

M^CuixooH  (J.  B.)   The  LiteratnM  of  Politieal  Eoonomr. 

8to.    London,  1845. 
MnxiiA&i>(F.  w.A.)  BIbUotheealiAthematica.  Srolf^Sra 

Ltpt.  1797-1809L 

ConUinuf  th«   liteiaten  of  arltluBrtie,  gMBMtry,  niTliMitot,  cp- 

Obmx  (WO    Bibliotbeca  Blblica:  ▲  Select  List  of  Books  on 

Sacred  Litentare,  with  notioes.  ^bo.    8to.    Edln.  1834. 
OsTTDTon  (£.  M.)     Biblioeraphie  Blognphique  nnlver- 

eelle.    (JMctlonarj  of  works  reUtlye  to  the  pablio  and 

private  lUb  of  oelebiBtedpersonsges.)    2yol8.4to.  Broz* 

ae^l354. 
PsBCHSBOH  (A.)    BIbllographle  Entomologlqae.    9  Tols. 

8vo.    ParlsTlSST. 
Plouoqur  (  w.  O.)    Lttemtara  Medlea  Dlgesta.    4  yoIsl 

Bojal  4to.  Tablngie,  1806-*9. 
Poouc  (W.  F.)   An  Index  to  Periodical  litentore.    8to. 

New  York,  1858. 

'  B  tzeMdtttgly  BMfiil  book,  Iwtac  •  oompl«to  iMy  to  Um  oonUnti  of 
n  hmdnd  ToIamM  of  atandanr  Ainn-iean  and  Englioh  pi 


lad  bf lioh  pfVtnlJi^ii 

BoT  (G.  H.  A.)    CatalogttsBtbUotheenMedlcft.  SyoIs.  Sm 

Amstisaa 

InxAvx-CoMtAnn  (H.)    BlbUothdqae  Aslatlqne  et  AM- 

eaine.    8to.    Paris,  1»— . 
VfAiAsa.  (J.  GO    Blbllotheca  Theologfca  Bolecta.    4  toIs^ 

8to.  Jenc.  1T97-*6S. 
Wax^h  (J.  O.)   BlbUotheca  Patristtca.  Littetarlls  Annot»- 

tlonibna  Instracta.    New  ed.  8vo.    Jena|,  1884 
WKion.(B.)    KunstlAger-Gatalog.    8to.    Leipzig  184fi. 
WiKKR  (G.  B.)     Handbuoh  der  theolofflschen  literatnr. 

(Wlthampplement.)  8d  ed.  8  yols.  8yo.  Leipzig,  1888-'4a. 

BIBLIOMANOY,  a  method  of  oonsnlting  the 
fhture  by  means  of  the  pages  of  some  book, 
most  nsnally  the  Holy  Scriptures.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  this  mode  of  vaticination  was  preceded 
by  certain  spells  and  ceremonials,  which  were 
supposed  not  merely  to  add  to  the  seriousness 
and  solemnity  of  the  occasion,  but  to  evoke  a 
sapernatnral  inflaence  and  confer  a  divine  an- 
thori^  on  the  proceedings.  The  test  and  re* 
ply,  however,  were  the  same  in  all  cases, 
consisting  merely  in  opening  the  Bible,  with 
the  head  averted,  or  with  the  eyes  blind- 
folded, at  any  place  which  chance  might  deter- 
mine, and  laying  the  finger  at  hazard  on  any 
verse,  which,  it  was  believed,  would  reveal  the 
fate  of  the  person  consulting  the  oracle.  Of 
the  same  nature  were  the  sortes  Virgilianes,  of- 
ten consulted  of  old  with  an  expectation  of  real- 
ly learning  something  of  the  occult  ftiture,  as 
now  on  festive  occasions  for  idle  amusement 
These  90te8  consist  in  opening  Viiigil's  '*  jEneid*' 
in  the  same  manner,  and  receiving  the  verse  on 
which  the  finger  happens  to  rest  as  the  prog- 
nostic of  one's  fate.  Several  singular  coinci- 
dences are  related,  in  which  the  information 
contained  in  the  line  found,  and  therefore  pre- 
dicted by  the  sartea,  appears  to  have  been  con- 
firmed by  subsequent  events.  The  most  re- 
markable of  aU,  however,  is  l^at  of  the  unfor- 
tanate  Charles  I.  of  England,  who,  as  the  tale 
runs,  many  years  before  his  disagreement  with 
his  parliament  or  people,  while  aU  his  prospects 
were  as  bright  as  those  of  any  youthful  king  in 
a  peaceful  age,  was  induced,  in  a  moment  of 
thoughtless  gayety,  amid  a  crowd  of  gay  ladies 
and  gallant  courtiers,  to  seek  his  fortune  in  the 
^^.^Eneid,^'  when,  to  the  dismay  of  all,  he  turned 
to  the  lines, 

Tot  pofolis  terrlsqne  snperbnm 
Begnatorem  Asiie  I  jacot  Ingens  Htore  truncus, 
Ai-vlsamqae  bnmerU  capat,  et  sine  nomine  corpus; 


which  may  be  rendered :  ^^The  hauflhty  sover- 
eign  of  so  many  Asiatic  realms  and  races  1  on 
the  seashore  lies  the  giant  trunk,  the  head 
dissevered  from  the  shoulders,  ana  the  body 
without  a  name;"  a  coinddence,  how  casual 
soever,  which  did  not  fail  to  be  considered  pro- 
phetical when  subsequent  events  had  confirmed 
the  augurv  by  the  occurrence. 

BIBLIOMANIA  (Gr.  fii^iop,  book,  and  /iomo, 
madness),  a  term  first  introduced  by  Dr.  Dib- 
din  to  denote  a  rage  for  possessing  rare  and 
curious  books.  The  bibliomaniac  proceeds  ac- 
cording to  certain  principles,  but  being  a  lover 
of  books  rather  than  of  knowledge,  attaches 
himself  to  accidental  rather  than  essential  qual- 
ities, and  spends  a  fortune  for  works  tihe 
contents  of  which  he  might  obtain  for  a  few 
dollars.  The  speciality  which  gives  value  to 
a  book  may  be  its  age  or  rarity,  the  vicissitudes 
through  which  it  has  passed,  or  the  fiict  of  its 
having  issued  from  a  particular  publishing 
house.  It  may  be  a  handsome  and  peculiar 
binding,  £uiciful  typography,  the  circumstanoe 
that  it  has  belonged  to  some  eminent  person- 
age, as  Napoleon,  Lord  Byron,  or  Sir  Walter 
Scott^  possessing,  perhaps,  an  autograph  or 
marginal  notes,  or  that  the  purchaser  desires  it 
to  swell  a  collection  in  some  particular  depart- 
ment of  literature.  Bibliomania  originated  in 
Holland  near  the  dose  of  the  16th  century, 
and  passed  thence  into  England,  where  it  has 
held  its  principal  seat,  though  it  has  more  re- 
cently Deoome  to  some  extent  a  passion  in 
France  and  in  the  United  States  of  America. 
Numerous  collections  have  been  made  of  the 
editions  of  the  Bible,  of  which  the  most  com- 
plete is  in  the  British  museum,  though  rivalled  by 
that  of  Mr.  James  Lenox  of  New  York ;  of 
editions  of  the  classics  in  vntm  Delphini^  and 
eum  notis  ixvriarum;  of  first  editions  of  the 
classics  (editianes  principes)^  and  of  many  books 
which  appeared  in  the  infancy  of  typography 
(ineundbula) ;  of  Bipont  editions,  and  those 
cited  by  the  academy  della  Crusca;  of  the 
"  Republics"  of  the  Elzevirs;  and  works  print- 
ed by  Aldus,  Comino  of  Padua.  Bodoni,  Mat- 
taire,  Foulis,  Barbou,  and  Baskerville.  In 
France  the  jest-books,  burlesque  treatises,  and 
macaronic  poems  of  the  16tn  century,  which 
proceeded  from  the  school  of  Merlin  Ooccaie, 
Folingi,  and  Rabelais,  have  been  for  some 
time  much  sought  after  by  bibliomaniacs.  The 
bindings  on  which  the  highest  prices  are  set  in 
France  are  those  of  Derosne,  Padeloup,  Simier, 
and  Thouvenin ;  and  in  England,  those  of  Oharlea 
Lewis  and  Roger  Payne.  The  most  extraordi- 
nary prices  are  paid  for  splendid  old  editions, 
copies  with  a  likeness  of  the  author  and  paint- 
ed initial  letters,  impressions  upon  parchment^ 
morocco,  paper  fiimished  with  a  broad  margin, 
or  upon  asbeetus,  printed  with  letters  of  gold 
or  silver,  or  having  all  the  text  set  in  an  im- 
pression of  copper.  The  material  is  more 
highly  esteemed  if  tinted  rose-color,  blue, 
yellow,  or  green.  The  library  of  Lord  Spen- 
cer, in  En^^d,  contained  an  .^Eschylus  of  the 


244 


BIBLIOMANIA 


BICfiTBE 


Glasgow  edition  of  1795,  the  binding  of  whidi 
alone  cost  £16  7$.  sterling.  The  binding  of 
Maoklin's  Bible,  in  4  Tolame&  cost  75  gaineas, 
and  that  of  Bojdell's  large  edition  of  Shak&> 
speare,  in  9  volames,  cost  £182  sterling.  The 
London  bookseller  Jeffery  had  a  volume  of  the 
"  History  of  James  IL,''  by  Fox,  boond  in  fox- 
skin,  in  allusion  to  the  name  of  the  author,  and 
the  capricious  bibliomaniac  Askew  pushed  his 
madness  even  to  having  a  book  bound  in  human 
skin,  that  he  might  possess  an  entirely  unique 
volume.  The  edges  of  books  have  sometimes 
been  adorned  with  beautiful  pictures.  Books 
formerly  were  often  bound  in  copper,  sflver,  or 
gold  leaf,  and  embellished  with  precious  stones. 
The  shah  of  Persia  is  said  to  be  engaged  in  pre- 
paring a  magnificent  edition  of  we  "  Arabian 
Nights'  Entertainments,"  on  which  artists,  un- 
der his  personal  direction,  have  been  at  work 
for  the  last  7  years.  Its  preparation  has  already 
cost  more  than  $60,000.  It  is  not  unfrequently 
a  passion  of  men  to  obtain  an  extensive  library 
in  some  particular  department,  or  a  complete 
set  of  the  editions  of  some  &vorite  author. 
Thus,  Boulard  spent  a  fortune  in  pursuit  of  the 
editions  of  Racine ;  a  professor  in  a  university  is 
motioned  who  passea  his  life  in  oolleoting  ob- 
scene books ;  ana  SoLeinnee  made  a  library  of  all 
the  dramatic  pieces  that  have  ever  appeared  on 
anysta^.  He  searched  for  new  pieces  with  pain- 
ful anxiety,  purchasing  a  mass  of  books  in  lan- 
guages which  he  could  not  read.  A  Certain 
Frenchman  purchased  at  exorbitant  prices  all  as- 
tronomical books  that  he  could  find,  though  he 
did  not  understand  a  word  of  that  science.  Bib- 
liomaniacs are  the  principal  purdiasers  in  the 
great  antiquarian  book  auctions  which  are  occa- 
sionallv  held  in  London  and  Paris.  The  Maas- 
arin  Bible,  supposed  to  have  been  printed  in 
1455,  was  sold  m  1827  for  £504.  A  gentieman 
of  New  York  has  obtained  a  copy  of  this  work 
at  an  expense  of  $2,500.  Alcuin's  MS.  Bible, 
which  was  made  for  Oharlemagne,  was  recentiy 
purchased  by  the  British  museum  for  £750. 
At  the  sale  of  Oardinal  Lomenie's  libraiy  in 
Paris,  8,300  livres  were  given  for  a  copy  of  the 
Orammatica  Mhythmiea,  in  folio,  printed  in 
1466,  by  Faust  and  Schoefier.  A  copy  of  Vir- 
gil, printed  by  Sweynheim  and  Pannartz,  in 
1469,  brought  4,101  livres.  Dr.  Dibdin  men- 
tions that  500  guineas  were  ofiered  for  a  Livy 
printed  by  Yindelin  de  Spira,  in  1470,  ^'  a  most 
extraordinary  copy,  bound  in  8  volumes,  in  for- 
eign coarse  vellum.''  One  of  the  most  memo- 
rable competitions  for  bibliographic  treasures 
occurred  at  the  sale  of  the  duke  of  Roxburgh's 
library,  in  London,  in  1812.  A  copy  of  the  1st 
edition  of  the  "Decameron,"  published  by  Yid- 
darf,  at  Venice,  in  1471,  was  sold  for  theimmense 
price  of  £2,260.  An  illuminated  missid,  exe- 
cuted for  the  duke  of  Bedford  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  was  sold,  in  1786,  for  £208 ;  in  1815, 
for  £637;  and  in  1888,  for  £1,100.  Qreat  in- 
terest was  recently  excited  at  Paris  by  the  sale 
of  an  extensively  illustrated  copy  of  Voltaire's 
works.    The  edition  was  that  of  Lefdvre,  1829 


-'84,  in  90  volnmes,  and  its  illustration  had 
been  a  work  of  more  than  20  years.  The  en- 
gravings amounted  to  the  number  of  12,000. 
and  were  so  car^ftdly  selected  that  more  were 
said  to  have  been  r^ected  than  were  inserted. 
This  unique  copy  was  sold  for  £228.  At  the 
same  sale  a  copy  of  the  first  complete  edition  of 
Holidre  was  sold  for  £18,  and  an  "  Orlando  Fu- 
rioso"  (Venice,  1653)  for  £15.  Among  recent 
sales  in  London  were  a  Hebrew  Bible  of  the 
18th  century,  written  on  vellum,  in  the  uncial 
character,  for  £70 ;  2  MSS.  of  the  evangelists, 
on  vellum,  of  the  9th  and  10th  centuries,  for 
£70  and  £81 ;  Ekronymi  EmgUla,  MS.,  of  the 
15th  century,  on  Italian  vellum,  illuminated, 
for  £45  Z$, ;  Discordis  Ancuuvrbmi  Opera,  large 
folio,  for  £590 ;  the  Aminta  Iboola  of  Tasao, 
with  autograph,  MS.,  for  £59 ;  8  MSS.  of  the 
DMna  Cbmmedia  of  Dante,  of  the  14tii  and 
15th  centuries,  for  £40,  £80  10«.,  and  £52  10<. ; 
De  Bry's  "  Voyages,"  in  9  vols.,  1590-1625,  for 
£150.  John  Eliot's  Indian  Bible  sold  in  New 
York,  in  1857,  for  $200,  and  18  numbers  of 
Franklin's  "Poor  Richard's  Almanack"  for  $12 
per  number.  The  most  expensive  smgle  work 
m  the  United  States  is  a  copy  of  De  Bry's 
"  Voyages."  The  bibliomaniac  forms  the  sub- 
ject of  tiie  18th  chapter  of  the  OanieUrM  of  La 
Bruy^e,  and  Dr.  Dibdin  has  published  a  vol- 
ume entitied  "Bibliomania,  or  Book-Madness.'^ 

BIBRA,  Ebnst,  baron,  a  German  naturalist 
and  traveller,  bom  at  his  estate  of  Schwabheim, 
in  Franoonia,  June  9, 1806.  He  pursued  first 
the  study  of  the  law,  and  afterward,  more  ex- 
dusively,  that  of  natural  science,  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Wtlrzburg.  After  having  brought 
out,  in  1849,  a  chemical  treatise  on  the  liver 
and  the  bile,  he  made  a  tour  of  exploration  to 
Bradl  and  Chili,  of  which  he  published  a  de- 
scription in  1854,  under  the  titie  of  "  Travels  in 
South  America."  To  the  journals  of  the  acad- 
emy of  Vienna,  of  which  he  is  a  member^e  has 
contributed  some  interesting  articles  on  Bolivia 
and  Chili.  His  most  valuable  works  have  appear- 
ed within  the  last  few  years :  "  Comparative  In- 
vestigations of  the  Brains  of  Men  and  oL  Verte- 
brate Animals"  (Mannheim,  1854),  and^Naroo- 
tic  Enjoyments  and  Man"  (Nuremberg,  1855). 
His  residence  in  the  latter  city  contains  a  valua- 
ble collection  of  transatlantic  objects  of  natural 
history  and  ethnography. 

BICE,  or  BisB,  among  painters,  a  blue  color 
prepared  from  the  lapis  armenus,  or  calcareous 
salt  of  copper.  It  bears  the  best  body  of  all 
bright  blues  used  in  common  work,  but  is  the 
palest  in  color. 

BIC£TR£,  a  hospital  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  Paris,  on  a  site  formerly  occupied  by  a 
chateau  built  in  the  13th  century  by  John, 
bishop  of  Windiester.  In  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century  the  dilapidated  castie  was  bought 
by  the  duke  of  Berry,  the  unde  of  Cliarles  VI., 
who  erected  there  a  magnificent  new  chateau, 
ornamented  with  masterp^es  of  art  Unhs^- 
pily,  it  was  destroyed,  with  all  its  treasures, 
duriiig  the   civil   wars.     Its   ruins   and  the 


BIOHAIfA 


BIOHAT 


246 


CTonnd  were  given,  in  1416,  to  the  chapter  of 
Notre  Bame,  and,  being  entirely  neglected,  be- 
came a  resort  for  robbers  and  other  offenders. 
Cardinal  Richelieu  having  bonsht  it,  in  1682, 
founded  there  a  military  hospiUu,  the  oocnpants 
of  which  were  removed  to  the  Invalides  in  the 
reign  of  Loais  XIV.  Bic^tre  then  became  an 
asylnm  for  the  poor,  and  a  kind  of  prison  where 
vagrants  were  confined^  Under  Louis  XVI.  a 
part  of  it  was  allotted  to  those  suffering  from 
venereal  diseases,  the  patients  being,  by  a  sin- 
gular rule,  subjected  to  a  severe  whipping  be- 
fore receiving  any  attention  from  the  physi- 
cians. Bic^tre  was  also  used  as  a  prison,  and 
during  the  bloody  massacres  of  Sept  1792,  it 
became  the  scene  of  the  most  horrible  slaugh- 
ter, the  inmates  defending  themselves  desperate- 
ly against  the  revolutionarv  murderers.  Sub- 
sequently it  was  used  partly  as  a  prison  and 
partly  as  a  hospital,  bat  the  former  department 
having  been  transferred  to  a  new  building,  in 
the  rue  de  la  Roqaette,  within  Paria,  Bic^tre  is 
now  employed  exclusively  as  an  asylum  for  in- 
digent old  men  or  invalids,  and  male  lunatics. 
The  prindpel  buildings,  forming  a  square  of 
900  feet  on  each  side,  are  separated  by  8  large 
eourtyaords.  A  new  division,  constructed  in 
1822,  consists  of  2  edifices,  between  which  is  a 
small  garden  for  the  use  of  the  inmates.  The 
establtehment,  fit)m  the  elevation  of  its  site,  has 
purer  air  than  any  other  hospital  in  Paris.  The 
rules  by  which  the  patients  are  governed  are  as 
mild  as  good  order  permits,  and  improvements 
in  their  treatment  are  diuly  introduced.  Those 
who  are  not  entirely  disabled  by  infirmities  or 
old  age  are  required  to  work  8  hours  a  day  at 
their  respective  trades,  and  receive  in  return  a 
share  of  the  profits ;  the  rest  goes  toward  de- 
fraying the  expenses  of  the  hospitaL  The  food 
is  heuthy  and  quite  sufficient.  The  lunatics, 
about  900  in  number,  occupy  a  department  by 
themselves.  The  gentlest  treatment,  except  in 
extreme  cases,  is  employed.  To  those  who  are 
capable  of  it^  daily  occupation  is  given  on  a  mod- 
el &rm  at  a  little  distance.  Others  attend 
schools  of  various  kinds  in  the  establishment, 
and  the  directors  constantly  endeavor  to  find 
some  manual  or  intellectual  occupation  for  every 
one  of  them.  This  method  has  succeeded  hi- 
vond  all  anticipation.  The  sociability  of  the 
lunatics  has  be^n  also  improved;  but  music, 
above  all,  has  worked  wonders.  The  majority 
of  patients  are  fond  of  it,  and  some  of  them 
have  become  aocomplished  proficients,  while  all 
seem  to  feel  its  benencial  influence.  Ooncertsare 
occasionally  given,  at  which  both  the  performers 
and  the  audience  are  lun&tics.  The  establish* 
ment,  with  its  dependencies,  forms,  as  it  were, 
a  small  town,  the  total  population  of  which, 
patients,  servants,  oflScers,  and  physicians  in- 
cluded, is  not  far  from  5,000  souls.  The 
neighboring  village  of  the  same  name  is  in- 
significant 

BIOHANA,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  in  the  state 
of  Amhara,  160  miles  8.  S.  E.  of  Gondar.  It  is 
a  place  of  some  importance,  and  the  capital  of 


a  chiefthip,  but  the  houses  are  mean  and  the 
wall  dilapidated.  It  has  a  great  weekly  market 
BIOEEAT,  Mabue  Francois  Xavikb,  a  French 
anatomist  and  physiologist,  bom  Nov.  11, 1771, 
at  Thoirette-en-Bresse,  department  of  the  Ain, 
died  at  Paris,  July  22, 1802,  having  already  ac- 
quired great  celebrity,  though  very  young.  He 
was  the  eldest  son  of  Jean  Baptiste  Bichat,  doc- 
tor of  medicine  of  the  university  of  Montpellier, 
and  mayor  of  the  small  town  of  Poncin,  where 
he  practised  medicine.  Toung  Bichat  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  Nantua.  In 
1788  he  entered  the  seminary  of  St  Ir6a6e,  at 
Lyons ;  and  as  this  school  belonged  to  the  Jes- 
uits, and  was  under  the  direction  of  one  of 
Bicfaat's  uncles,  a  priest,  he  was  driven  from  it 
by  the  revolution  which  broke  out  in  1789. 
His  favorite  studies  were  mathematicB  and  phys- 
ical science.  On  returning  home  he  began  tiie 
study  of  anatomy  under  his  fiather,  and  after- 
ward attended  lectures  at  the  hospital  of  Lyons. 
Driven  a  second  time  from  Lyons  by  the  events 
of  the  revolution,  he  went  in  1793  to  Paris,  to 
study  surgery  under  the  celebrated  Desault,  at 
the  H6telDieu.  Without  a  single  acquaint- 
ance in  Paris,  he  entered  the  school  of  Desault, 
and  diligently  followed  the  lectures  of  his  mas- 
ter, by  whom  he  was  soon  noticed  for  his  zeal 
and  ability.  It  was  the  practice  of  the  school, 
that  some  chosen  pupils  uiould,  each  one  in  his 
turn,  give  an  abstract  of  the  lecture  of  the  day, 
and  at  the  close  of  the  lecture  on  the  following 
day  this  abstract  was  publidy  read  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  second  surgeon  of  the  hospital. 
On  one  oocasicm,  the  pupil  whose  turn  it  was 
to  read  an  abstract  of  the  lecture  of  the  previous 
day,  happened  to  be  absent;  Bichat  stepped 
forward  from  the  crowd  of  pupils,  and  offered 
to  read  his  own,  which  had  been  made  for  pri- 
vate use.  The  offer  was  accepted,  though  the 
pupil  was  young,  and  had  not  been  in  the  class 
more  than  a  month.  The  abstract  was  dear, 
accurate,  and  full,  and  read  with  calmness  and 
precision.  On  hearing  of  this  fh)m  his  col- 
league Manoury,  Desault  sent  for  Bichat,  and 
from  this  first  conversation,  was  so  much  in- 
terested in  him  that  he  invited  him  to  re- 
side in  his  own  house;  subsequently  adopt- 
ed him  as  his  son,  associated  him  in  his 
labors,  and  destined  him  as  his  successor. 
Bichat  continued  to  live  with  his  master  until 
the  death  of  Desault,  which  h^pened  about  2 
years  after  their  first  acquaintance.  After  this 
event,  Bichat  arranged  and  published  the  works 
of  his  master,  and  opened  a  school  for  teaching 
anatomy,  physiology,  and  surgery.  Beside  his 
public  labors,  he  undertook  a  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  chemical,  physical,  phynological, 
and  vital  properties  of  the  different  tissues  of 
the  animd  economy.  His  labors  were  ex- 
cessive and  his  constitution  weak ;  his  health 
gave  way;  lecturing  fatigued  him,  and  brought 
on  a  severe  attack  of  bleeding  of  the  luuffs. 
During  this  first  attack  of  illness,  he  passed  the 
time  in  maturing  his  own  particular  views  of 
anatomy  and  physiology,  and  sketched  the  plan 


246 


BIOHAT 


BIOEERSTAFF 


of  the  works  in  which  these  views  were  after- 
ward developed.  As  sooa  as  he  bad  partially 
recovered  from  the  attack,  he  recommenced 
his  public  labors  and  his  private  studies  with 
the  same  intensity,  relying  on  his  youth  and 
ment^  energy  to  support  hmi  in  his  imprudent 
course.  NeiUier  the  entreaties  of  his  friends 
nor  the  signs  of  returning  disease  oould  induce 
him  to  moderate  hia  labor.  In  spite  of  increas- 
ing weakness,  and  hardly  able  to  digest  the  am- 
plest food,  he  continued  to  pass  several  hours  a 
day  in  a  damp  cellar,  macerating  animal  tissues 
and  making  various  experiments  to  ascertain 
the  properties  of  each  particular  kind  of  struc- 
ture in  the  organs  of  the  body.  His  powers  at 
length  became  exhausted,  but  his  mental  energy 
was  unabated.  On  one  occasion  he  felt  giddy 
on  leaving  the  room  where  these  experiments 
were  made,  and  in  the  course  of  the  day,  while 
descending  the  stairs  of  the  H6tel  Dieu,  his  foot 
dipped  and  he  fell  down,  receiving  a  severe 
blow  on  the  head  from  the  faU.  He  was  taken 
up  insensible,  and  carried  home ;  but  the  next 
day  he  returned  to  his  duty,  notwithstanding 
a  severe  headache.  In  a  short  time,  how- 
ever, he  funted  from  fatigue;  symptoms  of 
lever  came  on,  which  assumed  a  typhoid  char- 
acter, and  proved  fatal  in  the  course  of  14 
days.  And  thus  a  man  of  genius  of  the  high- 
est order,  from  excessive  love  of  study  and 
continuous  ne^eet  of  the  physical  requirements 
of  health,  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  impru- 
dence, before  he  had  attained  to  full  maturity, 
for  he  died  in  the  82d  year  of  his  age.  He  had, 
however,  done  enough  already  to  immortalize 
his  name.  He  was  uie  first  who  undertook  a 
sjrstematic  analysis  to  reduce  the  complex  struc- 
tures of  the  body  to  their  elementary  tissues, 
and  to  ascertain  the  peculiar  properties,  chem- 
ical, physical,  and  vital,  which  characterize 
each  simple  tissue.  The  idea  of  such  a  work 
had  been  suggested  by  partial  analysis  before, 
but  his  Anatomie  gSnirale  formed  a  new 
era  in  the  development  of  that  branch  of 
science.  The  work  abounds  with  minute  and 
laborious  research,  extensive  and  elaborate  ex- 
periment, conducted  with  intuitive  insight  and 
practical  skill;  and  though  a  monument  of 
&me,  it  was  completed  and  published  in 
a  year.  It  was  recognized  at  once,  and 
universally,  as  the  work  of  a  great  genius. 
Soon  after  the  publication  of  this  work,  he 
commenced  hb  Anatomie  descriptive^  conceiv- 
ed on  a  new  plan  and  partly  executed;  but 
before  it  could  be  finished,  Biohat  died.  His 
friends  and  disciples  who  had  followed  his  la- 
bors and  assisted  in  his  numerous  experiments, 
completed  the  unfinished  volutnes  on  the  plan 
which  he  had  traced  himself  and  tiioroughly 
explained  to  them ;  and  though  the  work  was 
piuily  written  by  lus  followers,  it  very  proper- 
ly bears  his  name.  The  works  of  Bichat  are 
not  standards  of  perfection  at  the  present  day ; 
for  the  impulse  which  he  gave  to  studv,  and  Uie 
views  which  he  developed  in  his  analytical  in- 
vestigations, led  to  further  observations  and  ex- 


periments in  the  same  direction,  which  he 
would  have  made  himself  if  he  had  Hved  to 
finish  slowly  that  which  he  began  so  brilliantiy 
and  pushed  so  fiir,  within  a  few  short  years. 
There  was  littie  systematic  order  in  the  study 
of  anatomy  and  physiology;  before  his  time. 
Dissections  were  made  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
the  practical  art  of  surgery  alone,  and  not  with 
any  comprehensive  view  of  general  aaalyss. 
He  first  laid  stress  on  the  general  distinction 
between  conscious  and  unconscious  life  in  the 
body,  and  the  correspondingly  incessant  action 
of  one  set  of  organs,  sleeping  or  waking,  con- 
trasted with  the  interrupted  action  of  another  set 
of  organs,  which  are  active  in  the  waking  state 
and  passive  during  sleep.  The  heart  and  lungs 
are  always  active  night  and  day,  while  the 
muscles  and  the  bones  of  the  external  frame 
are  onl^  active  during  portions  of  the  day,  and 
totally  mactive  during  deep.  He  divided  the  or- 
ganism, therefore,  into  2  distinct  mechanisms, 
which  he  called  the  organic  and  relational,  or 
the  vegetative  and  the  animal.  These  distinc- 
tions are  admitted  at  the  present  day,  although 
the  vegetative  or  the  organic  mechanism  Lb  more 
commonly  subdivided  into  the  nutritive  and 
the  reproductive  systems,  lllnute  analysis  has 
been  carried  verv  far  in  the  direction  which  he 
indicated,  but  philosophical  or  systematic  ana- 
lysis, as  he  conceived  it,  has  been  almost  totally 
neglected,  or  pursued  without  intuitive  percep- 
tion of  its  philosophical  importance.  He  fui 
into  some  errors  by  generalizing  too  extensively, 
without  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  minor  &ctB, 
and  these  errors  have  deterred  his  foHowers 
from  pursuing  the  same  course.  And  yet  tiie 
sreatest  work  of  progress  remains  still  to  be 
'done  in  that  direction.  His  Recherchee  eur  la 
tieetla  mart  contaius  the  germs  of  a  revolution 
in  the  study  of  anatomy  and  physiology,  but 
the  defective  definitions  and  manifest  errors 
which  it  contains,  have  caused  them  to  be  over- 
looked. The  same  idea  runs  through  all  his 
works,  and  that  is  the  distinction  between  con- 
scious  and  unconscious  bodily  life  and  motion. 

BIOEERSTAFF,  Isaac,  dramatist,  born  in 
Ireland,  in  1783;  the  date  of  his  deatli  un- 
known. After  having  been  one  of  the  pages  of 
Lord  Ohesterfield  (viceroy  of  Ireland,  174S-^7), 
he  received  a  commission  in  the  marines,  in 
which  service  he  was  lieutenant  when  com- 
pelled to  retire  with  disgrace.  He  wrote  16 
dramatic  pieces,  between  1756  and  1771,  sev- 
eral of  them  of  connderable  merit  and  con- 
tinued popularity.  Those  best  known  now  are 
the  comic  operas  of  "  Love  in  a  Village,"  "  Lio- 
nel and  Olariasa,"  and  "  The  Padlock,"  and  the 
comedy  of  "The  Hypocrite."  Tbia  last  is  an 
alteration  of  Oibber's  "  Noinuror"  (itself  only 
an  adaptation  of  Moli^re's  Tartuffe)^  scarcely 
any  thing  more  than  the  character  of  Maw- 
worm  being  written  by  Bickerstaff.  The  Bio- 
graphia  Dramatica^  after  relating  that  he  fled 
from  England,  charged  with  a  crime  not  to  be 
named,  says  that  in  1782  he  was  yet  alive,  in 
foreign  exile,  *^poor  and  despised  by  all  orders 


BIGEEBSTETH 


BIDASSOA 


247 


of  people.^'  Before  this  he  moved  in* high 
literary  society  in  London,  being  intimate  with 
Groldsmith,  Garrick,  Murphy,  Boswell,  Sir 
Jofihoa  Reynolds,  and  Dr.  Johnson.  Mrs. 
Thrale  relates  that  *^when  Mr.  Bickerstaff^s 
flight  confirmed  the  report  of  his  guilt,  and  Mr. 
Thrale  said,  in  answer  to  Johnson's  astonish- 
ment, that  he  had  long  been  a  suspected  man, 
'By  those  who  look  dose  to  the  ground  dirt 
wiu  be  seen,  sir,'  was  the  lofty  reply ;  'I  hope 
I  see  Hiinn  from  a  mater  distance.' " 

BICEEKSTETH,  Edwabd,  anEnghsh  clergy- 
man, bom  in  Westmoreland,  March  19,  1786, 
died  Feb.  24,  1850.  Educated  in  his  native 
town,  he  was  for  several  years  a  derk  in  Lon- 
don, till  in  1812  he  began  business  as  a  solicitor 
in  Korwich.  His  busLaess  was  flourishiDg,  when 
he  became  deeply  interested  in  the  reli^ous 
and  benevolent  movements  of  which  Norwich 
was  the  centre,  and  in  1815  he  was  ordained  a 
deacon  in  the  Anglican  church.  He  departed 
the  next  year  to  imrica  to  inspect  and  organize 
the  stations  of  the  church  missionary  society  in 
that  country,  and  during  the  next  15  years  he 
was  the  secretary  and  the  chief  acting  officer  of 
that  society.  In  1880  he  resigned  his  office, 
and  became  rector  of  Walton^  in  Hertfordshire, 
where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  anniversaiy  meetings  of 
religious  sodeties,  and  especially  advocated, 
both  by  his  addre^es  and  his  pen,  the  interests 
of  missions.  His  publications  are  numerous,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  exegetical  and  devotional  trea- 
tises, and  sermons. — Hketby,  Lobd  Lanqdals, 
l»rother  of  the  preceding,  an  English  lawyer  and 
statesman,  bom  in  Westmoreland,  June  18, 
1788,  died  at  Tunbridge  Wells,  April  18, 1851. 
He  served  an  apprenticeship  to  his  father,  wh<4 
was  a  surgeon  and  apothecary,  after  which  he 
travelled  on  the  continent  as  medical  attendant 
to  the  earl  of  Oxford,  whose  daughter  he  sub- 
■squently  married.  He  graduated  at  Gaius  col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1808,  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1811,  distinguished  himself  by  his  as- 
sidnoos  attention  to  professional  duties,  and 
rose  to  eminence  in  the  e<mity  courts^  to  which 
he  confined  his  practice.  He  became  a  bencher 
of  the  Inner  Temple  in  1827,  in  1835  dedined 
the  offer  made  to  him  by  Sir  Robert  Peel  of  a 
seat  on  the  bench,  and  in  1886  was  devated  to 
the  peerage  as  Lord  Langdale,  and  created  a 
pnvy  councillor.  In  this  office  he  cherished 
ma  taste  for  literature,  and  was  honored  for  his 
adherence  to  the  highest  principles  of  action. 

BICKLEIGH,  a  parish  of  Devonshire,  Eng- 
land, 8  miles  8.  W.  of  Tiverton,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Exe  and  Dart  rivers.  Bamfylde 
Moore  Carew,  who  became  '*  the  king  of  the 
gypsies,"  was  born  here  in  1693. 

BIDASSOA,  a  small  river  of  the  Basque 
provinces  of  Spain,  noted  for  the  battles  fought 
iq>on  its  bonks,  between  the  French  under  Soult 
and  the  Englirfi,  Spaniards,  and  Portuguese,  un- 
der Wellington.  After  the  defeat  of  v  ittoria  in 
1818,  Soult  collected  his  troops  in  a  position, 
the  light  of  which  rested  on  the  sea  opposite 


Fnenterrabia,  having  the  Bidassoa  in  front,  while 
the  centre  and  left  extended  across  severed 
ridges  of  hills  toward  St.  Jean  de  Luz.  From 
this  position  he  once  attempted  to  relieve  the 
blockaded  garrison  of  Pampeluna,  but  was  re- 
pulsed. San  Sebastian,  besieged  by  Wellington, 
was  now  hard  pressed,  and  Soult  resolv^  to 
raise  the  siege.  From  his  position  of  the  lower 
Bidassoa  it  was  but  9  miles  to  Oyarzun,  a  vil- 
lage on  the  road  to  San  Sebastian;  and  if  he 
could  reach  that  village  the  siege  must  be 
raised.  Accordingly,  toward  the  end  of  Aug. 
1813,  he  concentrated  2  columns  on  the  Bidas- 
soa. The  one  on  the  left,  under  Gen.  Olausel, 
consisting  of  20,000  men  and  29  guns,  took  a 
position  on  a  ridge  of  hiUs  opposite  Vera  (a 
place  beyond  which  the  upper  course  of  the 
river  was  in  the  hands  of  the  allies),  while  Gen. 
Beille  with  18,000  men,  and  a  reserve  of  7,000 
under  Foy,  took  his  station  lower  down,  near 
the  road  from  Bayonne  to  Irun.  The  French 
intrenched  camp  to  the  rear  was  held  by 
D'Erlon  with  2  divisions,  to  ward  off  any  turn- 
ing movement  of  the  allied  right  Wellington 
h^  been  informed  of  Soult^s  plan,  and  had 
taken  every  precaution.  The  extreme  left  of 
his  position,  sheltered  in  front  by  the  tidal 
estuary  of  ttie  Bidassoa,  was  well  intrendied, 
though  but  slightly  occupied;  the  centre, 
formed  by  the  extremdy  strong  and  rugged 
ridges  of  San  Marcial,  was  strengthened  with 
field-works,  and  hdd  by  Freyre's  Spaniards,  the 
1st  British  division  standing  as  a  reserve  on 
their  left  rear  near  the  Irun  road.  The  right 
wing,  on  the  rocky  descents  of  the  Pefia  de 
Haya  mountain,  was  held  by  Longa's  Spaniards 
and  the  4th  Anglo-Portuguese  division ;  Inglis^s 
brigade  of  the  7th  division  connecting  it  with 
the  light  division  at  Vera,  and  with  the  troops 
detached  still  further  to  the  right  among  the 
hills.  Soult's  plan  was,  that  Beille  should 
take  San  Marcial  (which  he  intended  forming 
into  a  bridge-head  for  ulterior  operations),  and 
drive  the  allies  toward  thdr  right,  into  the 
ravines  of  Pefia  do  Haya,  thus  clearing  the  high 
road  for  Fov,  who  was  to  advance  along  it 
straight  on  Oyarzun,  while  Gausel,  after  leav- 
ing a  division  to  observe  Vera,  shoul^  pass  the 
Bidassoa  a  little  below  that  place,  and  drive 
whatever  troops  opposed  him  up  die  Pefia  de 
Haya,  thus  seconding  and  flanking  Beille's  at- 
tack. On  the  momiuff  of  Aug.  31,  Reille's 
troops  forded  the  river  m  several  columns,  car- 
ried the  first  ridge  of  San  Marcial  w|th  a  rush, 
and  advanced  toward  the  higher  and  command- 
ing ridges  of  that  group  of  hills.  But  in  this 
difficult  ground  his  troops,  imperfectly  man- 
aged, got  into  disorder ;  skirmishers  and  sup- 
ports became  mingled,  and  in  some  places 
crowded  together  in  disordered  groups,  when 
the  Spanish  columns  rushed  down  the  hill  and 
drove  them  back  to  the  river.  A  second  at- 
tack was  at  first  more  successful,  and  brought 
the  French  up  to  tiie  Spanish  position;  but 
tiien  its  force  was  spent,  and  another  advance 
of  the  Spaniards  drove  them  back  into  the 


248 


BIDASSOA 


BIDDEFORD 


Bidasfioa  in  great  disorder.  Soalt  having 
learned  in  the  mean  time  that  Glaosel  had 
made  good  his  attack,  slowly  conquering  groimd 
on  Pefia  de  Hava,  and  driving  Portuguese, 
Spaniards,  and  British  before  him,  was  Just 
forming  columns  out  of  Reille^s  reserves  and 
Foj's  troops  for  a  third  and  final  attack,  when 
news  came  that  D'Erlon  had  been  attacked  in 
his  camp  by  strong  forces.  Wellington,  as 
soon  as  the  concentration  of  the  French  on  the 
lower  Bidassoa  left  no  longer  any  doubt  of  the 
real  i>oint  of  attack,  had  ordered  all  troops  in 
the  hills  on  his  extreme  right  to  attack  what- 
ever was  before  them.  This  attack,  though 
repulsed,  was  very  serious,  and  might  possibly 
be  renewed.  At  the  same  time,  a  portion  of 
the  British  light  division  was  drawn  up  on  tbe 
left  bank  of  the  Bidassoa  so  as  to  flank  Glau- 
seFs  advance.  Soult  now  gave  up  the  intend- 
ed attack,  and  drew  Beille's  troops  back  across 
the  Bidasisoa.  Those  of  Clausel  were  not  ex- 
tricated till  late  in  the  ni^ht,  and  after  a  severe 
struggle  to  force  the  bridge  at  Vera,  the  fords 
having  become  impassable  by  a  heavy  &11  of 
rain  on  the  same  day,  the  allies  took  San  Sebas- 
tian, except  the  citadel,  by  storm,  and  this  latter 
post  surrendered  on  Sept.  9. — ^The  second  bat- 
tle of  the  Bidassoa  took  place  Oct.  7,  when  Wel- 
lington forced  the  passage  of  that  river.  Soult's 
position  was  about  the  same  as  before;  Foy 
held  the  intrenched  camp  of  St  Jean  de  Luz, 
D'Erlon  held  Urdax  and  the  oamp  of  Ainhoa, 
Clausel  was  posted  on  a  ridge  connecting 
Urdax  with  the  lower  Bidassoa,  and  Reille  stood 
along  that  river  from  OlausePs  right  down  to 
the  sea.  The  whole  front  was  intrenched,  and 
the  French  were  still  employed  in  strengthen- 
ing their  works.  The  British  right  stood  op- 
posed to  Foy  and  D^rlon ;  the  centre,  com- 
posed of  Giron's  Spaniards  and  the  light  division, 
with  Longa^s  Spaniards  and  the  4:ih  division 
in  reserve,  in  all  20,000  men,  faced  Okiusel; 
while  on  the  lower  Bidassoa  Freyre's  Spaniards, 
the  1st  and  6th  Anglo-Portuguese  divisions,  and 
the  unattached  brigade  of  Aylmer  and  Wilson, 
in  all  24,000  men,  were  ready  to  attack  ReiUe. 
Wellington  prepared  every  thing  for  a  surprise. 
His  troops  were  drawn  up  well  sheltered  from 
the  view  of  the  enemy  during  the  night  before 
Oct.  7,  and  the  tents  of  his  camp  were  not  struck. 
Beside,  he  had  been  informed  by  smugglers  of 
the  locality  of  8  fords  in  the  tidal  estuary  of 
the  Bidassoa,  all  passable  at  low  water,  and  un- 
known to  the  FVench,  who  considered  them- 
selves perfectly  safe  on  that  side.  On  the 
morning  of  the  7th,  while  the  French  reserves 
were  encamped  far  to  the  rear,  and  of  the  one 
division  placed  in  1st  line  many  men  were  told 
off  to  work  at  the  redoubts,  the  5th  British 
division  and  Aylmer^s  brigade  forded  the  tidal 
estuary,  and  marched  toward  the  intrenched 
camp  called  the  Sansculottes.  As  soon  as  they 
had  passed  to  the  other  side,  the  guns  from 
San  Marcial  opened,  and  6  more  columns  ad- 
vanced to  ford  the  river.  They  had  formed 
on  tbe  right  bank  before  the  French  could  offer 


any  remstanoe;  in  fact,  the  surprise  complete- 
ly succeeded;  the  French  battalions,  as  they 
arrived  singly  and  irregularly,  were  defeated, 
and  the  whole  line,  including  the  key  of  the 
position,  the  hill  of  Oroix  des  Bouquets,  was 
taken  before  any  reserves  could  arrive.  The 
camp  of  Biriatu  and  Bildox,  connecting  Reille 
with  Clausel,  was  turned  by  Freyre^s  taking 
the  Mandale  hill,  and  abandoned.  Reille^s 
troops  retreated  in  disorder  until  they  were 
stopped  at  Urogne  by  Soult,  who  arrived  in 
haste  with  the  reserves  from  Espelette.  While 
still  there,  he  was  informed  of  an  attack  on 
Urdax;  but  he  was  not  a  moment  in  doubt 
about  the  real  point  of  attack,  and  marched  on 
the  lower  Bidassoa,  where  he  arrived  too  laJte 
to  restore  the  battle.  The  British  centre,  in 
the  mean  time,  had  attacked  Clausel,  and  gradu- 
ally forced  his  positions  by  both  front  and  flank 
attacks.  Toward  evening  he  was  confined  to 
the  highest  nolnt  of  the  ridge,  the  Gktmde 
Rhune,  and  that  hill  he  abandoned  next  day. 
The  loss  of  the  French  was  about  1,400,  that  of 
the  allies  about  1,600  killed  and  wounded.  The 
surprise  was  so  well  managed  that  the  real  de- 
fence of  the  French  positions  had  to  be  made 
by  10,000  men  only,  who,  on  being  vigorously 
attacked  by  83,000  aUiea,  were  driven  from  them 
before  any  reserves  could  come  to  their  support. 
BIDDEFORD,  a  thriving  manufacturing  and 
conmieroial  city  in  YoVk  oo..  Me.,  on  the  Saoo 
river,  at  the  falls,  0  miles  from  its  mouth.  On 
the  opposite  bank  is  the  town  of  Saco,  engaged 
in  similar  occupations,  and  connected  with  it 
by  a  bridge  600  feet  long.  The  water-power 
is  excellent  and  inexhaustible^  the  Ml  being 
42  feet  In  1855, 10  cotton  mills  were  worked 
•by  it— 5  on  each  side  of  the  river — containing 
in  all  about  60,000  spindles  and  8,000  looms. 
Beside  these  cotton  mills,  chiefly  owned  by 
foreign  capitalists,  there  are  extensive  manu- 
factories of  woollen  goods,  hardware,  &a 
In  one  iron  foundery  1,000  tons  of  pig  iron 
are  0(msumed  annually.  About  6,000,000  feet 
of  lumber  are  annually  sawed  out  here  into 
boards,  planks,  laths,  shingles,  &c  It  is  also  a 
considerable  lumber  market  from  mills  further 
up  the  river.  Owing  t^  the  narrowness  and 
crookedness  of  the  river,  and  its  swift  currents  . 
below  the  falls,  navigation  is  not  very  extensive- 
ly carried  on.  In  1854,  2,682  tons  of  shipping 
were  registered,  and  2,462  licensed.  There  are 
4  banks,  and  insurance,  gas,  and  savings  bank 
companies;  8  libraries,  with  an  aggregate  of 
7,000  vols.;  2  newspapers,  and  an  academy. 
The  schools  are  very  good,  and  $6,000  are  an- 
nually expended  upon  them.  Much  attention 
is  pud  to  agriculture,  and  there  are  large  fruit 
nurseries.  The  Portland,  Saco,  and  Portsmouth 
railroad,  passing  through  the  town,  connects  it 
with  Portland  and  Boston.  The  "  Pool,"  near 
the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  a  place  of  puramer 
resort.  A  fine  beach  several  imles  in  extent  is 
there  found.  Biddeford  was  incorporated  as  a 
city  in  1854.  Its  population  in  1840  was 
2,674;  1860,  6,095;  1857,  about  12,000. 


BIDDLE 


249 


BIDDLE,  CLXBaarT,  a  colonel  in  the  reyola* 
tlonary  army,  born  in  Philadelphia,  May  10, 
1740)  died  there  Jnly  14,  1814.  Descended 
from  one  of  the  early  Qoaker  settlers  and  pro- 
prietaries of  western  New  Jersey,  he  retamed 
his  connection  with  the  society  of  Friends  until 
the  commencement  of  the  war  of  independence. 
In  early  life  he  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
BoitB  in  his  native  city;  but  notwithstanding 
this  and  the  discipline  of  the  religions  society 
in  whose  tenets  he  had  been  educated,  he  unit- 
ed in  1764  with  a  number  of  Quaker  niends  in 
forming  a  military  corps  for  the  protection  of  a 
party  a£  friendly  Indians  who  had  sought  ref- 
uge in  Philadelphia  from  the  fury  of  a  band  of 
lawless  zealots  known  as  the  Pazton  boys,  who 
had  recently  massacred  some  unoffending  Oon- 
estoga  Indittis  at  the  interior  town  of  l^cas- 
ter.  These  banditti,  powerful  in  numbers,  had 
advanced  within  5  or  6  miles  of  the  city,  threat- 
ening destruction  to  all  who  should  oppose 
them,  when  the  vigor  of  the  military  prepara- 
tions checked  their  further  progress.  Scarcely 
had  this  local  disturbance  been  quieted  when 
news  was  received  of  the  resolution  of  the 
British  house  of  commons  to  charge  certain 
stamp  duties  in  the  colonies.  The  ^ling  en- 
gendered throughout  the  whole  country  by  this 
step  was  nowhere  deeper  than  in  Philadel- 
phia ;  and  the  consummation  of  the  resolve  of 
the  commons  by  the  subsequent  passage  of  the 
stamp  act,  induced,  in  that  city,  the  celebrated 
non-importation  resolutions  of  Oct  25,  1760, 
one  of  the  most  decided  measures  adopted  dur- 
ing the  early  part  of  the  struggle  with  Great 
Britain,  for  the  preservation  of  the  civil  rights  of 
the  colonists.  To  this  agreement  the  names  of 
the  principal  merchants  of  the  city  were  at- 
tached, and  among  the  number  those  of  Gol. 
Biddle  and  his  brother  Owen  Biddle.  The 
course  subsequently  pursued  by  the  British  min- 
istry destroying  all  hope  of  a  reasonable  ad- 
justment of  the  differences.  OoL  Biddle  em- 
barked early  and  zealoosly  in  the  defence  of 
the  liberties  of  America,  and  by  his  active  ex- 
ertions was  greatly  instrumental  in  forming  the 
^^  Quaker ''  company  of  volunteers  raised  in 
Philadelphia  in  1775,  of  which  he  was  elected 
an  officer  before  the  corps  joined  the  army. 
Ck)ngreas  having,  in  June,  1776,  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  middle  colonies,  directed  the  imme- 
diate establishment  of  a  flying  camp  of  10,- 
000  men  to  be  furniahed  by  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Delaware,  on  July  8  following 
elected  Col.  Biddle  its  deputy  quartermaster- 
general,  as  well  as  for  the  militia  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Kew  Jersey,  ordered  to  rendezvous 
at  Trenton.  Od.  Biddle  took  part  in  the  im- 
portant battle  of  Trenton  at  the  close  of  the 
same  year,  and,  in  coigunction  with  another 
officer,  was  ordered  by  Washington  to  receive 
the  swords  of  the  Hessian  officers.  In  the  stout- 
ly cont^ted  victory  of  Princeton,  the  surprise 
and  retreat  at  Brandywine,  the  well-concerted 
but  unsuccessful  enterprise  of  Germantown,  he 
was  also  engaged;  and  during  the  winter  of 


l777-'78,  shared  the  sufferings  of  the  Ameri- 
can army  at  the  memorable  cantonment  of 
Valley  Forge.  As  commissary-general  of  forage, 
under  Gen.  Greene,  he  rendered  important  ser- 
vice to  the  army  in  several  critical  junctures, 
especially  during  the  famine  at  Valley  Forge. 
At  Monmouth  he  shared  the  success  of  his 
countrymen.  From  the  time  of  his  entering  the 
service  he  was  actively  and  usefolly  engag- 
ed until  Sept.  1780,  when,  unable  longer  to 
yield  to  the  friendly  solicitatioos  of  Wc^ing- 
ton  and  Greene,  owing  to  the  pressure  of  his 
private  affairs,  he  was  compelled  to  return  to 
private  life.  His  military  career,  however,  was 
briefly  renewed  in  the  capacity  of  quarter- 
mast^-general  of  Penn^lvania  (an  appoint- 
ment received  bv  him  from  his  native  state  in 
Sept.  1781),  in  the  expedition  under  Washing- 
ton, in  1794^  against  the  whiskey  insurgents  of 
that  state.  Col.  Biddle  labored  earnestly  also 
in  the  early  political  movements  of  the  patriot 
party  of  his  state,  advocating  effectively  the 
revolutionary  state  constitution  of  1776  (which 
hiB  brother  Owen  Biddle  had  had,  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  convention,  a  share  in  framing), 
as  a  measure  calculated  to  promote  the  best  in- 
terests of  Pennsylvania.  The  triumph  of  the 
constitutional  party,  after  encountering  pro- 
tracted and  bitter  opposition  in  the  city  of 
Philadelphia,  is  known.  A  declaration  or  bill 
of  rights  as  a  constituent  part  of  the  organic 
instrument  of  federal  union,  to  prevent  abuse  or 
misconstruction  of  its  powers,  not  only  met  witih 
his  approval  but  enlisted  his  active  support.  Af- 
ter the  organization  of  the  federal  government 
under  the  constitution  of  1787,  Col.  Biddle  was 
appointed  marshal  of  Pennsylvania,  as  an  evi- 
dence of  the  regard  in  which  he  was  held  by 
Washington.  This  regard,  which  he  had  early 
acquired,  was  maintained  and  even  increased 
by  frequent  intercourse  and  constant  episto- 
lary correspondence,  as  the  letters  of  Wash- 
ington written  to  nim  until  within  a  few 
weeks  of  the  general's  death  abundantly 
show.  Greene  and  Knox  were  also  his  warm 
personal  friends  and  correspondents,  and 
when  the  former  was  selected  for  the  com- 
mand of  the  army  in  the  southern  states,  he 
tendered  to  and  urged  upon  Gol.  Biddle  Uie 
post  of  quartermaster-general.  As  a  private 
citizen  he  merited  and  enjoyed  during  his  life 
the  confidence  and  respect  of  the  community  in 
which  he  lived. 

BIDDLE,  Glement  Gornell,  LL.  D.,  6th  son 
of  the  precedfng,  bom  at  Philadelphia,  Oct.  24, 
1784,  died  Aug.  21, 1856.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century  he  entered  the 
naval  service  of  the  United  States,  in  which 
he  remained  for  a  brief  period,  and  after- 
ward applied  himself  to  the  study  of  the 
law.  Shortly  after  his  admission  to  the  bar 
his  patriotic  feelings  were  roused  by  the 
outrage  upon  the  U.  8.  ship  Ghesapeake  in 
the  month  of  June,  1807,  and  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  war  he  applied  to  Jefferson  for  ser- 
vice in  the  army.    He  received  an  appointment 


250 


BIDDLE 


as  captain  of  dragoons,  and  was  stationed  with 
his  regiment  for  some  time  at  New  Orleans. 
Bat  the  Briti^  government  having,  after  a  to 
dions  negotiation,  disavowed  the  act  of  the  com- 
mander of  the  Leopard,  and  peaoefol  relations 
between  the  countries  being  restored,  he  re- 
signed his  commission.  However,  subsequent 
aggressions  bj  the  British, both  bv  their  doctrine 
and  system  of  blockade  and  uieir  orders  in 
council,  at  length  led  to  the  declaration  of  war, 
June  18,  1812.  Scarcely  had  the  proclamation 
been  made  when  Capt.  Biddle  raised  in  his  na- 
tive city  a  company  of  volunteers,  called  the 
^^  State  Fencibles,"  and  was  elected  to  the  com- 
mand of  it  in  July,  1812.  Upon  the  organization 
of  the  1st  regiment  of  Pennsylvania  volunteer  in- 
fantry, which  was  mustered  into  the  U.S.  service, 
he  was  elected  its  colonel  and  served  as  such  dur- 
ing the  war.  The  retreat  of  the  Briti^  from 
B^timore  left  no  opportunity  for  active  ser- 
vice to  his  command,  which  during  the  autumn 
of  1814  had,  with  other  regiments,  been  sta- 
tioned at  Camp  Dupont  in  tibe  state  of  Dela- 
ware. On  his  retirement  from  military  life,  at 
the  conclusion  of  the  war,  he  devoted  his  leis- 
ure to  the  investigation  and  study  of  philosoph- 
ical subjects  in  the  broad  domain  of  ethics  and 
metaphysics,  and  also  to  the  principles  govern- 
ing the  production,  distribution,  and  consump- 
tion of  wealth.  To  the  science  of  political 
economy  espeoiaUy  did  he  address  himself^  and 
his  writings  have  in  a  great  measure  been  in- 
strumental in  popularizing  its  study.  The  many 
editions  of  the  translation  of  Say^s  *'  Treatise  on 
Political  Economy,"  with  the  notes  and  additions 
of  Mr.  Biddle,  alone  afford  ample  evidence  of  the 
fact.  In  the  free  trade  convention,  in  Philadel- 
phia,in  Sept.l881,he  bore  a  prominent  part ;  and^ 
although  occupying  no  pubuo  position,  also  con- 
tributed to  mould  the  policy  of  the  federal  gov- 
ernment with  regard  to  the  currency,  as  well  as  to 
its  commercial  intercourse  with  foreign  nations. 
BIDDLE,  John,  ''  the  father  of  English  Uni- 
tarians," born  at  Wotton-under-Edge,  in  Glou- 
cestershire, in  1616,  where  his  father  was  a 
woollen  draper,  died  Sept.  22, 1662.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Oxford,  and  was  elected  master  of  the 
free  school  of  Gloucester.  In  the  mean  time  he 
had  been  studying  theology  with  great  ardor, 
and  printed  for  private  circolalion  a  smaU  tract 
entitled,  '^  Twelve  Arguments  drawn  out  of  the 
Scripture,  wherein  the  conmionly  received  opin- 
ion touching  the  Deity  of  the  Holy  Spirit  is 
clearly  and  fully  refuted."  In  his  conversation 
he  was  equally  outspoken,  and  th^ry  of  heresy 
was  raised  against  him.  He  was  dismissed  from 
his  situation,  and  thrown  into  the  county  jail, 
Dec  2,  1645.  To  the  magistrates  he  delivered 
a  confession  of  faith,  from  which  it  is  evident 
that  his  mind  was  then  in  a  state  of  doubt  be- 
tween Trinitarianism  and  Unitarianism.  Six 
months  afterward,  Archbishop  Usher  had  a 
conference  with  him,  but  in  vain.  The  long 
parliament  summoned  him  to  Westminster,  and 
appointed  a  committee  to  sit  upon  Ms  case. 
Being  arraigned  on  the  charge  of  heretioal  opin- 


ions conoeming  the  Holy  Spirit,  he  refused  to 
answer  aU  such  questions  as  were  designed 
to  entrap  him  into  a  confession  of  faith  concern- 
ing the  nature  of  Jesus  Ohrist.  He  was  kept  in 
suspense  for  18  months,  when  a  letter  addrefeed 
by  him  to  Sir  Harry  Vane  had  the  desired  effect 
of  bringing  about  a  decision.  He  was  com- 
mitted to  the  custody  of  one  of  the  officers  of 
the  house  of  commons,  and  remidned  in  con- 
finement for  6  years.  The  assembly  of  divines 
at  Westminster  examined  him,  the  result  of 
which  was  to  strengthen  him  in  his  opinions. 
He  now  published  his  tract,  hitherto  privately 
circulatea.  It  created  much  scandal,  and  was 
ordered  to  be  burnt  by  the  common  hangman, 
which  only  increased  its  sale.  While  yet  in 
prison,  he  printed  a  "Oonfession  of  Faith  con- 
cerning the  Holy  Trinity  according  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, with  the  Testimonies  of  several  of  the 
Fathers  on  this  head"  (London,  1648).  This 
was  followed  by  '^The  Testimonies  of  Irensdua, 
Justin  Martyr,  Novatianus,  Theophilns  (who 
lived  the  2  first  centuries  after  Christ  was  bom, 
or  thereabouts),  as  also  Amobins,  LactantiusL 
Eusebius,  and  Hilary,  concerning  that  one  God 
and  the  persons  of  Holy  Trinity."  The  Pres- 
byterians, then  dominant  in  churdi  and  state, 
passed  a  measure  through  parliament,  by  which 
every  one  who  denied  tiie  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  should  be  punished  with  death.  This 
was  aimed  at  Biddle,  and  he  was  about  to  suffer, 
when  a  sudden  opposition  arose  to  it  among  the 
Independents  and  the  army.  The  ordinance  was 
therefore  suffered  to  lie  in  abeyance.  When  the 
Independents  gained  the  upper  hand  (1649),  the 
penal  laws  against  heretics  were  mitigated  or 
repealed.  Biddle  was  released,  and  retired  into 
Staffordshire,  where  he  was  warmly  welcomed 
by  a  magistrate,  who  procured  him  *a  congrega- 
tion, made  hhn  a  private  chaplain,  and  1^  him 
a  legacy.  Bradshaw,  president  of  the  councU, 
however,  remanded  Mm  to  prison.  He  had  now 
lost  not  only  his  fortune  and  his  liberty,  but  his 
friends.  Dr.  Gunning,  afterward  bishop  of 
Ely,  was  the  only  theologian  who  visited  him 
in  prison.  He  suffered  great  privations,  but  his 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  Greek  Scriptures, 
which  he  knew  by  heart,  induced  Roger  Daniel, 
a  London  printer,  to  give  him  for  correction  the 
proof-sheets  of  a  Greek  Septuagint,  and  this  re- 
lieved his  wants.  In  1651,  an  act  of  indemnity 
and  oblivion  for  all  heretical  offences  was  passed 
by  parliament,  and  Biddle  was  again  released, 
and  collected  around  him  those  wnom  his  writ* 
ings  had  brought  to  his  way  of  thinking.  Their 
fundamental  law  was  that  ^^the  unity  of  God  is 
a  unity  of  person  as  well  as  nature."  Th^ 
members  of  this  new  sect  were  called  Bidel- 
lians,  and,  when  their  harmony  with  the  doc- 
trines of  Socinus  was  perceived,  Socinians. 
A  translation  of  Biddle's  "Twofold  Swip- 
ture  Catechisms"  for  the  use  of  foreigners, 
again  got  him  into  trouble.  He  was  sum- 
moned to  the  bar  of  the  house  of  commons, 
and  on  his  refusal  to  criminate  himseli^  was 
committed  for  contempt,  and  the  death-x>enalt7 


BIDDLE 


251 


ordinance  was  reyived  against  him.  WhenOrom- 
weU.  dissolved  the  parliament,  Biddle  was  again 
set  free  after  a  10  months'  term.  A  whole  Bap- 
tist congregation  hecame  conyerted  to  Biddle's 
views,  and  this  was  so  displeasing  to  the  Bap- 
tast  minister,  Mr.  Grififtn,  that  he  challenf;ed 
Biddle  to  a  puhlic  controyersy.  Biddle  im- 
prudently accepted  the  challenge,  and  spoke  in 
a  derogatory  manner  of  Christ's  divine  natnre. 
He  was  thrown  into  the  Poultry  Oompter,  July 
8, 1665,  and  thence  removed  to  Newgate,  and 
tried  for  his  life  on  the  long  parliament  ordi- 
nance against  blasphemy  and  heresy.  As  the 
trial  was  evidently  going  against  him,  Oromwell 
interposed,  the  trial  was  stopped,  and  Biddle 
was  remanded  to  jail.  In  order  to  shelter 
Biddle  yet  more  securely  from  his  persecutors, 
Cromwell  banished  him  to  Star  castle,  in  St. 
ICwy's,  one  of  the  Scilly  islands,  with  an  an- 
nual subsistence  of  100  crowns  (Oct  1655). 
Here  he  continued  to  devote  himself  to  the 
study  of  theology.  After  8  years,  he  was  re- 
leased on  a  writ  of  habea$  eorpWy  and  returning 
to  London,  became  pastor  of  an  Independent 
congregation,  but  fearing  the  Presbyterians, 
who  came  again  into  power  after  the  death  of 
Cromwell,  he  retired  mto  the  country.  Upon 
the  final  dissolution  of  the  rump  parliament^  he 
oame  to  London  again  and  renewed  his  minis- 
trations. The  restoration  of  Charles  II.  in  the 
summer  of  1660,  again  caused  him  to  retire 
from  publicity.  His  caution  did  not  preserve 
him  long.  His  little  congregation  was  surprised 
June  1,  1662,  when  hol&ig  a  conventicle  m  the 
house  of  a  London  citizen.  Biddle  was  fined 
£100,  and  each  of  the  audience  £20,  with  con- 
finement in  de&ult  of  payment  The  prison 
was  kept  in  such  a  manner  that  6  weeks'  resi- 
dence in  it  was  enough  to  cause  his  death.  In 
1658  he  published  several  smtdl  pieces,  trans- 
lated from  the  works  of  the  Polish  Unitarians, 
among  which  was  Przipcovius's  '^  Life  of 
Faustus  Socinus,''  also,  ^  Kotes  on  the  Revela- 
tions." He  was  admitted,  by  foes  as  weU  as 
friends,  to  be  irreproachable,  except  for  his  opin- 
ions. He  denied  the  doctrine  of  original  sin 
and  the  atonement  Joshua  Toulmin,  a  modern 
English  Unitarian  minister,  has  written  a  ^^  Be- 
view  of  the  Life,  Character,  and  Writings  of 
John  Biddle,"  in  the  spirit  of  an  admirer. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  a  distinguished  naval 
commander  of  the  revolution,  bom  in  Philadel- 
phia, Sept.  10, 1750,  was  Idlled  at  sea  in  the 
28th  year  of  his  age  by  an  explosion  of  the 
magazine  of  his  vessel,  March  7, 1778.  In  1765, 
wlule  on  a  voyage  to  the  West  Indies,  he  with 
2  others,  chosen  by  lot,  were  left  for  2  months 
on  an  uninhabited  island,  he  being  at  tiiat  time 
but  15  years  of  age.  In  1770  he  entered  the 
British  navy.  When  Phipps,  afterward  Lord 
Mulgrave,  was  about  to  start  on  his  exploring 
expedition,  young  Biddle^  though  a  midship- 
man, deserted  his  own  vessel  and  shipped  as  a 
seaman  on  the  Carcass,  serving  through  the 
cruise  with  Lord  Nelson,  who  was  a  mate  of 
Phippe^s  vessel.    On  the  commencement  of  the 


American  revolution  he  came  to  America  and 
was  made  captain  of  the  Andrew  Doria,  a  brig 
of  14  guns  and  180  men,  in  which  he  parti- 
cipated in  Commodore  Hopkins^s  attack  on  New 
Providence.  After  refitting  in  New  London 
he  was  ordered  on  a  cruise  to  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland,  and  in  1776  was  fortunate 
enough  to  take  among  other  prizes  2  transport 
ships  with  valuable  cargoes  and  with  a  battal- 
ion of  Highland  troops.  He  was  appointed  to 
the  command  of  the  Bandolph,  a  82  gun  frigate, 
in  Feb.  1777.  In  March,  1778,  he  was  wounded 
in  an  action  with  the  Yarmouth,  an  English  64 
gun  ship.  While  under  the  hands  of  a  surgeon, 
Sie  magazine  blew  up,  and  the  whole  crew  of 
the  Randolph  were  lost,  except  4  men,  who 
were  tossed  about  on  a  piece  of  the  wreck  for 
4  days  before  they  were  relieved.  The  other 
vessds  of  the  squadron  escaped  in  consequence 
of  the  disabled  state  of  the  Yarmouth. 

BIDDLE,  Nicholas,  an  American  financier,  , 
born  at  Philadelphia,  Jan.  8,  1786,  died  Feb. 
27,  1844.  His  fkther,  Charles  Biddle,  was 
a  patriot  of  the  revolution,  and  vice-president 
of  Pennsylvania,  when  Be^janun  Franklin  was 
the  president,  under  the  former  constitution 
of  that  state;  tiie  son  was  named  after 
his  unde  Commodore  Nicholas  Biddle,  the 
subject  of  the  preceding  article.  Graduating 
with  the  highest  honors  at  Princeton  college  in 
1801,  Biddle  then  pursued  the  usual  course  of 
stud^  for  the  bar,  but  being  too  young  for  ad- 
mission to  it,  he  went  to  Europe  as  secretary  to 
Qen.  Armstrong,  U.  S.  minister  to  France,  and 
afterward  held  the  same  position  with  Mr. 
Monroe,  IT.  S.  minister  to  England.  He  travel- 
led extensively  in  Europe,  and  to  his  attainments 
in  classical  learning  added  a  very  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  modern  languages ;  indeed, 
his  devotion  to  liberal  studies  was  constant 
through  life.  In  1807  he  returned  to  Phila^ 
delphia,  and  commenced  the  practice  of  the  law. 
He  also  edited  the  "  Port  Folio,"  for  a  time 
in  conjunction  with  Joseph  Dennie,  compiled  a 
"  Commercial  Digest,-'  and  prepared  the  narra- 
tive of  '^  Lewis  and  Clark's  Explorations."  He 
was  in  the  house  of  representatives  of  Pennsyl- 
vania in  1810,  and  was  distinguished  by  his 
efibrts  to  establish  a  general  system  of  education. 
During  the  war  of  1812-15,  he  was  in  the  state 
senate,  and  ardently  supported  the  measures  for 
carrying  on  the  contest ;  in  1814  he  wrote  the 
report  of  the  senate  committee  upon  the  propo- 
sitions from  the  Hartford  convention, — an  able 
and  patriotic  state  paper,  that  attracted  great 
attention.  In  1817  ne  was  the  candidate  of  the 
democratic  party  for  congress,  but  was  defeated 
by  the  federalists.  In  1819,  President  Monroe 
appointed  him  a  government  director  of  the 
U.  8.  Bank.  In  1823,  on  the  resignation  of 
Mr.  Langdon  Cheves,  he  was  elected  president 
of  that  institution,  and  administered  its  affairs 
with  consummate  ability.  During  the  presidency 
of  Gen.  Jackson,  the  recharter  of  the  bank  be- 
came the  leading  political  question  of  the  day. 
The  controversy  was  one  of  great  violence ;  a 


252 


BIDDLE 


BIDLOO 


bill  for  the  recharter  was  passed  by  congress, 
but  vetoed  bj  the  president.  By  the  limitation 
of  its  charter,  the  bank  terminated  its  existence 
in  1880,  retaining  to  the  last  its  stability  and 
character.  The  success  of  the  national  bank 
indaced  the  legislature  of  Pennsylvania  to 
create  ^^  a  state  bank  to  be  called  the  United 
States  Bank."  Nicholas  Biddle,  then  at  the 
height  of  his  reputation  as  a  financier,  was  ur- 
gently solicited  to  accept  the  presidency  of  the 
new  institution.  He  consented — with  reluc- 
tance, it  is  stated — ^and  continued  at  its  head  till 
March,  1889,  when,  his  health  being  much  im- 
paired, he  resigned,  leaving  the  bank,  apparent- 
ly, in  a  prosperous  condition.  Two  years  after- 
ward, tne  bank  finally  ceased  payment,  and 
was  declared  to  be  insolvent.  Whether  this 
was  the  result  of  measures  pursued  during  the 
admmistration  of  Mr.  Biddle,  or  after  it,  or  of 
general  causes  affecting  the  financial  condition 
of  the  whole  country,  or  of  difficulties  inherent 
to  the  working  of  the  state  institution,  were 
points  of  vehement  controversy,  which  our 
limits  do  not  permit  us  to  review.  Mr.  Biddle 
published  a  series  of  letters  in  vindication  of 
his  administration  of  the  state  bank.  There  is 
an  extended  biography  of  him,  by  a  distinguished 
citizen  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  '^National  Por- 
trait Gallery"  (edition  of  1864).  From  political 
opponents  on  the  bank  question,  his  character 
has  also  won  some  high  euloginms.  The  Hon. 
W.  F.  Packer  (now  governor  of  Pennsylvania^, 
in  advocating  a  railroad  connection  of  Philadel- 
phia with  the  lakes,  said :  ''  This  was  the  favorite 
project  of  the  late  Nicholas  Biddle;  and  what- 
ever may  be  said  of  him  as  a  politician  or  a 
financier,  all  agree  that  on  questions  of  internal 
improvement  and  commerce  he  was  one  of  the 
most  sagacious  and  far-seeing  statesmen  of  this 
union."  The  Hon.  0.  J.  Ingersoll,  in  his  his- 
tory, says :  *'  Nicholas  Biddle  was  as  iron-nerved 
a  man  as  his  great  antagonist  Andrew  Jackson, 
loved  his  country  not  less,  and  money  as  little." 
He  was  an  earnest  promoter  of  many  great 
public  improvements,  and  a  member  of  numer- 
ous associations  for  beneficial  purposes,  in  which 
he  exercised,  by  his  popular  manners  and  force 
of  character,  a  commanding  influence.  As 
president  of  the  trustees  of  the  Girard  coUege, 
he  determined  the  plan  of  the  building  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  own  classic  taste,  to  whidi 
Philadelphia  owes,  also,  the  beautiful  structure 
the  U.  S.  custom  house,  formerly  the  U.  8. 
bank.  His  speeches,  essays,  and  letters,  ex- 
hibit an  unusual  combination  of  elegance  widi 
vigor  of  style.  In  1811  he  married  Miss  Oraig, 
of  Philadelphia,  who  had  inherited  an  extensive 
country  seat  called  "Andalusia,"  on  the  river 
Delaware.  There  Mr.  Biddle  indulged  his  pre- 
dilection for  agriculture,  which,  with  literature, 
formed  the  relaxation  of  his  laborious  life.  He 
was  for  many  years  the  president  of  the  agri- 
cultural and  the  horticultural  societies  of  Penn- 
sylvania, and  delivered  before  them  several 
addresses. 
BIDDLE,  RicHABD,  brother  of  the  preceding, 


and,  like  him,  an  accomplished  scholar,  born  in 
Philadelphia,  March  25,  1796,  died  atPittsbnrg, 
Penn.,  July  6, 1847.  He  shared  the  military  ardor 
of  his  fkmuy,  which  has  furnished  several  gallant 
officers  to  the  army  and  to  the  navy,  and  Siongh 
a  mere  youth  in  1813,  he  was  in  arms  at  Shdl- 
pot,  and  in  the  following  year  at  Camp  Dnpont, 
m  the  force  raised  to  protect  Philadelphia  firom 
the  expected  advance  of  the  Briti^  army.  He 
studied  the  law,  and  then  removing  to  PittBbnrg, 
he  soon  became  an  acknowledged  leader  of 
the  bar.  In  1827  he  visited  England;  a  book 
of  travels  in  America,  by  Oapt.  Basil  Hall,  ap- 
pearing about  that  time,  an  exposure  of  ito 
errors  was  made  by  Mr.  Biddle,  in  a  puUication 
that  exhibited  his  remarkable  vigor  of  nund 
and  accuracy  in  details.  These  qnalities 
were*  more  highly  tasked  in  his  '^Life  of 
Sebastian  Oabot,"  which  brought  to  light, 
from  recondite  sources,  new  and  important 
information  upon  the  history  of  maritime  dis- 
coveries in  i^erica.  Some  of  the  original 
opinions  maintained  in  this  work  have  been 
contested  bv  subsequent  writers,  but  the  great 
ability  displayed  in  it  has  never  been  de- 
nied. With  these  investigations  he  occopied 
his  time  for  about  3  years  in  Europe,  and  on  ia& 
return  home  resumed  the  practice  of  the  law. 
In  1887  he  was  elected  to  Oongress,  from  which 
he  retired  in  1840.  His  course  in  that  body 
was  marked  by  a  determined  resistance  to  ex- 
tremes of  opinion  or  policy,  from  either  8e^ 
tion  of  the  Union. 

BIDDOOMAHS,  or  Btjdduma,  a  piratical 
tribe  who  inhabit  the  islands  of  Lake  Tchad^  the 
recently  explored  inland  sea  of  central  AMca. 
They  neither  sow,  plant,  nor  rear  cattle,  bnt 
maintain  themselves  by  fishing  and  plunder. 
They  own  nearly  1,000  barks,  and  have  made 
themselves  complete  masters  of  the  lake  and  its 
borders.  Some  of  these  men,  whom  Major 
Denham  saw  at  Bomoo,  struck  him  as  the  wild- 
est and  ugliest  specimens  of  humanify  he  bad 
ever  seen..  They  are  pagans,  and  have  maiQ" 
tained  their  independence  of  the  Mohammed- 
ans living  around  them,  and  with  whom 
they  are  constantly  at  war.  They  were  visited 
by  Dr.  Overweg  in  1851  and  '63.  Dr.  Bartii,  who 
visited  them  after  Overweg's  death,  informs  ns 
that  they  call  themselves  Tedina,  and  tiiat  Bid- 
doomah  is  the  title  given  to  them  by  their  neigh- 
bors. They  are  jet  bkck.  Then*  largest  boats 
are  40  feet  In  length  and  6i  in  width.  These 
boats  are  called  mahara,  made  of  light  wood. 
They  are  without  sails  and  propelled  by  long 
poles.  The  ribs  of  the  boat  are  fastened  to- 
gether with  ropes,  the  holes  being  stopped  with 
bast.  Dr.  Barth  says  they  belong  to  the  Koto- 
ko,  and  are  nearly  related  to  the  people  of 
Nghala.  Thdir  language  was  originally  distinct 
from  the  Kanuri,  although  in  process  of  time 
they  have  adopted  many  of  their  terms. 

BIDLOO,  GoDEFBoro,  a  Dutch  surgeon  m 
anatomist,  bom  at  Amsterdam,  March  12, 1649, 
died  at  Leyden  in  April,  1718.  His  parente 
were   Anabaptists,   and   in   compliance  with 


BIDPAY 


BIENNE 


253 


their  wishes  he  devoted  himself  to  the  stady 
of  anatomy.  In  1688  he  was  appointed  pro* 
fessor  of  anatomj  at  the  Hagae.  In  1604 
he  became  professor  of  anatomy  and  sur- 
gery at  Leyden.  and  about  the  same  time 
Shysician  to  William  III.  of  England ;  on  the 
eath  of  whom,  in  1702,  Bidloo  returned  to 
lus  professorship  at  Leyden.  He  published  Aiv- 
atomia  Humani  OorporiSy  folio,  Amst,  1685, 
comprised  in  105  finely  drawn  plates.  This 
work  was  incorrect  in  many  respects,  but  it 
was,  notwithstanding,  one  of  the  best  of  the 
kind  then  existing.  Oo wper,  a  sur^jton  of  Lon- 
don, is  said  to  have  appropriated  the  plates,  and 
having  xdtered  them  and  made  some  slight  ad- 
ditions, published  them  as  his  own. 

BIDPAY,  or  PiLPi.T,  an  Indian  Bramin  and 
gymnosophist,  who  is  supposed  by  some  to  have 
lived  2,000  ^ears  and  by  others  800  years  be- 
fore the  Christian  era,  and  of  whose  life  nothing 
is  known  except  that  he  was  governor  of  a 
part  of  Hindostan.  His  name  is  attached  to  a 
collection  of  ingenious  fables  which  have  been 
spread  throughout  the  East  and  the  West,  and 
are  regarded  as  a  summary  of  all  practical 
wisdom.  They  were  originaUy  written  in  San« 
Bcrit,  under  the  titles  of  Fancha  Ibnta^a  and 
Eitopadesa^  and  after  having  been  translated 
into  Arabic  and  Hebrew,  a  Latin  version  <^ 
them  was  made  in  1262  by  Giovanni  da  Oapua, 
under  the  title  of  IHreetorium  HUb^  paraookB 
aniiquorum  $apientiwn.  The  HitopadeM  was 
edited  by  Schlegel,  and  published  at  Bonn  in 
1829 ;  the  Arabic  text  was  published  at  Paris, 
by  Sylvestre  de  Sacy,  in  1816 ;  and  the  fables 
have  been  translated  into  almost  all  languages. 
Eighteen  of  the  fables  of  La  Fontaine  are  copies 
or  close  imitations  of  them.  Becent  savants 
are  of  opinion  that  the  author  of  the  fables  of 
Bidpay  was  a  Bramin  named  Yichnu  Parma. 

BIEDERMANN^,  Fbibdrioh  Earl,  a  profes- 
sor of  philosophy  and  public  law  at  the  uni- 
versity of  LeipsiCi  born  in  that  dty,  Sept.  25, 
1812.  In  1845,  his  lectures  at  the  university 
were  suspended  on  account  of  his  liberal  senti- 
ments ;  subsequently  he  was  reinstated  in  his 
position.  Since  1850  he  has  been  engaged  upon 
a  publication  of  a  new  encydopndical  work,  to 
be  called  Qermania,  His  "  Lectures  on  Social- 
ism,'' and  a  work  on  German  philosophy,  from 
£ant  to  our  day,  are  worthy  oi  mention. 

BIELA,  WiLUEuc  VON,  baron,  bom  at  Boela, 
Pros^a,  March  19, 1782,  died  at  Venice,  Feb. 
18, 1856,  an  Austrian  officer,  who  has  rendered 
his  name  immortal  by  discovering  an  interest- 
ing comet.  Fob.  2T,  1826,  while  stationed  at  Jo- 
sephstadt,  in  Bohemia. 

BIELEFELD,  a  circle  of  Prussui,  in  the 

Province  of  Westphalia;  pop.  47,789.  The 
'eutoburger  Wald  range  of  mountains  runs 
through  the  circle.  It  produces  fine  flax  and 
hemp,  but  little  timber  and  grain.  Linen  yam, 
ironware,  tobacco,  woollens,  leather,  soap,  cop- 
per and  copper  ware,  yams,  and  damask  doth, 
are  among  the  manufactures. — ^The  capital  of  the 
circle  is  of  the  same  name ;  pop.  10,308.    It  has 


an  old  fortress,  now  used  as  a  prison ;  \^  is  sur- 
rounded by  ramparts  and  a  broad  ditch  which 
have  been  laid  out  in  beautiful  walks.  The  Oo- 
logne  and  Minden  railway  passes  through  the 
town. 

BIELE Y,  or  Bielbf,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Toola,  situated  on  the  river  Oka, 
64  miles  S.  W.  of  the  town  of  Toola;  pop. 
7,000.  It  has  a  considerable  trade,  and  manu- 
fiictories  of  soap,  leather,  and  hardware. 

BIELGOROD,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
emment  of  Koonk,  and  78  miles  S.  of  the  town 
of  Koorsk,  on  the  river  Donets ;  pop.  10,818. 
It  contains  18  diurches,  and  8  monasteries. 

BIELITZ,  a  duchy  of  Austrian  Silesia,  be- 
tween the  Vistula  and  the  Biala.  It  was  a 
minor  sovereignty  until  it  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  princes  of  SulkoflEsky  in  the  year 
1752,  when  Francis  I.,  emperor  of  Germany, 
erected  it  into  a  dukedom.  One-half  of  its 
12.000  inhabitants  are  IVoteetants  and  the  other 
half  Catholics.— The  capital  of  the  duchy  of  the 
same  name,  pop.  5,500,  has  an  old  castle,  a  fine 
park,  8  churches,  2  Catholic  and  1  Lutheran ;  is 
the  seat  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Protestants 
of  Moravia.  It  has  considerable  woollen,  oassi- 
mere,  and  linen  manufactories. 

BIELLA,  aprovince  of  Piedmont,  whichmakes 
part  of  the  intendency  of  Turin ;  pop.  94,528.  It 
IS  traversed  bv  a  branch  of  the  Apennines.  The 
principal  products  are  cattle,  iron,  copper,  corn, 
rice,  hemp,  and  silk-worms.  The  fielos  are  ir- 
rigsted  by  canals.— The  chief  town  of  the  prov- 
ince, also  named  Biella,  is  a  bishop's  see,  and 
has  a  royal  college,  a  doth  factory,  and  trades 
in  silk,  oil,  and  chestnuts ;  pop.  8,250. 

BIELO-OZERO,  a  lake  of  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Novgorod,  in  lat  60°  10'  N., 
long.  87"*  80'  £.  Length,  25  miles;  breadth.  20 
miles.  The  Sheksna,  a  branch  of  the  Volga, 
forms  its  outlet,  and  canals  connect  it  with  the 
Onega,  Sookhona,  and  Dwina. 

BIELSEI.  Mabout,  a  Polish  historian,  bom 
in  1495,  died  in  1575,  at  Biala,  in  the  district  of 
Sieradz.  His  Knmiha  wiata  and  Xr&niba  Foh 
$ka  (Cracow,  1550  and  1564).  contain  the  first 
comprehensive  attempt  at  a  nistory  of  Poland. 
He  wrote  2  satirical  poems.  Sen  tnqiowy  (Cra- 
cow, 1590),  and  Seym  niewietei  (1595),  pictur- 
ing, in  the  one,  the  degradation  of  Hungary, 
and  calling  upon  his  countrymen  to  exhibit  a 
nobler  spirit  than  the  Hungarians,  while  the 
other  cives  a  keen  analysis  of  the  condition  of 
Poland  in  his  days.  A  strategetical  work  of  his, 
Sprawa  ryeenha  (1569),  ^ves  valuable  infor- 
mation upon  the  condition  of  the  Polish  army, 
and  the  cnaracter  of  Polish  tactics.  After  serv- 
ing in  the  army,  and  taking  part,  in  1581,  in  the 
battle  of  Obertyn,  he  devoted  himself  for  the 
rest  of  his  days,  to  literary  pursuits.  In  1617 
the  bishop  of  Cracow  stopped  the  circulation 
of  his  ^^  Chronides,"  as  they  were  suspected  to 
contain  heterodox  sentiments. 

BIENNE,  or  BIX^  a  hike  and  town  of 
Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Bern.  The  lake, 
which  lies  8  miles  N.  E.  of  tliat  of  Neui- 


254 


BIENNIALS 


BIGAMY 


chAtel,  is  10  miles  in  length,  and  from  1  to  8  in 
breadth.  It  is  an  expansion  of  the  river  Thiele, 
and  chiefly  interesting  from  its  containing  the 
island  of  St.  Pierre,  where  Ronssean  resided  in 
1765.  The  town,  situated  at  the  north  end  of 
the  lake,  17  miles  N.  W.  of  the  town  of  Bern, 
is  Borroanded  by  old  walls,  has  a  high  school, 
and  several  mills.  Watchmaking  is  extensive- 
ly carried  on.    Pop.  4,248,  chiefly  Protestants. 

BIENNIALS,  a  technical  term  in  botany, 
applied  to  plants  which  attain  their  fnll  period 
of  growth,  reproduce  their  seed,  and  die  with- 
in 2  years.  Parsley,  foxglove,  and  many  other 
herbaceous  plants,  come  under  this  denomina- 
tion, as  they  attain  their  growth  during  the 
first  year,  flower  and  run  to  seed  the  second, 
and  then  die.  In  botanical  works,  biennial 
plants  are  designated  by  the  astronomical  sign 
of  the  planet  Mars  (s),  which  performs  its 
revolution  around  the  sun  in  2  years. 

BIENVILLE,  a  parish  in  the  N.  W.  part  of 
Ijouisiana,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Lake  Bistin- 
can,  which  communicates  with  Red  river  by  an 
outlet,  and  is  navigable  by  steamboats.  The 
parish  was  set  off  from  Olaibome  parish  in 
1846.  Its  sur&ce  is  thickly  wooded,  covered 
with  occasional  plantations  of  cotton  and 
maize.  It  is  traversed  by  Black  Lake  and  Sa- 
line bayous.  In  1855  the  productions  were 
6,669  bales  of  cotton,  and  221,225  bushels  of 
Indian  com ;  the  value  of  real  estate  was  $880,- 
770;  and  the  pop.  8,168,  of  whom  8,699  were 
slaves.    Oapital,  Sparta. 

BIERNAOKI,  Aloys  Pbospeb,  a  Polish  ag- 
ricultural reformer,  bom  in  1778,  in  the  palati- 
nate of  Kalish,  of  one  of  the  most  ancient  noble 
families  of  Poland,  died  at  Paris  in  1856.  He 
finished  his  studies  at  the  university  of  Frank- 
fort*on-the-Oder,  where  he  developed  a  taste 
for  ceaseless  intellectual  activity,  in  respect  of 
which  he  was  prominent  among  his  compatri- 
ots during  a  long  and  agitated  life.  After 
leaving  the  universitv  he  travelled  in  Germany, 
perfecting  his  knowledge  of  scientific  agriou- 
ture,  which  at  that  time  lay  in  the  most  forlorn 
and  desolate  state  in  Poland,  an  essentially 
agricultural  country.  Bieraaoki  devoted  his 
abilities,  energy,  and  fortune  to  the  dlflcult 
task  of  enlightening  his  countrymen,  and  mak- 
ing them  familiar  with  new  inventions  and 
methods.  He  had  not  only  to  contend  against 
the  routine  of  preindices,  but  to  meet  the  equal 
ignorance  of  nobles  and  peasants.  He  estab- 
lished on  his  estates  a  school  of  mutual  instmc- 
tion  on  the  Lancasteriau  method.  He  improved 
the  breed  of  sheep  by  introducing  in  Poland 
merinos,  which  now  equal,  if  they  do  not  sur- 
pass, those  of  Spain.  To  BiemackPs  indefati- 
fable  exertions  Poland  is  matly  indebted  for 
aving  improved  and  developed  the  resources 
of  her  soil.  His  estate,  SulisUwice,  near  Ea- 
lish,  was  the  earliest  model-farm  in  Poland, 
established  at  his  own  cost,  long  before  any- 
other  nobleman  or  the  government  had  thought 
of  such  an  institution.  Having  embraced  con- 
stitutional ideas  in  politics,  after  the  model  of  the 


celebrated  French  constitutional  opposition  to 
the  older  Bourbons,  Biemacki  was  for  10  years 
one  of  the  leaders  of  a  similar  opposition  in 
Poland.  At  the  revolution  of  1880  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Polish  diet,  and  zealous  for  em- 
ploying decided  and  energetic  measures.  Dur- 
ing the  war  he  was  secretary  of  finance.  After 
the  suppression  of  the  revolution  he  emigrated 
to  Paris,  where  he  lived  in  studious  occupation 
till  his  death. — Jozef,  a  soldier,  and  elder 
brother  of  the  foregoing,  also  of  high  mental 
accompHshinents,  a  ^rvent  and  devoted  patriot, 
fought  in  Italy  under  Moreau,  Sdierer,  and 
Macdonald,  agiunst  the  Austriansand  Russians; 
and  after  participating  in  the  Polish  revoluticm 
of  1880,  and  in  the  partial  movements  which 
Mowed  it,  he  died  in  1886,  a  state  prisoner 
in  one  of  the  Russian  fortresses. 

BIERVUET,  a  town  of  Holland,  in  the 
nrovince  of  Zeahmd,  18  miles  K  N.  E.  of  Slui& 
it  is  the  bhihplace  of  William  Beukels,  who  in- 
vented the  process  of  curing  herrings,  and  con- 
tains a  monument  to  Ms  memory,  erected  by 
Oharlee  V. 

BIG  BLACK  RIVER,  a  river  about  200  miles 
in  length,  having  its  sources  in  Choctaw  co., 
HisiB.,  and  taking  a  south-westerly  direction, 
enters  the  lOssissippi  through  2  mouths,  one  of 
which  is  in  Warren  county,  and  the  other  in 
Claibome,  at  Grand  Oulf.  It  is  bordered 
throughout  most  of  its  course  by  rich  cotton 
plantetions. 

BIG  BONE  UCK,  a  salt  spring  in  Boone 
CO.,  Ky.,  especially  interesting  to  geologists, 
and  naturalists,  on  account  of  the  deposits 
of  fossil  bones  of  the  mastodon,  and  several 
species  of  mammalia  found  in  the  soil.  The 
soil  containing  the  deposit  is  dark  colored  and 
marshy,  gencorally  overlaid  with  gravel,  and 
resting  on  blue  day. 

BIG  HORN  RIVER,  a  river  of  Nebraska, 
rising  in  that  spur  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
known  as  the  Black  hUls,  which,  in  a  semidr- 
cnlar  curve  to  the  N.  E.,  intersects  the  entire 
territory,  striking  the  Missouri  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Yellowstone.  The  Big  Horn  river  pursues  a 
nearlv  northerly  direction.  It  meets  with  the 
Wind  river  from  the  Wind  river  mountidns  on 
the  W.,  about  in  the  centre  of  the  territory, 
whence  pursuing  still  a  northerly  direction, 
with  a  slight  curvature  to  the  W.,  it  enters  the 
Yellowstone  at  Manuel's  fort. 

BIG  SPRING,  a  post  vilhige  of  Breckenridge 
county,  Kentucky,  S.  W.  of  LouisviUe.  The  place 
receives  its  name  from  a  large  spring  which  rises 
near  the  centre  of  the  village,  and  uie  waters  of 
which,  after  flowing  a  few  hundred  feet,  sud- 
denly disappear  into  the  ground. 

BIGAMY,  the  marrying  of  a  second  wife  or 
husband  during  the  life  of  the  first  This  is  an 
offence  in  all  Christian  countries.  Exceptions 
are,  however,  created  where  the  first  marriage 
is  void,  or  has  been  dissolved  by  competent 
authority.  By  the  laws  of  New  York,  the  of- 
fence involves  imprisonment  not  exceeding  6 
years.    The  exceptions  are,  absence  of  the  first 


BIGELOW 


BIGLAKD 


255 


husband  or  wife  for  5  yean,  without  the  residenoe 
being  known  to  the  piurty  manying  a  second  time ; 
or  delibenite  absence  from  the  United  States 
for  a  like  period;  or  diyorce,  except  for  oaose 
of  adnlteiy  in  the  party  manying  a  second  time. 

BIGELOW,  Ji^ooB,  M.  D.,  LL.  D.,  an  Amer- 
ican physician  and  writer,  bom  in  Sudbnry, 
MtsBL,  in  1787;  graduated  at  Harvard  nniver- 
wtj  in  1806,  and  commenced  practice  in  Boston 
in  1810.  A  skilfoi  botanist,  he  published,  in 
1614)  the  Fhrula  BwUmiengUy  and  afterward 
an  enlarged  edition  of  the  same  work ;  he  also 
pablii^ed  his  '*  American  Medical  Botany,*'  in 
8  Tols.,  8vo,  with  plates.  He  had  at  that  time 
an  eztensiye  correspondence  with  European 
botaniata,  and  different  plants  were  named  for 
him  by  Sir  J.  £.  Smith,  in  the  supplement  to 
"Bees*  Oydopaadia,"  by  Schrader  in  Germany, 
and  De  QandoUe  in  France.  For  more  than  40 
yeara  he  has  been  an  aotiye  and  distinguished 
practitioner  of  medicine  in  Boston ;  during  half 
of  litis  time  he  was  a  physician  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts general  hospital,  and  held  the  offices  of 
professor  of  materia  medica  and  of  dinical 
medioine  in  Harvard  university.  He  also  for 
10  years  delivered  lectures  on  the  application 
of  Bcienoe  to  the  useful  arts,  at  0am  oridgj^,  as 
Bumford  professor;  these  were  afterward  pub- 
lished under  the  title  of  ^'Elements  of  Technol- 
ogy.'' He  was  one  of  the  committee  of  5,  se- 
lected in  1820,  to  form  the  "  American  Pharma- 
copoeia ;^'  and  the  nomenclature  of  the  materia 
medica  afterward  adopted  %y  the  British  col- 
kges,  which  substituted  a  sin^^e  for  a  double 
word  when  practicable,  is  due  in  principle  to 
him.  He  has  published  numerous  medical  essays 
and  dtsoourses,  some  of  which  are  embodied  in  a 
volume  entitled  ^^  Nature  in  Diseasei"  published 
in  1854;  one  of  these  essays,  ^^A  Discourse 
on  Self-Limited  Diseases,''  delivered  before  the 
Maaaachnsetts  medical  society  in  1886,  had  un- 
questionably a  great  influence  in  modifying  the 
practice  of  physicians  at  that  time  and  since. 
He  was  the  founder  of  Mt  Auburn  cemetery, 
near  Boeton,  the  first  establishment  of  the  kind 
in  the  United  States,  and  the  model  of  those 
which  have  foUowed ;  he  has  found  time  to  in- 
dulge his  artistic  tastes  in  its  various  decora- 
tions, and  the  much  admired  stone  tower,  cha- 
pd,  gate,  and  fence,  are  all  made  after  his 
derigna.  He  has  the  reputation  of  an  accom- 
plished classical  scholar,  and  has  been  an  oc- 
casional contributor  to  the  literary  periodicals 
and  reviews;  he  is  an  excellent  humorous 
writer  both  in  prose  and  verse,  and  a  volume 
of  poems,  entitied  *'  Eolopoesis,"  has  been  at- 
tributed to  him.  He  was  for  many  years  the 
president  of  the  Massachusetts  medical  society, 
and  of  the  American  academy  of  arts  and 
sdencea,  which  last  office  he  now  holds.  In 
conmiemoratiofi  of  his  services,  the  trustees  of 
the  hospital,  in  1856,  ordered  his  marble  bust 
to  be  placed  in  the  haU  of  that  institution. 

BIGELOW,  John,  editor  of  the  "New  York 
Evening  Post,"  was  bom  at  Maiden,  in  Ulster 
county,  K.  Y.,  Nov.  25,  1817,  graduated  at 


Union  college,  1885,  studied  law  with  the  late 
Bobert  Sedgwick,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  of  New  York  city  in  1889.  He  practised 
law  with  success  about  10  years,  varying  the 
routine  of  professional  duties  with  various  lite- 
rary labors.  In  1840  he  was  occupied  as  lite- 
rary editor  of  the  ''Plebeian,"  and  in  1848, 1844, 
and  1845,  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the 
"  Democratic  Beview,"  edited  by  John  L.  O'Sal- 
livan,  subsequentiy  minister  to  Portugal.  The 
articles  by  Mr.  Bigelow  in  the  *'  Beview"  which 
attracted  most  attention  were  those  on  ''  Oon- 
stitutional  Beform,"  ''Executive  Patronage," 
"The  Beciprocal  Influences  of  Civil  Liberty 
and  the  Physical  Sciences,"  "Lucian  and  his 
Age,"  and  "Pascal."  He  also  edited  Gregg's 
"  Oonunerce  of  the  Prairies,"  and  other  popular 
books  of  travel  In  1845,  Mr.  Bigelow  was  ap- 
pointed by  Gov.  Wright  one  of  the  inspectors  of 
the  state  prison  at  Sing  Sing,  and  held  the  office 
8  years,  after  which  it  was  made  elective  by  the 
people,  under  the  new  constitution  of  1846.  While 
m  this  position,  he  was  the  author  of  a  number  of 
most  useful  reforms  in  the  discipline  of  the 
prison,  mitigating  its  harshness,  and  improving  its 
efficiency,  greatiy  to  the  advantage  of  the  inmates 
and  of  uie  state.  In  Nov.  1850,  he  became  a 
partner  with  Mr.  Bryant  in  the  ownership  of  the 
"Evening  Post,"  a  position  which  he  stiU  holds. 
In  Jan.  1850,  he  made  a  voyage  to  Jamaica,  one 
of  the  iruits  of  which  was  his  "Jamaica  in 
1850,"  a  small  volume  on  the  economical,  social, 
and  political  condition  of  that  island,  which 
had  a  rapid  sale,  and  which  was  pronounced  by 
some  of  the  leading  reviews  and  statesmen  in 
Great  Britain,  the  most  valuable  of  modem 
works  upon  the  subject.  In  the  winter  of 
1854,  he  again  sailed  for  the  West  Indies,  visit- 
ing Hayti  and  St  Thomas,  and  during  his  jour- 
ney collected  materials  for  a  work  on  Hayti,  a 
few  instalments  of  which  have  appeared  in  the 
"Evening  Post." 

BIGELOW,  Timothy,  a  lawyer  of  New  Eng- 
land, bom  in  Worcester,  Mass.,  April  80, 1767, 
died  May  18,  1821.  He  was  the  son  of  GoL 
Timothy  Bigelow,  who  served  in  Arnold's  ex- 
pedition to  Quebec,  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 
lege in  1786,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
settied  in  practice  at  Groton,  Mass.,  in  1789. 
He  took  an  active  part  in  politics  as  a  firm 
federalist  was  for  20  years  a  member  of  the 
state  legislature,  and  11  years  speaker  of  the 
house  of  representatives,  and  a  member  of  the 
Hartford  convention.  In  1807  he  removed 
to  Medford,  and  kept  an  office  in  Boston. 
One  of  his  daughters  married  Abbott  Law- 
rence, late  minister  of  the  United  States  to 
Enghmd.  His  legal  standing  and  practice  were 
at  the  head  of  his  profession  in  his  time ;  and  in 
the  course  of  82  years,  he  was  supposed  to  have 
argued  10,000  causes. 

BIGLAKD,  John,  an  English  author,  bom 
in  the  year  1750,  died  in  London  in  1882.  His 
books  at  the  time  of  their  appearance  were 
greatly  praised.  The  principal  of  them  are  a 
work  on  natural  history,  exhibiting  the  power, 


256 


BIGLOW 


bilderdue: 


goodness,  and  wisdom  of  the  Deity,  a  work  on 
Sie  study  of  ancient  and  modern  history,  and  a 
history  of  Spain,  a  French  translation  of  which 
has  recently  been  pnblished  in  Paris.  His 
books  have  been  extensively  used  in  the  United 
States. 

BIGLOW,  William,  a  New  England  school- 
master and  poet,  bom  at  Natiok,  Mass.,  Sept  22, 
1778,  died  at  Boston,  Jan.  12,  1844.  ,  Ete  was 
first  established  as  a  teacher  in  Salem,  and 
in  1799  delivered  a  poem  on  education  before 
the  Phi  Beta  Kappa  society  at  Oambridge.  He 
then  took  charge  of  the  Latin  school  in  Boston, 
preaching  occasionally,  writing  for  different 
periodicals,  and  publishing  educational  text- 
books. Here  he  fell  a  victim  to  intemperate 
habits,  and  was  compelled  to  retire  to  his  home 
in  Natick.  In  this  state  of  his  fortunes  it  was 
his  habit  to  lounge  about  the  newspaper  offices 
at  Boston,  write  poetry  for  his  friends,  ^e 
editors,  while  the  humor  lasted,  and  then  re- 
turn to  hifl  rural  retreat.  He  taught,  also,  a 
village  school  in  Maine,  and  in  the  &tter  part 
of  his  life  was  employed  as  a  proof-reader  in 
the  university  printing  office  at  Oambridge. 
He  had  a  genial  and  pleasant  humor,  and  was 
a  ready  versifier,  as  well  as  an  agreeable  prose 
writer.  His  "Oheerftil  Parson,"  and  others 
of  his  songs,  were  much  admired  by  hisoontem* 
poraries,  and  are  well  worthy  of  remembrance. 
He  also  published,  in  1880,  a  "  History  of  the 
Town  of  Natick,"  and  one  of  Sherburne, 
Mass.  But  his  best  and  most  numerous  writings 
were  in  periodicals — ^the  "Village  Messenger," 
of  Amherst,  K  H.,  which  he  edited  in  1796, 
the  "Federal   Orrery,"  and  "Massachusetts 


3IG0T,  Madamtc  Maris,  a  German  pianist, 
bom  at  Oolmar,  March  8,  1786,  died  Sept.  16, 
1820.  At  18  she  was  married,  and  soon  after 
removing  with  her  husband  to  Austria,  was 
enabled  to  complete  her  musical  education  under 
Haydn,  Salieri,  and  Beethoven.  Political  causes 
compelling  her  husband  to  emigrate  to  fVance 
in  1809,  she  was  there  so  fortunate  as  to  receive 
the  advice  and  instructions  of  such  men  as 
Oherubini  aud  Auber,  fi*om  whom  she  acquired 
.much  knowledge  of  the  art  of  composition. 
'  In  1812  her  husband  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion to  Russia,  where  he  was  taken  prisoner. 
The  straitened  circumstances  which  this  mis- 
fortune caused,  induced  Madame  Bigot  to  open 
a  school  for  instruction  in  music,  which  was 
soon  thronged  with  scholars.  Unfortunately, 
her  health  failed  her  here,  and  she  soon  died 
of  an  affection  of  the  chest.  She  was  a  woman 
of  genius,  and  was  esteemed  by  Haydn  and 
Beethoven,  who  bestowed  the  highest  enco- 
miums upon  her.  She  was  the  first  to  intro- 
duce the  music  of  Beethoven  into  France. 

BIHERON,  Mabib  Oathabins,  a  Parisian 
woman  who  attained  to  a  rare  skill  in  anatomy, 
bom  Nov.  17,  1719,  died  in  1786.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  physician,  and  devoted  her- 
self to  the  practice  of  fashioning  in  wax  the 
members  of  the  human  frame.    For  47  years 


she  worked  in  this  department;  her  aA^^ 
Wcmvre  was  the  model  of  a  female  figure  ar- 
ranged in  small  pieces,  so  that  every  part  of  it, 
botl^exterior  and  interior,  could  ^  examined  in 
detail  The  medical  men  of  Paris  were  bitterly 
opposed  to  her,  with  the  exception  of  Jusnen 
and  Yilloison.  She  was  forbidden  to  take  ap- 
prentices. Migrating  to  London,  she  succeeded 
better,  and  opened  an  anatomical  exhibition, 
to  which  she  charged  half  a  crown  as  admis- 
sion fee.  The  Russian  ambassador  bought  U 
at  her  death  for  Oatharine  H. 

BHiA,  a  river  of  the  island  of  Sumatra,  which 
fiows  through  the  Batak  territory,  and  is  the 
chief  avenue  of  communication  from  the  sea 
with  tiiat  interesting  region.  Its  numerous 
branches  water  the  lovely  valleys  of  Mandheling, 
described  by  recent  Dutch  writers  as  surpassing 
in  picturesque  beauty,  fruitfhlnese  of  soli,  abun- 
dance and  variety  of  the  animal  creation,  soft 
serenity  of  climate,  and  happy  condition  of  the 
people,  any  other  portion  of  Sumatra  or  of  the 
Jnduin  isiiuids.  The  frightful  desert  plunsof 
Tobah  and  Partibi  bound  the  valley  of  Bila  on 
the  north  and  south ;  the  mountain  ranges  of 
Mertimpanff  and  Draut  enclose  it  on  the  west ; 
and  ^e  s^y  wastes,  peopled  by  marauding  Ba- 
Jans  on  the  eastern  coast,  complete  the  barrier 
that  hems  in  this  happy  valley ;  leaving  for  the 
only  outlet  to  its  people  the  BUa  stream,  which 
disembogues  into  the  straits  of  Malacca,  in  lat. 
8°  28'  K.,  about  220  miles  from  Singapore.  The 
river  is  considered  navigable  about  85  miles  for 
vessels  drawing  not  over  18  feet  water. 

BII^AO,  the  capital  of  Biscay  in  Spain,  on 
the  river  Nerva,  6  miles  from  its  mouth  at 
Portngalete;  pop.  16,000.  There  is  an  old 
and  a  new  town,  the  latter  of  which  is 
well  built;  an  arsenal,  a  navigation  school, 
6  churches,  and  several  religious  houses. 
The  iron  mines  of  Yeneras,  5  miles  from  Bil- 
bao, are  extraordinarily  productive,  and  the 
ore  of  fine  quality.  The  river  is  navigable 
only  for  small  vessels ;  larger  ones  bring  up  8 
miles  below  the  town.  The  most  important 
article  of  export  is  wool,  beside  which  chest- 
nuts, oil,  and  wine  are  sent  to  northern 
Europe.  Bilbao  was  founded  in  1800  by  Don 
Diego  Lopez  de  Haro,  was  occupied  by  the 
French  in  the  wars  of  Napoleon,  and  during 
the  Oarlist  wars  was  bravely  defended  against 
Zumalacuregui,  who  was  mortally  wounded 
here  June  10,  1885. 

BILBERBY,  or  Blvkbbrby,  the  name  of  a 
shrub  and  its  fruit,  a  species  of  vaocinium,  or 
whortieberry.  There  are  2  kinds  of  this  shrub : 
a  tidier  and  a  dwarf  variety.  The  fruit  of  the 
dwarf  shrub  in  Europe,  and  that  of  the  taller 
variety  in  Oanada  and  the  United  States,  are 
both  called  bilberry. 

BILDERDUE,  Whxek,  a  Dtttoh  poet,  bom 
in  Amsterdam,  Sept.  7,  1756,  died  at  Haarlem, 
Dec.  18,  1881.  j^amiliar  with  the  languages 
and  literature  of  Greece,  Rome,  and  of  the  prin- 
cipal modem  European  nations,  he  also  had  a 
large  acquaintance  with  jurisprudence,  history , 


BILE 


257 


utiqaitiea,  geograpl^,  ff^ology,  and  theology. 
Jn  the  \miyenil7  of  Lejden,  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  every  branch  of  emdition,  he  gained 
8  prizes  for  poems,  the  sabject  of  one  of  which 
was  the  innnenoe  of  poetry  on  political  goT- 
cnunent.  He  published  a  Tolmne  in  1779, 
principally  of  imitations  and  translations  of  the 
Gre^  poets,  and  ib»  next  year  gained  a  prize 
from  the  literary  society  of  Leyden  on  the  re- 
lations between  noetry  and  philosophy.  He 
aoon  after  adoptea  the  legal  profession,  prao- 
t^ed  as  an  advocate  at  the  Hagae,  attached 
himself  to  the  honse  of  Orange,  thereby  in- 
onrring  the  enmity  of  the  patriots,  and  was 
obliged  to  emigrate  when  tiie  French  army 
nnder  Rch^gm  invaded  Holland  in  1796.  He 
travelled  through  Germany,  remaining  2  years 
at  Bninswick,  where  he  published  various 
small  pieces,  a  didactic  poem  on  astronomy, 
and  a  translation  of  Voltaire's  Oe  qui  plaU 
mux  dames.  He  passed  thence,  in  1800,  to 
London,  where  he  lectured  upon  literature,  and 
translated  into  Dutch  many  of  the  poems  of 
OsDan.  Betuming  to  Amsterdam  in  1806,  he 
was  presented  to  King  Louis  Bonaparte,  and 
became  his  instructor  in  the  Dutch  language. 
He  reoeived  a  pendon,  and  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  institute  of  Holland,  but  upon  the 
sbdioilioa  of  Kii^  Louis  in  1810,  lost  his  pen* 
aon,  was  regardea  with  suspicion  by  the  impe- 
rial police,  and,  leaving  Amsterdam,  supported 
himself  till  his  death  in  small  provincial  cities 
by  philological  labors.  Yet  in  whatever  cir- 
cumstances, he  never  ceased  to  cultivate  the 
muses,  and  hence  the  immense  number  of  his 
poems^  of  almost  every  variety,  from  the  epi- 
grsm  to  the  epic.  Possessing  great  vigor  of 
imagination,  ridmess  of  thought,  snd  an  easy 
and  harmonious  style,  his  countrymen  pkce 
him  by  the  side  of  Schiller  and  Bvron.  and 
his  works  are  better  known  out  or  Holland 
than  almost  any  others  in  Dutch  literature.  Be- 
ade  numerous  smaller  poems,  translations,  and 
patriotic  fragments,  he  left  a  number  of  trage- 
dies^ and  a  strange  epic  poem  on  the  ^'Destruc- 
tion of  the  ilrst  World." 

BILE,  the  green  and  bitter  liquid  secreted  by 
the  liver.  This  liquid  presents  differences  in 
the  various  classes  of  ammals,  although  itsprin- 
cqMd  characters  are  everywhere  the  same.  Tak- 
en troax  the  ga]l-bladd#,  it  is  a  mucous,  viscous, 
somewhat  transparent  fluid,  capable  of  being 
drawn  oat  in  threads  of  a  green  or  brown  col- 
or, of  a  bitter  but  not  astringent  taste,  some- 
times leaving  a  rather  sweet  after-tasto,  and  of 
a  peculiar  odor,  often  having,  when  warmed, 
the  smell  of  musk.  It  is  usually  weakly  al- 
kaline^ often  perfectly  neutral,  and  only  in 
disease,  in  rare  cases,  add.  It  differs  from 
other  animal  juices  in  being  very  long  before 
putrefying^  when  the  mucus  mixed  with  it 
has  been  taken  away.  The  chemical  compo- 
sition of  bile  is  still  but  little  known,  the  best 
cheoustB  being  in  complete  disagreement  in 
this  respect  However,  there  are  some  points 
which  seem  to  be  decided.    For  instance,  there 

TOL.  III. — 17 


is  in  bile  a  resinous  substance,  which  is  a  com- 
bination of  1  or  2  acids  with  soda ;  there  is  a 
coloring  principle  (the  bUvoerdinX  a  peculiar 
fatty  matter,  Ihe  cholesteriuy  and  other  fatty 
substances,  salts,  and  water.  According  to  De- 
margay,  the  bile  of  oxen  has  the  following  com- 
position: 

Water. 875 

.   Choleftteofsoda 110 

Goloxing  aad  ikttj  mattanK  muouB,  &o 0 

Saltfc..: : 10 

1,000 

Demaroay  admitted  only  1  acid  in  bile,  and  he 
considered  this  liquid  as  a  fluid  soap,  result- 
ing from  the  combination  of  this  acid  (oholic 
add)  with  soda.  Strecker  has  found  that  the 
choUc  acid  of  the  French  chemist  is  a  isomplex 
one,  and  he  has  shown  that  it  is  composed  of  2 
adds,  one  of  which  he  calls  cholic  and  the  other 
choleic.  According  to  the  researches  of  Bensch 
and  Strecker,  the  cnoleate  of  soda  is  the  chief 
principle  of  bile,  as  regards  its  relative  quan- 
tity, and  lUso  its  importance.  The  choleic  acid 
is  a  nitrogenized  substance,  containing  sulphur 
in  greater  proportion  than  the  other  nitrogen- 
ized matters.  As  in  the  bile  of  most  of  the  an- 
imate sulphur  exists  only  in  the  choleic  add, 
and  in  the  proportion  of  6  per  cent.,  it  is  possible 
to  ascertain  easily  the  quantity  of  this  add  in 
any  kind  of  bile.  It  has  thus  been  found  that 
almost  the  whole  of  the  alcoholic  extract  of 
bile  consists  in  choleic  add  in  the  fox,  the 
sheep,  the  dog,  &c.,  while  in  the  bile  of  the 
ox  there  is  as  much  cholic  as  choldc  acid.  The 
salts  formed  by  these  2  adds  amount  to  at  least 
75  per  cent  of  the  whole  of  the  solid  constitu- 
ents of  bile.  Normal  human  bile  contains,  ac- 
cording to  Frerichs,  about  14  per  cent,  of  solid 
constituents,  but  Lehmann  justly  remarks  that 
the  quantity  of  water,  and,  consequently,  the 
proportion  of  solid  constituents,  may  be  as  va- 
riable in  bile  as  in  most  of  the  other  secretions. 
Gorup-B^anez  found  9.18  per  cent  of  solid  con- 
stituents in  the  bile  of  an  old  man,  and  17.19  per 
cent,  in  that  of  a  child  aged  12  years,  but  many 
more  proo&  are  necessary  to  determine  that  bile 
is  more  aqueous  in  old  age  than  in  childhood. 
Lehmann  says  that  the  organic  constituents  of 
human  bile  amount  to  about  87  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  solid  residue.  The  proportion  of  the 
other  dements  of  bile,  i,  e,,  bile-pigment  (bili- 
verdin),  cholesterin,  fats,  and  mineral  saltai  has 
not  yet  been  positively  determined.  The  2 
special  organic  adds  of  bile  can  be  decompos- 
ed into  various  substances.  They  both,  when 
treated  by  alkalies,  give  origin  to  cholalic  add, 
and  to  dyslysin^  but  one  of  them  (the  cholic 
acid)  produces  also  glycocoll,  and  the  other  (the 
choldc  acid)  taurine.  When  treated  by  power- 
ful adds,  cholic  acid  gives  origin  to  chololdic 
aglycocoU,  and  dyslysine,  while  choleic  acid 
uces  taurine,  dioloidic  acid,  and  dyslysine. 
esterin  and  margaric  and  oleic  acids  are 
kept  in  solution  in  bile  by  the  two  principal  or- 
ganic adds  of  this  secretion.  The  biliverdin,  or 
the  coloring  prindple  of  bile,  is  a  substance  re- 


258 


BILE 


iiembling  in  its  composition  tiie  hematosin  or 
coloring  principle  of  blood.  It  oontaina  nitrogen 
and  iron,  as  do  aU  the  organic  coloring  matters^ 
according  to  M.  YerdeiL  The  biliary  sngar,  or 
picromel,  seems  to  be  only  a  product  of  decom- 
position of  some  of  the  constituents  of  bile.  The 
bUine  of  Berzcdius  and  Mulder  seems  to  be  a 
mixture  of  alkaline  chelates  and  choleates. — 
The  ancient  phyncians  and  phjsiologiBts  used 
to  consider  the  organ  which  secretes  bile,  the 
Uver,  as  a  most  important  one.  But  after  AseHi, 
in  1622,  had  discovered  the  lymphatic  vessels, 
a  reaction  took  place  against  the  importance  at- 
^tributed  to  tiie  liver,  and  some  pnysiolo^Bts 
went  so  far  as  to  thmk  that  its  share  in 
the  vital  actions  was  almost  nuH  In  France 
the  rei^Barohes  of  many  physiologists,  and 
particularly  of  Prof.  Bernard,  have  shown 
that  the  liver  is  one  of  our  most  important 
organs,  and  recent  experiments  have  proved 
that  bile  is  a  very  useftd  secretion,  if  not  an 
essential  one.  The  first  question  we  will  exam- 
ine is  whether  or  not  bile  is  an  absolutely  ne- 
cessary secretion.  In  many  dogs  Schwann  open- 
ed the  abdomen  and  the  gall-bladder,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  forming  a  biliary  fistula,  after  having 
tied  the  bile  duct.  Nine  of  these  animate 
venr  quickly  died;  6  lived  7,  18, 17,  25,  64, 
and  80  days.  Two  only  survived  definitively, 
but  in  them  a  new  bile  canal  was  formed.  Of 
the  6  dogs  that  lived  from  7  to  80  days^  4  seem- 
ed to  die  starved,  having  lost  their  fat.  The  2 
others  after  a  few  days  heg^n  to  regain  their  fat, 
and  reached  their  initial  weight  up  to  a  certain 
time,  when  they  became  again  emaciated  and 
finally  died.  Blondlot  has  seen  a  dog  living 
5  years  after  the  occlusion  of  the  bile  duc^ 
and  the  formation  of  a  biliary  fistula^  through 
which  the  bile  fiowed  out.  During  this  long 
period  the  health  of  the  animal  was  usually 
very  good.  Unfortunately,  no  precaution  was 
taken  to  prevent  its  licking  the  wound,  and 
probably  it  took  and  swallowed  in  this  way  a 
certain  amount  of  bile.  More  recently  Schwann 
has  repeated  his  experiments  on  20  dogs,  out  of 
which  only  2  survived,  one  4  months  and  an- 
other a  year.  Nasse  kept  a  dog  alive  5  months 
with  a  biliary  fistula.  Its  appetite  was  good, 
and  it  ate  about  double  the  quantity  of  meat 
that  a  healthy  dog  of  the  same  size  would  have 
taken,  and  nevertheless  it  died  almost  complete- 
ly deprived  of  fat.  It  results  from  very  careful 
experiments  of  Bidder  and  Schmidt  and  of  their 
lupil,  Schellbach,  that  the  cause  or  death  when 
>i1q  is  not  allowed  to  flow  into  the  bowels,  and 
passes  out  of  the  body^  is  that  the  animal  has  a 
great  difficulty  in  repairing  the  loss  of  fat  and  of 
nitrogenized  substances,  which  go  out  with  the 
bile.  In  a  dog  operated  upon  by  these  physi- 
ologists, the  quantity  of  food  taken  was  much 
greater  than  before  the  operation,  and  the  con- 
sequence was  that  the  animal  did  not  lose  his 
jforces  and  remained  fat,  though  less  so  than  be- 
fore. Prof.  Bernard,  according  to  Dr.  Porchi^ 
has  ascertained  that  if  adult  dogs  may  live 
jnany  months  when  bile  flows  out  of  their  body 


I 


by  a  biliary  fistula,  it  is  not  so  witii  young 
dogs,  in  which  death  always  occurs  quiekly  in 
such  circumstances.  Some  fi&cts  observed  in 
men  (in  children  by  Dr.  Porchat^  in  adults  by 
Dr.  Budd)  seem  to  prove  also  that  adults  may 
live  much  longer  than  children  when  there  is 
no  bile  passing  into  the  bowels.  Can  we  con- 
clude fix>m  all  the  preceding  &cts  that  bile  is 
not  necessary?  Oan  we  say,  with  Blondlot, 
that  bile  is  a  useless  secretion  ?    It  seems  very 

Srobable  that  bile  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to 
igestion,  as  some  animals  have  Hved  a  k>ng 
while  without  bile;  but  even  in  these  cases 
there  is  room  fi>r  doubt  For  instance.  Blond- 
lot's  dog  was  not  prevented  licking  its  wound, 
and  probably  swallowed  a  little  bile,  as 
Schwann  has  seen  his  dogs  doing;  and  Bidder 
and  Schellbach,  we  cannot  understand  why,  at 
times,  gave  pieces  of  liver  (containing  bile)  as 
food  to  the  one  of  their  dogs  that  was  the  least 
af^ted  by  the  operation.  We  may  sum  up 
tiius :  1.  That  bile  has  not  yet  been  positively 
proved  not  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  dige»> 
tion  and  to  life.  2.  That  it  seems  probable,  how- 
ever, that  its  function  is  not  absolutely  essentiaL 
8.  That  when  bile  is  missing  in  the  bowels  (and 
fiowing  out  of  the  body  by  a  fistula),  the  prin- 
cipal cause  of  death  is  the  loss  of  fat  and  of  al- 
buminous matters.  We  will  add  to  tliis  last 
conclusion,  that  according  to  Dr.  Brown-66- 
quard,  it  would  be  very  important  to  repeat  liie 
experiments  of  Blondlot,  Bidder,  and  others,  in 
trying  to  repair  by  food  the  loss  of  certain  mik 
terials  of  the  body  which  go  out  with  bile,  and 
which  are  not  present  in  sufficient  unount  in 
meat  and  bread.  Among  these  materials  sul- 
phur is  the  principal,  and  it  would  be  easy  to 
give  a  great  deal  of  it  by  feeding  the  animals 
upon  eggs  and  other  kinds  of  food  which  con- 
tain more  sulphur  than  meat  and  bread.  This 
view  of  Dr.  Brown-S6quard  is  grounded,  not  only 
on  the  fact  that  bile  fiowing  out  of  the  body  takes 
away  a  great  quantity  of  sulphur  and  other  prin- 
ciples, but  also  that  when  bile  passes  freely  into 
the  bowels,  its  elements,  and  particularly  soda 
and  sulphur,  according  to  Liebig,  are  absorbed.— 
A  question  which  is  intimately  connected  with. 
that  we  have  examined  already  concerning 
the  importance  of  bile,  is  whether  this  liquid  is 
to  be  considered  as  an  ^crement  or  as  a  usefbi 
secretion.  We  thmk  if  is  certain  that  some, 
at  least,  of  the  principles  of  bile  are  absorbed  in 
the  bowels,  if  not  most  of  them,  as  liebur 
thought,  and  that,  therefore,  bile  cannot  be  said 
to  be  entirely  an  excrement.  However,  some 
of  the  compound  constituents  of  bile  are  trans- 
formed in  the  bowels,  as  Mulder  and  Frerichs 
have  shown,  and  they  are  expelled  with  the 
fecal  matters.  We  are  consequently  led  to  oon- 
dnde  that  bile  is  only  partly  an  excrement,  if  it 
is  so  at  all.  We  say  if  it  is  so,  because  the  part  of 
it  which  is  expelled  with  the  fecal  matters,  may 
have  some  use  before  being  expelled. — The  fiMt 
that  there  is  a  very  great  quantity  of  bile  se- 
creted in  a  day,  throws  some  light  on  the  ques- 
tion of  its  reabsorption.    Blondlot  says  that  a 


BILE 


259 


dog  of  A  medium  rise  seoreteB  from  40  to  50 
minmeB  (eearly  1^  omiee)  a  day.  Nasse  and 
Valuer  speak  of  200  grammes  ^6^  oanoes),  aa 
tbe  secretion  of  bile  in  a  dog  wetghing  10  kilo- 
grammes  (20  lbs),  wbich  gives  a  proportion 
of  1  to  50«  Sohmidt  and  fiidder  hare  found 
that  the  quantity  of  bile  varies  extremely  with 
the  ^eoiea  of  uie  animal  experimented  npon. 
While  for  each  2  pounds  of  the  body  of  a  oat 
there  is  a  secretion  of  14  grammes  (^  an  omice) 
of  bile  in  a  day,  in  the  dog  there  is  almost 
20  grammes  (f  of  an  onnoe),  m  the  sheep  25^ 
grammes  (|  of  an  ounce),  and  in  the  rabbit  the 
enormous  quantity  of  186  grammes  (4}  ounces). 
In  weighing  the  solid  reridue  of  the  fecal  mat- 
ters of  a  dog  for  many  days,  and  comparing  the 
result  obtained  in  so  doiog  to  the  weight  of  the 
solid  residue  of  bile  during  the  same  time, 
Schmidt  and  Bidder  have  found  that  the  two 
quantities  were  alike,  so  that  necessarily  a  good 
psrtof  theprindplesof  bile  is  absorbed  in  the 
tM>wels.  They  have  also  ascertained  tnat  al- 
most all  the  sulphur  of  the  Inle  is  absorbed.  They 
think  ti^iat  only  a  small  quantity  of  bile  trans- 
formed into  an  insoluble  substance  (dyslyrine) 
remains  unabsorbed  and  goes  out  with  the  ex- 
crements.— Sylvius  de  le  Bo^  and  afterward 
Boerhaave,  have  imagmed  that  bile  is  employed 
to  nentralize  the  product  of  gastric  digestion, 
chyme,  which  is  very  add.  This  view  has  been 
eooaidered  quite  wrong  by  almost  every  one, 
but  Tishmann  Justly  remarks  that  there  is  some 
truth  in  it,  and  he  affirms  that  bile  certainly 
eontributes  to  the  neutralization  of  tiiie  free 
adda  of  chyme.  Bile  no  doubt  acts  as  a  solvent 
of  iiU,  at  least  by  one  of  its  constituents,  the 
dioleate  of  soda,  as  has  been  shown  by  Strecker, 
although  Bidder  and  Schmidt  have  found  no  dif- 
foreoce  in  the  quantify  of  fot  absorbed,  whether 
the  bowels  contained  bile  or  not  But  their 
mode  of  deciding  this  question  is  open  to  many 
objections.  It  has  becoi  said  that  bile  prevents 
putrefoction  taking  place  in  chyme,  or  at  least 
in  fecal  mattera  Most  of  the  recent  experi- 
menters agree  witii  Tiedemann  and  Gmehn  in 
admitting  this  influence  of  bile.  Dr.  Porchat  has 
observed,  in  children  in  whom  bile  could  not  pass 
into  tbe  bowels  on  account  of  the  occlusion 
of  the  bfle  duct  that  the  fecal  matters  were 
putrefied,  as  Bidder  and  Sdmiidt,  Ererichs,  and 
others,  have  observed  in  animals  in  which  they 
had  tied  this  duct  However,  it  seems  that  in 
some  oases  the  absence  of  bile  is  not  sufficient 
to  aDow  putrefoction  to  tske  place  in  the  fecal 
mattnv,  as  BLondlot  says  that  he  has  observed 
no  difleraice  between  these  matters  in  dogs  ul 
good  health  and  in  those  operated  upon.  The 
water  contaiued  in  bile  helps  in  the  aissolution 
of  certain  elements  of  chyme,  and,  in  so  doings 
renders  their  absorption  more  easy. — ^BUe  acts 
as  an  ezdtant  on  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  bowels,  to  produce  reflex  contractions ;  it 
fovonL  in  this  way,  the  propulsion  of  food 
and  of  fecal  matters.  According  to  Sdiif^  bile 
produces  contractions  in  the  intestinal  villi.  It 
»  Mid,  also,  that  bile  increases  the  secretion  of 


the  intestinal  mucus,  and  prevents  constipation. 
All  these  views  may  be  partiy  true,  but  it  is 
certain  that,  without  bile,  the  expulsion  of  fecsl 
matters  takes  place  regalarly. — ^Many  physiolo- 
gists think  that  bile,  like  most  of  the  secretions^ 
contains  some  efEete  matters  which  cannot  be  of 
any  use  in  the  blood,  or  which  might  be  dele- 
terious. In  opporition  to  the  views  of  those 
who  admit  that  the  secretion  of  bile  is  for  the 
purpose  of  purifying  the  blood,  and  who  still 
regard  this  liquid  merely  as  an  effete  carbona- 
ceous matter  which  the  respiration  has  not  re- 
moved, Lehmann  says  that  tne  bile — a  secretion 
by  no  means  poor  in  nitrogen  and  hydrogen— is 
not  separated  in  any  increased  quantity  when  the 

Srooees  of  oxidation  in  the  longs  happens  to  be 
istnrbed ;  that  there  are  no  pathologico-anatdm* 
ical  facts  which  fovor  the  view  that  the  liver 
can  act  vicariously  for  the  lungs ;  and,  lastiy, 
that  the  separation  of  carbon  by  the  liver,  as 
compared  with  that  by  the  Iuiub,  is  so  triffing, 
as  shown  by  Bidder  and  Schmidt,  that  the  liver 
can  hardly  be  regarded  as  essentiaUy  a  blood- 
purifying  organ,  in  so  far  as  the  elimination  of 
carbon  is  concerned.  However,  it  is  certain 
that  when  bile  is  not  excreted  freely  in  man. 
Jaundice,  and  ftequentiy  certain  nervous  dis- 
turbances, are  produced,  and  these  phenomena 
must  be  attributed  to  the  action  of  some  of  its 
principles.  But  8  explanations  may  be  given 
concerning  the  production  of  these  phenom* 
ena,  and  we  do  not  yet  poritively  know  which 
is  the  best  In  the  first  place,  it  may  be 
that  the  principles  of  bile  preexist  in  the  blood, 
and  that  when  they  are  not  secreted,  their 
quantity  increasing^  they  produce  the  dele- 
terious influence  which  sometimes  results  in 
jaundice ;  in  the  second  place,  they  may  be  se- 
creted,  and  in  consequence  of  some  obstruction 
of  the  bUe  duct,  they  may  be  absorbed, 
and  then  produce  their  ill  effects;  finally,  in 
the  third  place,  they  may  be  changed  into 
toxical  substances  either  in  the  blood  or  in 
the  liver,  or  the  biliary  ducts.  As  regards  the 
first  of  diese  views,  Lehmann  has  tried  to  prove, 
on  good  grounds,  that  the  secretion  of  bile  is 
not, like  the  urinary  secretion,  a  mere  separation 
of  certain  principles  from  the  blood ;  and,  there- 
fore, we  may  conclude  that  it  is  not  probable 
that  bile,  even  if  it  contains  toxical  substanceSi 
results  from  a  depuration  of  the  blood.  If  we 
admit  the  second  view,  that  the  liver  produces 
most  of  the  principles  of  bile,  and  that  these 
principles  are  absorbed  in  cases  of  laundice,  we 
find  that  we  cannot  explain  the  toxical  phenom- 
ena wMch  then  sometimes  take  place,  because 
they  are  not  constant,  and  they  exist  in  cases 
where  jaundice  is  or  is  not  very  considerable, 
while  they  may  not  appear  in  cases  of  deep  jaun-p 
dice.  Dr.  Budd  has  been  led  to  the  third  view 
above  stated,  which  is  that  poisonous  sub- 
stances are  formed  in  the  blood  from  the  prin- 
dples  of  bile.  The  function  of  depuration  of 
the  blood,  attributed  to  the  liver,  seems,  there- 
fore, to  be  of  much  less  importance  than  some 
persons  have  thought   Dr.  &udd  relates  several 


860 


BIUINGER 


BILIOUS  FEVER 


oasee  in  whioh  the  passage  of  bile  into  the 
bowels  was  entirely  prevented  bj  the  com- 
plete dosore  of  the  bile  duct,  and  in  which, 
neverUieless,  life  was  prolonged  for  many 
months.  We  must  say,  however,  that  the  se- 
cretion of  sabstanoes  which  may,  when  they 
are  absorbed,  and  when  they  aocumnlate  in  the 
blood,  be  transformed  into  a  poison,  ought  in 
Bome  respects  to  be  considered  as  a  depuration. 
— ^It  has  Deen  amuch  debated  question  whether 
bile  is  secreted  from  the  blood  of  the  portal 
▼ein  or  that  of  the  hepatic  arteij.  Ezperimenta 
on  animals  aud  pathological  &ots  have  been 
mentioned  in  favor  of  both  these  opinions. 
When  a  ligature  is  placed  on  the  portal  vein, 
bile  not  omy  continues  to  be  secreted,  but  the 
other  functions  of  the  liver  also  continue ;  but 
this  &ot,  as  Brown-S^quard  remarks,  can* 
not  prove  that  the  blood  of  the  portu  vein 
18  not  necessary  for  these  functions,  as  this 
blood,  after  the  ligature,  passes  into  the  vena 
oava,  and  afterward  into  me  arterial  circulation, 
and,  therefore,  into  the  liver,  by  the  hejpatic  ar- 
tery. It  seems  very  probable,  indeed,  from  the 
mreat  quantity  of  bile  produced  in  a  day,  that 
vie  portal  blood,  if  not  the  only  source  of  the 
secretion  of  bile,  is  at  least  employed  in  a  great 
measure  for  this  secretion. 

BILFINGER,  Gsobo  Bebmhabd,  philosopher 
and  mathematician,  bom  at  Ganstadt,  in  WOr- 
temberg,  Jan.  28,  1698,  died  at  Stuttgart,  Feb. 
18, 1760.  He  was  bom  with  12  fingers  and  12 
toes,  and  submitted  to  an  operation  which  re- 
moved the  deformity.  He  studied  with  Wolf 
at  Halle,  and  became  a  disciple  of  the  school  of 
Wolf  and  Leibnitz.  In  1725  he  received  an 
invitation  from  Peter  the  Great,  to  tiiie  chair 
of  logic  and  metaphysics  in  the  new  coUeffe 
at  St.  Petersburg.  He  now  solved  the  prob- 
lem of  the  cause  of  gravity  proposed  by  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  Paris,  and  guned  the 
prize.  Being  recalled  by  the  duke  (Jnarles  Ed- 
ward of  WOrtemberg,  he  returned  to  Tdbingen 
and  proceeded  to  lecture  on  theology ;  here  his 
originality  in  style  and  ideas  soon  made  him 
popular,  and  in  1786  he  was  appointed  a  privy 
councillor.  In  his  new  position  ne  proved  him- 
self to  possess  administrative  abilities,  and  by 
severe  study  he  soon  became  as  celebrated  for 
his  political  and  statistical  knowledge  as  for  his 
scientific  attainments.  He  afterward  paid  par- 
ticular attention  to  agriculture,  and  promoted 
the  culture  of  the  vine.  He  was  the  author  of 
numerous  theological  and  philosophical  works. 

BILGUEB,  Paul  Rudout  von,  a  fiunous 
chess-player,  bom  at  Schwerin,  Germany,  in 
1808,  died  in  Berlin  Oct  6,  18i0.  He  en- 
tered the  Prussian  army  in  1888,  and  was,  not 
long  afterward,  promoted  to  a  lieutenancy.  On 
March  18,  1840,  he  performed  at  Berlin  tiie 
i>urious  feat  of  playing  8  games  at  once  with  as 
many  different  opponentei  conducting  2  of  the 
contests  without  seeing  the  boards  and  men. 
This  intense  mental  effort  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  primary  cause  of  the  illness  which  re- 
sulted in  his  death.    His  Handbueh  de$  SeAaeh- 


tpMi  (Berlin,  1848  and  1862),  completed  after 
his  death  by  his  friend  T.  Heydebrandt  von  der 
Lasa,  made  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  chess,  and 
is  still  the  best  practical  work  on  that  game. 

BILIABT  DuOTS  are  small  ducts  throu«^ 
which  the  bile  flows  from  the  liver  and  the  gall 
bladder  to  the  duodenum.  Th^  portion  of 
the  biliary  duct  which  leads  directiy  from  the 
liver  to  the  duodenum  gives  off  a  small  branch 
which  leads  into  the  gall  bladder,  in  which 
the  sail  is  collected.  This  small  branch  is 
called  the  cystic  duct  and  that  part  of  the 
larger  bile  duct  whicn  leads  from  tiie  liver 
to  this  cystic  duct,  is  called  the  hepatic  duct ; 
while  the  rest  of  the  bile  duct,  leading  from 
this  point  of  junction  to  the  duodenum  is 
called  the  ductus  eommunia  eholedochus.  This 
is  about  the  size  of  a  goose  quill,  and  8  inches 
long. 

BILIOUS  FEVER  is  caused  by  marsh  miaa- 
mata,  and  is  most  common  in  the  middle  and 
southern  sections  of  the  United  States,  although 
it  occurs  in  all  ^»arts,  from  the  northern  lakes  to 
the  gulf  of  Mexico.  The  localities  in  which  it  is 
most  frequent  are  the  western  prairies,  the  val- 
leys of  streams,  the  borders  of  lakes  and  ponds, 
and  the  neighborhood  of  marshes;  the  seasons 
in  which  it  occurs  are  the  summer  and  autumnal 
months.  In  this  form  of  fever,  the  febrile  phe- 
nomena are  characterized  by  striking  exacer- 
bations and  remissions,  one  paroxysm  occurrii^ 
in  the  24  hours.  It  is  called  bilious  remittent 
fever,  and  differs  from  intermittent  fever  in  the 
intermission  not  being  complete.  During  several 
days  previous  to  the  attack,  tiie  patient  com- 
plains of  lassitude,  with  uneasiness  at  the  epigas- 
trium or  region  of  the  stomach,  pains  in  the 
back,  in  the  limbs,  and  in  the  head,  and  also 
restiessness  at  night.  The  invasion  is  attended 
by  coldness  of  the  surface,  and  notunfrequentiy 
by  shivering.  This  is  soon  superseded  by  heat, 
febrile  flushes,  or  by  alternations  of  heat  and 
cold;  which  are  soon  succeeded  by  burning  heat 
and  dryness  of  the  skin,  flushing  of  the  counte- 
nance, and  injected  eyes,  with  ffreat  increase  in 
the  headache  and  pains  of  the  back  and  limbs. 
The  tongue  is  foul,  and  the  mouth  sometimes 
dry  and  clammy.  There  is  nausea,  and  some- 
times vomiting,  with  much  thirst  The  pulse, 
which  was  weSak  and  quick  during  the  cold  stage, 
is  now  full  and  strong;  the  breathing  may  be 
hurried,  and  the  patient  is  extremely  resUess. 
The  throbbing  and  pain  in  the  head  are  occasion- 
ally very  violent,  and  may  end  in  delirium.  The 
urine  is  scanty  and  highly  colored;  the  bowels 
usually  constipated,  and  some  degree  of  tender- 
ness is  felt  on  pressing  with  the  hand  over  the 
stomadi.  After  some  12  or  18  hours,  these 
symptoms  are  succeeded  by  partial  perspirations 
and  an  abatement  of  the  febrile  symptoms;  or 
these  may  subside  without  any  moisture  on  the 
skin.  The  remisnon  is  marked  by  the  pulse 
being  less  full  and  frequent,  the  skin  cooler,  and 
the  pains  in  the  head  and  back  and  loins  re- 
lieved ;  the  stomach  is  in  a  less  irritable  state, 
and  the  patient  free  from  delirium.    Nine  or  ten 


BILIOUS  FEVEB 


BILL 


261 


hotiTS  dapse  before  another  paroxysm  ooenra, 
'which  may^  oome  on  at  once,  without  any  feel- 
ing of  coldj^r  be  preceded  by  chilliness  or 
shiyering.  The  disease  continues  in  this  man- 
ner irith  alternate  remissions  and  paroxysms  of 
feTer.  If  the  case  end  favorably,  each  succeed- 
ing paroxysm  becomes  milder,  until  the  fever 
disjappears ;  or  it  may  be  carried  off  by  copious 
perspirations.  The  periods  of  remission  and  in- 
creased severity  are  very  irregular,  though  the 
abatement  of  the  fever  very  generally  occurs  in 
the  morning.  In  cold  climates  the  disease  may 
continue  14  days  or  more,  but  in  hot  countries 
it  is  much  more  rapid  in  its  course,  terminating 
sometime  as  early  as  the  8d  day,  and  usually 
in  6  or  7  or  9  days.  In  the  more  violent  and 
dangerous  cases^  the  skin  is  burning  hot  and  the 
thirst  intense;  the  vomiting  incessanti  scarcely 
any  thing  being  retained  on  the  stomach.  There 
is  also  violent  throbbing  or  shooting  pain  of  the 
head,  attended  sometimes  with  furious  deluium. 
The  remisdons  are  short  and  indistinct;  and 
where  the  case  proceeds  to  a  fiital  termination, 
the  fever  may  become  continued.  The  tongue 
IS  fhrred,  red,  contracted,  and  dry,  or  orurted 
with  black  matter ;  the  skin  and  eves  may  have 
a  yellowish  tmge,  and  dark-colored  matter  may 
be  discharged  from  the  stomach.  In  some  cases 
there  are  copious  perspirations  before  death, 
and  the  patient  sinks  rapidly ;  or  the  hot,  pun- 
gent, dry  skin  may  continue  to  the  last. — ^Bleed- 
ing was  formerly  deemed  necessary  in  bilious 
fever,  but  is  only  now  employed  in  cases  of  ac- 
tual or  threatened  inflammation,  or  active  con- 
gestion. It  is  acknowledged  that  it  cannot  cure 
or  shorten  the  disease,  although  it  may  subdue 
a  violttit  and  dangerous  inflammation.  It  was 
formerly  the  practice  also  to  commence  with  an 
emetic ;  but  this  is  only  indicated  where  there 
are  crude  ingesta  or  an  accumulation  of  bile  in 
the  stomach,  shown  by  frequent  retchings  and 
a  bitter  taste  in  the  mouth.  In  all  cases  an  ac- 
tive cathartic  is  deemed  necessary,  and  Jalap 
and  rhubarb  combined  with  calomel  are  mostly 
used,  but  calomel  is  discontinued  altogether  by 
some  practitioners,  and  the  extract  of  May-apple 
or  podephyUum  peUatum  substituted  in  its 
stead.  The  root  is  the  part  used  and  in 
doses  of  from  IQ  to  20  grains.  It  is  also 
used  alone,  and  alternately  with  jwMi  jalapa 
eampontiuSj  which  is  a  mixture  of  one  part  of 
jalap  and  two  parts  of  cream  of  tartar.  Diapho- 
retics are  always  indicated  in  the  hot  stage,  and 
the  *^  effervescent  draught"  is  perhaps  the  best 
in  an  irritable  state  of  uie  stomach ;  but  water, 
with  any  thing  to  flavor  it  agreeably  to  the  taste 
of  the  patient  and  the  susceptibility  of  the 
stomaoh,  is  the  main  agent  in  producing  per- 
spiration to  relieve  the  fever.  Gold  i^nffmg  of 
the  surface  of  the  body  with  vinegar  and  water 
is  sometimes  very  useful,  where  it  does  not  sive 
a  sensation  of  chill;  and  where  the  head  is 
much  affected,  the  application  of  cold  water  is 
very  beneficial.  As  soon  as  a  remission  takes 
plaoBy  which  may  be  known  by  an  abatement 
of  ail  the  symptoms,  the  sulphate  of  quinine 


should  be  administered.  In  hot  climates  the 
remission  may  be  short  and  not  very  marked, 
but  the  opportunity  should  not  be  lost.  Two 
gruns  of  quinine,  m  a  little  water,  or  in  wine 
and  water,  may  be  given  every  hour  or  every 
two  hours  during  the  remission.  It  must  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  same  dose  will  not 
suit  every  individual ;  some  persons  can  hardly 
bear  the  smallest  quantity,  wnile  others  require 
larger  doses  to  produce  a  decided  effect  It  is 
always  prudent,  therefore,  to  commence  with 
minute  doses  and  increase  the  quantity,  if  ne- 
cessary, afterward.  The  exhibition  of  quinine 
must  be  suspended  on  the  recurrence  of  the 
febrile  symptoms,  and  resumed  during  the  period 
of  remission.  It  should  be  continu^  in  dimin- 
ishing doseS)  during  several  days  after  the  fever 
has  entirely  disappeared,  to  prevent  a  return, 
which  is  not  uncommon  where  the  treatment  is 
too  soon  discontinued.  Where  sudden  sinking 
of  the  vital  powers  occurs,  the  pulse  becoming 
feeble  and  irregular,  the  nice  pallid,  the  eyes 
sunken  in  their  socketa,  and  the  limbs  cold  and 
clammy,   stimulants   should   be   immediately 

flven.  Port  wine  or  brandy,  sherry  or  ma- 
eira,  in  sago  or  in  arrow-root,  should  be  given 
every  hour,  or  oftener,  until  the  pulse  begins  to 
rise  and  the  extremities  are  warm.  Champagne 
is  also  an  excellent  stimulant  in  all  such  cases. 
When  the  pulse  has  been  restored  and  warmth 
in  the  extremities,  the  stimulants  are  discontin- 
ued, the  cold  perspirations  constantly  wiped  ofi| 
and  the  extremities  are  rubbed  with  warm  flan- 
nels or  rough  towels ;  opium  may  also  be  ad- 
ministered in  minute  doses,  to  allay  excessive 
pain  and  restlessness.  The  patient's  drink  should 
consist  of  barley-water,  lemonade,  soda-water, 
or  pure  cold  water,  when  agreeable  to  him. 
Liquids  should  not  be  taken  in  large  quan- 
tities at  once,  where  the  stomach  is  very 
irritable ;  but  where  it  can  be  borne  with  ease, 
and  is  gratefhl  to  the  patient  a  very  copious 
draught  of  cold  water  is  sometimes  very  bene- 
ficial in  producing  perspiration,  when  other 
things  have  failed.  *  In  the  low  malignant 
varieties  of  bilious  remittent  fever,  efferves- 
cing drinks,  such  as  seltxer  or  soda  water, 
liffht  beer,  dec.,  are  often  very  benefidaL 
Onange  of  air  is  also  very  desirable  during  con- 
valescence. 

BILL,  Bbownbiix,  Gulits,  Youlgb,  or  Gis- 
jUocb,  all  names  for  nearly  the  same  instru- 
ment, which,  with  some  slight  modification, 
was  the  standing  weapon  of  the  English  in- 
fantry at  close  quarters,  as  was  the  long  bow 
their  weapon  at  distant  range,  from  the  days  of 
the  battle  of  Hastings,  at  which  the  Saxons 
used  the  bill  and  the  Normans  the  bow,  until 
those  of  Queen  Elizabeth;  for  the  English 
were  never  spearmen,  nor  ever  fought  in  heavy 
columns,  like  the  Scots  and  Swiss,  until  after 
the  musket  had  superseded  the  bow ;  when,  for 
a  short  time  previous  to  the  invention  of  the 
bayonet,  the  pike  was  used,  during  the  wars  of 
the  commonwealth  and  of  the  Low  Countries. 
The  original  brownbill  was  a  ponderous  cutting 


BILL 


BnX  OF  BIGHTS 


treapon  witih  2  edges,  that  forward  of  the  shaft 
haying  a  conoave  or  sickle  blade,  that  to  the 
back,  a  sort  of  angular  eatting  face,  the  upper 
part  projecting  before  the  base,  so  as  to  give  a 
drawing  blow.  This  terrible  instmment  was 
nearly  8  feet  in  length,  and  10  or  12  pounds  in 
weight,  set  erect  on  a  shaft  of  8  or  4  feet.  It 
was  wielded  with  both  hands,  and  could  sever 
a  horse^s  head  or  a  man's  thiffh  or  shoulder, 
through  the  strongest  mail  or  plate  armor,  as  a 
modem  woodman's  bill-hook  slices  off  a  hazel 
sapling.  The  weapon  was  afterward  lengthened 
and  lightened,  and  provided  with  a  spear  head, 
80  that  the  holder  could  oharae  it  like  a  lance, 
and  sometimes  with  a  cutting  hook,  for  severing 
the  bridles  of  the  men-at-arms,  or  pulling  them 
out  of  their  saddles. 

BILL,  in  congress  or  parliament.    See  Aor. 

BILL  IN  EQUITY,  is  the  preliminary  pro- 
ceeding of  an  equity  suit.  The  biU  contains  a 
statement  of  the  plaintiffi'  case.  In  EngUsh  law 
it  is  addressed  to  the  lord  chancellor,  and  com- 
mencing with  the  names  of  the  plaintiff,  pro- 
ceeds to  state  the  ci^cumstances  of  their  case,  and 
the  grievance  to  be  redressed ;  setting  out  all 
documentary  evidence  relied  on.  From  the  state- 
ment it  proceeds  to  charge  against  the  defend- 
ants, collectively  or  individually,  the  various 
&cts  which  either  specifically  or  by  induction 
oonstitute  the  gravamen  of  the  case.  It  con- 
dudes  with  the  prayer  for  relief  and  with  in- 
terrogatories both  general  and  specific,  to  which 
the  plaintiff  require  an  answer.  The  bill  may 
not  Join  distinct  subjects  of  complaint ;  if  so,  it 
is  olrjectionable  for  multifariousness.  It  must  be 
as  compendious  as  possible,  otherwise  its  length 
is  liable  to  be  reduced  at  the  plaintiffs'  cost.  It 
must  contain  no  irrelevant  matter,  otherwise  it 
may  be  excepted  to  for  impertinence ;  nor  scan- 
dalous matter,  that  is,  the  narrative  of  mere 
hearsay  report,  or  as  personally  offensive  ex- 
pressions, which  may  be  expunged.  The  in- 
troductory or  narrative  part  must  support  the 
charging  part;  the  charges  mnst  cover  all  the 
case  intended  to  be  made  against  the  defendants, 
and  the  interrogatories  must  demand  specific 
information,  either  affirmation,  denial,  or  ex- 
planation, upon  all  those  points  which  are  im- 
portant to  the  establishment  of  the  plaintiff' 
case.  As  new  facts  come  to  the  plainti£&'  knowl- 
edge, either  from  the  defendants'  admissions  or 
from  other  sources,  the  bill  may  be  amended, 
and  new  interrogatories  added,  while  bills  ^ 
revivor  and  supplement  are  filed  to  bring  the 
representatives  of  deceased  parties  or  of  newly 
bom  children  before  the  court.  This  form  of 
procedure  necessarily  leads  to  an  immense  quan- 
tity of  verbiage  and  repetition,  but  adherents  of 
the  practice  affirm  that  it  is  warranted  by  experi- 
ence. In  answer  to  the  recommendation  of  law 
reformers  that  everything  stated  by  the  bill  shall 
be  assumed  to  be  matter  of  inquiry,  and  that 
every  thing  not  expressly  denied  by  the  other  side 
shall  be  taken  to  be  admitted,  tiiey  reply  that 
this  was  the  ancient  practice,  and  that  the  mod- 
em is  an  improvement  on  it.    The  ancient 


practice,  it  is  said,  led  to  the  introduction  of  in- 
finitely greater  prolixity,  both  of  statement  and 
counter  statement,  while  the  suitor  suffered  be- 
cause the  gist  of  his  case  was  not  concisely 
brought  to  the  notice  of  the  court.  By  the 
New  York  code  of  procedure,  the  distinction 
between  law  and  equity  is  abolished.  Every 
suit  is  designated  a  civil  action,  and  is  com- 
menced by  the  same  process.  The  complaint  is 
now  the  substitute  for  the  bill  in  equify,  and 
presents  the  facts  of  the  plaintiffs'  case  in  a 
much  more  compendious  shape.  Whether  that 
merit  is  folly  attained  is,  however,  an  open 
question. 

BILL  OF  EXCHANGE.    See  Exokakox. 

BILL  OF  HEALTH,  that  part  of  a  ship's 
papers  which  relates  to  the  health  of  the  crew 
and  passengers.  It  is  authenticated  by  the 
captam  and  medical  man  on  board,  and  some- 
times by  the  consul  at  the  port  of  embarkation. 
A  fiedse  return  subjects  the  offender  to  severe 
penalties.  Vessels  coming  from  jports  in  which 
plague,  yellow  fever,  or  other  mfectious  dis- 
eases are  prevalent,  are  of  course  objects  of 
particular  attention.  A  dean  or  a  foul  bill  of 
health  determines  as  to  the  necessity  of  quar- 
antine. 

BILL  OF  INDICTMENT.   See  Indiotmsnt. 

BILL  OF  LADING,  a  conunerdal  instm- 
ment, signed  by  the  master  of  a  ship  as  the  re- 
ceipt for  cargo  to  be  conveyed  as  freight. 
This  document  specifies  the  goods,  the  ship,  the 
price,  and  the  port  of  delivery,  with  such  other 
particulars  as  may  be  requisite.  It  stipulates 
for  their  safe  delivery,  and  constitutes  the  con- 
tract between  the  shipper  and  the  ship  owner. 
It  is  generally  signed  in  duplicate,  the  2  parts  of 
which  are  transmitted  to  the  consignee  by  dif- 
ferent channels.  Certain  exceptions  are  usually 
mentioned,  against  which  the  carrier  does  not 
guarantee  the  goods,  as  the  acts  of  God,  enemies 
in  time  of  war,  fire,  and  the  accidents  of  niiviga- 
tion.  The  goods  are  usually  deliverable  to  con- 
signees or  their  order,  sometimes  to  the  order 
of  the  shipper,  upon  payment  of  freight,  as 
mentioned,  primage  and  average.  Priniage 
is  a  perquisite  to  the  master — a  small  percentage 
on  the  ireight.  Average  is  the  share  in  certidn 
small  expenses  of  tiie  ship— pilotage,  towage, 
harbor  dues,  &c.  The  bill  of  lading  is  aasian- 
able,  and  transfers  the  ownership  of  the  goods ; 
accordingly,  the  assignee  can  maintain  an  ac- 
tion for  reoovenr  of  the  goods  themselves. 
But  an  action  for  damages  for  non-delivery  of  the 
goods  in  good  order  must  be  brought  by  the 
shipper.  The  master's  contract  is  complete  on 
delivery  of  the  goods,  in  good  order,  at  the 
usual  place  of  delivery  of  the  port,  and  upon 
notice  ^ven  thereof  to  the  consignee,  unlees 
there  Ije  any  particular  stipulation  as  to  the 
mode  of  delivery. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS,  in  English  constitutional 
law,  is,  properly,  the  act  of  parliament  1 
William  and  Mary  (sess.  2,  c  2),  by  which  cer- 
tain daims  contained  in  the  declaration  of 
rights  were  enacted  as  fundamental  principles 


BILL  OF  SALE 


BILLAUD-VARENNE 


268 


of  political  liberty.  The  dedaration  had  been 
delivered  at  the  time  the  crown  wjbs  ten- 
dered to  the  prince  and  prinoess  of  Orange, 
Feb.  18, 1689.  It  recited  tlie  principal  griev- 
anoee  which  the  nation  had  suffered  under  the 
preceding  rei^  viz.  :  the  assnmption  as  a 

-  royal  prerogative  to  grant  &  dispensation  from 
penal  acts  of  parliam^it — the  establishment  of 
a  new  tribanal  to  determine  ecclesiastical  ques- 
tions—levying  taxes  without  consent  of  parlia- 
ment—maintaining a  standing  army  in  time  of 
peace— interfering  with  the  administration  of 
justice  and  the  freedom  of  elections — exacting 
ezcesdve  bail  from  prisoners — ^inflicting  bar- 
barous and  unusual  punishments,  and  treating 
m  criminal  petitions  for  a  redress  of  wrongs — 
aU  of  which  acts  were  declared  to  be  illegal 
It  then  asserted  the  right  of  subjects  to  peti- 
tion—the right  of  parliament  to  freedom  of 
debate— tiie  right  of  electors  to  choose  repre- 
sentatives freely— and  varioua  other  privileges. 
lliese  were  reiterated  in  the  act  of  parliament 
above  referred  to,  with  some  additional  strin- 
gency, as  in  respect  to  the  dispensing  power, 
whidi  by  the  declaration  had  been  con- 
demned, as  exercised  by  James,  as  unlawful, 
but  by  the  act  was  absolutely  ana  forever  taken 
away.  These  rights  were  again  asserted,  with 
some  additions,  in  the  act  of  settlement^  by 
which  the  crown  was  limited  to  the  Hanover 
fiunily  (12  and  18  William  IIL,  c.  ii.).  Similar 
provisions  were  appended  to  the  constitution  of 
the  United  States,  as  amendments  thereto. 
tDiey  are  chiefly  declaratory  of  the  freedom  of 
speech  and  of  tiie  press — of  the  right  of  citd- 
aens  peaceably  to  assemble  and  petition  gov- 
ernment for  the  redress  of  grievances — of  the 
right  of  trial  by  jury — ^that  private  property 
sluJl  not  be  taken  for  public  use  without  just 
compensation — that  no  law  shall  be  passed  by 
congress  for  the  establishment  of  any  religion, 
or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof.  In 
the  constitutions  or  laws  of  many  of  the  United 
States  is  to  be  found  a  similar  recital  of  rights, 
usually  including  the  privilege  of  the  wnt  of 
habeas  corpus. 

BILL  OF  SALE,  an  instrument  in  writing 
by  which  personal  property  is  transferred.  It 
18  not  necessary  that  it  should  be  under  seal, 
nor  is  there  any  difference  in  the  legal  effect, 
other  than  that  the  seal  imports  a  considera* 
tion;  but  by  the  laws  of  the  state  of  New 
York  even  this  distinction  is  virtually  abrogat- 
ed, as  the  consideration  of  a  sealed  instrument 
can  now  be  inquired  into  the  same  as  that  of 
any  other  contract^  and  the  same  provision  has 
been  adopted  in  other  states.  A  bill  of  sale 
of  a  ship  or  vessel  is  a  muniment  of  title  of 
peculiar  importance.  In  most  countries  it  is 
either  by  custom  or  statute  absolutely  re- 
quired.  In  this  country  possession  of  a  ship 
and  acts  of  ownership  are  presumptive  evi- 
dence of  title,  without  documentary  proof.  But 
this  presumption  may  be  rebutted  by  contrary 
DToo^  and  the  genend  rule  is  that  a  person  who 
haa  no  title  oan  convey  none.    Mere  possession 


b^  the  vendor  is  not  sufficient  to  enable  him  to 
give  a  title^  although  as  between  the  parties  the 
mere  delivery  of  possession  is  suffident  with- 
out a  bill  of  sale. 

BILLAUD-YABENNE,  Jaoques  Niooljls,  a 
leading  member  of  the  French  national  conven- 
tion, bom  at  La  Bochelle,  April  23, 1756,  died 
in  Hayti,  June  8, 1619.  He  studied  law,  and 
after  leading  for  several  years  a  vagrant  life,  he 
finally,  in  1785,  became  an  advocate  at  Paris* 
He  published  at  Amsterdam,  in  1789,  a  book 
called  Beipotume  des  minutres  de  France^  which 
was  a  "full  recital  of  the  principles  and  means 
used  by  the  aristocracy  to  keep  France  in  bond- 
age.^' He  renewed  hia  attacks  in  his  pamphlet 
Pha  de  minutreB  /  which  appeared  in  Paris  the 
following  year.  Meanwhile,  he  had  assailed  the 
dergy  in  2  anonymous  publications:  D&mUr 
amp  parU  aus»  prijugk  et  d  la  supentUumy 
and  £$  peintre  politique^  both  issued  in  Lon- 
don, but  largely  circmlated  in  France.  July 
1, 1791,  at  one  of  the  meetings  of  the  "Friends 
of  the  Constitution,"  he  proposed  to  change  the 
French  monarchy  into  a  republic ;  and  the  same 
year  he  published  his  celebrated  pamphlet  AeS- 
phcUocratiey  which  was  followed  by  a  prosecu- 
tion, ended  Sept.  1791,  when  Louis  XVI.  took 
the  oath  to  the  constitution,  and  granted  a 
general  amnesty  for  political  oflbnces.  Among 
the  Jacobins,  Billaua  distinguished  himself  by 
his  ultra  opinions.  He  was  appointed,  Aug. 
10,  a  member  of  the  conmiune  of  Paris,  then 
substitute  to  the  "procureur-syndic,"  in  place 
of  Danton,  who  baa  just  been  promoted  to  the 
department  of  justice.  Sent  to  Chalons  to 
watch  some  suspected  generals,  he  returned 
Sept.  20,  1792,  to  take  ms  seat  in  the  conven- 
tion, to  which  he  had  been  elected  by  one  of 
the  districts  of  Paris.  There  he  pursued  the 
same  course  of  deadly  opposition  to  the  mon- 
archy and  monarchists.  In  1793  he  supported 
the  resolution  to  try  Louis  XVL  forthwitn,  and 
voted  not  only  for  the  death  of  the  king,  but 
for  that  of  the  queen  and  ministers.  He  had, 
beside,  a  hand  in  nearly  all  the  extreme  meas- 
ures which  were  then  adopted  against  so-called 
internal  enemies.  He  supported  the  charge  by 
which  the  unfortunate  general  Cnstine  was  sent 
to  the  scaffold.  He  obtained  the  repeal  of  the 
decree  forbidding  domiciliary  visits  during  the 
nighty  and  supported  the  motion  to  form  a  revo- 
lutioxiary  army.  As  a  reward  for  his  zeal,  he 
was  chosen  president  of  the  convention,  and 
member  of  the  committee  of  public  safety.  In 
this  capacity,  he  founded  the  BuUetin  dM  hit^ 
a  valuable  ooUection,  which  is  yet  continued, 
and  was  the  framer  of  the  revolutionary  gov- 
ernment In  1794  he  became  dissatisfied  with 
the  conduct  of  Bobespierre,  especially  his 
aspirations  to  the  dictatorship ;  so  that  on  the 
8tn  Thermidor  he  joined  the  party  bent  on  the 
overthrow  of  the  new  tyrant,  and  contributed 
to  their  success;  but  this  did  not  save  him 
from  being  afterward  suspected  and  accused 
by  them.  Finally,  an  inquiry  into  his  acts 
was  ordered,  and  he  was  arrested  in  company 


264 


BILLATJLT 


BnUABDS 


with  Oollot  d^Herbois  and  Barrdre.  Hib  popu- 
larity among  the  citizens  of  the  saburbs  was  so 
greaty  that  thej  attempted  to  resone  him  by 
force  on  the  12th  Germinal ;  bat  the  mob  was 
quelled,  and  he,  as  well  as  his  companions,  was 
sentenced  to  transportation.  Then  a  more  for- 
midable insurrection  broke  out  on  the  1st  Prai- 
rial ;  but  he  had  already  been  sent  to  Cayenne 
with  Oollot  d'Herbois.  There  he  lived  for  20 
years  in  savage  retirement,  refusing  to  avail 
himself  of  the  amnesty  offered  by  Napoleon, 
after  the  18th  Brumaire.  In  1816,  however, 
he  escaped  from  Cayenne,  and  went  to  Port-au- 
Prince,  where,  proud  and  lonely,  he  barely 
made  a  living  by  the  law.  Three  years  later, 
he  died,  as  stem  and  inunovable  as  ever. 

BILLAULT,  Augusts  Adolphb  Mabde,  a 
French  statesman,  bom  Nov.  12,  1805,  at 
Yannes,  in  the  department  of  Morbihau.  After 
studying  the  law  at  Rennes,  he  removed  to 
Nantes,  where  he  practised  with  success.  He 
managed  to  be  elected  in  succession  a  member 
of  the  municipal  council  of  Nantes,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  the  general  council  of  the  department  of 
Loire  Inf^rieure.  He  now  published  pamphlets 
upon  education  in  iVanoe,  municipal  organiza- 
tion, roads,  &c.  In  1887,  when  only  81,  his 
popularity  in  his  department  had  become  so 
great,  that  he  was  chosen  to  the  chamber  of 
deputies  by  8  electoral  districts.  His  style  of 
oratory  was  at  first  little  to  the  taste  of  the 
chamber;  but  notwithstanding  his  unsucoesafbl 
d6but,  he  soon  secured  for  himself  a  conspicuous 

Slace  in  the  assembly  by  activity  of  mind,  in- 
ustry,  and  practical  knowledge.  As  early  as 
1838,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the  com- 
mittee to  devise  a  general  plan  for  railways 
throughout  France ;  the  reports  which  he  drew 
up  commanded  general  attention.  On  the  for- 
mation of  the  Thiers  cabinet,  March  1, 1840,  he 
accepted  the  mtuation  of  assistant  seoretazy  to 
the  minister  of  agriculture  and  commerce  ;*but 
when  Thiers  was  overthrown  by  Guizot^  Bil- 
lault  resigned  also.  When  the  treaty  upon  the 
right  of  search,  concluded  Dea  20, 1841,  by  Gui- 
zot,  was  presented  to  the  chamber,  Billault  made 
himself  conspicuous  among  its  opponents,  and 
his  speeches  greatiy  contributed  to  its  defeat. 
He  also  took  an  efficient  part  in  the  debate  on 
the  Pritchard  indemnity.  During  the  follow- 
ing years,  he  shared  in  nearly  m  important 
discussions,  showing  a  marked  preference  for 
questions  of  foreign  policy.  He  was  reckoned 
amonff  the  members  of  the  opposition,  and  fre- 
quently indulged  in  denunciations  of  govern- 
ment corruption ;  he  however  became  the  legal 
adviser  of  the  duke  of  Aunude,  the  richest  son 
of  Louis  Philippe.  At  the  same  time  he  i^ectr 
ed  to  consider  himself  as  the  necessary  successor 
of  Ghiizot;  but  his  ambitious  aspirations  were 
defeated  by  the  sudden  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848.  Being  elected  to  tiie 
constituent  assembly  by  a  large  migority,  he 
now  declared  himself  a  republican,  voted  with 
the  most  advanced  party,  and  went  so  far  as  to 
support  the  democratic  project  known  as  the 


right  to  labor.  He  was  not  elected  to  the  legis- 
lative assembly,  and  returned  to  the  practice  of 
law.  He  had  early  intercourse  with  the  new 
president,  Louis  Napoleon,  and  was  frequently 
called  on  by  him  for  political  advice.  On  the 
coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  Billault  at  once  ^ve  his 
hearty  adhesion  to  the  new  regime.  He  pre- 
sented himself  as  the  government  candidate  to 
the  legislative  body  in  Feb.  1852,  and  was 
chosen  by  a  handsome  minority.  He  was  made 
president  of  that  assembly,  which  post  he  held 
for  a  littie  over  2  years,  his  nomination  as  min- 
ister of  the  interior,  March  24, 1854,  not  pre- 
venting his  continuance  in  the  presidential  cfiair 
to  the  end  of  the  session;  and  on  June  6,  he 
presented  to  the  emperor  an  able  report  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  body.  His  acts  as  a  minister 
are  not  unworthy  of  the  reputation  he  had  pre- 
viously acquired  as  a  practical  politician.  After 
the  attempt  against  the  life  of  Napoleon  HI.,  by 
Orsini  and  his  accomplices,  Jan.  14, 1858,  Bil- 
lault tendered  his  resignation,  expressing  a  desire 
to  retire  to  private  life;  and  in  Feb.,  Gen.  Espi- 
nasse  was  i^pointed  his  successor  as  minister  of 
the  interior,  with  the  additional  titie  of  nodnister 
of  general  safety. 

filLLE,  Btbrn  AnDEBfisir,  a  Danish  rear-ad- 
miral, and  minister  of  marine,  bom  in  Copen^ 
hagen,  Dec.  6.  1797.  Following  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  fatner,  who  was  bom  Aug.  22, 1751, 
and  died  April  15,  1888,  and  who  distinguishea 
himself  on  various  occasions^pecially  during 
the  memorable  siege  of  the  Danish  coital  by 
the  English,  young  Bille  entered  the  navy  at  an 
early  age.  In  1819  he  joined  the  French  ser- 
vice, and  in  1823  he  took  a  part  in  the  Spanish 
campaign.  Subsequentiy,  he  was  engaged  in 
the  naval  service  of  Denmark,  and  stationed 
for  several  years  in  transatlantic  countries^  and 
in  the  Levant.  In  1840  he  served  on  board  the 
Bellone  during  the  expedition  of  that  vessel  to 
South  America ;  and  in  1845,  he  made^  in  the 
Galatflda,  a  voyage  round  the  world,  which  was 
undertaken  tmder  the  auspices  of  the  govern- 
ment, in  the  interests  of  commerce  and  science. 
On  his  return  to  Denmark,  he  found  a  new 
sphere  of  activity  in  the  Schleswig-Holstein 
war,  during  which  he  was  employed  in  the 
blockade  of  the  Elbe  and  Weser,  and  of  the 
Holstein  coast  Finally,  in  1852.  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  of  marine,  councillor,  and  rear- 
admiraL  He  has  been  frequentiy  a  contributor 
to  the  literature  of  his  country.  His  principal 
production  is  an  account  of  his  voyage  round 
the  world,  of  which  the  third  and  last  volume 
appeared  at  Oopenhagen  in  1851. 

BILLIARDS,  a  game  played  with  ivory  balls, 
on  a  flat,  oblong  table  covered  with  green  doth, 
having  raised,  dastic,  cushioned  edges,  with 
semi-circular  apertures,  one  at  each  comer, 
and  2  facing  each  other,  at  the  centre  of  the 
long  sides.  The  dimensions  of  a  full-sized  bil- 
liard table  are  12  feet  by  6.  The  bed,  or  level 
surface,  over  which  the  doth  is  strained  as 
tightly  as  possible,  is  composed,  in  the  best  im- 
proved modem  tables,  of  slate,  and  the  cushions 


BILLIABD8 


BnUNGS 


365 


of  Tnleaniced  India  rubber.  The  balk  are  driven 
by  a  cue  or  a  mace,  as  they  are  respectively 
termed ;  the  cue  being  by  &r  the  superior  iu- 
atmment  of  the  two,  requiring  the  greater  skill 
in  its  use,  and  producing  effects  which  can 
hardly  be  executed  with  we  mace ;  the  latter, 
indeed,  is  considered  merely  as  the  implement 
for  novices  or  ladies,  to  whom  it  is  particularly 
suited,  dnoe  to  execute  finely  with  the  cue 
sometimes  requires  the  assumption  of  attitudes 
which  are  not  becoming  to  female  attire,  or  to  the 
modesty  of  the  sex.  &e  cue  is  a  straight  round 
staff  of  wood,  from  4)*  to  6  or  8  feet  in  length, 
tapering  from  a  ^ameter  of  about  H  inch  at 
the  butt  to  t  of  an  inch  at  the  tip,  a  diagonal 
alioe  being  taken  off  one  dde  of  the  bntt^  so  as 
to  ffive  it  an  oblique  plane  surface,  which  can  be 
laid  flatly  on  the  table  for  the  purpose  of  push- 
ing, when  the  ball  is  in  such  situations  that  it 
cannot  be  reached  with  the  point;  the  point  of 
the  cue  is  tipped  with  thin  leather,  and  is  fre- 
quently chalked  while  playing,  to  cause  it  to 
take  hold,  without  slipping,  of  the  smooth  and 
polished  sorfiBoe  of  the  ball.  The  mace  is  a 
slender  springy  staff  of  some  light  elastic  wood, 
slenderer  and  shorter  than  the  cue,  with  a  head 
of  hard  wood,  fashioned  something  like  a  spoon, 
truncated  at  the  efd,  and  cut  into  a  flat  bevel 
at  the  under  side,  so  as  to  allow  it  to  lie  flat 
on  tiie  table,  with  the  handle  rising  from  it  at 
a  tangent.  The  mace  can  only  be  used,  like 
the  butt  of  the  cue,  in  pushing.  In  striking 
with  the  point,  which  is  the  true  and  scien- 
tific play,  and  the  only  play  by  which  fine 
execution  can  be  accomplished,  the  player 
grasps  the  cue  firmly,  but  not  rigidly,  near 
the  butt,  with  the  full  hand,  and,  standing 
with  his  left  foot  advanced  next  to  the 
table,  rests  the  cue  at  about  8  inches  from 
the  point  on  what  is  technically  termed  a 
bridge,  formed  by  resting  the  wrist  and  ball 
of  the  left  hand  fiatiy  on  the  table,  as  also 
the  tips  of  the  four  fingers,  somewhat  ex- 
panded, with  the  knuckles  elevated,  and  with 
the  ball  of  the  thumb  placed  against  the  fore- 
finger midway  between  the  knuckle  and  tiie 
first  joint  Between  this  knuckle  and  the  thumb, 
as  on  a  p<nnt  tPappui,  the  cue  is  made  to 
play  horizontally  so  as  to  strike  the  ball  of  the 
player  with  any  degree  of  force  and  at  any 
angle  of  its  surfSuM  which  is  required,  in  order 
to  cause  it  to  assume  certain  Unes  of  progression, 
before  and  after  strildng  either  the  bafi  or  the 
oushion  at  which  it  is  aimed.  The  game  con- 
sists in  striking  one  of  the  other  ball&  at  which 
the  striker  aims  with  his  own  ball  in  such 
manner  as  to  force  that  ball  or  those  balk-^or 
in  difierent  games  various  numbers  of  balls  are 
used,  in  various  combinations — into  one  of  the 
pockets ;  or  to  force  the  striker's  ball  to  rico- 
chet from  the  Ist  to  the  2d  and  8d  ball,  if  it  be 
in  the  4  ball  game,  successively ;  or,  in  some 
cases,  to  force  tne  striker's  ball  to  ricochet  from 
the  heR  stricken  into  one  of  the  pockets— this 
point  being  in  some  games  a  losing,  and  in 
others  a  winning  point     Billiards  is  a  game 


requiring  a  quick  and  sure  eve,  a  steady  hand, 
great  deucaoy  of  touch  and  flexibility  of  wrist, 
a  quiet,  easy,  and  patient  temper,  considerable 
power  of  mentally  and  iostinctively  calculating 
the  angles  at  which  a  baU  is  deflected  from  a 
plain  or  convex  surface,  and  the  force  re- 
quired to  effect  the  object ;  and  lastiy,  immense 
practice,  without  which  all  the  rest  are  nothing. 
Indeed,  so  constant  are  the  attention  and  prac- 
tice requisite  to  form  a  first-rate  player,  that 
none  but  men  of  leisure  can  hope  to  become 
such,  and  even  with  them  it  is  time  thrown 
away.  The  principal  games  played  at  billiards, 
are  the  English,  or  8  ball ;  the  American,  or  4 
balLgame;  the  Bussian,  the  Spanish,  and  tiie 
pool  games;  in  all  of  which  tne  principle  is 
identical,  though  the  combinations  vary.  Bil- 
liards is  played  more  or  less  by  all  civilized 
nations,  but  is  most  popular  with  the  Spaniards, 
Russians,  and  Amencans. 

BILLTN^QS,  Joseph,  an  English  navigator  in 
the  service  of  Russia,  lived  at  the  end  of  the 
18th  century.  He  accompanied  Oook  in  his 
last  voyage,  and  was  intrusted  with  the  astro- 
nomicid  department  In  1785,  Catharine  II. 
took  him  into  her  service,  and  sent  him  on  a 
voyage  of  discovery.  His  instructions  were, 
*'to  detenmne  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Kolyma  river :  to  describe  the  situa- 
tion of  the  promontory  of  the  Tchooktchees  to 
Cape  East ;  to  trace  an  exact  chart  of  the  isles  of 
the  Pacific  to  the  coast  of  America ;  in  short,  to 
complete  the  knowledge  of  the  seas  situated 
between  Siberia  and  the  continent  of  America.'^ 
He  set  out  overland  in  Oct  1785,  reached 
Kolyma,  and  put  to  sea  in  1787.  The  expedi- 
tion consisted  of  2  vessels.  It  sailed  toward  the 
Arctic  ocean,  went  5  leagues  beyond  Cape  Baran- 
noi-Eamen,  and  returned  to  the  Kolyma,  whose 
course  they  explored  up  to  Yakootsk,  which  they 
reached  Oct  22.  At  Okhotsk,  on  the  Pacific 
coast)  th^  built  2  ships  for  the  American  expe- 
dition. Billings  started  anew,  Sept  1789,  lost 
1  of  his  ships,  and  cast  anchor  at  the  port  of 
Petropaulovski,  where  he  wintered.  In  March, 
1790,  ne  set  out  to  visit  the  islands  on  the  south  of 
Aliaska,  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America.  On  the 
24th  he  saw  the  island  of  Amtchitka ;  on  June  1, 
he  landed  at  Oonalaska.  Billings  examined  into 
the  manners  and  ideas  of  these  islanders, 
and  determined  the  latitude  of  Oonalaska. 
On  June  18,  he  left  it^  and  traversed  the  islands 
of  Oonemak  and  Sannagh.  He  reconnoitred 
the  Shoomagin  sroup,  and  then  visited  the 
group  called  Evdokeeifl  On  the  27th  he  de- 
scried the  mountains  of  Kodiak,  and  2  smaller 
islands.  He  cast  anchor  at  Kodiak,  and 
described  it  and  its  wild  inhabitants.  July 
8,  he  touched  at  Afognak.  On  the  11th  he 
touched  at  the  LadenaiarReka,  or  Icy  river,  per- 
petually frozen.  On  the  19th  he  penetrated 
mto  Prince  William's  sound,  and  cast  anchor 
where  Cook  had  been  in  1778.  He  examined 
Cook^s  strait  thoroughly.  His  provisions  now 
began  to  run  short,  and  not  having  means  to 
winter  in   these   savage   regions,   he   deter* 


BILLINQ8 


BILUTON 


mined  to  return  to  Eamtchatka.  Billings's 
Toyage  lasted  from  1787  to  1791.  An  acoomit 
of  it  was  published  in  English,  at  London,  in 
1802. 

BILLINGS,  WiLUAic,  the  father  of  New 
England  psalmody,  bom  in  Boston,  Oot.  7, 
1746,  died  there  Sept.  26, 1800.  B!ie  was  by 
trade  a  tanner,  and  his  opportunities  of  instrno- 
tion  in  any  branch  of  knowledge,  and  particu- 
larly in  the  theory  and  practice  of  music,  were 
few.  A  love  of  music  and  considerable  Yocal 
skill,  however,  led  him  while  sdll  young  to 
become  a  teacher  of  singing  and  a  composer  of 
psalm  tunes,  which  eyentuolly  found  thdr  way 
mto  every  church  choir  of  New  England,  and 
became  great  favorites  with  the  people.  He 
published  no  less  than  6  collections  of  tunes, 
which,  with  a  tew  exceptions,  were  of  his  own 
composition.  They  were  founded  upon  the  new 
style  of  church  music,  then  first  introduced  by 
Tansnr,  A.  Williams,  J.  Arnold,  and  other  Eng- 
lish composers^  and  their  contrast  to  the  dismal 
old  tunes  previously  in  use  naturally  gave  them 
immense  popularity,  and  in  fiict  caused  a  revo- 
lution in  musical  taste  in  New  England.  They 
were  far  from  being  perfect  in  the  requisites  of 
good  melody  and  harmony,  and  their  author,  in 
a  Quaintly  worded  preface  to  his  2d  work,  en- 
titled '*The  Singing  Master's  Assistant,''  and 
oonunonly  known  as  ^^  Billings's  Best,"  apolo- 
gizes for  the  errors  which  his  first  collection 
contains ;  but  the  melodies  were  generally  good, 
and,  had  the  composer  emoyed  the  advantages 
for  musical  instruction  which  the  present  age 
affords,  his  compositions  would  doubtless  have 
possessed  a  permanent  value.  Billings  was  a 
firm  patriot,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Samuel 
Adains,  who  frequenUv  sat  with  him  at  church 
in  the  singing  choir.  Many  of  his  tunes,  com- 
posed during  the  war  of  independence,  breathe 
the  true  spirit  of  patriotism,  and  were  sung  and 
played  wherever  New  England  troops  were 
stationed.  Billings  may  &irly  daim  the  title  of 
the  first  American  composer,  for  before  his 
time  there  is  no  record  of  any  musical  com- 
position by  a  native  of  this  country. 

BILLINGSGATE,  the  great  fish-market  of 
London.  The  quantity  of  fish  that  comes  to 
this  market  is  almost  beyond  belief.  -  The 
<(take"  on  the  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and 
Dutch  coasts,  aU  finds  a  sale  at  Billingsgate, 
and  is  transported  to  London  either  by  fish- 
ing boats  or  by  railway,  from  the  distant 
parts  of  the  kingdom.  The  chief  part  of  the 
fish  consumption  of  England  is  supplied  from 
Billingsgate,  to  which  the  article  is  first  sent, 
as  being  certain  of  finding  a  sale  at  current 
prices.  The  market  is  under  the  control  of  a 
derk  and  inspectors.  The  trade  is  conducted 
by  salesmen,  who  are  tho  agents  between  the 
wholesale  dealers  and  the  retailers;  and  the 
business  is,  as  may  be  supposed,  done  at  a  very 
early  hour,  and  with  great  rapidity.  The  con- 
gregation of  a  great  number  of  individuals,  aU 
anxious  for  precedence,  attentive  and  eager  to 
secure  their  bargains,  has  given  rise  to  fre- 


quent altercations,  seasoned  with  manypenMmal* 
ities,  and  the  use  of  much  wit,  more  remark- 
able for  readiness  and  pungency  than  for  deli- 
cacy. Hence  the  term  Billingsgate  has  been 
applied  to  abusive  and  vulgar  language.  In 
these  days  of  refinement,  the  language  or  con- 
duct of  pUlingsgate  is  not  remarkably  worse 
than  that  of  any  similsr  concourse. 

BILUNGTON,  Elizabeth,  an  English 
singer,  bom  1769,  died  Aug.  26,  1818.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Weichsel,  a  German  musi- 
cian, and  in  childhood  displayed  such  musical 
talent  that  she  played  her  own  composition  in 
London,  at  the  age  of  11.  She  married  her 
music-master,  Mr.  Billington,  whom  she  accom- 
panied to  Dublin,  where  she  made  her  first  ap- 
pearance on  the  stage.  She  remained  tiiero 
untQ  1786,  when  she  returned  to  London,  but 
meeting  no  succeas  she  went  to  Paris  and  took 
lessons  from  Sacchini,  by  whose  advice  ahe 
yisited  Italy  in  1794,  to  perfect  herself  in  her 
art  She  lost  her  husband  in  Italy,  and  mar- 
ried a  second  time  at  Lyons.  On  her  return  to 
England  in  1801,  ahe  charmed  the  musical 
world  with  her  accomplishments,  and  was  en* 
miged  and  sang  at  both  Covent  Garden  and 
Drury  Lane  theatres  at  the  same  time.  Her 
husband  left  Ensiand  in  coAequence  of  the  alien 
act,  and  she  foUowed  him  in  1817,  and  died  at 
St.  Artien  near  Venice. 

BILLITON,  an  island  of  the  Mslay  archipel- 
ago, separated  by  the  Oarimata  passage  from 
Borneo,  and  by  Gaspar  straits  from  Banca.  Its 
highest  peak,  near  N.  E.  point,  which  is  2,S0O 
feethigh,isinlat.8''  13' S.,  long.  108"^  r K;  area 
1,944,  and  including  68  inconsiderable  a^joia- 
ing  islets,  2,284  sq.  m. ;  pop.  of  the  island  8,000, 
of  the  islets  1,600.  It  is  noted,  like  the  neigh- 
boring island  of  Banca,  which  it  resembles  in 
gpeological  formation,  for  its  production  of  grain 
tin  from  alluvial  deposits.  Iron  possessing 
strong  magnetic  properties,  is  found  in  abun- 
dance ;  and  the  peculiar  white  iron,  called  pawnor, 
used  in  damasking  the  famous  Bomean  Dyak 
sword  blades,  is  found  here  in  small  quantities, 
BUliton  and  Celebes  being  the  only  countries 
where  it  is  found.  Iron  has  been  worked  sinoe 
an  early  period  by  the  native  Sikas;  but  the 
mining  of  tin  did  not  commence  till  as  late  aa 
1850,  by  a  Dutch  oompaoy,  of  which  Prinoe 
Frederic  Henry,  of  Holland,  is  the  chief  stock- 
holder. The  i^nd  has  been  granted  to  the 
prince  as  a  private  property.  It  is  the  south- 
em  extremity  of  the  great  Malay  tin  district, 
which  extends  northward  over  17  of  latitude  to 
Tenaaserim,  on  the  Malay  peninsula.  Accord- 
ing t6  the  various  tests,  by  the  crack  of  the 
metal,  weight,  and  ductility,  tiie  tin  of  this 
island  is  the  best  in  the  world.  The  product 
thus  far  has  not  been  made  public ;  but  the 
mines,  in  proportion  to  their  extent,  are  said  to 
be  as  productive  as  those  of  Banca.  As  in  that 
island,  Chinese  colonies  work  the  mines.  The 
soil  is  generally  sterile,  and  a  large  portion  of 
the  rice  for  the  consumption  of  the  miners  is 
brought  from  Java  and  BaU.    The  aborigines,  a 


BILLOM 


BIMA 


267 


rode  race,  oalled  Sikaa,  and  mneh  resembling 
the  Bi^ans  or  sea  gypsies,  subnst  chieflj  by  fish- 
ine,  and  are  accused  of  bdng  ready  to  plnnder 
a  feebly  manned  trading  pr^^u,  or  a  stranded 
European  vessel,  whenever  a  favorable  oppor- 
tonl^  is  presented. 

BUiLOM,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Clermont,  department  of  Pny-de- 
D6me,  wiUi  4,691  inhabitaDts.  It  is  a  town 
<^  considerable  antiquity.  Before  the  revoln- 
tion  it  had  a  ooDegiate  church,  among  the  treas- 
ures of  which  were  alleged  to  be  a  drop  of 
the  blood  of  Ohrist,  and  a  piece  of  the  wood  of 
the  true  cross.  

BlU^  OF  MOBTALITY,  the  table  of  deaths 
oocnrring  in  a  particular  city  or  district. 
The  London  bills  of  mortality  commenced 
in  1598,  after  a  visitation  of  the  plague, 
and  were  extended  into  weekly  bills  after  a 
omilar  visitation  in  1603.  They  were  com- 
pfled  from  the  returns  of  parish  clerks,  and  long 
after  considerable  progress  had  been  made  in 
the  system  of  preparing  mortuary  tables  on  the 
coDtineiit,  they  continued  in  a  most  unsatisfac- 
tory and  unscientific  condition.  The  establish- 
ment of  a  metropolitan  police  district,  intro- 
duced the  office  and  functions  of  the  r^istrar- 
general.  A  new  system  of  registering  births, 
deaths,  and  marriages,  was  inaugurated  in  Eng- 
land and  Wales,  in  1839.  The  bills  of  mortality 
were  abolished  as  such,  and  new  metropolitan 
registration  districts  established. 

BELMA,  a  town  in  the  desert  of  Sahara,  sit- 
uated between  IS""  and  19""  N.  lat  and  about  14"* 
£.  long.,  S.  S.  £.  from  Moorzook,  N.  N.  E.  from 
Bomoo.  It  stands  in  the  centre  of  the  oasis 
Wady  Kawas,  and  on  the  route  between  Tripo- 
li and  Bomoo.  It  is  inhabited  by  Tibboos, 
among  whom  are  many  negroes,  whose  north- 
ernmost limit  of  habitation  this  is.  It  owes  its 
hnportanoe  to  being  a  stopping-place  for  cara- 
vansy  and  still  more  to  the  salt  lakes  in  the 
nei^borhood.  The  salt  is  gathered  at  the  end 
of  the  dry  season,  when  it  is  taken  in  sheets 
from  the  borders  of  the  lake.  It  is  then  put 
into  bags,  and  exported  to  Soodan  and  Bomoo. 
A  coarser  sort  is  made  up  in  pillar  form,  quite 
hard,  and  also  sent  to  Soodan.  Dates  are  to  be 
had  here  in  abundance,  but  very  little  of  other 
sorts  of  provisions. 

BUJSON,  Thomas,  bishop  of  Wmdhester, 
bom  in  Winchester  in  1636,  died  at  Westmin- 
ster^ June  18, 1616.  He  was  one  of  the  most 
learned  men  of  his  time.  In  1696  he  was  con- 
aecrated  bishop  of  Worcester,  and  the  foUow- 
ing  year  beciune  bishop  of  Winchester,  and 
was  sworn  of  the  privy  council.  Bilson  pub- 
liriied  ''The  trae  Difference  between  Christian 
Sabjection  and  Unchristian  Rebellion,"  4to, 
Oxford,  1686,  and  8vo,  London,  1686;  <'The 
Perpetual  Government  of  Ohrist^s  Church,'' 
4to,  black  letter,  London,  1693;  '^The  Effect 
of  certain  Sermons  touching  the  fhll  Redemp- 
tion of  Ifonkind  by  the  Death  and  Blood 
of  Christ,"  &c,  4to.,  London,  1699;  *'The 
Survey  ol  Christ's  Suffering   for  Mfui's  Re* 


demption,  and  of  His  Descent  to  Hades  or 
Hell,"  foL,  London,  1604.  Bilson  was  held 
in  the  highest  respect  far  his  personal  quali- 
ties, as  well  as  for  his  great  learning. 

BII^TON,  a  market  town  of  Staffordshire, 
England ;  pop.  in  1861, 28,627.  It  is  the  centre 
of  extensive  coal  mines,  and  of  a  large  iron 
trcde,  the  founderies  being  engaged  in  every 
kind  of  iron  work.  In  the  vicinity  is  a  coal 
mine  which  has  been  on  fire  for  60  years.  The 
sanitary  arrangements  are  very  defective,  and 
the  town  is  memorable  for  the  .dreadful  severi- 

§f  with  which  the  cholera  attacked  the  popula- 
on  in  1832. 

BIMA,  the  principal  state  of  the  island  of 
Sumbawa,  and  seat  of  a  Dutch  residency.  The 
Dutch  fort  at  the  head  of  the  bay  of  Bima  in  lat 
8""  36'  S.,  long.  118''  40^  K  Before  the  eraption 
of  the  mountain  Tomboro,  situated  at  the  ex* 
tremity  of  the  northern  peninsula  of  the  island, 
and  which  is  the  most  terrific  volcanic  eruption 
on  record,  the  inhabitants  of  Bima  numbered 
90,000  souls;  and  when  a  census  was  taken  in 
1847  there  were  only  46,000.  The  soil  of  this 
territory  has  not  been  found  favorably  adapted 
to  the  production  of  cereals,  or  otiier  products 
for  the  sustenance  of  man.  The  surface  of  the 
land  consists  of  a  great  number  of  trachytic 
ridges,  which  are  separated  by  ravines  often 
very  deep,  and  of  whidi  the  ddes  are  frequently 
perpendicular;  much  resembling  the  almost 
fathomless  clefts  and  fissures  in*the  arid  wastes 
of  portions  of  the  Tierras  Calientes  in  Mexico. 
In  these  ravines  run  streams  very  impetuous  in 
the  rainy  season,  while  their  beds  are  nearly 
empty  in  the  dry.  The  country  is  well  situated 
for  irrigation,  and  water  is  abundant  for  the  pur- 
pose, which  if  applied  as  in  the  neighboring 
islands  of  Bali  and  Lombook,  would  evidently 
result  in  the  same  remarkable  productiveness 
of  soil;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Bima  are 
too  feeble  in  character  and  too  badly  gov- 
erned^ to  be  induced  to  give  such  an  intel- 
ligent direction  to  their  labor.  The  chief  pro- 
ductions which  have  attracted  Europeans  to 
this  portion  of  Sumbawa  are  sandal,  and  sap- 
pan  wood;  and  beeswax  and  horses  are  ex- 
ported to  Java.  The  horses  of  Bima  are  much 
esteemed  in  the  Indian  islands ;  they  are  not  so 
large  as  those  of  Celebes,  nor  so  hardy  and  use- 
ful as  those  of  the  Bashee  islands ;  nor  so  sure- 
footed as  the  little  ponies  of  Java,  but  in  point 
of  beauty  and  spirit,  they  are  justly  called  the 
^^  Arab  of  the  archipelago ;''  yet  are  considered 
inferior  in  Uood  to  the  fiedouin  "  courser  of  the 
desert,"  not  having  his  fine  coat  and  head. 
The  horse  is  only  used  for  the  saddle,  and  never 
by  the  natives  for  draught,  in  the  plough,  or 
wheded  carriages ;  and  the  mare  only  is  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.  A  fine  Bima  horse  is  worth  $60 
in  Batavia ;  but  very  good  ponies  of  this  breed 
can  be  purchased  for  $10 ;  and  they  are  procur- 
ed by  Javanese  traders  from  those  who  raise 
them,  for  half  that  amount  in  articles  of  trade. 
There  are  2  otiier  breeds  of  horses  on  the  island ; 
those  of  Tambora,  and  Gunung-Api,  differing 


268 


BDIBIA 


BIKGEN 


eaflentially  from  those  of  Bima.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  this  territory  speak  a  language  which 
has  been  regarded  by  Orawfnrd^  Baffles,  and 
other  historians  of  the  Indian  ishmds,  as  dis- 
tinct from  the  Malay  or  any  other  langoage  of 
the  arobipeLago.  m  the  appendix  to  *^  Baffles' 
History  of  Java,*'  a  list  of  46  Bima  words, 
names  of  prominent  olijects  in  nature,  of  which 
%  only  are  said  to  originate  from  ^e  Malay, 
are  addnoed  in  proof  of  the  entire  originality 
of  the  Bima  langaage;  bat  an  application  of 
that  role,  the  interohangeability  of  consonants  of 
one.  class,  and  transposition  of  vowels  and  ^1- 
lables,  wnich  the  growth  of  langaage  seems  to 
haye  generally  observed,  will  show  that  nearly 
all  of  the  words  in  Baffles*  vocabalary  are  of 
Malay  origin*  Thos  we  find  dho,  man,  sir,  read- 
ily traceable  to  dau^  in  Flores,  totou,  in  Oelebes, 
and  to  the  tuan  of  the  Malays.  Again,  oi 
water,  apparently  differing  so  mach  from  the 
Maly,  ayar  ;  yet  we  can  trace  it  to  that  source, 
in  at  in  Lomliock,  wax  and  we  in  Celebes,  er  in 
Java;  and  awar  and  noa/y  in  many  portions  of 
Sumatra.  Ikma  is  certainly  derivea  from  the 
Malay  tanah^  earth ;  vot^i  from  hdbiy  hog ;  dolu 
and  Uluy  from  tehar^  egg ;  fDodu  from  IxUu^ 
stone;  and  even  intara  from  hintangj  star; 
and  10^  and  toiffi,  from  gigiy  the  teeth.  There 
exists  amonff  the  records  of  this  people,  relics  of 
an  ancient  langaage,  like  the  Kawi  of  Java, 
or  the  Sanscrit.  The  alphabet  of  this  recon- 
dite language  of  Sumbawa  is  as  follows :  a,  ch, 
ph,  n,  8,  r,  t,  th,  b,  1,  gh.  j,  p,  d,  w,  m,  ch,  dh, 
bh,  k,  ng,  rk,  dh,  h,  kh,  b,  z,  y,  d,  f.  ff,  gn. 
There  are  80  consonants,  consisting  of  7  labials, 
4  dentals,  4  palatals^  4  gutturals,  4  nasals,  6 
liquids,  and  2  sibilants.  The  letters  f  and  z  are 
remrded  by  Dutch  and  English  writers  as  a  pe- 
culiarity not  to  be  found  in  the  langaage  of  any 
other  people  of  the  archipelago ;  but  tney  have 
certainly  overlooked  the  fact  that  the  people  of 
the  iah&nd  of  Nias  substitute  f  for  p,  like  the 
Arabs,  calling  ^2^,  island, /it^^y  and  the  peo- 
ple of  Timor  have  the  f  sound,  as  fahif  hog, 
from  the  Malay  habl—The  Dutch  fort  of  Bima 
is  garrisoned  by  about  150  Javanese  and  Bughis 
troops  and  a  dozen  Europeans.  There  are  not 
leas  than  6,000  Bughis  settlers  in  the  territory, 
probably  1,500  fh>m  Bali,  1,000  from  Timor 
and  Flores,  and  20  Chinese  traders. 

BIMBIA,  a  river  of  western  Africa,  dis- 
eharging  its  waters  into  the  bight  of  Biafra. 
Nnmeroas  villages  are  bailt  along  its  banks, 
governed  by  a  chief  under  British  protection. 

BIKAB,  a  town  of  Persia,  province  of  Azer- 
baijan, on  the  Sofi  Chai,  a  stream  which  enters 
Lake  Ooroomeeyah  from  the  westwiurd;  pop. 
7,500.  The  streets  are  dean,  the  caravansaries 
good,  and  the  town  well  supplied  with  water. 
Fruit  is  raised  in  the  vicinity  .in  great  quan- 
tities. 

BINARY  ARITHMETIO,  an  invention  of 
Leibnitz,  for  discovering  the  properties  of  num- 
bers, and  constructing  aritlunetioal  tables.  On- 
ly one  digit,  1,  is  used,  and  its  removal  one 
place  to  the  left  doubles  its  value.    Thus^  1  sig- 


nifies one;  10,  two;  11,  three;  100,  four;  101, 
five;  110.  six;  10,000,  sixteen,  &c. 

BINARY  STARS  are  those  couples  of  stars 
which  are  observed  to  be  revolving  about  each 
other. 

BINBIR-EILISSEH,  some  ruins  of  ancient 
tombs  in  the  pashalic  of  Karamania,  Ada  20- 
nor,  20  miles  K.  N.  W.  of  Karaman,  supposed 
to  occupy  the  site  of  Lystra,  where  the  cripple 
was  healed  by  PauL 

BINDRABUND,  a  town  in  Hindostan,  pop. 
19,776,  under  British  dominion,  on  the  W.  bank 
of  the  river  Jumna,  about  85  miles  N.  N.  W. 
from  Agra.  The  Hindoos  regard  Bindrabund 
with  much  veneration,  as  the  residence  of  the 
god  E[rishna  during  his  youth.  The  old  name 
of  the  town  was  Yrindavana  (a  grove  of  trees). 
Many  pilgrims  come  hither  to  be  cleansed  from 
their  sins  in  the  sacred  waters  of  the  river. 
The  town  contains  many  temples,  all  dedicated 
to  Krishna. 

BINFIELD,  a  parish  of  Berkshire,  England, 
the  rendence  of  the  father  of  Alexander  Pope. 
A  tree  is  still  standing,  beneath  which  his 
''Windsor  Forest*'  is  said  to  have  been  com- 
posed. 

BINGEK,  a  German  town,  pop.  5,100,  in 
the  grand  duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt^  oppc^te 
Radesheim,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine^  at 
the  confiuence  of  this  river  with  the  little  river 
Nahe.  A  famous  wine  is  produced  upon  the 
neighboring  Scarlet  or  Scharlach  mountain,  and 
enjoys,  under  the  name  of  Scharlachburger,  a 
world-wide  reputation.  The  approach  to  Bing- 
en  is  attended  with  some  dimcultry  for  navi- 
gation by  the  so-called  Bingerloch,  or  Bingen- 
hole,  formed  by  a  compression  of  the  Rhine 
into  a  narrow  strait,  between  towering  rooks. 
High  above  them  all  soars  the  M&usethurm,  or 
the  mice-tower,  so  called  from  the  popular  be- 
lief that  Archbishop  Hatto  of  Mentz,  who  used 
it  as  a  granary  for  speculative  purposes  during 
times  of  famine,  was  gnawed  to  death  there  bj 
mice  in  969.  According  to  another  tradition,  the 
original  name  of  the  tower  was  Mauththurm,  or 
custom-house  tower.  This  tower  was  in  a  veiy 
diUpidated  condition  until  1856,  when  it  was  re- 
stored. The  picturesque  aspect  of  Bingen  is  en- 
hanced by  the  acyoinmg  Rupertsberce,  with  the 
ruins  of  a  convent  where  St  Hildegard,  of 
Sponheim,  took  up  her  abode  in  the  12th  cen- 
tury. The  Rochusberg  forms  an  additional  at- 
traction. Upon  its  summit  stands  a  chapel,  which 
is  annually  visited  by  crowds  of  pilgrims.  A  pic- 
ture of  St  Rochus  was  presented  to  tlie  chapel 
by  Goethe.  The  same  mountain  exhibits  tfa« 
ruins  of  an  ancient  castle,  where,  in  1105,  the 
German  emperor,  Henry  iV.,  was  imprisoned 
by  his  son.  In  the  time  of  the  Romans,  Bingen 
was  called  Vineutn  or  Bingun^  and  formed 
part  of  Belgian  GauL  The  castle  built  by  the 
Romans  upon  the  Rochusberg  bore,  in  the 
middle  ages,  the  name  of  Elopp  castle.  The 
name  of  its  principal  tower  is  Drususthurm.  * 
Hence  the  name  of  DrususbrtLcke  applied  to  the 
beautifid  bridge  over  the  river  Nahe.    The  Ni- 


BINGHAM 


BINNACJLE 


269 


beltingenhort,  or  the  treasure  of  King  IHbelting^ 
whioh  gave  the  name  to  the  celebrated  German 
epic,  known  as  the  Mbelungenlied,  was,  accord- 
ing to  tradition,  sank  in  the  Rhine,  not  far  from 
Bingen. 

BINGHAM,  Bib  Gsobok  Bmoirr,  a  British 
genera],  bom  17T7,  died  Jan.  8, 1888.  He  en- 
tered the  army  in  1798,  and  progressivelj  ad- 
vanced in  different  regiments,  until  he  became 
lientenant-colonel  of  the  68d  re^ment  He 
served  through  the  peninsular  war,  and  was 
knighted  in  1816 ;  he  married  in  the  preceding 
jear.    Sir  George  Bingham  had  charge  of  Na- 

Soleon  Bonaparte  on  the  way  from  England  to 
t  Helena,  where  he  remained  several  years,  and 
was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  m^or-general, 
and  colonel-commandant  of  the  2d  nfle  brigade. 
He  appears  to  have  conducted  himself  cour- 
teously toward  the  exile  of  St.  Helena,  who  de- 
scribed him  as  "a  well-disposed  man,"  but  so 
afiraid  of  the  governor  ^ir  Hudson  Lowe)  that 
he  would  not  visit  at  Longwood,  for  fear  of 
giving  offence  to  his  excellency.  Napoleon 
said  that  '^Lady  Bingham  could  not  speak 
iVench,  but  looked  good-natured.'' 

BINGHAM,  JosKPH,  an  Enfl^ish  scholar  and 
divine,  bom  at  Wakefield,  Yorkshire,  Sept 
1668,  died  Aug.  17,  1728.  An  unfortunate 
oontroveraj,  in  which  he  took  a  pronunent 
part,  forced  him  to  resign  his  fellowship  at  Ox- 
lord;  he  was,  however,  presented  to  the  rec- 
tory of  Heaaboum- Worthy,  in  Hampshire. 
He  soon  alter  married,  and  his  increased  ex- 
penses forcing  him  to  exert  his  abilities  to 
enlarge  his  income,  he  published,  in  1708.  the 
Ist  volume  of  *^  Origines  Ecclesiastics,  or  Anti- 
quities of  the  Christian  Ohurch,"  which  he 
completed  in  10  vols.  8vo,  in  1722.  In  1712 
he  was  presented  to  the  rectory  of  Havant,  near 
Portsmouth.  In  1720  he  was  one  of  the  many 
that  were  ruined  by  the  South  sea  bubble. 

BINGHAMTON,  the  shire  town  of  Broome 
€0.  N.  Y. ;  pop.  in  1855,  8,818 ;  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  Chenango  and  Susquehanna  riv- 
ersL  where  the  former  is  crossed  by  tne  New  York 
and  Erie  railroad,  225  miles  fW>m  New  York, 
and  80  miles  fh>m  Syracuse,  with  which  city  it 
is  also  connected  by  railroad.  The  Chenango 
oanal  also  connects  it  with  Utica.  It  is  hand- 
somely laid  out,  and  is  a  prosperous  and  active 
place,  containing^  accordmg  to  the  census  of 
1855, 18  churches,  about  50  stores,  6  newspaper 
offices,  2  banks,  seminaries,  &c.,  appropriate  to 
its  population.  Water-power  is  furnished  by  the 
Chenango  river,  and  the  flour  and  lumber  trade 
is  extensively  carried  on.  It  was  settied  in  1787 
by  William  Bingham  of  Philadelphia.  Smce 
the  census  of  1855,  the  whole  town  of  Che- 
nango, of  which  the  village  originally  formed  a 
part,  has  been  induded  witliUi  the  limits  of 
Bingham  ton. 

BINGLEY,  the  Garrick  of  the  Dutch  stage, 
bom  at  Rotterdam  in  1755,  died  at  the  Hague 
in  1818.  An  early  passion  for  the  drma 
cansed  him  to  abandon  the  commercial  pursuits 
for  which  he  was  intended  by  his  father.    For 


nearly  40  years  he  was  at  the  head  of  his  pro- 
fession in  Holland,  exceUing  chiefly  in  tragedy, 
but  performing  also  occasionall  v  in  comic  parts. 
Prom  1796  to  the  time  of  his  death  he  was  the 
director  of  a  theatre^  and  at  the  same  time  the 
principal  attraction  of  his  company,  which  per- 
ibrmed  chiefly  at  Rotterdam  and  the  Hague. 

BINGLEY,  WnjJAM  C,  an  English  essayist 
and  miscellaneous  writer,  was  bom  in  York,  and 
died  in  London,  March  1 1, 1828.  Originally  in- 
tended for  the  bar,  he  deserted  it  for  the 
church.  He  wrote  "Travels  in  Wales  in  1798," 
the  "  Economy  of  the  Animal  Creation,"  which 
has  been  translated  into  French  and  Grerman, 
the  "Economy  of  a  Christian  Life,"  ^'Memoirs 
of  British  Quadrapeds,"  a  "  Dictionary  of  Musi- 
cal Composers  of  the  three  last  Centuries."  He 
was  a  laborious  and  painstaking  compiler. 

BmGTANG,  an  island  of  the  Bhio-Iinga 


is  in  Lit  54'  40''  N.,  long.  124°  26'  80"  K  Area 
of  the  island,  408  sq.  m. ;  pop.  with  Bhio,  situ- 
ated on  Tar({ong  Pinang,  an  adjoining  islet, 
15,000.  The  geological  formation  is  granite;, 
overliud  by  cellular  clay  ironstone.  Iron  and 
tin  are  found,  but  not  as  yet  extensivelv  mined. 
The  gambler  plant  (uncaria  gambUr)^  which 
produces  terra  japonica,  is  the  chief  product  of 
the  island.  A  large  number  of  gambler  plan- 
tations are  cultivated  by  Chinese  colonists,  who 
cultivate  black  pepper  at  the  same  time;  the 
refuse  leaves  of  the  gambler,  after  obtaining 
the  coagulated  decoction  of  commerce,  being 
excellent  manure  for  the  latter  plant.  No  less 
than  7,800  tons  of  gambler  were  exported  in 
1857  Kom  Singapore;  chiefly  the  product  of 
Bingtang,  Singapore,  Batang,  and  neighboring 
islets  of  the  groun.  Tins  article  is  worth  in 
the  European  markets  of  the  ardupelago  from 
|2  50  to  $8  the  picul  (188  lbs.)  Other  pro- 
ductions are  cocoa-palm,  durian  fruit,  much 
prized  by  the  natives,  caoutchouc,  gutta  percha, 
and  damar.  Many  valuable  timber  trees  are 
found  on  the  island.  The  native  Malays,  who 
are  mde  hunters  and  fishermen,  like  the  Orang 
Benua  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  are  now  out- 
numbered by  the  enterprising  Chinese.  The 
island  is  subject  to  the  sultan  of  Johore,  on  the 
peninsula.  The  native  chief  is  the  descendant 
of  a  prince  driven  from  Malacca  by  the  Portu- 

Siese  in  1511.     Much  mention  is  made  of 
intao,  as  it  is  called  in  Portuguese  chronicles, 
by  BaiTOs,  Canto,  and  Castaneda. 

BINNACLE,  formerly,  even  in  Dr.  Johnson's 
time,  spelled  Bittade,  probably  a  corruption 
of  the  French  loite  d^aiguilU^  needle-box.  a 
case  or  box  in  which  the  compass  and  lights 
are  kept  on  board  ship.  It  is  sometimes  di- 
vided mto  8  compartments,  the  2  sides  con- 
tainiog  a  compass,  and  the  middle  division  a 
lamp.  In  order  toat  the  needle  may  not  be 
affected,  the  binnacle  is  put  together  without 
nails  or  any  iron  work.  On  board  iron  steam- 
ers, it  is  an  object  of  the  flrst  importance  to 


270 


BINNET 


BINTULir 


the  safeiy  of  the  ship  to  laolate  the  binnacle  as 
oompletelj  as  possible. 

BlNNET,  Akos,  a  patron  of  art  and  natural 
science,  and  a  snccessfU  coltivator  of  the  latter, 
bom  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Oct.  18,  1808,  died  in 
Borne,  Feb.  18, 1847.  He  graduated  at  Brown 
nniversity  in  1821,  an<f  took  the  degree  of 
M.  D.  in  1826.  His  health  forbade  the  prac- 
tise of  his  profession,  and  he  engaged  in  mer- 
cantile pnrsaits  with  much  success.  In  the 
midst  of  business,  however,  he  never  abandoned 
his  earl  V  love  for  natural  science,  and  to  it  he 
devoted  all  his  leisure  moments.  Mineralogy 
and  concholoffy  more  especially  engaged  his  at- 
tention, though  he  explored  in  a  general  way  the 
whole  field  of  geologj  and  zoology.  He  was 
one  of  the  founders  and  most  efficient  members 
of  the  Boston  society  of  natural  history,  and 
its  president,  1848-^47.  He  accumulated  the 
best  private  collection  of  works  on  natural  his- 
tory then  in  the  country,  which  he  opened 
freely  to  all  naturalists;  and  indeed  a  resort  to 
his  library  at  one  period  was  absolutely  essential 
to  the  proper  investigation  of  any  important 
suliject  m  zoology.  He  was  elected  a  member 
of  all  the  scientific  societies  in  the  country, 
and  was  active  in  the  formation  and  promotion 
of  the  American  association  of  geologists  and , 
naturalists.  The  1st  volume  of  its  transactions  ' 
was  published  at  his  instance,  and  mostiy  at 
his  own  expense,  and  was  extensively  and 
gratuitously  distributed  by  him.  He  was  the 
president  elect  of  that  body  at  his  death.  When 
a  member  of  the  state  legislature  he  used  his 
infiuence  to  sustain  the  geological  survey  of  the 
state,  and  succeeded  in  having  attached  to  it 
a  commission  for  the  zoological  and  botanical 
survey  also,  which  resulted  in  the  important 
volumes  of  Harris  on  insects  ii^urions  to  vege- 
tation, Emerson  on  forest  trees,  Storer  on 
fishes,  Gould  on  invertebrata,  &c.  He  was  a 
zealous  patron  of  art  as  well  as  of  science,  and 
for  the  encouragement  of  American  artists, 
had  commisnoned  8  or  10  of  the  prindpal 
painters  and  sculptors  to  execute  works  for 
him  on  subjects  chiefly  American,  to  be  chosen 
by  themselves,  and  without  limit  as  to  price. 
Several  of  these,  as  the  Nbchs  Tristey  by 
KoUiermel,  "Storming  of  a  Mexican  Teooalli," 
by  Lentze ;  "  I  Think,"  by  Terry ;  "  Catharine 
Parr,''  by  Huntington,  were  completed.  Hav- 
ing accumulated  what  he  regarded  as  a  com- 
petency to  pursue  his  favorite  subjects,  it  was 
nis  intention  to  devote  the  remainder  of  his 
life  to  the  patronage  of  science  and  art  Being 
in  impaired  health,  he  proceeded  to  Europe  for 
the  purpose  of  invigoration,  increasing  his  ao- 
Quaintance,  and  acquiring  other  facmties  for 
the  furtherance  of  Ms  objects.  He  ^ed,  how- 
ever, at  Home,  at  the  age  of  44.  His  monument, 
by  Crawford,  is  one  of  the  principal  objects  of 
interest  at  Mount  Auburn.  He  wrote  many 
valuable  papers  on  natural  history,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  proceedings  and  the  Journal  of 
the  Boston  society  of  natural  history.  But  the 
subject  which  he  selected  fiur  his  special  investi- 


gation was  the  terrestrial  moUusks  of  the  United 
States,  and  their  shells.  He  devoted  many 
years  to  this  subject,  and  beside  his  own  ex- 
tensive personal  observations  he  interested 
others  all  over  the  union,  and  fitted  out  seveoral 
expeditions  to  Florida,  Texas,  and  other  unex- 
plored regions,  to  coUeot  materials.  He  em- 
ployed the  best  artists  to  delineate  and  engrave 
figures^  intending  to  publish  a  work  that  should 
be  unsurpassed  artistically,  and  make  it  a  gra- 
tuitous contribution  to  sdence.  Just  on  tb» 
eve  of  publication  he  died,  leaving  directions, 
however,  that  it  should  be  completcMl,  and 
gratuitously  distributed  to  scientific  bodies  and 
men  of  science  interested  in  the  subject  This 
was  done  by  his  friend  Dr.  Augustus  A.  Gould, 
of  Boston.  The  work  consists  of  2  octavo  vol- 
umes of  text  and  a  third  of  plates,  and  for 
fidelity  and  beauty  will  vie  with  any  work-  of 
the  kind  that  has  been  published  in  any  country. 

BINNEY,  HoBAOE,  a  distinguished  lawyer 
of  Philadelphia,  was  bom  about  1780,  and 
through  a  long  and  active  life  has  identified 
himsdf  with  the  best  interests  of  that  dty.  He 
was  for  many  years  director  in  the  first  bank  of 
the  United  States,  and  acted  as  trustee  in  the 
arduous  duty  of  winding  up  the  affidrs  of  that 
institution.  He  took  no  prominent  part  in  na- 
tional politics  until  the  election  of  General 
Jackson ;  but  he  then  came  forward  in  oppo- 
sition to  that  administration,  and  was  elected  to 
congress.  In  that  body  he  immediately  obtain- 
ed a  commanding  position.  Since  his  retire- 
ment from  political  life  his  most  celebrated  effort 
was  the  defending  of  the  city  of  Riiladdphia  in 
the  Supreme  Court  against  the  suit  brought  by 
the  heirs  of  Stephen  Girard.  He  stands  at  the 
head  of  his  profession  in  Philadelphia. 

BINOMIAL,  the  sum  or  difference  of  2  quan- 
tities algebraically  written,  as  00^-61  or  mur^t. 
The  binomial  theorem  of  Newton  is  a  formula 
by  which  we  can  instantaneously  write  down 
any  power  or  root  of  a  binomiid  without  the 
labor  of  actual  multiplication  or  extraction, 

BINONDO,  a  native  town  near  Manila,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Pasig ;  or,  rather,  it  is 
now  a  suburb  of  the  walled  European  city, 
having  been  annexed  to  it  by  a  magnificent 
stone  bridge,  411  feet  in  length.  The  bridge 
of  Binondo  is  regarded  as  the  most  remarkable 
structure  ever  erected  by  Europeans  in  the  In- 
diim  archipelago. 

BINTULU,  tiie  name  of  a  river  and  territory 
in  the  sultanate  of  Brunai,  in  Borneo.  Mouth  of 
the  river,  hit  8°  18'  30"  N.,  long.  113**  8'  15" 
E.  It  is  one  of  the  21  large  streams  whose 
mouths  can  be  observed  in  running  down  the 
N.  W.  coast  of  Borneo,  from  Cape  Sampanman- 
Jio  to  Cape  Datu,  but  of  which  the  course  of 
not  one  is  yet  laid  down  in  any  published  map. 
Since  the  establishment  of  R^ah  Brooke  on  this 
coast,  in  Sarawak,  Bintulu,  along  with  several 
others  of  these  Bornean  N.  W.  water-courses, 
has  been  partially  explored.  Coal,  of  the  same 
quality  as  obtained  in  Labuan,  and  iu  Banjar- 
fimflgifij  has  been  seen  cropping  out  ia  many 


BIOBIO 


BIOGRAPHY 


271 


places  near  the  luinks  of  the  river.  Iron  and  an- 
timony ore  have  been  found  in  many  parts,  and 
supposed  to  be  folly  as  abundant  aa  in  Sarawak. 
The  present  exports  are  native  camphor,  bees- 
wax, wood-oil,  damar,  agila,  and  goliga,  or  the 
bezoar  stones,  taken  firom  the  stomachs  of  mon* 
keys,  which  products  are  brought  to  points  on 
the  river  banks  by  the  wild  Dayaks  of  the  inte- 
rior, and  exchanged  with  Malay  traders  for 
dotbs  and  ornaments.  No  Europeans  have  yet 
attempted  to  develop  the  mining  resources  of 
the  country.  The  Bintnlu  territory  has  no  de- 
terminable area,  bdng  simply  that  portion  of 
country  Immediately  bordering  on  the  river. 
The  bar  of  the  river  has  not  more  than  12  feet 
on  it  at  high  water,  but,  for  vessels  of  this 
draught,  it  is  navigable  about  46  miles.  The 
territory  is  thinly  peopled  by  a  few  Dyak 
tribes. 

BIOBIO,  or  BiOBNO,  the  largest  river  in 
Ghiti,  whicii  divides  Chili  proper  from  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  Araucanian  Indians.  It  springs 
in  the  Andes  from  the  volcano  Tucap^  and 
flows  into  the  Padfio.  The  Laxa  runs  into  it 
on  the  right,  the  Y ergara  on  the  left  It  is 
not  navigable  for  any  distance  on  account  of  its 
many  re^s,  rapids,  snags,  and  other  dangers. 
Its  total  course  is  about  200  miles. 

BIOERNSTAEHL,  Jaxob  Jonas,  a  Swedish 
travellei^  bom  at  Botarbo,  in  the  former  prov* 
inoe  of  Dodermannland,  in  1781,  died  at  Siedon- 
ioa  in  17T9.  He  wbb  a  graduate  of  Upsal,  and 
a  tator  in  the  family  of  a  Swedish  nobleman, 
with  whose  children  he  made  the  tour  of  Eu- 
rope. Having  studied  the  oriental  languages  at 
FmOf  and  published  a  work  on  the  Hebrew 
decalogue,  illustrated  according  to  the  Arabic 
diadect,  he  was  made  professor  at  the  univer- 
nty  of  Lund,  and  sent  by  Gustavus  HI.  on  a 
scientific  Journey  to  the  East,  in  the  course  of 
whioh  he  died  of  the  plague  at  Salonica.  An 
acconnt  of  his  travels  appeared  at  Stock- 
holm, in  1778,  in  8  volumes,  containing,  among 
other  things,  anecdotes  relating  to  Voltaire, 
whom  be  haa  visited  at  Femay. 

BIOGRAPHY  (Gr.  /^w,  life,  and  7pa<^a»,  to 
describeX  an  account  of  the  life  and  character 
of  an  individuaL  It  differs  from  history,  prop- 
eriy  so  called,  in  considering  public  and  na- 
tional events,  if  at  aD,  only  in  their  relations  to 
a  single  personage.  It  assumes  various  forms, 
being  sometimes  most  interested  in  the  drcum- 
stanoes  and  external  career,  the  cwrtGulum  «ito, 
of  its  subject;  sometimes  regarding  chiefly  in- 
tellectnal  and  moral  qualities  and  development; 
som^imes  being  hai^y  more  than  a  catalogue 
of  a  man*s  podtions  and  changes  of  position; 
and  Bometimee,  like  the  autobiography  of 
Goethe,  fit  to  be  entitied  truth  and  poetry; 
sometimes  being  formally  narrative  throudliout, 
but  often  presenting  the  hero  also  by  his  letters 
and  notes  of  his  conversation.  A  biography 
may  be  a  panegyric  or  a  diatribe,  or  the  life  of 
a  man  may  be  used  as  only  a  frame  on  which 
to  attach  moral  reflections.  Its  true  aim,  how- 
ever, is  to  reveal  the  personal  siguifioance  of 


those  men  who  have  played  a  distinguished  part 
in  the  world,  either  by  action  or  by  thought 
History  has  reference  to  the  development  of 
principles,  biography  to  that  of  character.  To 
observe  the  growth  of  a  nation,  or  of  any  insti- 
tution from  the  idea  on  which  it  was  grounded, 
through  its  vicissitudes  and  conflicts,  is  the  part 
of  history.  To  trace  a  human  life,  to  remark 
the  manifold  efforts,  defeats,  triumphs,  perplexi- 
ties, attainments,  sorrows,  and  joys  which  fill 
the  space  between  the  cradle  and  the  grave,  is 
tiie  province  of  biography.  In  history,  Soiplo 
at  the  head  of  the  Roman  legions  subdued 
Africa,  and  Agesilaus  struggled  against  the  mis- 
fortunes of  hi9  country ;  in  biography,  the 
former  is  seen  not  only  gaining  victories,  but 
also  gathering  cockle-sheUs  on  the  shore,  and 
the  latter  not  only  fighting  after  defeat,  but  also 
riding  on  a  hobby-horse  among  his  children* 
Plutarch  says  it  does  not  follow  because  an  action 
is  great,  that  it  therefore  manifests  the  great- 
ness and  virtue  of  him  who  did  it;  but  on  the 
contrary,  sometimes  a  word  or  a  casual  jest  be- 
trays a  man  more  to  our  knowledge  of  him  than 
a  battie  fought  wherein  10,000  men  were  slain, 
or  sacking  of  cities,  or  a  course  of  victories. 
Xenophon  remarks  that  the  sayings  of  great 
men  in  their  familiar  discourses,  and  amid 
their  wine,  have  somewhat  in  them  which  is 
worthy  to  be  transmitted  to  posterity.  As  a 
branch  of  literature^  biographv  seems  to  be 
nearly  coeval  with  history  itself.  Some  of  the 
narratives  of  the  Old  Testament,  those  of  Ruth 
and  Joseph  for  instance,  are  biographies.  The 
Odyssey  of  Homer  is  a  biography  of  Ulysses, 
as  the  Hiad  is  a  history  of  the  Trojan  war. 
Biographies  were  infrequent  under  the  Greek 
and  Roman  dvilization,  when  the  individual 
was  absorbed  in  the  state.  When  Oincinnatus 
or  Ooriolanus  is  mentioned,  we  recall  rather  an 
act  than  a  person.  The  elder  Oato  wrote  a 
history  of  the  Roman  republic,  in  which  there 
was  not  found  a  single  proper  name.  He  said 
simply :  ^^  The  consS  proposed  such  a  law,  the 
general  gained  such  a  battle.*'  The  chief  of  the 
ancient  biographies  are  the  lives  of  the  Osssars, 
by  Suetonius ;  of  the  philosophers,  by  Diogenes 
Laertius ;  of  the  sophists  and  also  of  Apollonius 
of  Tyana,  by  Philostratus ;  of  the  philosophers 
and  sophists,  by  Eunapius ;  of  great  command- 
ers, by  Cornelius  Kepos ;  of  those  illustrious  for 
their  learning,  by  Hesychius  of  Miletus ;  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  by  Qulntus  Ourtius ;  of  the  em- 
perors and  Ulustrious  Romans,  by  Aurelius  Vic- 
tor, also  attributed  to  Pliny  the  Younger;  and, 
above  all  others,  the  parallel  lives  of  the  great- 
est Greeks  and  Romans  by  Plutarch,  and  the 
life  of  Agricola  by  Tacitus.  The  CyropcBdia  of 
Xenophon  is  rather  a  political  romance  than  a 
bic^aphy  of  Gyrus  the  Great,  and  the  memoirs 
of  bocrates  by  the  same  author  were  designed 
only  as  a  defence  of  Socrates  by  presenting 
some  of  1^  teachings.  Philosophers  and  mili- 
tary statesmen  fill  the  list  of  the  sulpects  of 
ancient  biography,  and  their  lives,  with  rarely 
an  exception,  do  not  exceed  the  ordinary  length 


272 


BIOGRAPHY 


of  a  review  article  at  the  present  time. — ^The 
middle  ages  seldom  made  warriors  or  statesmen 
the  subjects  of  biography,  botwere  rich  in  bio- 
ff  raphical  accounts  of  saints  and  religions  heroes. 
Martyrologies  bearing  the  name  of  acta  sane- 
Uyrum^  acta  martyrum^  and  paasiones  martyrumy 
became  common,  each  church  and  monastery 
preserving  an  account  of  its  own  martyrs,  all 
of  which  were  subsequently  gathered  into  vast 
collections.  Dionysius  of  Alexandria  wrote  a 
history  of  the  martyrs  in  that  city ;  Cyprian,  in 
his  letters,  gave  an  affecting  account  of  the  mar- 
tyrs and  confessors  in  the  neighborhood  of  Car- 
thage ;  Eusebius  wrote  a  book  on  the  martyrs  of 
Palestine ;  Simeon  Metaphrastes  wrote  lives  of 
the  saints,  122  of  which  yet  remdn ;  Prudentius 
wrote  on  the  crowns  and  passions  of  martyrs ; 
John  Moschus  wrote  lives  of  the  monks  to  the 
time  of  Heraclius,  and  several  works  of  Gregory 
of  Tours  are  biographies  of  men  distinguished 
in  the  church.  The  earliest  collections  of  these 
martyrologies  were  circulated  under  the  names 
of  Jerome  and  Bede.  In  the  18th  century,  a 
collection  was  made  by  Jacob  &  Yoragine,  and 
in  the  14th,  by  Peter  &  Natalibus ;  but  the  most 
complete  and  elaborate  works  on  this  subject 
bear  date  since  the  revival  of  letters.  All  other 
lives  of  the  saints  have  been  thrown  into  the 
shade  by  the  colossal  undertaking  of  the  learned 
Jesuits  of  Antwerp,  under  Dr.  Bolland,  assisted 
by  the  combined  mdustry  of  the  order,  and  by 
communications  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  The 
work  was  begun  in  1648,  embraces  acta  wn^ 
torum^  guotquot  toto  arte  coluntur,  and  extends 
to  57  volumes^  but  is  not  yet  completed.  Indi- 
vidual religious  orders,  in  recording  the  lives  of 
their  own  saints,  have  rivalled  the  erudition  and 
industry  of  the  Bollandists.  Thus  Mabillon  is  the 
biographer  of  the  Benedictine  order,  Henriquez 
of  the  Cistercians,  Monstier  of  the  Franciscans, 
Siccum  of  the  Dominicans,  Van  der  Sterre  of  the 
Premonstranensians,  and  Alegre  of  the  Carmel- 
ites, whose  work  is  entitled  Paraditui  OarmelC' 
tici  DecorU,  Other  biographical  works  on  this 
subject  are  the  lives  of  tiie  saints  by  BaiUet,  Al- 
ban  Butler,  and  Ulicb.  lives  of  the  others  of  the 
desert  by  Arnaud  d^AndiUy,  the  Anglia  Sacra 
of  Wharton,  John  Fox's  "JBook  of  Martyrs," 
and  the  Flos  Sanctorum^  hutoria  general  de  la 
vida  y  7iccha$  de  Jeeu  Christo  y  de  todos  la$ 
Santoi  de  que  reza  la  iglena  CatoUca^  by  Tdle- 
gas^  published  at  Toledo,  in  1591.— Since  the 
revival  of  letters  there  have  been  few  eminent 
persons  whose  biography  has  not  been  written, 
and  hardly  an  eminent  author  who  has  not 
written  biographies.  An  immense  mass  of  lit* 
erature,  valuable  sometimes  chiefly  for  the  ma- 
terials fhrnished,  at  others  more  for  the  art  and 
quality  of  the  writer,  is  embraced  under  the 
rrendx  titles  Viet,  Nbtieet^  Biographies  Me- 
moirci,  Hloges,  the  German  Lcbeny  Lebeiibeschrei- 
Imngcny  Nekrologc^  Ehrensaulen^  and  the  Eng- 
lish "  Lives,"  "  Memoirs,"  "  Biographies,"  "  Bio- 
graphical Notices,"  and  ^^Biographical  Diction- 
aries." Among  the  chief  writers  of  individual 
in  distinction  irom  collective  biographies  are 


Fishier.  Fontenelle,  Marzeanz,  L.  Bacine,  Ba- 
rigny,  De  Sade,  Volteire,  Boissy  d'Anglas, 
y illemain ;  Jerusalem,  SchrOckh,  moolai,  Her- 
der, Bturtz,  Hirzel,  Klein,  Crarve,  Meissner, 
Niemeyer,  Heeren,  Dippold,  Luden,  Varnhagen 
von  Ense,  Tiedge,  Bi^old,  Pertz,  Perthes; 
Warburton,  Middleton,  Boswell,  Murj^hy,  Rob- 
ertson, Monk,  Boscoe,  Th.  Moore,  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  Southey,  Lockhart,  Talfourd,  Carlyle, 
Lewes;  Marshall,  Sparks,  Irving,  Tuckerman, 
and  many  others.  Of  special  value  and  inter- 
est are  Fl^hier^s  life  of  Theodosius  the  Great ; 
Fontenelle's  lives  of  the  Academicians;  Bori- 
gny's  lives  of  Grotius,  Erasmus,  Bossnet,  and 
Duperron;  the  life  of  Petrarch  by  De  Sade,  a 
descendant  of  his  Laura ;  the  life  of  his  father,  die 
tragic  poet,  by  L.  Baoine ;  of  Descartes,  by 
BaOlet;  of  Voltaire,  by  Condorcet;  of  F6n41on 
and  Bossuetby  Bausset;  of  La  Fontaine  and 
Madame  de  S6vign6,  by  Walckenaer ;  of  Molidre 
andComeille,  by  Taschereau;  of  Eleist,  Mdeer, 
Engel,  and  Teller,  by  Nicolai ;  of  Ruhnken,  by 
Wittenbach,  and  of  Wittonbach,  by  Mahne ;  of 
Heyne,  by  Heeren;  of  the  preacher  Reinhard, 
by  Poelitz;  of  Charlotte  Dorothea^uchess  of 
Courland,  by  Tiedge;  of  Seydlitz,  Winterfeldt; 
Schwerin,  Keith,  Bulow,  and  Sophie  Charlotte, 

2ueen  of  Prussia,  by  Yamhagen  von  Ense;  or 
licero,  by  Middleton;  the  remarkable  life  of 
Dr.  Johnson,  by  Boswell,  written  with  the  mi- 
nuteness and  fidelity  of  a  mediieval  chronicler, 
and  rendering  the  subject  of  it  better  known  to 
posterity  than  any  other  man  in  history;  the  life 
of  Lorenzo  de'  Medici  and  of  Leo  X.,  by  Ros- 
coe;  of  Nelson  and  Wesley,  by  Southey;  of 
SchUler.  by  Carlyle ;  the  excellent  biogn4>hy 
of  Franklin,  by  Sparks;  of  Christopher  Colum- 
bus, by  Washington  Irving ;  andof  WaahingtoQ, 
by  Marahall,  Sparks,  and  Irving. — Biographies 
embrace  often  both  the  life  and  times  of  the 
subject,  linking  personal  with  political,  ecde^ 
astical,  or  literary  history.  Such  a  method  is 
necessary  in  the  lives  of  kinga^  and,  to  a  large 
extent,  of  stetesmen.  Other  examples  of  suoh 
attempts  are  Jortin's  life  of  Erasmus,  Grodwin'a 
life  of  Chancer,  McCrie's  life  of  Knox,  and 
YiUemain's  work,  entitled  ^^Lascaris,  or  the 
Greeks  of  the  15th  Century."  Voltaire's  history 
of  the  ages  of  Louis  XIY.  and  Louis  XV.  con- 
tains biographical  notices  not  only  of  the  cour- 
tiers and  politicians  of  those  periods,  but  alao 
of  the  writers,  painters,  musicians,  and  sculp- 
tors. Biography  enters  largely  into  the  fnller 
histories  of  philosophy  and  literature.  Thus  in 
HegePs  history  of  philosophy,  his  own  syBtem. 
furnishes  the  framework  into  which  he  sets  in 
order  all  the  philosophical  thinkers  of  the 
world,  and  Yillemain's  history  of  the  mediieval 
and  later  literature,  is  at  the  same  time  a  biogra- 
phy and  characterization  of  writers. — Perh^is 
the  most  interesting  of  modem  biographies  are 
the  lives  of  literary  men,  presenting  as  they  do 
the  strongest  peculiarities,  highest  qualities,  and 
greatest  sensitiveness  of  cnaracter.  Admirable 
specimens  of  this  kind  are  the  lives  of  Sheridan 
and  Byron  by  Moore,  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  bjr 


BIOGEAPHY 


273 


Loekhait»  of  Charles  Lamb  by  Talftimd,  of  Sir 
James  Mackintosh  by  his  son,  and  of  fVancis 
Homer  by  his  brother.  The  memoirs  of  Sydney 
Smith  by  his  daughter  are  entertaining,  and  the 
genins  and  sofEerings  of  Charlotte  Brontd  and 
her  sisters  make  their  story,  as  related  by  Mrs. 
GaskeU,  of  terrible  interest.  The  life  of  Dr. 
Chanmng  by  his  nephew,  Wm.  H.  Chan^un^:  and 
of  Margaret  Fuller,  by  B.  W.  Emerson,  W.  H. 
Chanmng^  and  J.  F.  Clarke,  are  valuable  oontri- 
bvdtbns  to  American  bic^phy. — CoUective  hi- 
ogn^bies  embrace  the  lives  of  the  eminent  per- 
sons of  a  particular  period,  as  the  present  time, 
the  middle  ages,  or  antiquity,  or  of  a  particular 
ooontry ;  or  of  a  particular  aepartment,  as  l^e 
soienoes.  the  arts,  religion,  politics,  war,  litera- 
tore.  France  has  produoM  the  largest  number 
of  these  works,  especially  durii^  and  subse- 
quent to  the  era  of  the  revolution.  History, 
surcharged  with  facts,  is  obliged  to  sum  them 
up,  as  it  were,  in  a  table  of  contents,  and  one 
way  of  doing  this  is  to  represent  ideas  and 
events  mider  the  formulas  of  the  names  of  men. 
In  a  disorganized  age  oydopsdic  systems  were 
needed  as  a  sort  of  artifice  to  bring  into  juxta- 
position the  elements  of  history  which  could 
not  be  compounded  in  any  other  way.  Among 
these  ooUeotlons  are  the  lives  of  famous  men  by 
Petrai>Dh,  Boissard,  Perroult,  and  D'Auvigny; 
of  the  popes  from  Peter  to  Nicholas  I.,  by  An- 
astashifl,  somamed  the  '*  Librarian,"  who  lived 
in  the  9th  century,  whose  work  was  revised  and 
brought  down  by  Platina  to  1471,  and  by  Pas- 
sevinios  to  1566;  Bowyer's  history  of  the 
popes,  1748-^54;  Walch's  compendious  history 
of  the  popes  from  the  foundation  of  the  see  of 
Bome  to  the  time  of  the  author,  Leipsic,  1760; 
Bankers  history  of  the  popes  in  the  16th  and  17th 
oentnries ;  'a  general  history  of  ecclesiastical  and 
sacred  authors,  by  Cellier,  in  25  volumes^  and 
by  miles  dn  Pin,  in  61  volumes;  of  "  Protestant 
lYanoo,"  published  by  Haag;  of  the  fathers  of  the 
church,  preachers,  and  heretics,  b^  Pinchinat 
and  Plaquet ;  of  the  old  French  mmeralogists, 
by  Gobet;  of  great  captains,  by  Brant6me  and 
Chasteaonenf ;  of  celebrated  saUors,  by  Bicber ; 
of  odebrated  children,  by  Baillet  and  Fr6ville; 
of  ilhistrious  royal  fiivorites,  by  Dupuy ;  of  cele- 
toited  women,  by  Boccaccio,  Bi visius,  Lemovne, 
Mile.  De  K6ralio^  and  Madame  Fortune  Bri- 
qnet;  of  female  philosophers,  by  Manage;  of 
women  of  gallantry,  by  Brant6me;  parallel 
lives  of  8<»ne  illustrious  women,  by  Holberg; 
the  women  of  the  French  revolution,  by  Miche- 
let ;  of  celebrated  fenude  sovereigns,  and  of  the 
beaades  of  the  court  of  Charles  H.,  by  Mrs. 
Jameson;  of  the  queens  of  England  and  Scotland, 
by  Miss  Strickland ;  the  female  biographical  dic- 
tiooaiy,  by  Mrs.  Sarah  J.  Hale ;  lives  of  the  phi* 
losopheia»  by  the  venerable  doctor  Walter  Bur- 
ley,  by  r^^lon,  Sav^rien,  and  Maigeon;  of 
Greek  poets,  by  Lef&vre ;  of  Greek  and  Latin 
poeta,  by  Yoas,  Fabridus.  and  Lanteires;  the 
dictionary  of  Greek  and  Boman  biography 
and  mythology,  by  'N^liam  Smith;  the  lives 
of  Qsefnl  men,  by  the  society  Monthyon ;  of  the 
VOL.  m. — 18 


Provencal  poets,  by  Jehan  de  Nostre  Dame ;  of 
the  troubadours,  by  Fauchet,  La  Curue  de 
Sainte  Palaye,  and  liillot;  of  romancers  and 
dramatic  authors,  by  Parfait,  £>e  la  Vallidre, 
and  Laborde ;  of  musicians,  by  Laborde,  Cho- 
ron,  Fayolle,  Gerber,  and  Moore ;  of  artists,  by 
Fontenay  and  Faessli;  of  painters,  by  Yasap, 
Bellori,  Crlandi,  Pilkington,  Honbraken,  F^- 
bien,  Deschamps,  De  Piles,  D'Argenville,  La 
Ferte,  Quillet,  Zea  Bermudez,  Palomino,  and 
Yelasoo;  of  eminent  British  painters,  sculp- 
tors, and  architects,  by  Allan  Cunningham; 
of  American  painters,  of  the  sculptor  Green- 
ongh,  and  numerous  biographical  essays,  by 
Henry  T.  Tuokerman;  of  engravers,  by  Gori, 
Basan,  and  Walpole;  of  architects,  by  Mil- 
izzia,  Pingoron,  and  D'ArgenviUe ;  the  dic- 
tionary of  painters,  engravers,  sculptors,  and 
architects,  by  Spooner;  of  men  illustrious  in 
the  republic  of  letters,  by  Nioeron,  in  42  vol- 
umes, Paris,  l729-'45 ;  of  French  poets,  by  Gk)tt- 
jet,  Sautreau  de  Manri,  Auguia,  and  Crapelet; 
of  'beamed  Germany,''  by  Meusel,  contmued 
by  Ersch  and  Lindner,  in  28  volumes,  Lemgo, 
1796-1884 ;  a  lexicon  of  Gemuln  authors  who 
died  between  1750  and  1800,  by  Meusel,  in  15 
volumes,  Leipsic,  1802-16 ;  lives  of  German  po- 
etesses, by  Yoss ;  of  German  female  writers,  by 
Sohindel;  of  distingniahed  Germans,  by  Yoigt, 
Weimar,  1824 ;  lives  of  the  remarkable  men  of 
the  last  8  centuries,  in  8  volumes,  printed  at 
Halle,  1802-^9 ;  the  German  temple  of  honor, 
by  Hennings,  in  9  volumes,  Gk>tha,  1809-'27; 
the  theatre  of  men  illustrious  for  learning,  by 
Paul  Freher,  Nuremberg,  1688 :  the  history  of 
the  world  in  biographies^  by  B6ttiger,  Berlin, 
begun  in  1889;  Schlichtegroll's  obituary  of 
the  Germans,  Weimar,  1808-'22,  in  20  vol- 
umes, subsequently  continued  to  the  present 
time ;  the  dictionary  of  mathematicians,  astron- 
omera,  natural  philosophers,  chemists,  miner- 
alogists,  and  geologists  of  all  peoples  and 
times,  designed  to  serve  as  a  history  of  the 
exact  sciences,  by  Poggendorfl^  Leipsic,  1858, 
of  which  only  the  first  volume  has  yet  ap- 
peared; of  Hebrew  and  Arabic  authors,  by 
Bosd;  of  the  Turkish  poets,  by  Hassan  Tchele- 
by ;  of  Mexican  biography,  by  Eguia;  of  Bra- 
zilian biography,  by  Pareira  da  Sylva;  of  the 
Scalds,  or  ancient  poets  of  Scandinavia,  by 
Graberg  de  Hemso ;  of  the  writers  of  the  Baltic 
provinces,  Courland,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia,  bv 
Becke  and Napiersky ;  of  ^^illustrious Europe," 
by  Dn  Badier;  the  Biografttk  leancon  ^ter 
namdkunnige  Soenikamdny  Upsid,  1885;  Era- 
lew's  Almii^delight  forfatt&rUxioon  for  Dan- 
mctrh,  Copenhagen,  1845*'48;  of  illustrious 
Italiims,  by  Tipaldo,  Yenice,  1843-^45,  also  by 
MazzucheUi  and  Fabroni;  of  celebrated  Span- 
iards, by  Antonio,  De  Castro,  Ximenes,  and 
Quintana;  of  the  distinguished  Portuguese,  by 
Machado ;  and  Dutch  and  Belgians,  by  Foppens, 
Pacquo,  and  Burmann;  the  library  of  Ameri- 
can biography,  conducted  by  Jared  Sparks; 
the  medical  biography  by  60  physicians,  Paris, 
1820;   dictionary  of  writere  on  medicine,  by 


274 


BIOGRAPHY 


Calliflen,  in  82  Tolames,  Oopenhagen,  182d-'44; 
Dion's  biographies  of  physidans;  Thaeher's 
American  medical  biography ;  lives  of  learned 
men,  by  Melchior  Adam,  1705;  liyes  and 
characters  of  the  English  dramatic  poets,  by 
Gerard  Langbaine,  London,  1698 ;  Biographia 
Dramatieay  by  D.  £.  Baker,  1764;  Comment 
taHi  de  ScTwtcribuB  Britammcis^  by  John 
Leland;  De  AeademiU  et  Uhutrilms  AngUm 
Scriptorilms.  by  John  Pits;  £>e  Sertptori- 
bus  EtbermcBy  by  Sir  James  "Ware;  Ward's 
lives  of  the  professors  of  Gresham  college; 
Wood's  Athena  Oxanieneei,  or  aoconnt  of  the 
writers  educated  at  Oxford;  the  worthies  of 
England,  by  Thomas  Faller;  Walton's  lives  of 
Donne.  Herbert^  and  Hooker;  the  lives  of  the 
Englisn  poets,  by  Dr.  Johnson;  of  the  states- 
men, men  of  letters  and  science  of  the  reign  of 
George  HI.,  by  Lord  Brougham ;  Lord  Camp- 
bell's lives  of  the  chief  Justices  of  England ;  the 
Biographia  Britcmnuyi^  London,  l747-'66  (2d 
enlarged  edition,  carried  only  to  the  5th  volume, 
l778-'98);  a  biographical  dictionary  of  emi- 
nent Scotsmen,  by  Bobert  Chambers,  in  4  vol- 
umes, increased*  to  6  volumes  in  the  last  edition, 
1856 ;  GilfiUan's  Scottish  martyrs,  heroes^  and 
bards ;  Sprague's  annals  of  the  American  pulpit ; 
Wordsworth's  ecclesiastical  biography ;  Loqs^'s 
portraits  of  illustrious  personages  of  Great 
Britain ;  and  memoirs  of  eminent  persons  of  the 
Georgian  era. — ^The  restoration  in  France  was 
the  signal  for  an  avalanche  of  collective  biogra- 
phies, most  of  which  were  written  with  vigor  and 
rancor,  for  political  or  personal  ends.  The  first 
of  these  was  entiUed  a  biographical  dictionary  of 
the  weathercocks,  the  author  of  which  is  still 
unknown,  which  was  quickly  foUowed  by  lives 
of  the  ministers,  deputies  peers,  generals,  pre- 
fects, coDDtmissaries  of  pouce,  clergy,  academi- 
cians, Journalists,  and  men  of  letters.  The 
most  caustic  and  impertinent  of  these  was  the 
Biographie  dee  damee  de  la  cour  et  du  Ibubaurg 
Saint  Germain,  Recently,  under  the  name  of 
galleries,  there  have  been  various  collections  of 
the  biographies  of  statesmen,  women,  literary 
men,  and  artists,  fbmished  witn  engravings,  por- 
traits, and  fac-^miles ;  an  example  of  this  is  Les- 
ter's gallery  of  illustrious  Americans.  The  earli- 
est dictionary  of  American  biography  was  that 
ofBelknap,  in  2  volumes,  1794-'98.  Eliot's  New 
England  biographical  dictionary  followed  in 
1809,  and  the  latest  and  fullest  work,  devoted 
only  to  American  biography,  is  that  of  Allen, 
the  last  edition  of  which  appeared  in  1857.  The 
first  example  of  a  dictionary  of  universal  biog- 
raphy, designed  to  embrace  aU  men  eminent  m 
whatever  department,  time,  or  place,  was  that 
of  Eonrad  G^sner,  which  was  published  in 
Zurich  in  1545,  and  has  been  followed  by  the 
similar  German  works  of  S.  Baur,  Grohmann, 
Fuhrmann,  Hirsching,  Leidenfrost,  and  by  that 
of  Jdcher,  continued  by  Adelung  and  others, 
in  11  volumes.  The  best  German  universal 
biographies  are  contained  in  their  cydopasdias, 
as  that  of  Ersch  and  Gruber,  and  the  Corwerea- 
^ione-lexieon  of  Brockhaus.     The  first  French 


universal  biographical  dictionary  was  that  of 
Boissini^re,  the  8th  edition  of  which  appeared 
in  1645.  It  was  followed  by  the  famous  dic- 
tionary of  Moreri,  in  1673,  at  first  in  1  volume, 
but  successively  enlarged  by  Jean  le  Clero,  Du 
Pin,  Drouet,  and  Goujet,  till  at  its  19th  and  last 
edition  in  1759,  it  extended  to  10  folio  volumes; 
by  the  critical  dictionary  of  Bayle,  which  ap- 
peared in  1697,  had  6  editions  in  folio,  and  a 
revised  edition  by  Benchot,  in  16  volumes,  in 
1820;  by  the  dictionary  of  Chaufepi^  in  1750, 
designed  as  a  supplement  to  that  of  Bayle;  by 
that  of  Marchand,  in  1768,  and  that  of  Ladvo- 
cat,  of  which  there  have  been  numerous  edi- 
tions and  imitations;  by  that  of  the  abb6  Bar- 
rel, in  1758,  in  6  volumes;  that  of  Chaudon, 
which,  being  continued  by  Delandine,  reached 
at  its  9th  edition,  1810-'12,  to  20  volumes; 
that  of  the  abb6  Feller,  who  called  himself  an 
ahti-Chaudonist,  and  whose  work  has  had  seve- 
ral editions.  The  most  voluminous  of  universal 
biographies,  and  one  of  the  most  important 
publications  of  the  present  century,  is  tiie 
Biographie  unieereeUe^  by  the  brotiiers  Mi- 
chaud.  It  was  begun  in  1811,  and  had  extend- 
ed to  62  volumes,  when  it  was  concluded  in 
1828.  Three  additional  volumes  were  then  de- 
voted to  a  mythological  dictionary,  prepared  by 
Parisot.  A  supplement  was  added  to  it,  1884— 
'40,  which  made  the  whole  work  extend  to  84 
volumes.  A  new  edition  was  undertaken  in 
1848,  which  Ib  still  in  process.  The  most  of 
the  learned  and  literary  men  in  France,  frooi 
the  beginning  of  the  century,  have  contributed 
to  tiie  Biographie  unweraeUe.  Among  them 
are  Chateaubriand,  De  Saoy,  Auger,  Benja- 
min Constant^  Walckenaer,  Beuchot,  Sismondi, 
Malte-Brun,  Guizot,  YiUemain,  Cousin,  De 
Barante,  and  Biot  The  articles  are  written 
with  vigor,  sometimes  with  pasMon,  and  though 
there  are  considerable  diversities  of  philosophi- 
cal and  political  opinion  in  the  different  contri- 
butions, tiie  general  character  of  the  work  is 
highly  conservative.  Barbier,  the  learned 
author  of  the  Dictionnaire  dee  Animymes^ 
publi^ed  in  1820  a  critical  examination  of  his- 
torical dictionaries,  which  is  a  useful  accompani- 
ment to  the  Biographie  univereeUe,  The  Bio- 
grafla  unio&rsale  antiea  e  modema^  published 
at  Venice,  is  an  Italian  version  of  the  diction- 
ary of  Michaud,  with  valuable  additions  con- 
cerning the  celebrated  men  of  Italy.  After 
the  fall  of  the  empire,  political  discussions  were 
carried  on  through  the -medium  of  biographical 
dictionaries.  Thus  the  royalist  party  published 
the  Biggraphie  dee  wsant^  in  5  volumes,  1816- 
•1 9,  which  was  answered  by  theliberal  party  from 
Belgium  by  the  Oalerie  hietorique  dot  eontempo- 
raine^  in  8  volumes,  and  at  Paris  by  the  Biogra- 
phie  dee  eontemporainey  in  20  volumes,  in  pre- 
paring which  Jay,  Jouy,  Arnault,  and  Norvins 
took  part.  The  latest  of  the  French  universal 
biographies  is  the  NouvelU  biographie  ginirale^ 
by  Hoefer  (published  by  Didot  freree),  not 
yet  completed,  and  which  is  distinguished  both 
for  learning  and  impartiality.     The  English 


BIOLOGY 

workft  of  this  kind  are  the  biograpbioal  diotlon- 
ary  of  OhalmerEL  in  82  Tolmnes ;  the  general 
biography  of  AiJdn,  in  10  volmnes;  the  biogra- 
pMoal  dictionary  of  the  society  for  the  diffdsion 
of  nsefbl  knowledge ;  the  universal  biographical 
dictionary  of  Watkina,  London,  1826 ;  Rose's 
hiograpbical  dictionary,  in  12  volnmes,  London, 
18^,  and  the  department  of  biography  in 
Knight's  English  cydopadia,  6  yolumes.  An 
imperial  dictionary  of  nniversal  biography  is 
now  in  process  of  pablioation  in  Glasgow,  edited 
by  P.  K  Dove,  having  in  its  list  of  associate 
editors  the  names  of  Prof.  Nichol  of  Glasgow, 
and  Pro£  Frands  Bowen,  of  Harvard  university. 
The  principal  American  work  of  the  kind  is 
Blake's  biographical  dictionary,  in  1  large  octavo 
volume,  the  18th  and  enlarged  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  1856.  There  is  also  a  convenient 
hand-book  of  universal  biography  by  Parke 
Godwin,  and  a  cydopaddia  of  biography,  repub- 
lished in  this  country  by  Appleton  an4co»,  under 
the  editorial  supervision  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hawks. 
Some  of  the  latest  universal  biographies  contain 
accounts  of  living  men.  but  there  are  also  Ger- 
man works  entitled  Zettgen<mm.  or  Oontempo- 
raries,  French  biographies  of  the  living,  and 
English  and  American  **Hen  of  the  Times," 
devoted  only  to  contemporaries.  There  is  a 
GtUeria  de  EapanoUi  eeUlfrea  eanUmporaneogy 
edited  by  Oinknas  and  Diaz.  Becords  of  the 
distinguished  dead  of  every  year  are  also  pre- 
served in  appropriate  periodicals,  as  Longman's 
annual  biography  and  obituary,  the  American 
almanac,  tine  Nehrohg  der  DeuUchen^  pub- 
lished at  Weimar,  and  the  MdreUmk  Nehrolog^ 
published  at  OopNBuhagen. 

BIOLOGY  (Gr.  /Scor,  life,  and  Xoyof,  doctrine), 
a  term  introduced  by  Treviranus  of  Bremen 
(1802)  and  used  by  Oarus,  Oken,  ScheQing,  and 
other  German  philosophenL  to  denote  the  ulti- 
mate conditions  of  human  life.  It  is  now  em- 
ployed by  some  writers  as  synonymous  with 
physiology. 

BION.  L  Of  Abdera.  a  distingdahed  mathe- 
matician, and  pupil  of  Democritus,  lived  in  the 
4th  or  3d  centn^  B.  0.  He  was  the  first  who 
asserted  that  there  were  certain  regions  of  the 
earth  where  the  whole  year  consisted  of  but 
one  day  and  one  nighty  each  6  months  long. 
II.  Of  Borysthenes,  a  Scythian  philosopher, 
who  lived  in  the  middle  of  the  8d  century 
B.  0.  His  fether  was  a  freedman,  and  his 
mother  a  Laoed»monian  harlot.  Because  of 
some  crime  committed  by  the  former,  the 
whole  fionily  were  sold  for  slaves,  and  Bion  in 
consequence  became  the  propertv  of  a  rhetori- 
cian, who  educated  him  and  ultimatdy  made 
him  his  heir.  Alter  the  death  of  his  patron, 
Bion  went  to  Athensi  and  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  philosophy.  Nor  did  he  confine 
himself  to  the  tenets  of  anv  particular  sect,  but 
embraced  them  all  round  in  turn.  He  was 
.  sacoessively  an  aeademidan,  a  cynic,  a  sceptic, 
a  stoic,  and  a  peripatetlo,  and  the  effect  of  tiieir 
jarring  creeds  on  his  moral  and  religions  prin- 
ciples was  just  what  might  have  been  antid- 


BIRBHOOH 


276 


pated.  For  though  a  man  of  oonnderable  in- 
tellectnal  acuteness,  he  was  a  notorious  atheist, 
and  utterly  depraved,  so  much  so  indeed,  that  he 
even  derided  Socrates  for  having  led  a  virtu- 
ous life.  Bion  was  remarkable  for  the  shrewd- 
ness and  sharpness  of  his  sayings.  We  shall  give 
a  few  examples :  "  The  miser,"  says  he,  "  does 
not  possess  wealth,  but  is  possessed  by  if* 
He  asserts  that  *'good  slaves  are  really  free, 
while  bad  freemen  are  really  slaves."  He  as- 
sures us  that  '4t  is  useless  to  tear  our  hair 
when  we  are  in  grief,  for  sorrow  is  not  cured 
by  baldness."  HI.  Of  Smyrna,  a  Greek  pas- 
toral poet,  who  fiourished  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  8d  century  B.  0.  On  attaining  manhood, 
Bion  emigrated  to  Sicily,  where  a  conspiracy  was 
formed  against  him,  and  he  was  basely  poison- 
ed. The  poems  of  Bion  were  chiefly  pastoral, 
occadonally  erotic.  The  firagments  of  them 
that  are  extant  fnlly  justify  the  eulogies  of  his 
admirer^  Moschus.  Tbeir  sentiments  are  tender 
and  delicate ;  their  style  is  copious,  graceful, 
and  polished. '  The  best  edition  of  the  remdns 
of  Bion's  poetry  is  that  of  I.  F.  Manso,  publish- 
ed at  Leipsic,  in  1807. 

BIOT,  Jeait  Baftistb,  a  French  savant,  bom 
in  Paris,  1774,  has  pursued  knowledge  with 
eagerness  and  success,  until  he  has  passed  his 
80th  year.  Astronomy,  acoustics,  optics,  mag^ 
netism,  dectro-magnetism,  and  thermotics  are 
indebted  to  his  skilful  e3q>eriments,  and  to  his 
laborious  and  accurate  calculations ;  and  other 
departments  of  learning  have  not  been  left  un- 
touched. His  highest  success  has  been  in  op- 
tics. He  was  a  companion  of  Arago  in  meas- 
uring the  arc  of  the  meridian ;  he  experimented 
on  the  pendulum  in  the  Scottish  isle  of  IJnst ;  he 
published  in  1802  a  book  on  curves  of  the  second 
degree ;  in  later  years,  a  volume  on  astronomy  and 
another  on  physics ;  and  has  contributed  largely 
to  various  sdentifio  journals,  and  to  the  annds 
of  the  learned  bodies  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

BIPONT  EDITIONS,  famous  editions  of  the 
Latin  classics,  published  in  Bavaria  in  the  Q\t7 
of  Deux  Pouts,  whose  name  in  German  is 
Zwei-brQcken,  and  in  Latin  Bipontium.  The 
publication  was  begun  in  1779,  but  after  the 
French  conquest  was  finished  in  Strasburg. 
The  collection  forms  60  volumes,  in  8vo. 

BIQUADBATIO,  m  algebra,  signifies  belong- 
ing to  the  4th  power,  that  is^  to  the  square  of 
the  square. 

BIB,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Eu- 
phrates; pop.  about  5,000.  It  is  a  central 
e)int  on  the  caravan  route  from  Aleppo  and 
amascus  to  Persia  and  central  Asia,  at  which 
the  Euphrates  is  crossed  in  large  boats. 

BIBBHOOM,  or  Besbbhoom,  a  district  in  the 
K.  W.  extremity  of  Bengd ;  pop.  1,040,870 ;  area. 
4,780  sq.  m. ;  between  28^  82'  and  24''  40'  N.,  and 
long.  86^  25'  and  88<'  80'  £.  The  district  ismoun- 
tainous,  wooded,  and  Ml  of  lungles.  Its  prin- 
cipal productions  are  sugar,  nee,  and  coal.  Iron 
ore  of  excellent  quality  is  found,  but  so  mixed 
that  it  does  not  as  yet  pay  to  work  iL  The 
prindpd  town  is  Boorie. 


276 


BIROH 


BIRD 


BIROH  (bsUda)  a  genus  of  m(m<Bcioii8  trees 
or  shrabs,  "whioh  Jiaye,  as  generic  features,  both 
sterile  and  fertile  flowers  in  soaly  catkins,  8  of 
each  nnder  each  bract,  with  no  involncre  to  the 
broadly  winged  nntlet  which  results  from  a  na- 
ked oyarj.  The  sterile  catkins  are  long  and 
drooping,  formed  in  sommer,  remaining  naked 
through  the  succeeding  winter,  and  expanding 
their  gdden  flowers  in  early  spring,  preceding 
the  leaves.  The  fertile  catkins  are  oblong  or 
oylindrical,  protected  by  scales  through  the 
winter,  and  dereloped  with  the  leaYes.  The 
outer  bark  is  usually  separable  in  thin  horizon- 
tal sheets,  the  twigs  ana  leaves  are  often  spicy 
and  aromatic,  and  the  foliage  mostly  thin  and 
light.  The  birch  and  the  alder  (ahitu)  were 
(dassifled  in  the  same  genus  by  linnous  in  his 
later  works,  but  are  now  generally  regarded  as 
distinct  by  DOtanists. — There  are  19  recognized 
species  of  birch,  for  the  most  part  lofty-growing 
and  ornamental  trees,  found  native  in  iuria,  Eu- 
rope and  America,  and  almost  all  preferring  the 
oold  regions  of  the  northern  latitudes.  The 
most  widely  extended  of  them  is  B.  aJha^  or 
common  white  birch,  a  native  of  Europe,  and 
found  in  America,  near  the  coast,  from  Penn- 
i^'lvania  to  Mame,  which  thrives  in  every  kind 
of  difficult  and  sterile  soil,  but  decays  where 
the  ground  is  rich.  It  is  found,  though  dwarfed 
in  size,  higher  on  the  Alps  than  any  other  tree, 
approaches  near  to  the  icy  regions  of  the  north, 
and  is  almost  the  only  tree  which.  Greenland 
produces.  It  has  a  chalk-white  bark,  and  trian- 
gular, very  taper-pointed,  shining  leaves,  trem- 
ulous as  those  of  an  aspen.  It  serves  many  pur- 
poses of  domestic  economy.  The  bark  is  em- 
ployed by  the  Gh*eenlanaer8,  Laplanders,  and 
inhabitants  of  E^untchatka  in  covering  their 
huts  and  in  making  baskets  and  ropes.  An  in- 
ftision  of  the  leaves  makes  a  yellow  dye,  and  is 
also  drunk  like  tea  by  the  Fins ;  and  the  Rus- 
sians and  Swedes  prepare  from  the  sap  of  the 
trunk  a  fermented  liquor  resembling  chiunpagne. 
— ^The  most  graceftQ  tree  of  the  genus  is  the  B. 
pendula,  growing  both  in  mountainous  situations 
and  bog^  from  Lapland  to  the  sub-Alpine  parts 
of  Italy  and  Asia.  Its  popular  name  is  the 
weeping  birch,  and  it  is  distinguished  for  its 
suppleness  and  the  graceM  bend  and  faJling  in- 
clination of  its  long  boughs.  Its  picturesque 
appearance,  with  its  white  and  brUUant  bark 
and  gleaming,  odoriferous  leaves,  makes  it  a  fisi- 
vorite  in  parks  and  gardens.— The  B,  lenta  or 
cherry  birch,  called  also  the  mountain  mahoga- 
ny, from  the  hardness  of  its  wood,  has  a  dan:, 
chestnut-brown  bark,  and  abounds  particularly 
from  New  England  to  Ohio,  and  on  the  sum- 
mits of  the  AJleghany  mountains.  Its  leaves 
and  wood  are  aromatic ;  the  latter  also  rose- 
colored,  fine-grained,  and  valuable  for  cabinet- 
work.— ^The  JB.papyraeea^  or  paper  birch,  is  that 
from  which  the  aborigines  of  America  made 
(the  canoes  with  which  they  navigated  lakes  and 
rivers,  and  hence  it  is  also  called  the  canoe 
birch.  It  is  a  native  of  Oanada  and  the  north- 
om  United  States,  and  is  ^perior  to  all  other 


q)eoies  for  its  touffh  bark,  in  pi^)er-j]ke  liters, 
which  is  so  durable  that  the  wood  of  the  mllen 
tree  will  rot  entirely  away,  while  the  case  of 
bark  will  be  left  sound  and  solid.— The  B,  ni^ra, 
the  river  or  red  birch,  is  an  alder-like  American 
species,  with  whitish  leaves  and  reddish-brown 
bark,  found  from  Massachusetts  to  the  southern 
states.  Barrel  hoops  are  made  from  its  branch- 
es, and  its  tough  twigs  are  the  beet  material  for 
coarse  brooms.  The  negroes  also  make  vessds 
from  it  to  contain  their  food  and  drink. — ^The  B. 
nana^  dwarf  or  Alpine  birch,  is  a  native  of  the 
Alps  and  of  the  mountains  of  Lapland.  The 
Laplanders  bum  it  on  summer  nights  to  drive 
off  a  kind  of  mosquito,  and  sleep  in  the  fragrant 
smoke.  It  has  been  introduced  into  this  coun- 
try, and  appears  as  a  small  shrub  on  the  sum- 
mits of  mountains  in  Maine  and  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  in  other  frigid  situations  northwaixL. 

BIBOH,  Thomas,  D.  D.  an  English  historical 
and  biographical  writer,  bom  in  London,  Not. 
28,  1708,  med  by  falling  from  his  horse,  Jan.  9, 
17y6.  By  his  own  exertions  he  qualified  him- 
self for  admission  into  the  church,  and  having 
been  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  an  introduc- 
tion to  Attorney-general  Hardwicke,  he  gained 
the  favor  of  that  afterward  distinguished  judge. 
He  became  secretary  of  the  royal  society.  He 
published  a  great  number  of  works.  ^^  Thur- 
low's  State  Papers'*  "lives  of  Archbishop  Til- 
lotson  and  Hon.  Bobert  Boyle,'*  an  edition  of 
Milton's  prose  works,  and  the  works  of  Baleigb, 
"A  General  Dictionary,  historical  and  crit- 
ical," and  "  A  series  of  Biographical  Memoirs,*' 
are  among  the  most  important  of  his  publica- 
tions.          

BIBOH-PFEIFFEB,  CHASiiOTTB,  a  German 
actress  and  dramatist,  bom  at  Stuttgart,  1800, 
whose  father's  name  was  Pfeiffer,  married  in 
1825,  Dr.  Birch,  of  Copenhagen.  She  early 
displayed  a  passion  for  the  stage,  and  for  about 
20  years  she  performed  in  the  various  theatres 
of  Germany,  made  excursions  to  Petersburg, 
Pesth,  Amsterdam,  and  other  cities;  in  1887,  xm- 
dertook  the  management  of  the  Zurich  theatre, 
which  she  retained  until  1848,  when  she  re- 
ceived an  appointment  at  the  royal  theatre  of 
Berlin.  She  is  also  a  dramatist  of  great  in- 
dustry, and  produces  as  many  as  2  plays  a 
year.  Her  last  pla^i  the  Jhrauiehein^  or  "  The 
Certificate  of  Marriage,"  appeared  in  the  ear- 
ly part  of  1858.  She  has  also  written  several 
novels. 

BIBD,  Edwabd.  an  English  painter,  bom  at 
Wolverhampton,  April  12,  1772,  died  at  Bris- 
tol, Nov.  2,  1819.  His  father,  a  house  carpen- 
ter, apprenticed  him  in  hb  14th  year,  at  Bir^ 
mingham,  to  the  business  of  painting  and 
japanning.  When  his  apprenticeship  was  end- 
ed, he  went  to  Bristol,  where  he  opened  a 
drawing  school.  In  his  intervals  of  Insure,  he 
made  several  designs  and  sketches,  2  of  which,  at 
the  Bath  exhibition,  in  1807,  were  much  admired, 
and  sold  for  80  gmneas  each.  These  were  fol- 
lowed by  a  piece  called  "  Good  Kews,"  an  ale- 
house scene,  which  made  his  name  more  widely 


BIRD 


BIRDLIME 


277 


known.  After  this  came  "The  Chorister  Re- 
hearwng,"  and  "The  Will."  Sooa  after,  he 
was  elected  member  of  the  rojal  academy.  In 
1811  he  commenced  his  best  and  most  poetical 
work,  Chevy  Chase,  after  the  battle,  and  Sir 
Walter  Bcott,  who  was  consulted  on  the  occa- 
sion,  gave  Mr.  Bird  some  yalaable  information 
on  the  armor,  costnme,  and  local  accessories. 
This  picture  was  purchased  by  the  marqnis  of 
Stailbrd  for  800  guinea&  Mr.  Bird  presented 
8oott  with  the  original  sketch.  Bird's  next  pic- 
ture, "The  Death  of  Eli,"  was  also  purchased 
by  the  marquis  of  Stafford  for  600  gumeas,  and 
the  British  mstitution  awarded  it  a  prize  of  800 
guineas.  "The Blacksmith's  Shop,"  "The Coun- 
try Auction,"  "The  Gypsy  Boy,"  and  a  few  other 
pictures,  kept  Bird's  name  befbre  the  public. 
He  tried  historical  and  sacred  subjecte.  but 
without  success.  "The  Embarkation  of  Louis 
XVin.  for  Paris,  in  18U,"  was  his  last  subject. 

BIRD,  GoLDiHo,  M.  D.,  an  Engli^  natoral- 
ist,  bom  in  Norfolk,  in  1815,  died  at  Tunbridge 
Wells,  in  Oct.  1854.  Educated  for  the  medical 
promsion,  he  obtained  the  prize  for  botany  given 
by  the  apothecaries'  company  of  England.  In 
1886.  when  he  was  only  22  years  old,  he  was 
appointed  lecturer  on  natural  philosophy  at 
Guy's  hospital,  and  afterward  included  medical 
botany  in  his  course.  After  long  practice  and 
marked  success  as  a  teacher,  he  abandoned  his 
medical  practice  to  follow  his  favorite  studies 
more  devotedly.  In  184S-'9,  symptoms  of  heart 
disease  became  evident,  and  he  soon  died. 

BIRD,  John,  an  English  astronomical  mech- 
anician, bom  in  the  year  1709,  died  March  81, 
1776.  He  was  originally  a  weaver  in  Dur- 
ham; but  having  become  acquainted  with  a 
watchmaker,  had  his  attention  directed  to  me- 
chanics, and  became  a  dial  plate  maker,  effect- 
ing the  divisions  with  great  correctness.  In 
1740  he  went  to  London,  and  was  employed  by 
%Bon  in  marking  off  the  astronomical  quadrants, 
and  at  last  opened  a  workshop  of  his  own.  He 
constructed  die  large  8  foot  mural  instruments 
for  Greenwich,  Paris,  Oxford,  St  Petersburg, 
Maunheim,  and  G6ttingen.  He  was  the  master 
of  the  celebrated  Ramsden. 

BIRD,  Robert  M,  M.  D.,  an  American  physi- 
cian, anthor  of  several  novels  and  plays,  born  at 
Newcastle,  Del,  in  1808,  died  in  Philadelphia,  in 
Jan.  1854.  He  was  educated  in  Philadelphia, 
where  be  began  the  practice  of  his  profesrion,  and 
made  lus  fint  literary  ventures  in  the  columns 
of  the  "Monthly  Magazine"  of  that  dty.  The 
most  Buccessfnl  of  his  tragedies  is  the  ^'  Gladia- 
tor," which  has  retained  its  popularity  upon  the 
stagey  and  the  principal  character  in  which  is 
one  of  the  favorite  personations  of  Mr.  Edwin 
Forrest  His  novels,  published  at  intervals  be- 
tween 1880  and  1840,  are  chiefly  histori<»l  ro- 
mancecL  the  scene  of  ^^Oalavar,"  and  the  ^*  Infi- 
del" bemg  in  Mexico,  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish 
conquest;  that  of  *" Nick  of  the  Woods,  or  the 
Jibbenainosay,"  being  in  Kentucky,  at  the  dose 
of  the  war  of  the  revolution ;  "  Peter  Pilgrim," 
containing  a  minute  description  of  the  mammoth 


cave  in  Kentucky,  and  the  "Adventures  of  Robin 
Day"  being  the  story  of  an  orphan  shipwrecked 
on  the  cosst  of  Bamegat  They  are  marked  by 
picturesqueness  of  description,  and  an  animated 
narrative.  After  spending  several  years  in  culU- 
vating  a  farm.  Dr.  Bird  returned  to  Philadelphia 
as  editor  of  the  "  North  American  Gazette." 

BIRD,  WjlllaMj  an  English  composer,  bom 
about  1548,  died  m  1628.  He  was  a  pupil  of 
Tallis,  and  in  1668  was  chosen  organist  of  Lin- 
coln cathedral,  which  would  seem  to  imply  that 
he  had  early  in  life  conformed  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  reformed  church,  notwithstanding  that 
he  wrote  and  published,  at  various  times  dur- 
ing his  long  me,  a  great  number  of  ecclesias- 
tical compositions  to  Latin  words,  forming  por- 
tions of  the  Roman  ritual.  In  1569  he  was  ap- 
pointed gentleman  of  the  chapel  royal,  a  position 
which  he  appears  to  have  held  until  his  death. 
The  number  of  his  vocal  compositions^  chiefly 
sacred,  was  enormous;  and  his  pieces  for  the 
organ  and  virginals  were  almost  equally  numer- 
ous. Among  the  latter  is  a  collection  of  nearly 
70  compositions  in  manuscript,  known  as  queen 
Elizabeth's  virginal  book.  The  fine  canon,  Nan 
nobis,  Domine,  which  to  this  day  is  firequently 
sung  in  England,  is  a  good  specimen  of  his  skill 
as  a  composer  of  sacred  vocal  musia 

BIBD  ISLANDS.  There  are  several  islands 
or  dusters  of  islands  so  named.  I.  The  most 
important  duster  is  one  among  what  are  called 
the  Leeward  islands  of  the  Leraer  Antilles.  The 
Bird  islands  lie  off  the  coast  of  V enezuel&^d 
immediately  N.  of  the  gulf  of  Triste.  They 
are  so  named  from  the  immense  numbers  of 
birds  that  frequent  them.  They  belong  to  the 
Dutch,  and  are  settled  only  by  a  few  fishers. 
II.  The  most  important  single  island  thus 
named  is  in  the  North  Pacific  ocean.  It  is  a 
soUtary  rock  rising  out  of  the  bosom  of  the  sdfL 
and  has  its  name  for  the  same  reason  assigned 
above.  The  Sandwich  islanders  had  given  this 
name  in  their  language.  It  should  probably  be 
reckoned  as  one  of  the  Sandwidi  group.  It 
was  discovered  in  1788,  by  the  captain  of  the 
Prince  of  Wales.  It  is  in  lat  23''  6'  N.,  and 
does  not  exceed  one  mile  in  diameter  in  any 
place.— There  are  also  Bird  tdands  on  the  coast 
of  Ireland,  Africa,  Newfoundland,  and  in  the 
Eastern  archipelago. 

BIRD  LIME,  a  glutinous,  viscid  substancci 
of  greenish  color  and  bitterish  taste,  prepared 
by  boiling  the  middle  bark  of  the  European 
holly  {il&s  aquifoUum)  or  of  the  fDtseum  ttlbum, 
or  some  other  plants,  as  the  mistletoe  and  other 
parasites,  for  some  hours,  then  separating  it 
from  the  liouid  and  leaving  it  for  a  fortnight  in 
a  moist  cool  place  to  become  viscid.  It  is  next 
to  be  pounded  into  a  tough  paste,  well  washed, 
and  put  aside  for  some  days  to  ferment.  Some 
oil  or  thin  grease  is  to  be  incorporated  with  it, 
when  it  is  ready  for  use.  Its  characteristic 
properties  appear  to  identify  it  with  the  prin- 
ciple glu  of  tne  French  chemists,  which  exudes 
spontaneously  from  certain  plants.  It  differs 
from  resins  in  being  insoluble  in  the  fixed  oils. 


278 


BIRD  OF  PABADISE 


Bird  limo  is  so  tenacious  that  small  birds  alight- 
ing upon  sticks  daubed  oyer  with  it  are  unable 
to  escape.  It  is  used  for  this  purpose  and  also 
for  destroying  insects.  Large  quantities  of  it 
were  formerly  exported  from  Great  Britain  to 
India,  and  it  is  now  an  article  of  import  in 
£ngland  from  Turkey. 

BIRD  OF  PARADISE,  genus  paraduea, 
Linn;  belonging  to  the  order  paueres^  tribe 
eoniraetrea,  and  family  paradiseidcB.  Seven 
species  of  the  genus  are  described:  P.  opoda^ 
Linn.  P.  papuana,  Bechst.  P.  rul>raj  Yieill. 
P.  specwM^  Bodd.  P.  regiay  Linn.  P.  atray 
Bodd.  P.  ieacpenniSy  Bodd.  The  genus  is  char- 
acterized by  a  bill,  long,  strong,  with  the  cul- 
men  curved  to  the  emarginatod  tip,  and  tlie 
sides  compressed ;  the  nostrils  lateral  and  cov- 
ered by  short  feathers  which  conceal  the  base 
of  the  mandible ;  the  wings  long  and  rounded, 
with  the  4th  and  5th  quills  equal  and  longest ; 
the  tail  is  of  various  lengths,  even  or  rounded; 
the  tarsi  as  long  as  the  middle  toe,  robust  and 
covered  by  a  single  lengthened  scale ;  the  toes 
very  long  and  strong,  the  outer  larger  than  the 
inner,  and  united  at  the  base,  the  mnd  toe  long 
and  robust ;  the  claws  long,  strong,  much  curv- 
ed and  acute;  the  sides  of  the  body,  neck, 
breast,  tail,  and  sometimes  the  head,  ornament- 
ed with  prolonged  showy  feathers.  These 
birds  are  peculiar  to  New  Guinea  and  the  neigh- 
baring  islands;  they  are  active  and  lively  in 
their  movements,  and  are  usually  seen  on  the 
tops  of  high  trees,  though  they  descend  in  the 
morning  and  evening  to  the  lower  branches  to 
search  lor  food,  and  to  hide  in  the  thick  foliage 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  food  consists 
ohiefly  of  the  seeds  of  the  teak  tree,  and  of  a  spe- 
cies of  fig;  they  also  devour  grasshoppers  and 
other  insects,  stripping  off  the  wings  and  legs 
before  swallowing  them ;  in  confinement  they 
will  eat  boiled  rice,  plantains,  and  similar  food. 
Their  cry  is  loud  and  sonorous,  the  notes  being 
in  rapid  succession ;  the  first  4  notes  are  s^d 
by  Mr.  Lay  to  be  dear,  exactly  intonated,  and 
very  sweet,  while  the  last  8  are  repeated  in  a  kind 
of  caw,  resembling,  though  more  refined  than 
those  of  a  crow  or  daw. — ^The  best  known  spe- 
cies is  the  greater  paradise  bird  (P.  apdia^ 
Linn.),  whose  body  is  about  as  large  as  a  thrush, 
though  the  thick  plumage  makes  it  appear  as 
large  as  a  pigeon ;  it  is  about  12  inches  long, 
the  bill  being  1^  inch.  The  head,  throat, 
and  neck  are  covered  with  very  short  dense 
feathers,  of  a  pale  golden  color  on  the  head  and 
hind  part  of  the  neck,  the  base  of  the  bill  be- 
ing surrounded  with  black  velvety  ones,  with  a 
greenish  gloss ;  the  fore  part  of  the  neck  is  green 
gold,  wif£  the  hind  part,  back,  wings,  and  tail 
chestnut ;  the  breast  chestnut,  inclining  to  pur- 
ple ;  beneath  the  wings  spring  a  large  number 
of  feathers,  with  very  loose  webs,  some  18  inches 
long,  resembling  the  downy  tufts  of  feath- 
er grass;  these  are  of  different  colors,  some 
chestnut  and  purplish,  others  yellowish,  and  a 
few  nearly  white ;  from  the  rump  spring  2  mid- 
dle tail  feathers^  without  webs  except  for  the 


first  few  inches  and  at  the  tip,  and  nearly  8  feet 
in  length;  the  remaining  tau  feaUiers  are  about 
6  inches  long,  and  even  at  the  end.  The  na- 
tives call  this  bird  Burung^dewatOy  or  *^bird  of 
the  gods,"  from  which  perhaps  the  common 
name  is  derived.  The  Malay  traders,  who  first 
brought  them  from  New  Guinea^  cut  off  the 
legs  of  these  bird&  and  pretended  that  tiiey  lived 
in  the  idr,  buoyed  up  by  their  light  plumage) 
never  descending  to  the  ground,  and  resting  at 
night  suspended  from  the  trees  by  the  long  tail 
feathers ;  other  fables,  such  as  that  they  fed  on 
the  morning  dew,  hatched  their  ^;g8  out  be- 
tween the  Moulders,  and  came  from  the  "  ter- 
restrial paradise,"  were  added  in  order  to  in- 
crease the  value  of  these  beantiful  birds  in  the 
Indian  markets.  From  the  nature  of  their 
plumage  they  cannot  fly  except  against  the 
wind ;  when  the  featiiers  get  disordered  by  a 
contrary  breeze  they  fall  to  the  ground,  from 
which  tiiey  cannot  readily  arise;  in  this  way 
many  are  caught;  others  are  taken  by  biid 
lime,  or  shot  by  blunt  arrows,  or  so  stupefied  by 
coccvlus  Indiem  as  to  be  caught  by  the  hand ; 
when  at  rest  they  seem  to  be  very  i>roud  of 
their  beauty,  carefully  picking  from  their  feath- 
ers every  particle  of  dust ;  they  are  shy  and 
difficult  of  approach.  Batavis  and  Sio^^re 
are  the  chief  ports  whence  these  birds  are  ex- 
ported to  Europe ;  the  Bugis  of  Celebes  bring 
great  numbers  of  them  thither  in  their  boats 
from  New  Guinea  and  the  Arroo  group.  The 
whole  bird  is  a  highlv  coveted  ornament  for  the 
heads  of  the  East  Indian  grandees  as  well  as  for 
the  bonnets  of  the  civilized  fair  sex. — ^The  P. 
papuafia,  Bedist.,  is  a  smaller  bird,  of  the  same 
general  appearance,  with  the  throat  and  neck 
before  green ;  top  of  the  head,  nape,  and  neck 
ferruginous  yeUow ;  back  yellow  with  a  gray- 
ish tinge;  breast^  belly,  and  wings  chestnut 
This  and  the  preceding  species  are  said  to  fly 
in  flocks,  led  by  a  king  who  flies  higher  than 
the  rest.— The  P.  rubra^  Vieill.,  is  about  9 
inches  long,  and  principally  characterized  by 
the  flne  red  color  of  the  subazillary  feathers, 
and  the  absence  of  the  elongated  slender  shafts. 
— ^The  magnificent  paradise  bird  (P.  tpepiotOy 
Bodd.),  is  of  a  general  rufous  color  above,  and 
of  a  brilliant  green  below,  with  a  tuft  of 
beautifol  yellow  feathers  on  the  hind  neck, 
marked  at  the  end  by  a  black  spot— The 
king  paradise  bird  (P.  regia.  Linn.)  is  about  7 
inches  long ;  it  has  the  heao,  neck,  back,  tail, 
and  wings  purplish  chestnut,  with  the  crown 
approaclunff  to  yellow  and  the  breast  to  blood- 
red,  all  wiui  a  satiny  gloss;  on  the  breast  is  a 
broad  biu>  of  brilliant  green,  below  which  the 
belly  is  white;  the  subaxillary  feathers  are 
grayish  white,  tipped  with  shining  g^een ;  the 
middle  tail  feathers  are  spirally  coiled,  with 
the  webs  of  a  glossy  green  color. — ^The  superb 
paradise  bird  (P.  atra^  Bodd.)  has  a  black  crest, 
with  the  head,  hind  neck  and  back  of  a  green- 
ish gold  color,  of  a  velvety  appearance,  and 
overlying  each  other  like  the  scales  of  a  fish ; 
the  wings  a  doll  deep  black ;  tail  bUok,  with  a 


BIBD'B-EYE  VIEW 


BIRDS 


279 


bine  gloflB  aQd  evon  at  tihe  end ;  throat  ohangeable 
Tiolet;  belly  bright  golden  green;  snba&larv 
plumeB  black  and  yelvety,  risLng  upon  the  back 
and  resembling  a  second  pair  of  wings. — ^The 
gold-breasted  paradise  bird  (P.  seapenniB,  Bodd.) 
is  also  crested;  the  top  of  the  head,  cheeks, 
and  throat  changeable  yiolet  black ;  fore  neck 
and  breast  brilliant  changeable  green;  back 
deep  blad^  with  a  yiolet  ^obs  ;  wings  and  tail 
black;  the  snbaxillarj  feathers  are  long  and 
black,  with  loose  webs  like  those  of  an  ostrich ; 
on  each  side  of  the  head  are  8  long  feathers, 
webleas  except  at  the  end,  where  they  are 
spread  into  an  oyal  form. — ^The  12  wired  para- 
dise bird  belongs  to  the  familj  vpujnda^  and  to 
&e  genns  epimaakus;  it  is  a  natiye  of  New 
iEoUfuid,  and  is  distinguished  bj  a  rolendid  green 
band  across  the  breast,  by  the  silky  softness  of 
the  white  featiiers  below,  and  by  12  wiry  ap- 
pendages prolimged  from  them.  No  descrip- 
tion can  giye  any  idea  of  "the  graceftd  forms 
and  brilliant  hues  of  the  paradise  birds ;  omr 
own  beantifol  humming  birds  come  nearest  to 
them  in  fSedry-like  structure  of  their  plumage, 
and  in  the  gorgeous,  metallic,  and  eyer  chang- 
ing lustre  of  their  colors. 

BIRD*S-£T£  VIEW,  the  aspect  of  a  thinff  as 
seen  from  aboye,  just  as  a  biM  is  supposed  to 
see  objects  on  the  earth  when  soaring  in  the  air. 
This  is  a  fayorite  mode  of  taking  pictures  of 
places,  as  a  bird's-eye  yiew  of  the  city  and  har- 
bor of  New  York.  The  phrase,  to  take  a  bird's- 
eye  yiew  of  a  thing  is  employed.  It  is  some- 
times used  metaphysically  to  mean  a  cursory, 
not  minute,  mental  glance  at  a  subject 

BIRDS  (oom),  a  class  of  yertebrate  animals, 
distinguished  firom  aU  others  by  certain  peculi- 
arities, and  also  by  a  combination  of  other 
characteristics,  the  union  of  which  is  not  to  be 
found  elsewhere.  They  are  biped,  as  are,  also, 
certiun  mammalia;  are  oyiparous  ezdusiyely, 
which  no  other  class  is ;  and  are,  with  yery 
tdw  ezceptiona,  coyered  with  a  feathered  coat, 
adapted,  man  or  less  perfectly,  for  flight. 
They  haye  frames  penetrated  through  all  t£eir 
parts  by  air-cells  that  facilitate  motion  by  in- 
creasing lightness.  By  means  of  external  sub- 
stitutes for  organs  of  reproduction,  usually 
called  nests,  they  deyelop  ova  after  excluding 
tlwm.  The  last  2  peculiuities  distinguish  birds 
firom  all  other  animals.  No  others  possess  the 
same,  or  eyen  eimilarly  adrified  structures, 
and  none — ^though  many,  both  yertebrate  and 
inyertebrate,  are  oyiparous,— exhibit  any  cor- 
responding resort  to  nests  for  the  deyelopment 
of  their  eggs.  AU  birds,  without  a  single 
known  exception,  are  biped,  which,  without 
being  an  exdusiye  peculiarity,  is  yery  nearly  so. 
An,  or  nearly  all,  possess  more  or  less  perfect 
powers  of  flight.  Eyen  the  few  exceptions 
haye  certain  rudimentary  substitutes  for  wings, 
that  are  neyer  so  far  completely  deyeloped  as 
to  become  ayailable.  The  families  whion  con- 
stitute theee  exceptions  are  both  small  in  num- 
ber and  yarietiea  of  species,  and  in  regard  to 
that  of  the  indiyiduals  composing  them.   They 


are  all  formed  either  for  motion  on  the  land, 
or  in  the  water,  exdusiyely.  In  all  these  in- 
stances the  feathery  coyerings  are  incompletely 
deyeloped,  possessing  a  proximate  resemblance 
to  the  hairy  coyering  of  certain  land  and 
water  animals.  The  ostrich  and  the  penguin 
maybe  named  as  typical  of  these  2  distinct 
forms  of  exception,  both  in  regard  to  their  in- 
ability to  raise  themselyes  into  the  air,  and 
their  exceptional  hair-like  plumage. — ^In  the 
internal  organization  of  the  entire  class  of 
birds  there  are  other  and  more  noticeable  ana- 
tomic peculiarities.  Their  skulls  are  without 
the  sutures  that  are  found  in  mATninftiift^  form- 
ing consolidated  bones.  These  are  Joined  to 
the  neck  or  spinal  column  by  one  single  Joint, 
so  construotea  as  to  giye  the  most  perfect  free- 
dom of  motion  in  horizontal  and  lateral  direc- 
tions, without  danger  of  dislocation  or  iz\]ury. 
In  tne  place  of  teeth  they  haye  upper  and 
lower  Jaw,  formiog  unitedly  the  bills,  which 
are  composed  of  a  bard  homy  substance. 
These  subserye  a  similar  purpose  to  the  teeth, 
the  place  of  which  they  take.  In  seyeral 
famihes  of  birds  the  upper  part  of  the  bill  is 
articulated  with  the  skulL  The  parrots  are 
fiuniliar  examples  of  this  peculiarity  of  struc- 
ture. More  commonly  the  skull  and  upper 
Jaw  are  united  by  means  of  an  elastio  bony 
plate,  by  the  interposition  of  which  the  brain 
IS  admirably  protected  from  injuries,  to  which 
it  would  otherwise  be  unayoidably  exposed. 
The  upper  extremities  of  birds,  analogous  to 
the  arms  or  forelegs  of  other  animals,  differ 
essentially  in  neyer  being  used  as  prehensile 
organs,  or  for  motion  in  contact  with  the  earth, 
as  in  walking  or  running.  Their  use  is  almost 
exdusiyely  for  flight,  and  they  senre  as  the 
basis  of  their  wings.  The  cenrical  yertebr» 
of  birds  are  more  numerous  than  those  of 
mammals.  In  the  latter  their  number  is  uni- 
ibrmly  7,  while  in  birds  there  are  neyer  less 
than  10,  and  in  some  instances  as  many  as  28. 
Their  dorsal  yertebro  are  more  fixed  and  lim- 
ited in  their  motion  than  the  ceryical,  and  are 
usually  10  in  number,  rarely  11,  and  in  some 
instances  only  7  or  8.  The  pdyis  in  birds  is  a 
simple  dongated  plate,  open  bdow,  terminated 
by  the  rump,  which  supports  the  tail-feathers, 
llie  breast-bone,  or  itemurn^  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  noticeable  feature  in  the  bony  skeleton  of 
birds.  It  is  also  one  of  the  most  important 
parts  of  the  osseous  firame-work,  as  it  forms 
the  base  for  tiie  insertion  of  the  most  powerful 
of  the  musdes  of  flight.  Its  prolongation  or 
crest  determines  with  infallible  accuracy  the 
degree  of  power  of  flight  of  its  possessor,  and 
is  entirdy  wanting  in  those  destitute  of  the 
power  of  raising  themselyes  in  the  air. 
The  merry-thought  (fureula)  should  be  here 
mentioned  as  another  peculiarity  to  birds 
of  flight,  and  wanting  only  in  those  not  pos- 
sessed of  that  power.  The  lower  extremi- 
ties of  birds  are  employed  for  purposes  of  lo- 
comotion, for  standing  and  roostiiag,  and,  in 
some  binls,  for  obtaining  food.    Their  bony 


280 


BIRDS 


frame- work  oomprisee  a  thigh-bone,  2  leg-bones, 
a  metatarsal  or  ankle-bone,  and  the  bonee  of 
the  toe&  The  last  vary  in  number,  and  termi- 
nate in  nails,  of  greater  or  less  importance  in 
their  animal  economy,  according  to  the  habits 
of  the  family  possessing  them.  The  variationB 
in  tiie  mechanism  of  the  lower  extremities  are 
often  very  curioos  and  striking.  The  birds 
which  roost,  and  more  especially  those  which 
are  in  the  habit  of  standing  long  at  a  time  upon 
one  leg,  are  enabled,  by  the  remarkable  ar- 
rangement of  the  bones,  and  the  mosoles  at- 
tached to  them,  to  do  either  with  very  little 
effort  or  fatigae  on  their  part.  Not  less  inters 
esting,  and  even  more  stnking  and  curioos  in 
their  variety  and  their  pecoliar  adaptation  to 
their  several  purposes,  are  the  muscular  and 
other  integuments  which  cover  the  bony 
frame-work  of  all  the  members  of  the  entire 
class.  As  might  be  expected,  in  birds  of 
vigorous  flight,  we  find  the  pectoral  musdes 
presenting  the  greatest  development.  These 
are  often  found  to  exceed  in  weight  and  bulk 
that  of  all  the  others.  The  gr^t-pectoral 
and  the  middle-pectoral  are  antagonistic  forces, 
alternately  depressing  and  elevatmg  the  wing& 
while  the  small  pectorals,  or  third  pair,  aid 
materially  in  varying  the  manner  and  character 
of  the  flight  The  musdes  of  the  lower  ex- 
tremities vary  gready  with  the  habits  of  the 
bird,  and  especially  according  to  their  being 
dimbers,  waders,  swimmers,  perchers,  &c.  A 
minute  detail  of  the  wonderful  medianism  by 
which  birds  are  enabled  to  perch  or  roost  with- 
out any  apparent  effort  to  sustain  themadvea, 
or  a  full  account  of  those  by  means  of  which 
are  regulated  the  movements  of  the  jaws,  those 
of  the  neck,  or  of  the  tail,  would  exhibit  most 
interesting  evidences  of  a  wonderful  design  in 
their  adaptation  to  thdr  several  purposes,  but 
would  unduly  extend  the  present  artide.  Be- 
side their  muscular  integuments,  all  birds  have 
homy  beaks  and  nails,  a  fleshy  cere  at  the  base 
of  the  bill,  and  scaly  coverings  to  the  lower 
extremities,  wherever  they  are  bare.  Their 
peculiar  covering,  found  more  or  less  perfectly 
in  the  whole  class,  and  in  no  otiier.  is  their 
plumage  of  feathers.  In  certain  families,  that 
of  the  ostrich  for  example,  the  plumage  of 
feathers  makes  a  remarkably  dose  approiu:^  to 
the  hairy  covering  of  land  mammals.  In  other 
families,  such  as  the  divers,  the  alcadaa,  the 
guillemots,  &c.,  the  plumage  more  nearly  ap- 
proaches the  furry  coats  of  the  otter  and  the 
seaL  In  the  young  of  birds  tiie  proximate  re- 
semblance of  their  plumage  to  the  hairy  cover- 
ing of  mammals  is  even  more  marked.  The 
limits  of  the  present  artide  will  not  permit  the 
description,  at  any  length,  of  the  interesting 
changes  in  the  color,  and  other  character!^ 
tics  of  the  plumage,  that  mark  the  age  and 
gradual  devdopment  of  all  birds,  and  whidi 
present  a  variety,  in  all  respects,  that  is 
almost  beyond  conception.  Nor  can  we 
describe,  in  full,  the  very  peculiar  and  curi- 
ous glands  by  means  of  which  birds  dresa 


their  plumage  and  protect  it  from  the 
inclemendes  of  the  weather.  The  bills  of  birds 
are  yet  another  peculiar  feature  with  the  daaa 
that  should  not  be  omitted,  though  all  the  va- 
rieties of  contrivance  by  means  of  which  they 
discharge  the  duty  of  supplying  food  are  aiao 
beyond  the  limits  of  this  artide.  These  enable 
the  raptorial  families  to  tear  their  prey  into 
fragments;  they  supply  to  the  fly-catcher,  the 
swallow,  and  the  whip-poor-will,  most  ex- 
quisitdy  contrived  insect-traps;  they  give  to 
tne  woodcock,  the  snipe,  and  other  waders,  the 
power  of  determining  what  is  suitable  for  food 
with  no  other  aid  than  the  moat  delicately  sen- 
sitive nervous  membranes  of  their  long  probe- 
Uke  Jaws. — ^In  birds,  the  alimentary  canal  com- 
prises an  ossophagus,  a  crop,  a  membranons 
stomach,  a  gizjcard^  an  intestinal  canal,  and  a 
doaoa,  in  which  the  urinary  dncts  also  ter- 
mmate.  The  ^pzzard  is  a  powerfiil  organ  in 
promoting  digestion,  espedally  with  ndlinaoeooa 
and  other  graminivoroua  birds.— That  peoa- 
llarity  of  structure,  however,  which  more  than 
any  other,  distinguishes  this  from  every  other 
dass  of  AnimAlgj  IS  the  immediate  and  constant 
connection  of  the  lungs  with  numerous  air-cells 
that  permeate  the  entire  frame,  extending  even 
throughout  tiie  bony  portions.  These  mem- 
branous air-cdls  occupy  a  ver^  considerable 
portion  both  of  the  chest  and  of  the  abdomen, 
and  have  the  most  direct  and  oninterrupted 
communication  with  the  lungs.  The  long  cy- 
lindrical bones  are  so  many  air-tubes.  Even  the 
flat  bones  are  occupied  by  a  cellular  bony  net- 
work, filled  with  air.  The  large  bills  in  certain 
genera,  even  the  very  quill  feathers  when  fully 
evdoped,  recdve  more  or  less  air  from  the 
lungs,  at  the  pleasure  of  the  birds.  By  these 
means  the  erective  crests  of  a  number  of  species 
are  altematdy  depressed  or  elevated.  The  de- 
sign of  these  wonderfully  contrived  chidns  of 
air-cdls,  penetrating  into  every  portion  of  the 
structure  of  birds,  is  too  obvious  to  require  an 
extended  explanation.  lightness  of  the  body 
for  motion  in  the  air  or  water,  or  on  the  land, 
is  indispensable.  Hence  we  find,  in  birds  of  the 
highest  and  most  rapid  flight,  the  largest  sup- 
ply of  air-cells.  This  pneumatic  apparatus  is 
also  supposed  to  assist  materially  in  tiie  oxida- 
tion of  tne  venous  blood,  and  the  air  contained 
in  the  cells  is  presumed  to  operate  upon  the 
blood  vessels  and  lymphatics  in  contact  with 
them.  The  volume  of  air  which  birds  are  thus 
enabled  to  introduce  into  thdr  bodies,  the  ease 
and  power  with  which  thev  can,  at  will,  ei^ 
it,  taken  in  connection  with  their  peculiar  or- 
gans of  voio^  satisfiEU^torily  account  for  what 
wouldotherwise  be  inexplicable ;  explaininghow 
some  of  the  smallest  members  of  the  dass,  the 
common  canary  bird,  or  the  black-poll  warbler 
of  North  America,  for  instance,  are  enabled  to 
give  utterance  to  such  pow^ul  notes,  and  to 
continue  them  so  long  without  any  apparent 
effort.  The  construction  of  the  larynx  in  thia 
class  is  a  very  peculiar  one,  bearing  a  remaricable 
resemblance  to  certain  wind  instruments.    Thia 


BIBDB 


281 


organ  is  made  up  of  d  parts,  fhe  true  rima 
glatHdU,  at  the  upper  part  of  the  windpipe, 
and  the  bronolual  larynx,  which  is  famished 
with  a  peculiarly  tense  membrane,  performing 
the  same  dntv  as  the  reed  in  a  oUinnet — The 
large  prc^Mutionate  development  of  the  brain 
and  of  the  nerrons  ^stem  of  birds  is  another 
distingaishing  featore  of  their  organization.  In 
many  oases  they  exhibit  an  apparent  saperiority 
to  the  corresponding  organs  in  mammalia  of 
the  same  relative  size  and  weight  Thus,  for 
instanoe,  while  in  man  the  size  of  the  bndn,  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  whole  body,  yaries 
firaon  A  to  ^  part^  that  of  the  coounon  canary 
Inid  is  A.  There  are,  howeyer,  great  variations 
in  regard  to  the  sice  of  these  organs  in  different 
fumliBB  and  even  in  different  genera  of  the 
same  fiunilieB.  Thna,  while  the  brain  of  the 
goose  IB  ^  of  the  entire  body,  that  of  the 
eagile  is  ^,  and  that  of  the  common  Emropean 
eptnow  IS  ^.  It  difEers  ohiefly  from  the 
same  organ  m  mammalia,  in  the  presence  of 
certain  tnberdes  corresponding  to  the  corpora 
striata  of  other  animals,  and  the  absence  of 
several  parts  foond  in  the  brains  of  the  latter. 
— ^nie  senses  of  sight,  smell,  and  hearing,  are 
snpposed  to  be  most  acute  in  a  large  proportion 
of  the  funilies  of  the  class,  much  more  so  than 
that  of  taste,  which  is  found  well  developed  in 
only  a  low  fiuniiiea,  and  still  more  than  that  of 
touch,  which  is  presumed  to  be  totally  wanting. 
The  <Hrgans  of  si^t  are  of  great  proportionate 
magnitude,  and  occupy  a  large  proportion  of 
thecerebraldevelc^ments.  They  are  constructed 
with  a  wonderftd  contrivance  not  inaptly  com- 
pared with  so  many  peculiar  kinds  of  ^^self- 
adKusting  telescopes^"  They  are  also  all  pro- 
vided with  a  very  curious  apparatus  called  the 
nictitating  membrane.  This  is  a  fold  of  the 
Uiniea  eor^uncUvOy  so  arranged  as  to  be  capable 
of  being  drawn  out  to  cover  the  eye  hkea 
curtiun,  and  to  be  withdrawn  at  will,  enabling 
the  possessor  to  meet  the  brightest  rays  of  the 
sun  nndazzled  by  its  brilliance,  and  protecting 
the  oigan  from  injuries. — ^With  only  a  few  ex- 
ceptions birds  have  no  external  organs  of  hear- 
ing corresponding  to  an  ear.  We  find  instead 
an  aperture  that  is  called  meatus  auditoritu. 
The  mtemal  membranes  of  this  organ  are  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  means  of  the  air- 
cells  of  the  skull  and  have  but  a  single  auditory 
bone. — ^Among  different  authors  there  is  much 
diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sense  of  smell  in  birds.  The  ex- 
periments of  Audubon  and  Bachman  would 
seem  to  prove  that,  even  in  those  fJEimilies 
in  which  this  sense  is  presumed  to  reach  its 
hi^^iest  point  of  perfection,  the  members  are 
directed  by  sight  rather  than  by  smell  to 
their  prey.  Btill  it  is  quite  certain  that  they 
possess  certain  nervous  developments  oorre- 
roonding  to  olfactory  organs,  which,  if  not  de* 
signed  for  smell,  possess  no  very  apparent  pur- 
pose.— ^The  sense  of  taste  has  a  limited  degree 
of  development  in  a  few  families,  such,  for  in- 
stance, as  the  divers,  the  waders  in  part,  and 


the  several  fimiilies  of  humming  birds,  honey- 
suckers,  and  a  few  others.  As  a  general  rule  it 
is  very  imperfect,  or  even  wholly  wanting.—' 
The  various  contrivances  and  instinctive  ex- 
pedients, by  means  of  which  the  entire  class  of 
aves  develop  the  germs  of  their  matare  or  per- 
fect Ota,  are  remarkable  as  well  as  distinguish- 
ing features  in  the  economy  of  their  propaga- 
tion. They  are  peculiar  to  the  class,  and  are 
without  any  known  exceptions.  They  are 
shared  with  them  by  no  other  class  of  animals, 
with  oidy  occasional  but  remote  approxima' 
tions,  apparent  exceptions  rather  than  real. 
Every  inoividual  of  the  entire  class  deposits  the 
matured  egg  without  any  distingniahable  de- 
velopment of  the  young  bird.  Lightness  and 
buoyancy  of  bod v,  whether  for  flight  in  the  air, 
or  for  freedom  of  motion  on  land  or  in  water, 
are  essential  pre-requisites  in  the  animal  econo- 
my of  all  the  various  &milies  of  the  dass.  60, 
to  nearly  the  same  extent,  is  also  their  abundant 
reproduction.  The  vast  numbers  of  their  ene- 
mies, and  the  many  casualties  to  which  they 
are  exposed,  render  a  large  and  constant  propa- 
gation necessary  for  their  preservation.  It  is 
quite  evident  that  any  habit  at  all  correspond- 
iug  with  the  gestation  of  viviparous  animals 
would  be  inconsistent  with  both  of  these  re- 
quirements. It  would  destroy  lightness  of 
body,  prevent  freedom  of  motion,  expose  to 
innumerable  dangers  from  enemies,  hinder  from 
procuring  food,  and  make  fecundity  an  impossi- 
bility. Thus,  the  common  quail  or  partridge 
(ortyx  Virgintana)  of  the  Atlantic  states,  has 
been  known  to  have  86  eggs  in  a  single  nest. 
Before  maturity  the  product  of  this  nest  ex- 
ceeds in  weight  their  parent  at  least  20  fold. 
To  provide  for  these  or  but  one  of  them,  by  in- 
ternal organs  of  development,  would  be  ira* 
possible.  Tet  how  simply,  how  perfectly,  and 
how  beautifnlly  are  all  these  requirements  met  by 
means  of  external  substitutes.  The  nests  of  birds 
correspond  with  tiiem  in  their  duties  and  uses, 
to  the  uterine  organs  of  reproduction  of  mam- 
midia,  and  yet  more  to  the  marsupial  pouches 
of  certain  Australian  quadrupeds.  They  serve 
as  external  organ»  indispensable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  immature  young,  from  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  the  germ  in  the  egg,  to  a  maturity 
more  or  less  advanced,  and  varying  greatly  with 
the  family;  from  the  ostrich  that  comes  into 
the  world  able  to  shift  for  itself  from  the  very 
shell,  to  the  blind  and  naked  ofl&pring  of  other 
families  that  are  utterly  helpless  when  first 
hatched.  For  this  development  of  the  young 
birds  there  are  two  esseutiols — ^the  external  re- 
ceptacle which,  though  not  always  with  exact- 
ness, we  call  nests,  and  the  application  of 
a  certain  nearly  fixed  or  uniform  amount  of 
caloric.  In  nearly  aU  cases  the  latter  is  gen- 
erated by  contact  with  the  bodies  of  the  par- 
ent birds.  In  some  it  is  aided  by  the  heat 
of  the  sun.  In  a  few  instances  this  is  effected 
by  heat  derived  from  vegetable  decomposition, 
or  from  the  sun's  rays,  without  any  parental 
intervention  after  the  deposition  of  the  egg. — 


282 


BIRDS 


AttemptB  have  been  made,  with  some  par- 
tial success,  to  classify  the  yarioiis  arohiteo- 
tural  contrivaaoes,  o^  their  substitates  to  be 
found  connected  with  the  nesting  and  incuba- 
tion of  birds.  The  most  recent  and  most 
nearly  successful  attempt  to  systematize  the  sub- 
ject is  that  of  Prof.  James  Bennie  of  Eing^s 
college,  London.  To  this  the  present  article 
will  nearly  conform,  giving,  where  practicable, 
indigenous  representative  examples  and  sup- 
plying tbe  more  noticeable  deficiencies  of  that 
arrangement.  In  thb  system  the  entire  class 
are  ranged  in  12  groups :  miners,  sround-build- 
ers,  masons,  carpenters,  platform-builders,  bas- 
ket-mfJicers,  weavers,  tailors,  felt-makers,  ce- 
menters,  dome-builders,  ana  parasites.  The 
objections  to  this  arrangement  are,  that  it  is 
imperfect  in  itself,  and  that  it  corre^nds  with 
none  of  the  usual  systems  of  ornithological 
classification.  The  large  number  of  species 
which,  without  being  miners  or  carpenters,  in- 
variably occupy  for  their  nests  corresponding 
sites,  namely,  holes  in  the  earth  or  hollow  trees, 
have  no  appropriate  place.  8ome  of  these  have 
been  improperly  classed  as  parasites.  Nor  is 
there  a  well-denned  place  for  Ihe  hu^  variety 
of  species  belonging  to  every  order,  which  re- 
sort to  the  bare  ground,  making  no  perceptible 
nest,  or  for  that  remarkable  fiEunUy  of  Australian 
birds,  the  mound-builders,  which  combine  some- 
thing both  of  the  miner  and  the  ground-builder. 
It  seldom  if  ever  conforms,  in  a  single  family 
even,  with  any  known  classification.  Thus,  the 
hawks  are  platform-builders,  ground-builders, 
occupants  of  hollow  trees,  &c.  The  swallows  are 
miners,  cementers,  dome-builders,  masons,  &e,, 
and  so  on.  The  mining  birds  compose  a  very 
large  group,  belonging  to  nearly  every  order, 
and  having  no  other  conmion  peculiarity.  They 
may  be  divided  into  2  well-marked  subdi- 
visions: the  true  miners,  which  excavate  holes 
for  themselves,  in  which  they  construct  their 
nests,  and  those  which,  without  mining,  occupy 
sites  precisely  similar.  Of  these  a  portion  are 
supposed  to  be  parasitic,  availing  themselves  of 
the  labors  of  others.  Among  the  true  miners 
may  be  named  the  common  bank  swallow, 
fouud  nearly  throughout  the  habitable  globe, 
the  bee-eaters  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  the 
whole  genus  of  thalassidromas,  better  known  as 
storm  petrels  or  mother  Card's  chickens;  as 
also  the  several  genera  of  puffins,  king-fishers, 
penguins,  &c.  Among  the  other  class,  miners 
only  by  occupancy,  may  be  named  the  wood 
wren  and  the  winter  wren  of  North  America, 
the  black  guillemot,  and  the  burrowing  owls 
of  North  and  South  America.  The  last  are 
parasitic  miners,  occupying  invariably  holes 
dug  by  other  animals.  The  ground-builders  in- 
clude by  far  the  largest  group  of  birds  of  every 
order,  and  nearly  of  every  nunily,  and  cannot 
be  defined  with  exactness.  In  it  must  be 
classed  many  which  build  no  nest  others  that  do, 
or  do  not  construct  nests,  according  to  circum- 
stances, those  which  build  on  the  ground  usually, 
but  frequently  elsewhere,  some  that  are  usually 


ground-builders,  but  at  times  true  miners,  like 
the  sky-lark  of  Europe,  &c  The  night-hawks 
and  whip-poor-wills  of  Amerioamake  no  nest,  the 
former  depositiag  their  eggs  upon  the  bare  earth, 
always  selecting  a  site  corresponding  in  color 
to  their  egg&  the  latter  selecting  dried  leaves  as 
better  suited  to  the  same  purposes  of  conceal- 
ment. A  very  large  proportion  of  the  shore 
birds^  waders,  guUs,  ^.,  make  use  of  the  bare 
sand  with  only  a  slight  excavation  for  a  nest. 
Others  of  the  same  species  are  more  pains-tak- 
ing, and  construct  well-formed  nests.  The  her- 
ring gulls  usually  build  a  slight  nest  on  the 
ground,  but,  after  having  been  repeatedly  robbed 
^7  aggers,  the  same  birds  are  known  to  con- 
struct large  and  quite  elaborate  nests  in  trees  or 
on  precipitous  diffii.  The  mound-builders  of 
Australia  (see  Bbush  Tubket)  combine,  in  part, 
the  habits  of  the  miners  with  those  of  tbe 
ground-builders,  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  that 
remarkable  family.  Among  the  true  ground- 
builders  may  be  dted  nearly  all  the  vultures, 
the  entire  sub-family  of  circidaa  or  hen-harri- 
ers, the  eoTiotriehia  or  song  sparrows  of  Ameri- 
ca, nearly  all  the  waders,  ducks,  geese,  swans^ 
gulls,  terns,  te.,  with  more  or  less  representa- 
tives in  every  order.  The  birds  which,  from 
their  habits  in  nest-building,  are  classed  as  ma- 
sons, are  comparatively  few  in  number  of  spe- 
cies. They  are  so  called  because  they  constmct 
their  nests,  in  whole  or  in  part,  with  walls,  oov- 
ermgs,  barricades,  &a,  of  mud  or  day.  Of  this 
dass  the  cliff  swallow  of  North  America  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  examples.  The  house 
swaUowS)  both  of  Europe  and  America,  the 
thrush  and  blackbird  of  Europe,  the  robin  and 
the  pewit  flycatcher  of  North  America,  are 
among  the  most  familiar  examples.  The  spedes 
known  among  writers  and  travellers  as  the  bak- 
er bird  of  South  America  may  be  given  as  the 
most  skilful  and  remarkable  of  this  class.  This 
species  constructs  a  nest  in  the  most  esrooaed 
situations,  but  at  a  considerable  height,  hemi- 
spherical, or  in  the  form  of  a  baker's  oven,  and 
hence  its  name.  The  opening  of  this  nest  is  lat-^^ 
eral,  and  is  twice  as  high  as  it  is  wide,  and  the 
interior  is  divided  into  2  diambers  by  a  parti- 
tion beginning  at  the  entrance.  The  true  car- 
penters are  also  a  comparativdy  small  group, 
consisting  of  those  which  excavate,  by  their 
own  labor,  holes  for  their  nests  in  trees.  Cor- 
responding in  the  selection  of  the  sites  for  their 
nests,  but  obtained  without  labor,  are  a  yet 
larger  number  of  species,  that,  for  convenience, 
are  grouped  with  them,  some  of  which  are  also 
parasitic.  The  large  and  widely  distributed 
family  of  pidda  or  woodpeckers  are  the  most 
familiar  examples  of  the  carpenter  bird.  With 
them  are  also  classed  the  toucans  of  Sonth 
America,  the  tomtits,  the  wiynecks,  and  the 
nut-hatches.  Among  the  more  common  ex- 
amples of  the  birds  which,  without  being  true 
carpenters,  resort  to  similar  places  for  their 
nests,  may  be  mentioned  the  sparrow-hawk,  the 
blue  bird,  the  purple  martin,  the  white-bellieH 
swallow,  and  the  house  wren  of  North  Amen- 


BIRDS 


283 


cft)  BeTeral  species  of  owls,  and  man  j  others. — 
The  platform  builders  are  a  small  but  distinct 
dass,  whose  architecture  is  well  defined.  In  it 
are  embraced  most  of  the  falconidm  or  hawk 
tribe,  the  wood-pigeons,  the  cuckoos  of  Ameri- 
ca, &o.  All  the  eagles  are  true  platform  build- 
ers, and  many  of  them  construct  elaborate  and 
remarkable  nests.  The  nest  of  the  white-headed 
eagle  is  a  masaiye  structure,  sometimes  forming 
an  exact  cube,  each  side  of  which  is  5  feet 

rre.  The  martial  eagle  of  southern  Africa 
constructs  a  large  platform,  said  to  be  able 
to  support  title  larg^  man.  These  nests  are 
perfdctlj  flat,  with  no  other  security  against 
tiie  eggs  rolling  off  than  the  ever  small  number 
of  thelatter  and  the  constant  presence  of  one  of 
the  parents.  The  common  passeneer  pigeon^ 
the  turtle  doye,  and  the  yellow-billed  cuckoo  of 
North  America,  are  the  most  familiar  examples 
(rfthis  class,  as  also,  in  Europe,  are  the  wood 
pigeons,  the  ringdoves,  the  herons,  and  the 
storksL  Another  larger  dass,  whose  architect- 
nral  accomplishments  are  even  more  remarka- 
ble, are  the  basket-makers.  Many  of  these  ex- 
hibit an  elaboration  and  an  ingenuity  beyond 
tiie  power  of  human  skill  to  imitate.  The  yir- 
eoe  of  North  America  weaye  a  cup-shaped  bas- 
ket nest,  pendant  from  some  conyenient  twig, 
the  leayea  of  which  conceid  them  from  enemies. 
The  European  bullfinch,  the  American  mock- 
ing bird,  the  red-winged  blackbird,  the  yellow- 
bMded  troopials  of  North  America,  the  ravens, 
crows,  and  magpies,  and  the  cyanotis  omnicolor 
of  GhUi,  may  be  mentioned  as  among  the  more 
fjumilJAr  or  remarkable  of  this  interesting  group. 
The  last-named  bird  attaches  a  nest  of  singular 
beauty  and  elaborateness  to  the  stems  of  the  large 
reeds  of  that  country,  constructed  to  resemble  the 
ripened  seed-vessels  of  the  plant  so  closely  as  to 
deoeive  oven  the  most  wary.  The  locust-eating 
thrush  of  southern  Africa  builds  a  large  basket 
fkd>rio,  containing  many  cells  or  separate  nests, 
from  6  to  20  in  number,  the  joint  producte  of, 
and  occupied  by  as  many  pairs.  The  pensile 
grosbeak  swings  its  basket  nest  from  a  pendant 
twig  over  a  running  stream,  and  makes  its  en- 
trance from  the  bottom.  The  sociable  gros- 
bttiks  unite  in  the  construction  of  a  large,  bas- 
ket-like duster  of  nests,  sometimes  containing 
SOO  or  800  in  a  single  structure.  To  describe 
aD,  or  even  a  small  portion  of  the  varieties  of 
this  remarkabie  dass,  is  beyond  our  present 
purpose  or  our  limits.  The  weavers  are  dosely 
allied  to  the  preceding  class,  differing  chiefly  in 
their  more  pensile  nests,  and  in  the  superior 
nicety  of  their  structure.  The  weaver-oriole 
of  S^iegal  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  this 
dass.  The  Baltimore  oriole  of  America,  the 
Indian  sparrow  of  southern  Asia,  the  crested 
fly-catcher  of  southern  Africa,  and  the  yellow- 
hammer  of  Europe,  are  among  tiie  more  famil- 
iar and  distinguishing  instances  of  the  weavers. 
Hardly  distinguishable  from  the  2  preceding 
noups  are  the  few  species  daased  as  tailors. 
The  orchard  oriole  of  America  is  hardly  entitled 
to  be  so  dassed,  though  usually  quoted  as  a 


true  tailor.  The  best  known  instance  is  that 
of  the  iyMa  tutoria  of  the  eastern  continent, 
which  sews  a  dead  leaf  to  a  living  one,  and  be- 
tween them  constructs  its  tiny  nest.  The  blue 
yellow-back  warbler  of  America  is  another  re- 
markable tailor,  though  its  wonderful  skill  is 
as  yet  little  known  or  appreciated.  The  felt- 
makers  form  quite  a  large  and  well-marked 
group  of  artificers  among  birds.  These  arrange 
tiie  materials  of  their  nests,  though  more  loose- 
ly, in  the  same  manner  as  that  in  which  are 
put  together  the  fibres  of  felt  These  materifds 
are,  to  all  appearances,  corded  together.  How 
this  is  done  cannot  be  satisfactorily  explained. 
The  chaffinch  of  Europe,  the  goldfinch  of 
America,  the  canary-bird,  and  the  whole  fiami- 
W  of  humming-birds,  may  be  given  as  exempli- 
fications of  this  peculiar  and  interesting  group. 
The  cementers  compose  a  very  small  but  well 
distinguished  dass,  all  the  members  of  which, 
so  far  as  is  at  present  known,  belong  to  the 
family  of  swallows.  These  birds  secrete,  from 
glands  on  each  side  of  the  head,  a  strongly  ad- 
hesive glue,  which  is  dissolved  in  their  saliva, 
with  which  they  unite  the  materials  of  their 
nests,  and  fasten  them  to  their  proposed  sites. 
The  chimney  swallow  of  North  America  is  the 
most  familiar  example  of  this  (proup,  while  the 
esculent  swallow  of  the  East  is  the  most  re- 
markable. The  dome-builders  might  without 
inconvenience  be  merged  into  the  several 
groups  of  weavers  and  basket-makers.  They 
consist  of  a  large  number  of  species  belonging 
to  a  great  variety  of  families,  who  construct 
covered  nests,  which  are  entered  by  holes  in 
the  side.  These  nests  are  more  common  in 
tropical  countries  than  in  cold.  The  marsh- 
wrens,  several  of  the  iylmcola^  among  these 
the  Maryland  yellow -throat,  the  golden- 
crowned  thrush  or  oven-bird,  the  meadow- 
lark,  and  the  quail,  of  North  America,  ore 
among  the  most  fiimiliar  representatives  of  this 
group  on  this  continent.  In  Europe  it  embraces 
ue  common  wren,  the  chiff-chaff,  the  hay-bird, 
the  wood-wren,  the  sparrow,  the  magpie,  and 
the  bottle-tit,  among  its  best  known  members. 
The  last  group  is  one  which  it  is  not  easy  to 
classify.  The  true  parasites,  those  which,  like 
the  cuckoo  of  Europe,  the  cow-blackbirds  of 
North  America,  ana  its  congener  of  South 
America,  never  rear  their  own  young,  but  in- 
trude their  of&pring  upon  strangers,  always 
laying  their  eggs  in  the  nests  of  other  species, 
are  a  small  but  well-marked  dass.  The  larger 
number,  which  resort  to  the  chosen  sites  of 
other  birds,  but  build  their  own  nests  and  rear 
their  own  young,  are  less  dearly  defined,  be- 
cause they  are  not  uniformly  parasitic  in  their 
habits.  Of  this  latter  class  the  house-sparrow 
of  Europe  as  often  makes  its  own  nest  as  it 
seizes  upon  that  of  another  species.  Nearly  or 
quite  all  of  this  dass,  usually  marked  as  para- 
sites, are  so  only  occasionally,  and  by  force  of 
circumstances.  The  true  members  of  the  group 
are  not  many,  and,  so  far  as  is  at  present  known, 
are  confined  to  the  two  genera,  cuculus  or  true 


284 


BIBDS'-NESTS 


BmK£NFELD 


cnckooa,  and  molothras  or  oow-birds.  (For 
the  systemado  olassifioation  of  birds,  and  the 
history  of  the  science,  see  Obntthologt.) 

BIRDS'-NESTS,  Edible,  the  nest  of  the  sea- 
BwaUow  of  the  Malay  archipelago,  the  lawit  of 
Java,  and  talanaiane  of  the  Philippines,  hirundo 
e$culmta  of  botanists.  The  bird  is  uniformly 
dark-oolored,  inclining  to  green  on  the  back, 
and  bine  on  the  breast,  has  a  short,  strong  bill, 
broad  at  the  base,  and  is  a  little  smaller  than 
our  swaUow  martin.  It  gathers  from  the  ooral 
rocks  of  the  sea,  a  glutinons  weed  or  marine 
facns,  which  it  swa&ows  and  afterward  dis- 
gorgeis,  and  then  applies  this  yomit,  with  its 
plastic  bill,  to  the  sides  of  deep  cayems,  both  in- 
land and  on  the  sea-ooast,  to  form  its  nest. 
When  complete  the  nest  is  a  hollow  hemisphere, 
of  the  dimensions  of  an  ordinary  coffee-cnp ; 
when  fresh  made,  is  of  waxy  whiteness,  and  then 
esteemed  most  valnable;  of  second  quality, 
.when  the  bird  has  laid  her  eggs;  and  of  third, 
when  the  yonng  are  fledsed  and  flown.  The 
lawit  frequents  mostly  the  deep,  sarf-beaten 
caves  of  the  S.  coast  of  Java,  principaUy  those 
of  Earang  Bollong(Hollow  reefs),  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Baylen.  These  caves  open  at  the  base 
of  a  perpendicular  face  of  rock,  nearly  500  feet 
high,  the  mouths  being  fhim  18  to  25  feet  in 
bzibidth,  and  80  feet  in  height ;  within  they  con- 
tinue to  expand,  until  they  attain  the  enormoos 
dimensions  of  m>m  100  to  190  feet  in  width, 
and  450  feet  in  height  and  for  many  hundred 
feet  within  the  waves  of  the  Indian  ocean  break 
with  terrific  fury.  The  collectors  of  the  nests, 
like  the  Orkney  gatherers  of  eider  duck  down, 
are  lowered  over  fearfnl  chasms,  and  move 
along  a  slippery  foothold,  at  the  risk  of  instant 
destruction.  The  collections  take  place  in 
April,  August)  and  December.  The  day  pre- 
vious to  the  descent  into  the  oaves,  a  limbang 
or  feast  is  given,  wayanffs  or  games  in  masks 
are  performed,  bufEaloes  and  goats  are  killed, 
the  flesh  of  which  is  flreely  distributed,  and  a 
pretty  young  Javanese  girl  is  dressed  up  in  pe- 
culiar costume,  and  personifies  Nyai  Katu  IQ- 
dul  (the  lady  queen  <^  the  south),  an  imaginary 
personage,  to  whom  offerings  are  made,  whose 
assistance  is  invoked,  and  who  must  give  per- 
mission that  the  collections  shall  commencei 
without  which  the  collectors,  though  trained 
from  infancy  to  the  dangerous  pursuit,  cannot 
enter  the  caves.  The  Nyai  is  of  course  fdways 
favorable,  when  competent  Judges  are  assured 
that  the  right  period  for  collection  is  at  hand. 
These  nests  are  also  obtained  in  other  parts  of 
Java,  and  the  islands  eastward,  on  the  coasts 
of  Borneo,  and  in  the  limestone  caves  of  the 
Philippines.  The  whole  product  of  Java,  and 
Netherlands  India,  in  1850,  on  account  of  the 
gOTernment,  of  which  it  is  a  monopoly,  was 
268  -M  piculs,  or  85,784  pounds,  worth  560,- 
884  dorms,  or  about  $250,000,  selling  according 
to  quality,  at  fh)m  |5  to  $20  a  pound;  some  of 
the  finer  sorts  selling  in  Ohinese  markets  for 
twice  their  weight  in  silver.  It  is  well  known 
that  the  edible  nest  is  a  whimsical  culinary  fiem- 


cy  of  the  Ohinese  aloneu  They  use  it  in  the 
preparation  of  their  most  refined  soups.  Alone 
It  has  an  insipid  glutinous  taste.  A  portion  of 
the  precious  article  is  oftentimes,  by  way  a( 
ostentation  on  the  part  of  a  host,  placed  in  a 
prenared  dish  of  food  already  on  the  table,  and 
m  the  view  of  the  seated  guests.  The  Ohinese 
attribute  to  it  peculiar  strengthening  qualities; 
but  this  sensual  people  ohiefiy  prize  it  for  its 
alleged  properties  as  an  aphrodbiac ;  and  it  is 
singular  that  this  word  is  derived  from  the 
Greek  word  atppot,  ^^soum  of  the  sea,"  which 
the  gluten  of  this  nest  certainly  is. 

BIBEBEOE,  Gtobqs,  1L  D.,  a  social  re- 
former and  the  founder  of  the  first  mechanics* 
institute  in  England,  bom  at  Settle,  Yorkshire, 
Jan.  10, 1776,  died  in  London,  Dec.  1, 1841.  He 
early  djsplared  a  love  for  sdentific  pursuits; 
studied  medicine  in  Leeds,  Edinbui^,  and 
London;  was  intimate  while  at  the  Sootddi 
capital  with  the  founders  of  the  ^  Edinburgh 
Review,"  and  was  elected  professor  of  the  Aq- 
dersonian  institute  at  Glasgow.  In  Not.  1799 
he  gave  his  first  course  of  lectures  at  Glasgow, 
on  natural  and  experimental  philoeophy.  As 
there  were  no  philosophical  instrument-makers 
at  Glasgow,  he  was  obliged  to  have  recourse  to 
ordinary  workmen  to  fhmish  his  apparatus,  and 
while  explaining  to  them  the  uses  of  the  instru- 
ments, he  was  struck  with  the  idea  of  giving  a 
gratuitous  course  of  scientific  lectures  to  tike 
Glasgow  mechanics.  In  1801  he  issued  his 
prospectus  for  the  establishment  of  a  class  solely 
for  persons  engaged  in  the  practical  exercise  of 
the  mechanical  arts,  men  whose  education  in 
early  life  had  precluded  even  the  possibility  of 
acquiring  ^the  smallest  portion  of  scientific 
knowledge."  The  first  lecture  was  attended  by 
75,  but  so  satisfactory  was  it  to  those  who  were 
present  that  at  the  2d  lecture  the  number  was 
increased  to  200,  at  the  8d  to  more  tiian  800, 
and  at  the  4th  to  more  than  600.  In  1802  and 
1808  the  lectures  were  continued;  in  1804  he 
resigned  his  professorship  and  quitted  Gbissgow; 
in  1806  he  settled  in  London,  where  he  obtained 
a  good  practice  as  plmidan.  In  1820  he  gave 
a  gratuitous  course  of'^17  lectures  at  the  London 
institution.  In  1828,  a  public  meeting  took  place 
at  the  Grown  and  Anchor,  at  which  he  presided, 
and  which  Dr.  Lushington,  Jeremy  Bentham, 
David  Wilkie.  and  Mr.  Oobbett,  attended.  The 
first  officers  of  the  ^London  Mechanics'  Institu- 
tion" were  elected,  and  Dr.  Biricbeck  was 
chosen  premdent.  He  continued  his  profiss- 
sional  avocations,  but  to  the  last  gave  much 
time  and  labor  to  eflTorts  for  the  education  of 
the  pe^le. 

BIREEN7ELD,  a  principality  of  Oldenbun; 
in  Germany ;  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine^ 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nahe,  between  Lichtenberg 
and  the  province  of  the  lower  Rhine;  area, 
148  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1855,  82,629.  The  sml  is 
poor,'  though  well  cultivated  wherever  practi- 
cable. Its  surfiM^e  is  covered  with  fbrests  and 
mountdns ;  it  possesses  iron  mines  and  produces 
agates,  ohaloeaony,  Sk^  whioh  are  wrought  for 


BIBKENHEAD 


BIRMINGHAM 


285 


exportation.    It  has  a  market  town  of  the  same 
name,  pop.  2,900. 

BIBKENHEAD,  a  market  town  and  port  of 
Cheshire,  England,  on  the  estoary  of  the  Mersey, 
opposite  liverpool,  with  which  it  has  con- 
stant commnnication  hj  S  steam  ferries.  It 
comprises  the  old  extra  parochial  district  of  its 
own  name,  apart  of  Oxton  in  Woodohnrch,  and 
the  township  of  Glanghton  in  Bidstone.  A 
raUway,  16  miles  long  connects  it  with  Chester, 
whence  other  roads  cdverge  to  various  parts  of 
the  kingdom.  Although  a  place  of  considera- 
ble antiquity,  having  been  founded  at  least  as 
early  as  the  12th  century,  it  dates  its  present 
prosperity  from  a  very  recent  period.  Ori^- 
naUy  a  poor  fishing  village,  numbering  in  1818 
scarce  50  inhabitants,  it  grew  with  a  rapidity 
seldom  witnessed  in  the  old  world,  until  in  1861 
its  pop.  was  24,285.  This  increase  is  mainly 
owmg  to  its  excellent  docks,  constructed  since 
1824.  In  that  year  large  ^p-building  docks 
were  erected  on  Wallasey-pod,  on  the  N.  W. 
side  of  the  town,  and  in  1844  a  series  of  splendid 
workfl^  embracing  a  sea-wall  from  Woodside  to 
Seacombe,  docks  at  Bridge-end,  a  tidal  basin  87 
acres  in  extent  and  accessible  at  all  times  by 
vessels  of  12  feet  draught,  and  a  basin  of  16 
acres  for  coasters,  were  conmxenced  on  the 
Mensey  side.  The  plan  was  also  made  to  em- 
brace the  construction  of  a  dam  to  pen  up  the 
waters  of  WaUasey-pool  into  a  float,  which 
should  communicate  with  the  principal  tidal 
basin.  The  first  dock  was  opened  in  1847. 
Warehouses,  on  a  scale  of  corresponding  mag- 
nificence, have  abo  been  erected. — ^The  town  is 
well  laid  out,  well  lighted,  paved,  and  drained, 
and  well  supplied  with  water.  The  streets  are 
remarkably  wide  and  regular,  the  main  thorough- 
fares, 5  in  number,  running  nearly  east  and 
west,  and  the  shorter  streets  crosdng  them 
at  right  angles.  Hamilton  square,  on  high 
ground  near  the  river,  is  a  l]«autiful  pubuo 
place,  6^  acres  in  extent,  and  planted  with 
shrubbery.  On  Conway  street,  one  of  the 
principal  avenues,  is  a  public  park,  with  an 
area  of  180  acres,  embracing  flower-beds,  plan- 
tations, lakes,  and  drives.  A  well-stockea  mar- 
ket, 480  feet  long  by  181  feet  wide,  massive 
freestone  slaughter  houses,  and  model  dwelling 
houses  for  the  woildng  classes,  are  among  the 
other  notable  features  of  the  town.  There  are 
4  handsome  churches  of  the  establiidied  rcJigion, 
a  Scotch  church,  Boman  CttUiolio  and  dissent- 
ing chapels;  a  theological  school,  established  in 
1846,  to  provide  clergymen  for  Birkenhead,. 
Liverpool,  and  neighboring  places;  an  infirm- 
aiy,  a  lying-in  a^lum,  a  aispensary.  a  me- 
chanics* iustitute,  and  many  free  sonools  in 
connection  with  the  different  dhurches  and 
chapels.  There  is  no  custom  house,  the  entries 
beiDg  made  at  LiverpooL  Manufactures  are 
carried  on  with  activity,  and  embrace  pottery, 
varnish,  boilers,  guns,  ^  There  are  also  ex- 
tensive ship-yards  and  iron  founderies.  The 
afiairs  of  the  township  are  managed  by  21 
elective  commissioners.    There  were  formerly 


24,  8  of  whom  were  appointed  by  the  town- 
council  of  Liverpool,  but  in  1846  the  board 
was  constituted  as  at  present. — ^A  priory  was 
founded  here  by  Harris  de  Massey  in  1150,  and 
richly  endowed.  It  was  occupied  by  the  roy- 
alists in  1644,  and  taken  from  them  by  the 
parliamentary  troops.  In  1848  it  was  de- 
molished, and  nothmg  now  remains  but  a  por- 
tion of  the  gable  and  one  Gothic  window,  whidi 
formerly  belonged  to  the  refectory. 

BIBKENHEAD,  Sia  Jomr,  an  English  satiri- 
cal and  political  writer  of  the  17th  century,  born 
at  Northwioh,  in  Cheshire,  in  1615,  died  in 
Westminster,  Dec.  4,  1670.  He  was  educated 
at  Oxford,  and  appointed  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Laud ;  in  1642  he  commenced  the  pub- 
lication of  the  ^^  Mercurius  Aulicns"  or  court 
journal ;  this  he  conducted  for  d  years,  its  con- 
tents being  chiefly  panegyrics  of  tiie  kmg  and 
court.  He  became  in  consequence  an  object  of 
aversion  to  the  parliamentarians,  who  persecuted 
him  constantly  during  the  commonwealth.  At 
the  restoration  he  was  knighted  and  received 
several  lucrative  offices. 

BIBEET-EL-HADJI  (lake  of  the  pilgrims), 
a  small  lake  lying  N.  E.  of  Cairo  in  l^p^t.  It 
is  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  the  pilgrims  going 
over  the  isthmus  to  Mecca,  and  they  return  to 
that  place  to  separate. 

BIBKET-EL-KEBOUN,  or  Koobk  (lake  of 
the  horn),  a  lake  in  Fayoom,  central  Egypt,  so 
named  from  its  shape,  or  perhaps  from  theshape 
of  the  projecting  spouts  of  a  castle  which  stands 
on  its  banks;  length  about  80  m.,  greatest 
breadth  6.  Its  shores  are  bluf^  except  on  the 
south  side,  where  they  are  low  and  sandy.  The 
lake  communicates  with  the  Nile  and  with  the 
canal  which  popular  tradition  ascribes  to  Joseph 
the  Hebrew.  This  lake  has  been  supposed  iden- 
tical with  the  andent  lake  Mosris,  which  has 
been  thought  to  have  been  an  artificial  lake 
made  by  a  King  of  that  name.  But  the  present 
Birket-el-Keroun  is  plainly  a  natural  mke.  It 
abounds  with  fish,  and  like  LakeMceris  of  old. 
is  fiurmed  out  to  Dshermen,  and  is  a  source  of 
revenue  to  the  government. 

BIBEET-EL-MABIOOT  (Mareotb),  a  kke 
in  lower  Egypt,  S.  E.  of  Alexandria,  once  wash- 
ing the  southern  walls  of  that  city.  It  had  been 
dry  for  several  oenturies.  In  1801,  the  English 
united  it  by  channel  to  Lake  Aboukir,  in  order 
to  obstruct  the  movement  of  the  French  garri- 
son at  Alexandria.  Mehemet  Ali  has  filled 
up  the  channel,  and  restored  the  old  Alexan- 
drian canal  which  communicates  with  the  Bo- 
setta  branch  of  the  Nile  at  Foua.  It  originall  v 
communicated  abo  with  the  Canopic  branch 
of  the  Nile.  It  merely  left  a  narrow  neck  of 
land  between  it  and  tiie  Mediterranean.  On 
this  neck  Alexandria  stood,  and  the  lake  served 
as  a  port  for  the  craft  of  the  Nile. 

BIBMINGHAM.  L  One  ofthe  most  important 
manufacturing  villages  of  Connectiout,  situated 
in  Derby  township.  New  Haven  oo.,  on  a  com- 
manding eminence  at  the  junction  of  the  Hou- 
satonio  and  Nangatuck  nvers,  11  m.  N.  W.  of 


286 


BIRMINGHAM 


New  Hayen.  It  is  neatiy  kid  ont^  and  contains 
a  number  of  chnrdhes  and  schools,  most  of  which 
face  a  handsome  pnbUo  square  in  the  centre  of 
tlie  village.  Its  growth  has  been  more  rapid 
than  that  of  almost  any  village  in  Oonnecticat : 
in  1840  it  contained  scarcely  a  dozen  houses; 
in  1866  it  had  numerous  manufactories,  a  bank, 
and  about  2,600  inhabitants.  The  first  pin  fac- 
tory in  the  United  States  was  established  here, 
nnd  is  stiU  in  successM  operation.  Rolling- 
mills  for  copper,  iron,  and  steel,  factories  of 
carriage  spnngs  and  axles,  bolts,  augers,  well 
chains,  tacks,  and  other  articles;  lumber  and 
coal  yards,  warehouses,  and  many  stores,  are 
among  the  evidences  of  the  prosperity  of  tiie 
place.  The  value  of  the  manu&ctures  is  about 
$1,600,000  per  annum,  A  bridge  across  the 
Naugatuck  connects  Birmingham  with  Derby, 
which  is  a  station  on  the  Naugatuck  railroad, 
and  the  terminus  of  a  line  of  steamboats  plying 
between  it  and  New  York.  n.  A  borough  of 
Alleghany  co.,  Pennsylvania,  situated  on  tiie  S. 
bank  of  the  Monongi^ela  river,  about  2  m. 
above*  its  confluence  with  the  Alleghany.  Al* 
though  but  a  suburb  of  Pittsburgh,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  steam  ferry,  and  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  1,600  ft.  long,  it  has  reached  the  di- 
mensions of  a  flourishing  and  important  town. 
It  has  several  churches,  and  in  1867  had  1  man- 
u&ctory  of  iron  railing,  screws,  and  machines; 
1  of  wagons,  1  of  glass,  2  of  cabinet  ware,  1 
planing  null,  1  pottery,  and  4  breweries.  Pop. 
in  1860,  8,742.  The  suburb  of  East  Birming- 
ham, with  1,694  inhabitants,  adyoins  it  on  the 
east. 

BIRMINQHAM,  one  of  the  most  important 
manufacturing  towns  of  England,  112  miles  N. 
W.  from  London ;  pop.  282,841 .  Situated  nearly 
in  the  centre  of  England,  and  in  the  heart  of  a 
mineral  district,  Birmingham  has  for  centuries 
been  a  place  of  some  manu£EU)turing  importance. 
The  impetus  given  in  modern  times  to  manu- 
&otnring  processes  by  the  discovery  of  steam, 
and  by  the  improved  methods  of  treating  me- 
tallic ores,  has  raised  Birmingham  to  the  rank 
of  one  of  the  workshops  of  the  world.  It  is 
now  the  seat  of  manufacture  for  every  descrip- 
tion of  hardware  and  ornamental  metal  work. 
Beside  metal  works,  a  variety  of  other  fabrics 
have  been  introduced,  such  as  india-rubber, 
papier  maoh^,  mother  of  pearl,  and  other  hard, 
though  not  metallic  wares.  The  articles  made 
chiefly  come  within  the  dass  of  ornamental  and 
furnishing  goods.  Cutlery  and  tools  never  were 
made  to  any  extent  in  Birmingham ;  and  of  late 
years,  although  Birmingham  has  maintained  her 

C'tion  in  tibe  productions  of  goods  made  of 
ks  and  mixed  met^  the  iron  and  steel  fur- 
mshing  goods  trade  has  found  a  favoi'able  site  in 
various  towns  of  the  surrounding  district.  If 
any  one  particular  fact  can,  in  the  history  of  na- 
tions and  cities,  be  assigned  as  a  cause  of  pros- 
perity or  reverse,  Birmingham,  in  common  with 
many  other  towns  of  the  north  of  England,  owes 
her  modem  fame  and  advancement  to  James 
Watt    Watt  found  a  patron  for  his  great  dis- 


covery in  Matthew  Bouiton,  the  spirited  pro- 
prietor of  the  Soho  works,  near  Birmingham, 
and  became  a  partner  in  Mr.  Boulton^s  estab- 
lishment. Steam,  which  was,  before  long,  to 
idd  Britain  in  maintaining  her  supremacy  against 
the  world  in  arms,  had  its  chief  centre  at  soho, 
which  became  the  depot  not  only  for  Birming- 
ham wares,  properly  so-called,  but  for  machinery. 
Birmingham  was  the  first  place  to  feel  the  bene- 
fit of  t^is  accession  of  strength  to  the  nation. 
The  new  power  was  at  once  introduced  into  all 
the  manufacturing  processes  already  established, 
and  their  prosperity  led  the  way  to  an  endless 
succession  of  inventions  and  adaptations.  Dur- 
ing the  last  26  years,  Birmingham  has  received 
a  still  greater  accession  of  strength  and  pros- 
perity in  the  railway  system.  A  railway,  *''  the 
London  and  Birmingham,"  was  commenced  in 
1838,  and  opened  in  1888.  This  (which  is  now 
the  centre  of  the  mighty  "  London  and  North- 
western," with  its  twenty-eight  millions  ster- 
ling of  capital)  at  once  concentrated  upon  Bir- 
mingham the  traffic  of  the  midland  counties 
with  London.  Birmingham  became  the  con- 
verging point  of  numerous  lines  of  railways, 
which  joined  it  with  London  on  the  south, 
with  Liverpool  and  Manchester  on  the  north, 
and  with  the  east  and  west  of  England. — ^A 
mere  list  of  the  manufacturing  processes  car- 
ried on  at  Birmingham  womd  require  tJie 
whole  space  appropriated  to  this  article.  Wo 
will  only  mention  orass  and  bronzed  goods  of 
every  description,  and  every  variety  of  excel- 
lence, including  gas  fixtures,  stove  ornaments, 
mouldings  and  cornices,  curtain  rods  and  rings, 
with  countless  small  articles.  Mixed  metal 
good%  such  as  Britannia  metal,  queen^s  metal, 
albata,  and  electroplate,  including  dinn^  and 
tea  services,  spoons,  salvers,  and  similar 
articles,  plated  goods  which  are  considered 
inferior  to  the  plated  goods  of  Sheffield, 
japanned  goods,  both  fiat  and  hollow  goods, 
papier  maoh6  in  an  infinite  variety  of  articles 
for  household  or  personal  purposes  of  use 
or  ornament.  The  elegant  designs  of  these 
goods,  and  the  fine  pictorial  ornaments  with 
which  the  best  goods  are  adorned,  have  given 
employment  to  some  excellent  artists.  Mother 
of  pearl,  tortoise  shell,  and  Jivory  goods,  whe- 
ther used  as  ornamental  accessories,  or  as  the 
principal  fabric  of  the  manufeuitured  articles. 
Fire-arms  in  great  numbers  are  made  in  Birming- 
ham ;  during  the  last  war.  the  British  govern- 
ment was  liurgely  supplied'  by  the  Birmingfasim 
makers.  To  these  may  be  added  silver  goods, 
thimbles,  pencil  cases,  dressing  case  fhmitnro, 
and  a  variety  of  small  silver  articles ;  small  iron 
and  wire  goods,  steel  pens,  pins,  nails,  screws, 
are  also  largely  made.  Castings  were  formerly 
very  generid  in  the  manufacture  of  Birmingham 
goods.  But  the  substitution  of  the  die  and 
stamping  process,  and  of  thin  plates  for  the 
solid  mass,  enables  the  manufacturers  to  pro- 
duce much  cheaper  and  lighter  goods.  The 
difference  in  excellence  between  tiie  two  pro- 
cesses is  not  in  question;  the  difference  in  oost 


BIBNAM 


BIRNEY 


287 


places  stamped  hollow  ornaments  within  every 
one^B  reach.  Casting  is  now  almost  ezdosiyely 
confined  to  heavy  goods.  These  mannfactares 
give  employment  to  large  numbers  of  persons. 
— ^The  political  histoiy  of  Birmingham  is  not 
im^rtant.  It  was  an  obscure  viU^^e  for  cen- 
tnnes.  The  gradual  increase  of  metal  manu- 
factures, for  which  its  contiguity  to  the  mines 
and  smelting  works  gave  it  facnlities,  first  called  it 
into  notice.  The  introduction  of  French  taste£L 
and  French  ornaments,  by  Charles  II.,  increased 
the  acUvity  of  the  Birmingham  traders.  The 
town  is  by  no  means  remarkable  for  beauty. 
The  pablic  buildings  are  modem.  The  town  haU, 
on  the  model  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  at 
Bome,  is  a  noble  structure.  It  is  of  Anglesey 
marble.  The  hall  itself  is  145  feet  long,  65  feet 
wide,  and  65  feet  high^  and  contains  a  ^and  or- 
gan, one  of  the  finest  m  Europe,  with  78  draw- 
stops,  and  upward  of  4,000  pipes.  This  magnifi- 
cent instrument,  and  the  convenience  of  the 
great  hall,  bring  together  in  Birmingham  musi- 
cal feetivals  of  the -first  character.  Among  the 
other  notable  buildings  are  the  royal  free  gram- 
mar school,  the  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and 
college,  the  school  of  design,  and  the  market 
halL  There  are  several  public  institutions  of 
an  educational  character :  mechanics' institutes, 
literary  societies,  reading  rooms,  and  libraries. 
It  is  one  of  the  towns  in  which  a  government 
school  of  design  has  been  established ;  and  we 
believe  that  the  Birmingham  school  is  the  best 
attended,  and  has  been  most  successful  These 
schools  are  attended  by  pupils  of  both  sexes, 
both  juvenile  and  adults,  in  separate  studios. 
The  public  schools  are  the  royal  free  grammar 
schocM,  a  fine  institution,  and  endowed  with 
about  $40,000  per  annum ;  the  blue  coat  school, 
and,  beside,  uie  ordinary  parochial  schools. 
Queen's  oollege,  established  in  1843,  as  its  name 
imports,  is  of  collegiate  character,  and  grants 
degrees  in  art,  laws,  or  medicine.  There  is 
also  a  college  for  Independents  near  Birming- 
ham. There  are  several  hospitals  and  insti- 
tutions of  a  benevolent  character;  the  gen- 
end  hospital,  the  queen's  ho^ital,  a  Magdalen 
hospital,  a  blind  institution,  are  among  the 
chief, 

BIBN  AIL  a  hill  in  Perthshire,  in  the  western 
highlands  of  Scotland,  rendered  famous  by  its 
connection  with  the  history  of  Macbeth,  and 
immortalized  by  Shakespeare.  It  was  foretold  to 
the  ambitious  thane,  yet  guiltiess,  except  in 
thought,  of  bloody  ambition,  that,  until  Bimam 
wood  should  come  to  Dnnsinane,  his  life  and 
power  could  suffer  no  disaster.  On  the  approach 
of  Malcolm,  with  the  avenging  army,  composed 
of  the  loyal  dans,  aided  by  Seward,  earl  of 
Korthumberiand,  ignorant  of  the  prophecy,  the 
invaders  cut  down  the  boughs  and  bore  tnem 
as  leafy  screens,  by  which  to  conceal  their  num- 
bers, when  the  report  of  ^^  the  moving  forest," 
marching  upon  Dunsinane,  struck  a  fatal  despair 
into  the  soul  of  the  u^irper.  It  has  been  re- 
marked by  an  intelligent  traveller  in  the  high- 
lands, that,  if  indeed  there  ever  were  a  forest 


on  Bimam,  Malcolm  did  his  work  of  woodcutter 
very  thoroughly;  since  it  is  now  as  bleak  a 
heathery  hill  as  any  in  Scotland,  with  scarcely 
a  stunted  Scottish  pine  or  two,  to  mark  the 
relics  of  the  far-famed  Bimam  wood. 

BIRNEE,  Old,  a  town  of  the  kingdom  of 
Bomoo,  in  central  Africa,  70  miles  W.  of  Kookea, 
on  the  Yeoo ;  pop.  about  10,000.  It  is  said  to 
have  formerly  had  200,000  inhabitants.  The 
ruins  of  the  stone  walls  by  which  it  was  en- 
closed are  still  visible. 

BIRNEY,  Jambs  Q.,  an  American  politician, 
bom  in  Danville,  Ky.,  Feb.  4,1792,  died  at  Perth 
Amboy,  K  J.,  Nov.  25, 1867.  He  studied  law,  and 
removed  early  to  Alabama,  where  he  fiourished 
in  his  profession  and  held  the  office  of  district 
attorney.  Having  had  his  attention  turned  to- 
ward the  question  of  property  in  slaves,  in  1888, 
he  interested  himself  in  the  organization  of  a 
branch  of  the  colonization  society  for  the  state 
of  Alabama.  Soon  afterward,  retuming  to  Ken- 
tucky, he  organized  one  there  also,  of  which 
he  became  president.  But,  in  1834,  his  views 
rapidly  advancing,  he  espoused  the  cause  of 
immediate  emancipation  in  a  pubHo  letter,  at 
the  same  time  emancipating  all  his  own  slaves, 
about  20  in  number.  Making  arrangements  to 
establish  a  newspaper  to  disseminate  these  views 
at  Danville,  where  he  resided,  and  where  he  held 
the  situation  of  professor  in  the  university, 
he  found  it  impossible  to  have  such  a  paper 
printed  in  Kentiicky,  and  removed  to  Cincin- 
nati, where  he  began  to  issue  the  ^Philanthro- 
pist." It  had  not  been  long  published  before  it 
was  found  no  less  obnoxious  to  public  sentiment 
in  OMo  than  it  had  been  in  Kentucky,  and  the 

gress  was  thrown  into  the  river.  The  editor, 
o  wever,  managed  to  revive  it,  and,  in  connection 
with  Dr.  Bailey,  to  make  it  a  powerful  instra- 
mont  in  acting  upon  the  opinion  of  the  state. 
About  the  year  1836  he  went  to  New  York,  as 
secretary  of  the  American  anti-slavery  society, 
and  for  many  years  devoted  his  time  and  strength 
to  the  furtherance  of  the  objects  of  that  so- 
ciety, by  letters  and  articles  from  the  press  and 
by  pubhc  addresses  wherever  he  could  make 
an  opportunity  to  be  heard.  His  purpose  was 
to  build  up  a  political  party  upon  the  smgle 
question  of  slavery,  to  act  upon  the  govem- 
ment  within  the  forms  of  the  constitution ;  and 
he  succeeded  in  forming  an  organization  in 
most  of  the  northern  states,  under  the  name  of 
the  liberty  party.  During  his  absence  in  Eng- 
land, he  was  nominated  in  1840  by  that  par^ 
for  the  presidency,  but  met  with  little  suc- 
cess. He  was  again  nominated  in  1844,  when 
he  received  more  votes.  It  was  chaiged 
upon  his  friends  at  the  time,  that,  by  with- 
drawing their  votes  from  Mr.  Clay,  especially 
in  the  state  of  New  York,  they  accomplished 
the  election  of  Mr.  Polk,  thus  aiming  the 
death-blow  at  their  own  projects.  Previous 
to  this,  in  1842,  Mr.  Bimey  haa  become  a  resi- 
dent of  Michigan,  where  he  was  disabled,  by  a 
fall  from  his  horse  not  long  afterward,  from 
taking  the  active  part  in  politics  to  which  he 


288 


BmON 


had  been  aoeostomad.    The  latter  part  of  hia 
life  wiis  spent  at  Perth  Amboy,  K  J. 

BIKON. .  I.  Abmand  db  QoHTAirr,  baron,  a 
French  general,  bom  in  1524,  died  July  26, 
1592.  He  was  of  an  ancient  family  of  Peri- 
gord,  was  educated  among  the  pages  of  Mar- 
garet, qneen  of  Navarre,  and  sister  of  Franoifl  I., 
served  in  Piedmont  under  Marshal  Brissao,  dis- 
tuiguished  himself  during  the  religious  wars  in 
the  Catholic  army,  fighting  at  the  battles  of 
Dreuz,  St.  Denis,  and  Moncontonr,  and  was 
created  grand  master  of  artillery  in  1560.  He 
was  suspected  by  the  court  and  the  Guises  of  a 
secret  inoUnation  to  Protestantism,  and  owed 
his  8a£Bty  on  the  eve  of  St.  Bartholomew  to  his 
precaution  in  planting  2  oulverina  in  front  of  his 
dwelling.  He  negotiated  with  the  Huguenots 
tbe  peace  of  St.  Germain,  received  the  baton  of 
marshal  of  France  in  1577,  held  various  com- 
mands in  Guienne  and  the  Low  Oountries,  was 
one  of  the  first  to  recognize  Hrary  IV.,  contrib- 
uted to  the  victories  of  Arques  and  Ivry,  and 
was  killed  at  the  siege  of  Epemay.  He  was  the 
godfi&ther  of  Cardinal  Richelieu.  U.  Chablbs 
DB  GoNTAUT,  duke,  son  of  the  preceding,  a 
French  general  of  brilliant  reputation,  called  the 
"HghtDing^'  of  France,  bom  in  1562,  bread- 
ed in  the  yard  of  the  Baatile,  July  81, 1602. 
His  valor  was  distinguished  at  the  battles  of 
Arques  and  Ivry,  at  the  sieges  of  Paris  and 
Rouen,  of  Amiens  and  La  Fdre,  and  in  the  en- 
counter at  Aumale.  He  was  made  admiral  of 
France  in  1592 ;  marshal,  in  1594 ;  governor  of 
Burgundy,  in  1595 ;  duke  and  peer,  in  1598 ; 
and  was  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Elizabeth 
of  England  and  to  the  Swiss  cantons.  Of  inor- 
dinate vanity  and  ambition,  ruined  by  losses  at 
play  and  by  prodigal  expenditures,  ungrateful 
to  Hwiry  IV.,  who  had  loaded  him  with  &vors 
and  even  saved  his  life  in  the  engagement  at 
Fontaine  Fran^aise,  he  contrived  wUli  Savoy 
and  Spain  a  plot  for  the  dismemberment  of 
France.  His  intrigues  were  discovered  by  the 
king,  who  pardoned  him  once,  and  even  after 
he  renewed  his  treason  Henry  was  disposed  to 
indulgence,  provided  he  would  confess  and  re- 
pent of  his  crime.  Biron,  however,  perasting 
m  denying  every  thing,  was  abandoned  to  jus- 
tice, committed  to  the  Bastile,  and  speedily 
judged,  condemned,  and  executed.  III.  Ab- 
mand Louis  de  (jk>BTAUT,  duke,  a  French  gen- 
eral, born  at  Paris,  April  15,  1747,  died  by  the 
guillotine,  Dec.  81,  1798,  He  bore  the  title  of 
duke  of  liia^uzun  till  1 788.  Surrounded  by  every 
advantage  of  birth  and  fortune,  with  a  noble 
figure  and  cultivated  mind,  he  passed  several 
years  in  dissipation  in  England,  Russia,  Poland, 
and  France,  till  he  was  hopelessly  involved  in 
debt.  He  left  his  property  to  his  creditors; 
went  with  Lafayette  to  fight  for  the  Amer- 
ican revolution ;  returned  to  France,  was  elected 
deputy  for  the  nobility  of  Quercy  to  the  states 
general  of  1789 ;  declared  against  the  court,  and 
became  the  confidant  and  secret  agent  of  Philip- 
pe Egalit6.  He  served  the  republic  in  Corsica, 
Savoy,  and  La  Vendue,  but  was,  nevertheless, 


condemned  to  death  by  the  revolutionary  tribn- 
nal  for  having  favored  the  Vendeana,  anm  he 
had  not  conquered  them.  The  memoirs  pub- 
lished in  1822,  under  the  name  of  the  duke  of 
Lauzun,  are  of  doubtfiil  authentidty. 

BIRON,  BmsN,  or  Bubrbn,  EmrsT  Jora,  a 
Russian  adventurer,  bom  in  1687,  died  Deo.  Sa, 
1772.  The  grandson  of  a  groom,  and  a  groom 
himself,  he  found  access  to  the  household  of 
Anna  Ivanovna,  niece  of  Peter  the  Gieat,  sod 
became  her  feivorite  and  lover  during  her  reign 
in  Couriand,  and  residence  in  l^ttan.  AiUt 
Anna  became  empress,  she  took  Bm)n  with  her 
to  St.  Petersburg,  made  him  great  chambedtiii, 
and  heaped  honors  and  wealth  upon  him.  He 
now  adopted  the  coat  of  arms  and  the  name  of 
the  celebrated  French  ducal  fiunily  of  Binn. 
As  the  favorite  of  the  empress,  he  ruled  aW 
lutely  over  Ruada.  The  princes  Doigomaoki, 
who,  when  Anna  was  made  empress,  kicked 
Biron  out  of  her  doset,  and  made  it  a  oooditioii 
that  he  should  remain  in  Mittan,  beoame  tbe 
first  victims  of  his  vengeance.  Executioos  fol- 
lowed each  other,  and  m  this  manner  thooasods 
were  murdered.  Neither  age  nor  sex  was 
spared.  Among  his  favorite  cruelties  was  that 
of  freezing  his  victims  to  death,  ordering  men 
and  women  to  be  put  naked  under  the  spoots  of 
pumps  in  a  temperature  of— 20°  F.  and  erea  ha. 
During  the  reign  of  Anna,  the  nobUity  of  Coor- 
land,  who  a  few  years  before  had  refused  to  ad- 
mit nis  name  in  the  rolls  of  tiieir  caste,  frighteo- 
ed  by  his  ferocity,  elected  him  as  tiieir  sovereign 
duke,  his  competitor  being  the  celebrated  Mim- 
rice  of  Saxony,  the  natural  son  of  AagoatoaE 
king  of  Poland,  known  as  Mareohal  de  Haze,  and 
as  the  victor  in  the  battle  of  Fontenoy,  who  was 
supported  by  the  interest  of  his  father,  and  of 
Louis  XY.  Named  by  Anna  regent  of  the  em- 
pire, and  tutor  of  her  nephew  and  soeoeasor 
during  his  minority,  the  ambitious  adventorer 
was  suspected  of  a  design  to  push  aade  bis 
pupil,  and  to  seise  the  imperial  crown  for  bis 
own  eldest  son,  marrying  him  to  the  grand 
duchess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great 
His  reign  as  regent  lasted  but  afewmontbs. 
As  early  as  1740,  Field-marshal  MOnich,  once 
his  accomplice,  secretly  conspired  againat  him, 
and  on  the  night  of  Not.  20,  gave  orders  to 
seize  him  in  his  bed,  and  to  put  him  in  irona 
He  was  shut  up  first  in  the  rortress  of  ScUoa- 
selburg,  then  after  his  condemnation  to  deatb 
in  1741,  and  the  commutation  of  this  penalty 
into  exile  for  life,  he  was  sent  to  Pelim  in  Sibe- 
ria. 600  miles  beyond  Tobolsk,  to  a  prison  »e- 
oially  prepared  for  him  by  the  orders  of  Mu- 
nich. The  princess  Anna,  mother  of  the  infant 
sovereign,  was  proclaimed  by  Munich  regent  of 
the  empire,  but  was  in  her  turn  overthrown 
in  1741  by  Elizabeth,  who  beooming  empress, 
sent  Mfinich  to  Siberia,  to  replace  Biron,  whom 
she  recalled  from  his  prison  and  exile.  The  2  an- 
tagonists, the  one  returning  the  other  going, 
met  in  Kaaan  while  chfti^g  post-horses,  and 
exchanged  looks  but  not  words.  Biron  was 
ordered  to   reside  in  the  city  of  Zaroalaw. 


BIBB 


BIBTH 


289 


When  Peter  m.  neoeeded  Elizabeth,  he  re* 
called  Biron  to  Bt  Petenbaiv,  and  Catharine 
II.  subaeqneiitlj  restored  to  mm  his  forfeited 
duehy  of  Oonrlaad.  On  Jan.  20,  1768,  Biron 
entered  his  oapital  of  Mittaa.  His  rule  was 
jnat  ttnd  mild  nntil  his  death.—He  left  2  sons, 
the  eldest  of  whom,  Peter,  sncoeeded  to  the 
didcedom  of  Ooarland,  but  having  given  ooca- 
flion  for  disoontent,  the  Gonrland  nobles  in* 
▼oked  the  inteiferenoe  of  Oatharine.  In  1795 
he  was  obliged  to  eede  his  rights  to  the  empress, 
after  which  he  went  to  Prussia,  where  he  ao- 
qainA  by  purchase  several  duoal  estates,  among 
othenthat  of  Sagan.  He  died  on  one  of  his 
estates  m  1600,  leaving  4  daughters,  one  of 
whom  is  still  known  in  the  elegant  aristooratio 
and  political  world  where  she  first  bore  the 
name  of  the  duehess  of  DIno,  and  afterward 
that  of  the  duchess  of  Sagan. 

BIBB,  or  Pjlbsonstown,  a  town  in  King's 
00.,  Ireland,  62i  miles  finom  Dublin ;  pop.  6,886. 
It  has  had  its  flill  share  of  historical  and  mili- 
tary reeoUeotions  and  disasten,  from  the  9th 
oentury  to  the  battle  of  the  Boyne.  Kear  it  is 
Birr  oastle,  the  residence  of  the  earl  of  Bosbc, 
where  is  ntnated  the  celebrated  observatory 
and  talesoopeof  that  distinguised  man  of  science. 

BIBSTALL,  a  parish  of  Yorkshire,  England^ 
in  the  West  Biding;  7  miles  8.  W.  of  Leeds; 
pop.  86,222.  It  contains  8  populous  township^ 
and  41  wodlen  and  worstea  mills.  There  are 
also  ootton  and  silk  manu&oUMries,  and  mines  of 
coal  and  iron.  The  York  and  North  Midland 
railway  passes  near  the  place. 

BIBTH.  The  birth  of  a  child  is  its  deliver- 
ance from  the  womb  of  the  mother,  in  whidi 
it  had  lived  some  40  weeks  already,  without 
breathing ;  it  is  the  commencement  of  a  sepa- 
rate existence  in  the  world,  in  which  the  in&nt 
lives  and  breathes  as  other  beings  of  its  race 
and  species.  The  physical  organism  of  man 
commences  its  existence  in  the  womb,  flrat 
as  an  embryo,  which  is  gradually  developed 
into  a  fostus ;  then  as  an  immature  corporeal 
frame ;  and  finally  as  a  mature  child,  sufficient- 
ly developed  to  be  bom  into  the  world.  At 
the  end  of  the  89th  or  the  beginnmg  of  the 
40th  week,  the  child  has  reached  its  perfect 
uterine  devek^mient,  and  is  prepared  for  birth 
into  the  external  world;  but  various  causes  in- 
ddentsl  to  the  mother,  may  precipitate  the 
parturient  efforts  of  the  womb,  and  cause  un- 
timely birth;  or  retard  the  natural  course  of 
labor,  and  require  artificial  aid  in  parturition. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  birth,  therefore,  such 
as  jHiemature,  mature,  and  late ;  untimely,  nat- 
unu,  and  artificial ;  healthy,  unhealtiiy,  and 
irregular ;  normal,  abnormal,  and  exceptional ; 
and  all  these  complications  depend  mainly  on 
the  health  of  the  mother,  although  the  health 
and  i^ysioal  conformation  of  <£e  child  may 
be  advantageouslv  or  otherwise  affected  by 
the  infiuenoe  of  the  parent  on  its  uterine  exist- 
ence. The  period  of  gestation  differs  widely 
in  animals  of  different  species ;  but  in  each 
particular  species  it  is  fixed  by  nature  with  pre- 
VOL.  m. — 19 


cInoB,  so  that  all  departures  from  the  natural 
period  of  gestation  in  the  human  race  or  any 
other  species  of  mammalia,  are  accidental  or 
exceptional  phenomena.  The  40th  week  is  the 
natural  time  of  labor  for  a  healthy  woman. 
The  child  is  then  mature  for  birth.  Oontyo- 
tions  of  the  womb  commence  about  that  time, 
and  give  sensations  of  a  somewhat  violent  na» 
ture,  which  are  commonly  called  "labor  pains." 
The  preliminary  pangs  do  not  last  long,  and  only 
give  a  feeling  of  unpleasant  strain  or  pressure. 
The  pregnant  female  seized  with  these  slight 
pains,  may  be  unable  to  move  for  a  short 
space  of  time;  but  when  the  pain  is  gone,  she 
may  feel  well  again  for  several  hours.  These 
are  called  *^ false  labor  pains,"  and  "premoni- 
tory symptoms.'^  After  some  hours,  true 
labor  pains  commence.  They  are  more  violent, 
last  longer,  and  return  sooner.  They  are 
caused  by  contraotioDs  of  the.  womb,  and  in- 
voluntary efforts  to  expel  the  foetus.  During 
the  period  of  gestation,  the  womb  grows  larger 
with  the  growth  of  the  embryo,  and  at  the 
time  of  utftnrition  has  acquired  considerable 
force  ana  volume.  The  cervix  uteri  and  the 
vagina,  on  the  other  hand,  become  relaxed  and 
capable  of  much  distention  at  that  time.  The 
child  is  enveloped  in  a  double  sac  of  mem- 
branes filled  with  an  albuminous  fluid,  the 
head  downward  and  the  face  in  front;  but,  as 
the  uterus  contracts  above,  it  forces  downward 
the  contents  with  a  sort  of  spiral  movement, 
causing  the  chUd  to  descend,  head  first,  frxim 
the  abdominal  to  the  pelvic  region,  with  the 
back  of  the  head  in  lieu  of  the  face  finally 
turned  in  front  The  fluid  contained  in  the 
membranes  envelofnng  the  foetus  is  usually 
forced  out  first,  with  a  portion  of  the  sac, 
forming  a  sort  of  bladder,  commonly  called  the 
"  bag  of  waters,"  which  gradually  distends  the 
parts,  before  the  child  is  bom.  By  repeated 
contractions  of  the  womb,  the  bag  of  waters 
soon  bursts,  dischaigiDg  the  contents,  dimin- 
ishing the  volume,  and  allowing  the  head 
of  the  child  to  occupy  the  lower  space.  The 
b<mes  of  the  cranium  are  imperfectly  united  at 
this  period,  and  easily  yield  in  various  direc- 
tions, to  suit  the  form  of  the  external  parts,  as 
the  head  descends  into  the  pelvic  cavity,  and 
passes  through  the  os  tinco  and  the  opening  of 
the  vulva.  When  the  head  has  passed,  the 
body  follows  easily  and  n^idly.  Such  is  the 
process  of  a  natural  birth;  and  in  a  healthy 
state,  all  parturition  would  be  natural  and  easy, 
unattended  with  much  pain,  beycmd  the  pasung 
pangs  of  a  few  violent  spasmodic  efforts  in  the 
womb^  contracting  to  expel  the  fostus.  There 
are,  however,  some  exceptions  to  this  natural 
process,  mostly  in  feeble  and  unhealthy  wo- 
men. An  easy  birth  occurs  in  due  season, 
and  without  much  straimng  effort  A  difficult 
birth  proceeds  naturally,  but  with  some  delay 
and  painful  effbrts.  Instead  of  terminating  in 
an  hour  or  two,  it  may  be  prolonged  over  8  or 
10  or  20  hours,  or  more ;  sometimes  even  lasting 
several  days^  though  rarely  more  than  one. 


290 


BIRTH 


BiaAYA 


Protracted  labors  are  not  always  very  pidnful; 
they  are  necessary  to  prepare  the  parts,  in  wo- 
men who  are  not  very  young  when  they  give 
birth  to  a  first  child.  An  artificial  birth  is  ac- 
complished by  the  aid  of  instraments  or  by 
th||^ands  of  the  practitioner.  Sometimes  it  is 
comparatively  easy,  and  withont  much  pain. 
It  is,  in  fact^  mostly  iAtended  to  facilitate  a 
difficult  natural  birth.  A  premature  birth  is 
one  which  occurs  some  weeks  before  the  natu- 
ral period;  mostly  at  the  end  of  the  7th 
month,  in  lieu  of  the  9th.  Though  40  weeks 
is  die  full  period  of  uterine  maturitv,  the  hu- 
man foBtus  is  completely  formed  at  the  end  of 
the  6th  month;  and  there  are  instances  on 
record  of  5-months  children  living.  The  bu*th 
is  called  ^  untimely''  when  it  occurs  before  the 
end  of  the  7th  month,  and  such  children  can 
rarely  be  kept  alive.  A  premature  birth,  even 
at  the  end  of  7  months,  is  very  different  from 
a  natural  birth  at  the  full  period.  The  child 
does  not  cry  like  a  full-grown  infant,  but  utters 
a  faint  sound,  sleeps  constantly,  and  must  be 
warmly  wrapped  in  flannel  day  and  night,  or  its 
hands  and  feet  might  be  immediately  chilled,  and 
injured  for  the  rest  of  life.  According  as  the 
omld,  thus  prematurely  bom,  is  more  or  less 
mature  in  uterine  development,  the  skin  is  red 
over  the  whole  body,  or  sometimes  blue,  and 
covered  with  a  fine,  long,  downy  hair,  particu- 
larly on  the  sides  of  the  face  and  on  the  back. 
The  fontanel  is  large ;  the  bones  of  the  skull 
are  easily  moved;  the  face  is  wrinkled  and 
looks  old ;  the  eyes  are  often  closed ;  the  finger 
and  toe  nails  are  tender,  soft,  and  very  short. 
The  body  is  very  small,  weighing  but  5  or  6 
pounds  at  most^  in  lieu  of  8  or  10,  or  more.  It 
18  sometimes  said,  however,  that  a  7-montha 
child  is  more  easily  kept  alive  than  one  which 
is  born  during  the  8th  month ;  but  this  is 
not  well  ascertained.  "Late  birth''  is  said 
to  occur  after  the  usual  term  of  40  weeks, 
which  some  believe  is  possible,  while  others 
doubt.  There  are  many  causes  of  deception 
and  mistake  in  ordinary  reckonings  of  time 
with  pregnant  women,  who  are  seldom  abso- 
lutely sure  of  the  exact  commencement  of  their 
pregnancy.  Sometimes  they  know  exactly,  and 
oftener  not.  The  question  is  of  some  interest 
in  medical  Jurisprudence,  where  a  child  born 
more  than  40  weeks  after  the  absence  or  the 
death  of  the  reputed  f&ther,  is  to  be  conddered 
as  legitimate  or  otherwise.  Some  believe  that 
nature  never  exceeds  40  weeks'  gestation  in  the 
human  species;  while  others  are  inclined  to 
think  that  she  is  susceptible  of  various  excep- 
tions to  the  general  law,  both  with  regard  to 
premature  parturition  and  protracted  periods 
of  gestation.  Abortions  and  miscarriages  are 
not  uncommon.  They  occur  from  the  begin- 
ning of  pregnancy  up  to  the  5th  month,  or 
later ;  but  mostly  during  the  8d  month.  Vio- 
lent emotions,  and  shocks  of  body  or  of  mind, 
causing  sudden  revulsions  of  the  nervous  sys- 
tem,  are  the  common  causes  of  miscarriage  and 
Abortion.    Weakly  and  excitable  constitutions 


are  most  liable  to  these  revulsions,  which  de- 
tach the  embryo  or  the  partially  formed  foetus 
from  the  womb,  before  the  time  appointed  by 
the  laws  of  nature.  Birth  may  occur,  there- 
fore, prematurely,  maturely,  or  Uter  than  the 
usual  period.  The  child  may  be  naturally 
healthy  or  unhealthy  in  the  womb ;  or,  if  healthy 
in  the  womb,  it  may  be  injured  at  the  birth  by 
malformation  in  the  mother,  or  mismanagemeat 
in  the  delivery.  Birth  may  be  untimdiy,  or 
natural,  or  artificial,  where  instrumenta  or  ar- 
tificial aid  are  used  in  parturition.  It  may  be 
normal,  or  abnormal,  where  the  fcatus  is  well 
formed  in  the  womb,  or  undeveloped  in  its  due 
proportions ;  and  where  two  or  more  are  bom 
as  twins,  the  case  is  more  or  less  excq)tioDal; 
•the  birth  of  each  one  may  be  difficult,  or  not, 
as  their  positions  or  presentations  are  unfavora- 
ble or  otherwise.  l^atural  birth  at  the  full 
time  is  veiy  simple,  and  fortunately  the  most 
common.  Difficult  parturition  requires  careful 
management  by  an  aocomplished  midwife;  and 
as  every  variety  of  accident  and  difficulty  has 
been  well  observed  and  studied,  there  is  litde 
apprehension  of  unpleasant  complication  where 
good  advice  is  sought  in  time. 

BISATA,  a  word  signifying  to  tattoo;  the 
name  ^ven  to  the  people  of  that  portion  of  the 
Philippine  archipelago,  comprising  Samar,  Pa- 
nay,  Leyte,  Negros,  Zebu,  Masbate,  Bohol, 
Sibuyan,  Ticao,  Guimaras,  Panamao,  and  nu- 
merous smaller  islands.  The  Bisayans  comprise 
about  ith  of  the  population  of  the  Philippine 
islands.  The  Bisayan  language,  of  which  there 
are  10  or  12  dialects,  differing  very  much  in  the 
form  of  words,  is  regarded  by  Spanish  and  Eng- 
lish writers  as  an  original  tongue,  having  no 
essential  affinity  with  the  Malay,  or  other  lan- 
guage of  the  Indian  islands;  however,  a  consul- 
totion  of  the  copious  dictionary  of  Father  Juan 
de  Noceda,  published  at  Manila  in  1841,  which 
contains  2  dialects  of  the  island  of  Panay,  the 
Hiligneina  and  Haraya,  may  lead  others,  as  it 
has  the  writer  of  this  artide,  to  arrive  at  a  dif- 
ferent conclusion.  It  has  been  remarked  that 
the  Bisayan  language  is  singularly  wordy  rather 
than  copious.  One  illustration  of  this  verbosity 
in  the  Bisayan  language,  is  given  by  Mr.  Graw- 
furd,  the  historian  of  the  Indian  archipelago,  to 
show  the  absence  of  any  essential  Malay  ele- 
ment in  the  language.  To  eat  is  expressed  by 
40  different  terms;  to  eat  generally,  ha^f^ 
which  certainl  V  is  not  far  removed  from  makan 
in  Maky ;  mahimaku^  to  eat  a  littie  (the  Ma- 
lays often  repeat  an  adjjective  to  express  a  dimi- 
nutive, as  haehil-kaehil^  very  littie) ;  duum^  to 
eat  greedily,  to  gorge ;  and  diyam  or  dwm  is 
Malay  for  jBilent ;  iomang^  to  eat  by  morsels, 
and  Mmbung^  is  to  piece  in  Malay ;  hUa%^  to 
eat  raw  meat,  and  hulih  is  skin  in  Malay; 
paMt^  to  eat  pork;  and/o^t,  and  uvci,  are  Ar- 
chipelagian  names  for  pig,  derived  from  the 
Malay,  ^oM;  and  thus  throughout  the  Bisayan 
language,  there  can  be  traced  an  essential  rela- 
tionship to  the  language  of  the  great  navigators 
of  the  Indian  and  Padfic  oceans. 


BISCAY 


BISCUIT 


291 


BISCAY,  one  of  the  Basqne  provinces  of 
Spain,  bounded  K  by  the  bay  of  Biscay,  S. 
by  Alava,  E.  by  Guipnzooa,  W.  by  Santand- 
er ;  area,  1,064  sq.  miles ;  pop.  160,000,  in- 
cluding some  5,500  nobles.  The  surface  is 
irregukr;  the  dimate  healthy;  the  soil,  though 
not  naturally  very  fertile,  is  by  cultivation 
made  productive.  Fruit,  Indian  com,  and 
vegetables  are  sTOwn  abundantly,  and  of  the 
finest  quality.  The  country  is  principally  di- 
vided into  small  farms,  in  tJie  hands  of  the 
owners,  who  are  frequently  the  descendants  of 
ancient  families.  The  houses  are  mostly  of 
stone,  and  many  of  the  old  chateaux  and  towers 
have  been  converted  into  farm-houses.  The 
iron  of  Biscay  is  of  the  first  ezcelleoce.  It  is 
said  Uiat  the  great  mine  of  Somorostro  produces 
about  40,000  tons  annually,  though  this  seems 
an  excessive  estimate.  The  chief  occupation  of 
the  Biscayansy  beside  agriculture,  is  fisnery  and 
the  ooastiug  trade.  The  local  government  is 
now  under  the  general  charge  of  the  captain 
general  of  San  Sebastian. 

BISCAY,  Bat  of,  an  extensive  bay  of  the 
Atlantic,  the  opening  of  which  extends  from 
cfipe  Ortegal  to  Ushant.  It  is  about  400  miles 
wide  and  200  miles  in  length,  being  nearly 
semicircular.  It  is  exceedingly  stormy  and 
tempestuous ;  the  whole  force  of  the  westerly 
winds  is  felt,  while  the  recoil  of  the  waves 
from  the  ooast  causes  a  very  heavy  sea.  A 
current  sweeps  round  the  inside  of  the  bay, 
known  as  Rennell*s  current,  which  runs  some* 
times  26  miles  per  day.  The  Spanish  coast 
washed  by  the  waters  of  the  bay  is  bold  and 
rooky.  The  barren  clif&  and  fh)wning  preci- 
piees  of  Cape  Finisterre  are  particularly  gloomy 
and  grand.  There  are  various  small  safe  har- 
bors on  this  coast.  The  French  coast  is  low 
and  sandy  as  far  as  the  Loire,  north  of  which  it 
is  of  moderate  height.  The  principal  French 
harbors  of  the  bay  of  Biscay  are  Bayonne,  Bor- 
deaux, La  Bochelle,  Nantes,  Yannes,  and  L'Ori- 
entb  The  rivers  of  the  north  of  Spain,  which 
from  the  contiguity  of  the  mountain  cnain  to 
the  coast  are  not  of  size  or  importance,  find 
their  outlet  in  the  bay  of  Biscay,  which  re- 
ceives from  France  the  Loire,  the  Garonne,  and 
some  smaller  streams. 

BISCAY,  New,  in  Mexico.    See  Dttbango. 

BISCEGLIA,  a  strongly  fortified  seaport 
town  of  Naples,  Terra  di  Bari,  21  miles  W.  N. 
"W.  of  Bari.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has 
a  cathedral,  2  monasteries,  a  hospital,  and  an 
eccledastical  college.  The  harbor  only  admits 
small  vessels.    Pop.  15,000. 

BISCHOFF,  Geobo  Fbiedbich,  the  origina- 
tor of  the  German  musical  societies  and  S&n- 
gerbOnde,  bom  at  Ellrich  in  the  Hartz,  Aug.  21, 
1780,  died  Sept.  17, 1841.  In  1808  he  was  em- 
ployed by  the  French  government  at  Erfurt, 
and  appeared  with  his  societies  before  Napoleon 
and  the  other  monarohs. 

BISCHOFF,  Theodoh  Lunwio  "Wilhelm,  a 
German  physiologist,  born  Oct.  28, 1807,  at  Han- 
over, was  professor  at  Hackelburg  in  1886,  and 


in  1848  became  professor  of  the  school  of  ana- 
tomy and  surgery  at  Gressen,  where  he  found- 
ed a  museum  of  anatomy  and  physiology.  He 
has  written  several  treatises  on  entomology. 

BISCHOFF  VON  ALTENSTEIN,  Gnate 
BuDOLF,  a  German  physician,  born  Aug.  15, 
1782,  at  Kremsnaunster,  in  Austria,  died  July 
15,  1850.  He  was  professor  at  Prsgue  and  Vi- 
enna, and  published  a  work  on  typhus  and  ne> 
vous  fevers  in  1815.  and  also  books  on  chronic 
diseases,  the  natural  history  of  man,  pulmonary 
diseases,  and  poisons.  He  had  a  high  reputa- 
tion in  all  Germany,  both  as  a  practitioner  and 
as  a  medical  writer. 

BISCHOFSWERDA,  a  city  of  Saxony,  capi- 
tal of  a  jurisdiction  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
river  Wesenitz,  having  3,250  inhabitants,  chiefly 
employed  in  the  manufacture  of  cloths  and 
the  preparation  of  granite  building  stones. '  On 
a  neighboring  summit  is  the  castle  of  St  John, 
which  was  finished  in  1856.  Bischofswerda 
was  raised  to  a  city  by  Benno,  bishop  of 
Meissen,  in  1076.  It  has  suffered  several  con- 
flagrations, one  of  which  was  by  the  Hussitea 
in  1429,  and  another  in  an  engagement  between 
the  French  and  Russians  in  1818,  but  Napoleon 
gave  100,000  francs  as  an  indemnity.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  the  theologian  Bahrdt 

BISCHOFSWERDEB,  Johann  RunoLr  vok, 
a  Prussian  statesman,  born  in  Saxony  about 
1788,  died  near  Berlin  in  1808.  Under  Frede- 
ric William  U.  he  had  an  almost  supreme 
power  in  the  government.  As  plenipotentiary 
of  Prussia  he  was  at  the  Congress  of  Szistowe, 
and  brought  together  the  king  and  the  emperor 
Leopold  at  Pilnitz.  In  1782,  being  made  a 
general,  he  accompanied  the  king  in  a  cam- 
paign, and  was  subsequently  ambassador  in 
Paris  till  1794.  When  Frederio  William  died 
in  1797,  he  received  a  pension,  and  was  forbid- 
den again  to  present  himself  at  court. 

BISCHOP,  NiooLAS,  in  Latin  Epiboopiub,  a 
Swiss  printer,  bom  at  Weissemburg,  near  the 
end  of  the  15th  century.  He  was  learned  in  the 
Greek  and  Latin  languages,  and  having  married 
the  daughter  and  associated  himself  in  business 
with  the  son  of  the  famous  Jean  Froben,  under- 
took to  publish  at  Basel  a  collection  of  the 
Greek  fathers,  and  began  the  series  with  the 
works  of  St.  Basil,  in  1529. 

BISCHWILLER,  a  town  in  France^  situated 
on  the  Moder,  14  miles  N.  of  Strasburg,  pop.  in 
1856,  7,676.  It  was  formerly  foitified,  but  was 
dismantled  by  the  imperialists  in  1706.  Near 
Bischwiller  is  situated  the  rich  iron  mine  of 
Mittelhardt  Its  manufactures  consist  of  wool- 
len and  linen  stuffs,  oil,  soap,  and  earthenware. 

BISCUIT,  in  pottery,  the  name  (^ven  to 
porcelain  ware  which  has  been  twice  baked, 
but  has  not  received  the  finishing  process  ox 
glazing.  Many  beautiful  ornamental  articles, 
as  vases,  medallions,  statuettes,  and  other  imi- 
tations of  sculpture,  are  made  of  this  material, 
and  for  durability  and  cleanliness  they  are  to  be 
preferred  to  ^e  same  articles  in  marble  or  ala- 
baster.   They  often  possess  the  translucency  of 


292 


BISHABEEN 


BISHOP 


the  finest  Parian  marble.  The  moat  &moiu 
nuumfectories  of  ornaments  in  porcelain  bisonit 
are  thoee  of  Sdvres  in  France.  The  work  has 
also  been  carried  to  a  high  state  of  perfection 
in  England,  principally  by  the  ingenuity  and  in- 
dustry of  Josiah  Wedgewood,  whose  name  is 
still  attached  to  the  peculiar  varieties  of  the 
ware  which  he  introduced.  Several  kinds  of 
biscuit  are  produced  by  hiB  proceases,  as  the 
porcelain-biscuit,  which  possesses  such  hard- 
ness, that  it  is  used  for  mortars  for  domestic 
and  chemical  purposes;  the  white  porcelain- 
biscuit,  also  of  extreme  hardness,  and  employ- 
ed for  many  useful  and  ornamental  articles;  the 
bamboo,  or  biscuit  of  the  yellow  color  of  canes, 
and  the  jasper,  a  white  biscuit  of  great  beauty 
and  delicacy,  suitable  for  cameos  and  other  simi- 
lar objects. 

BI^lHAREEN,  Bibbabtb,  or  Bnxri,  the  col- 
lective name  of  a  number  of  tribes  who  inhabit 
the  desert  between  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and 
the  Bed  sea,  and  ^rting  the  districts  of  Nubia 
and  Abyssinia,  ^hey  are  nomadic  in  their 
mode  of  life,  but  not  of  Arabian  descent. 
Camels,  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  asses,  are  their 
only  wealth.  In  winter  they  pasture  their 
flocks  on  the  mountains  near  the  Bed  sea,  where 
the  rain  produces  herbage  in  the  gnUeys  of 
the  winter  streams,  but  in  summer  they  are 
obliged  to  desoend  to  the  Nile.  For  this  privilege 
of  getting  grass  they  pay  tribute  to  the  Abab- 
des.  They  live  entirely  upon  milk  and  flesh, 
which  they  eat  raw.  A  few  of  them  sometimes 
visit  Derr  or  Asswan,  with  senna,  sheep,  and 
ostrich  feathers.  In  exchange  thev  take  shbrts 
and  dhurra,  the  grains  of  which  tiiey  swallow 
uncooked.  They  resemble  the  Ababdes  in  ap- 
pearance. Their  complexion  is  dark  brown; 
the  dress  of  both  sexes  consists  only  of  a  sort 
of  shirt  They  live  in  tents  covered  with 
the  leaves  of  the  doum  pidm.  The  Bishareen 
are  constantly  armed  with  the  primitive  bow 
and  arrow.  Their  youths  make  plundering  ex- 
cursions, mounted  upon  camels  of  a  superior 
breed.  They  stand  in  dread  of  the  Ababdes, 
who  often  surprise  their  mountain  encamp- 
ments. They  are  hostile  toward  strangers,  and 
have  left  un&vorable  impressions  upon  travel* 
lers.  They  are  Mohammedans,  but  ao  not  ob- 
serve the  rites  prescribed  by  the  Koran.  Very 
few  of  them  understand  Arabic ;  those  who 
live  on  the  Abyssinian  frontier  understand  tiie 
Abyssinian,  to  which  their  own  l^mguage  is 
closely  allied.  Burckhardt's  "Travels  in  Nu- 
bia," is  the  chief  authority  concerning  them. 

BISHARIBA,  a  people  of  Nubia,  in  Africa, 
more  than  200,000  in  number,  who  lead  a  no- 
madic life  in  a  desert  tract,  which  they  call 
Edbai,  between  lat.  23*  and  16**  N.  They  are 
of  a  dark  brown,  almost  black  color,  with  de- 
cided negro  features,  but  of  a  mild,  humane,  in- 
telligent, and  almost  European  character.  They 
abide  principally  around  the  mountain  Elba. 
The  Amarer,  to  the  south  of  this  mountain,  is 
the  most  powerful  of  the  tribes  into  which  the 
people  is  divided.    The  language  of  the  Bisha- 


riba,  called  the  Beiranie,  is  spoken  from  the 
Bed  sea  to  the  Nile,  and  from  the  southern 
boundary  of  Egypt  to  Suakim,  and  is  wholly 
different  fiT>m  the  ndghborins  lauffuages.  A 
dialect  of  it  is  spoken  by  the  AbaMes,  an 
almost  independent  nomadic  people  dwelliDg 
further  north. 

BISHOP  (Sax.  Uieop,  from  Or.  circmcotfof,  a 
superintendent),  in  the  Greek,  Latin,  and  An- 
glican churches,  the  title  given  to  those  who 
are  of  the  highest  order  of  the  priesthood,  to 
the  successors  of  the  12  ^)ostles,  in  distindioa 
from  the  priests  who  are  the  successors  of  the 
72  disciples ;  in  the  Methodist  l^isoopal  and 
Moravian  (lurches,  and  in  the  Protestant 
churches  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark, 
it  is  the  title  given  to  the  highest  officers  in 
the  ministry,  who  are  not,  however,  regarded 
as  a  distinct  order;  in  Germany  the  office  Is 
hardly  more  than  titular,  and  is  conferred  upon 
princes  as  well  as  ecclesiastics.  The  name  was 
borrowed  by  the  firrt  Christians  from  the  lan- 
guages of  Greece  and  Boin€L  in  which  it  derig- 
nated  a  civil  magistrate.  Tnu%  Cicero  was  at 
one  time  €pmopu$  arm  eampanim*  In  the  New 
Testament,  the  words  bishop  and  presbyter,  or 
priest^  are  sometimes  interchanged,  as  in  Acts 
XX.  17,  28,  and  St  John,  in  his  last  2  epistles, 
adopts  the  title  of  priest.  Tet,  as  maintained 
by  Boman  Catholic  writers,  it  does  not  follow 
because  the  names  priest  and  bishop  were  then 
applied  indistinctly,  that  there  existed  no  dis- 
tinction between  the  episcopate  and  the  priest* 
hood.  ^'  There  might  have  been  confusion  fn 
the  names,**  says  St.  Thomas,  ^^bnt  not  in  the 
characten.*'  Timothy  and  Titus  exhibited  tiie 
episcopal  type  during  ^e  life  of  St  Paul,  who 
chai^ged  Titus,  in  consecrating  him  bishop  <^ 
the  isle  of  Crete,  to  ordain  priests  in  every 
town,  to  have  over  them  fhll  Juris^ction,  and 
to  be  the  judge  before  whom  complaints  might 
be  established  by  2  or  8  witnesses.  In  the 
epistles  of  Ignatius,  in  the  beginning  of  the  2d 
oentury,  the  episcopate  is  represented  as  the 
divinely  appointed  pillar  which  sostMns  the 
whole  ecclesiastical  structure.  The  bishops 
preside  in  the  church  as  the  representative  of 
God,  and  the  p»riestB  hold  the  place  <^  the  apos- 
tolic senate.  Tertullian  directs  the  priests  and 
deacons  to  do  nothing  without  the  consent  of 
the  bishop.  Cyprian  speaks  of  the  bi^op  as 
the  successor  of  tiie  aposties,  the  vicar  of 
Christ,  the  representative  and  individual  organ 
of  the  church,  in  which  he  has  supreme  power, 
bemg  rq>ondble  to  God  alone,  and  yet  bound 
in  important  matters  to  receive  the  counsel  of 
his  presbyters.  Bishops  in  the  Catholic  church 
are  regarded  as  officers  appointed  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  govern  the  church  of  God.  The  au- 
tiiority  which  they  exerdse  bdongs  to  their 
character,  and  comes  from  God  himself,  while 
the  Jurisdiction  of  the  priests  emanates  only  from 
a  bishop,  and  can  be  exerdsed  only  under  his 
direction.  Bishops  are  necessary  not  only  to 
watch  and  preside  over  the  church,  but  also  to 
secure  the  continuity  of  the  ministry,  and  to 


BISHOP 


298 


transmit  by  ordination  tlie  mLnion  which  they 
have  received  from  Jesas  Christ  They  are  all 
eqaal  in  power,  becaiuBe  they  have  all  received 
the  fulness  of  the  priesthood,  bat  there  are  de- 
grees of  jurisdiction  and  honor  according  to  the 
importance  of  the  sees  which  they  occupy. 
The  principal  distioctions  which  have  been  m- 
troduced  are  the  patriarchs,  exarchs,  and  arch- 
bishops, and  above  all,  the  bishop  of  Borne,  the 
pope,  around  whom  all  other  bishops  rally  as 
rays  to  a  common  centre.  At  first,  the  bishops 
were  elected  by  the  clergy  and  people  of  the 
diocese,  but  oif  account  of  the  tumults  insepa- 
rable from  popular  assemblies,  various  oonncils, 
from  that  of  Laodicea  in  the  4th  century,  to 
that  of  Lateran  in  1215,  restrained  and  sup- 
pressed the  electoral  rights  of  the  laity. 
Charlemagne  and  other  of  the  northern  kings 
appointed,  by  their  own  authority,  the  bishops 
of  their  own  kingdoms.  The  pope,  tmwilling 
that  bishops  should  be  dependent  upon  princes, 
brought  it  about  that  the  canons  in  cathedral 
churchoB  should  have  the  election  of  their 
bishops,  which  elections  were  usually  con- 
firmed at  Rome.  At  present  the  mode  of 
electing  bishops  varies  in  different  countries* 
They  are  elected  in  some  countries  by  cathedral 
canons;  in  others,  as  in  France  and  Bavariai 
they  are  nominated  by  the  crown  or  govern- 
ments. In  all  cases  the  names  designated  are  sent 
to  £ome  for  confirmation,  and  the  person  chosen 
is  appointed  to  his  see  by  letters  i^postolic.  Ac- 
cording to  the  decrees  of  the  council  of  Trent, 
the  candidate  for  this  order  must  be  of  legiti- 
mate birth,  SO  years  old,  well  reputed  for  learn* 
ing  and  morality,  usually  a  native  of  the  coun- 
try in  which  his  bishopric  lies,  and  acceptable 
to  the  political  government  thereof.  Within  8 
months  from  his  confirmation  he  receives  the 
rite  of  consecration,  which  is  performed  in  the 
cathedral  of  the  new  bishop,  according  to  the 
directions  of  the  pontifical,  by  8  bishops  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose.  The  candidate  takes 
the  ancient  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  pope,  the 
oath  of  civil  allegiance,  subscribes  to  the  con- 
lession  of  fiuth,  receives  the  insignia  of  his 
ofGlce,  is  anointed  and  solemnly  enthrcmed,  and 
concludes  the  ceremony  with  pronouncing  the 
bttiediotion.  His  insignia  are  a  mitre,  the  sym- 
bol of  power,  a  crosier,  in  allusion  to  his  shep- 
herd's duties,  a  finger-ring  (aniiulu$  pastoralu)^ 
a  sign  of  his  marriage  with  the  church,  a  cross  on 
^e  breast,  distinctive  gloves  and  sandals,  and  an 
offidal  robe.  The  functions  of  tlie  bishop  em- 
brace all  the  rites  and  offices  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion. He  administers  5  sacraments  in  common 
with  priests,  and  2  others,  those  of  confirmation 
and  ordination,  are  his  peculiar  prerogatives. 
He  examines  and  approves  or  condemns  the 
works  published  in  his  diocese  concerning  re- 
ligioiL  and  takes  part  in  the  general  councils  con- 
voked by  the  pope  for  deciding  questions  of  faith. 
The  guardian  of  discipline,  he  makes  statutes 
and  ordinances  which  he  judges  necessary  to 
the  maintenance  of  it,  dispenses  with  canons 
acoording  to  the  canons  themselves^  judges  the 


of  eodesiastics,  and  has  power  of  suspen- 
sion, exconmiunioation,  and  absolution.  There 
are  Catholic  bishops  who  have  no  dioceses,  and 
who  perform  duties  within  limits  assigned  by 
the  holy  see  as  vicars  apostolic  They  bear  the 
title  of  bishops  in  pa/rtihu  ir^fidelium^  because 
they  are  assigned  to  sees  which  are  in  the 
possession*  of  infidels,  and  are  specially  dele- 
gated to  ecclesiastical  duties  elsewhere.  These 
were  originally  bishops,  who  had  been  expelled 
by  Mohammedan  conquests  from  their  dioceses 
in  the  East,  and  were  afterward  appointed  by 
the  pope  as  an  expression  of  a  perpetual  hope 
and  a  Protest  witn  respect  to  those  conquered 
sees. — The  Protestant  movement  introduced 
new  conceptions  of  the  church,  imd  changed 
the  form  of  church  government  In  the  dif- 
ferent branches  of  Protestantism,  there  was 
substituted  for  bishops  either  the  presbytery 
or  ecdesiastical  autonomy,  or  the  office  of 
bishop  was  retained  with  diminished  powers. 
Only  in  England  has  episcopacy  been  defended 
by  ProtestfiUQts  as  a  divine  institution.  Other 
Protestants  affirm  its  post-apostolic,  and  there- 
fore human  origin.  The  functions  of  the  An- 
glican bishop  are  confirmation,  ordination  of 
deacons  and  priests,  consecration  of  other  bish- 
ops, dedication  or  consecration  of  religious  edi- 
fices and  grounds,  administration  of  the  effects 
of  deceased  persons  till  some  one  has  proved  a 
right  of  executorship,  a^ndication  in  questions 
respecting  matrimony  and  divorce,  institution 
or  collation  to  vacant  churches  in  their  diocese, 
superintendence  of  the  conduct  of  the  priests 
in  the  same,  and  power  of  suspension,  depri- 
vation, deposition,  degradation,  and  excommu- 
nication. They  are  also  the  medium  of  com- 
munication between  the  king  and  people  upon 
matters  relating  to  religion.  They  are  peers  of 
the  realm,  members  of  the  house  of  lords,  and 
for  the  most  part  richly  endowed.  Recently, 
the  revenue  of  the  different  sees  has  been  re- 
duced more  nearly  to  an  equality,  and  the  in- 
come of  the  archbbhop  of  Canterbury  has  been 
fixed  at  £15,000,  that  of  the  archbishop  of 
York  at  £10,000,  those  of  London,  Durham, 
and  Winchester  at  £8,000  each,  and  the  others 
at  from  £5,500  to  £4,500.  The  Anglican 
bishops  are  nominated  by  the  crown,  and  then 
form^y  elected  by  the  chapters.  The  ecclesi- 
astical powers  of  bishops  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church  of  America  resemble  those  of 
the  Ai^lican  bishops,  but  they  have  no  politi- 
cal functions.  They  are  elected  by  the  clerical 
and  lay  deputies  of  the  vacant  diocese  aawmbled 
in  convention,  and  before  consecration  are  re- 
quired to  produce  certificates  before  the  house 
of  bishops,  and  the  house  of  clerical  and  lay 
deputies  in  gener|l  convention.  The  rights  of 
this  office  are  so  restricted  in  Germany  that 
even  Roman  Catholic  rulers  have  sometimes 
been  made  bishops  in  the  Lutheran  church.  In 
Prussia  and  Nassau  this  titie  is  ordinarily  given 
to  the  general  superintendents  of  the  Evangeli- 
cal church.  Attempts  have  been  made  without 
success  to  give  this  church  an  episcopal  organi- 


294 


BISHOP 


BISMABK 


zation. — ^The  bishops  of  the  Greek  church  are 
appointed  hj  the  archbishops,  and  most  be  se- 
lected from  the  monks,  and  are  therefore  always 
nnmarried.  They  have  much  less  authority 
than  the  Roman  Oatholic  bishops. — The  bishop- 
ric is  the  district  or  diocese  over  which  a  bishop 
has  spiritual  jurisdiction.  There  are  in  Eng- 
land, exclusive  of  the  archbishoprics,  26  bishop- 
rics of  the  Anglican  church,  12  in  Ireland,  and  82 
colonial  bishoprics.  In  the  United  States  there 
are  86  bishoprics  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
church,  and  87  of  the  Roman  Oatholic  church. 
There  are  6  bishops  in  the  northern  division 
of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church,  and  6  in 
the  southern.  Over  the  entire  world  there  are 
560  Roman  Oatholic  bishoprics.  See  also  Abch- 

BISHOP. 

BISHOP,  SiB  HsmsT  Rowurr,  an  English 
musical  composer,  bom  in  London  in  1TT6,  died 
April  80, 1856.  In  1806  he  composed  the  music* 
of  a  ballet,  entitled  "'  Tamerlane  and  Bajazet," 
which  was  performed  at  the  Italian  opera  house, 
and,  in  1808,  that  of  ^  Oaractacus,"  a  pantomime 
ballet,  at  Drury  Lane.  At  this  theatre,  in  the 
following  year,  was  successfiilly  produced  his 
first  opera,  '^The  Oircassian  Bride,"  but  on  the 
following  evening  (Feb.  24,  1809)  the  theatre 
was  burned  to  the  ground,  and  with  it  the  score 
of  the  opera;  the  duet,  **I  love  thee,'\alone 
remaining  to  show  the  character  of  the  music 
Between  that  time  and  1826,  his  dramatic  en- 
gagements of  all  sorts  were  numerous,  including 
(to  use  his  own  words)  "  operas,  burlettas,  melo- 
dramas, incidental  music  to  Shfdcespeare^s  plays, 
patchings  and  adaptations  of  foreign  operas, 
with  glees,  ballads,  canzonets,  and  cantatas.'' 
During  this  time  he  was  director  of  music  at 
Oovent  Garden  theatre,  and  among  over  fifty 
operas  which  he  wrote,  the  most  successful 
were  ** Guy  Mannering,"  "The  Maniac,"  "The 
Maier  and  his  Men,"  "Maid  Marion,"  "The 
Slave,"  "Clari,"  "The  Englishman  in  India," 
&c.  In  1826,  while  Weber's  "Oberon"  was 
creating  considerable  sensation  at  Oovent  Gar- 
den, Bishop's  "  Aladdin"  was  produced  at 
Drury  Lane,  in  rivalry.  In  this,  howeverj  hav- 
ing Germanized  his  style,  instead  of  trustmg  to 
his  own  genius,  he  did  not  succeed,  and  he  de- 
termined to  abandon  dramatic  composition.  He 
adapted  Mozart's  "Barber  of  Seville,"  "Mar- 
riage of  Figaro,"  and  some  other  operas,  to  the 
English  stage.  He  was  director  of  the  concerts 
of  ancient  music  for  several  years,  also  one  of 
the  first  directors  of  the  philharmonic  concerts, 
and  composed  some  sacred  pieces  which  were 
performed  at  different  musical  festivals.  He 
succeeded  Sir  John  Stevenson  as  arranger  of  the 
music  of  Moore's  "Irish  Melodies."  In  1842  he 
was  knighted  by  Queen  Victoria.  He  had,  in 
1841,  been  elected  professor  of  music  in  the 
university  of  Edinburgh,  but  as  residence  durins 
a  greater  part  of  the  vear  was  indispensable,  and 
he  did  not  like  to  leave  London,  he  resigned 
the  appointment  in  1843,  about  which  time  he 
received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  music  from  Ox- 
ford, and,  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Orotch,  in  1848, 


was  elected  to  the  chair  of  music  in  that  uni- 
versity, which  appointment  he  held  until  his 
death.  Some  time  before  that  took  place,  his 
embarrassments  were  so  hopeless  and  pressing, 
that  a  subscription  was  set  on  foot  among  his 
friends  and  admirers  to  relieve  them,  and  suf- 
ficient was  raised  to  rid  him  of  his  debts.  From 
the  same  charitable  source  funds  were  provided 
to  support  and  educate  his  children.  Latterly, 
Sir  Henry  Bishop's  almost  exclusive  source  of 
income  was  derived  from  the  "Illustrated  Lon- 
don News,"  for  which  he  arranffed  a  large  num- 
ber of  old  English  airs,  to  which  Dr.  Charles 
Mackay  wrote  the  words.  Though  Bishop's 
operas  have  ceased  to  be  performed,  many  of 
the  finest  songs,  duets,  and  concerted  pieces 
which  they  contained,  are  separately  hiown 
and  valued,  bavins  been  transferred  to  the 
concert-room  and  the  chamber.  His  style  was 
essentially  English,  devoid  of  affectation,  free, 
flowing,  and  harmonious. — Sir  Henry  Bishop  was 
twice  married :  first,  early  in  life,  to  Miss  Lyon, 
a  vocalist,  bv  whom  he  left  8  children ;  secondly, 
in  1881,  to  Miss  Anna  Riviere,  a  singer  of  Bath, 
many  years  his  junior.  Both  marriages  were 
unfortunate.  The  latter,  weU  known  as  Madame 
Anna  Bishop,  left  her  husband  and  8  children  in 
1840,  and  made  professional  tours  in  the  United 
States,  and  in  Australia,  with  Signer  Bochsa, 
an  accomplished  musician,  but  a  man  of  doubt- 
ful character,  nntil  his  death  in  1856.  This  cir- 
cumstance cast  a  cloud  over  the  dosing  years 
of  Sir  Henry  Bishop's  life. 

BISHOP'S  OASTLE,  a  borough,  parish,  and 
market-town  in  the  county  of  Salop,  England, 
169  miles  from  London  and  20  miles  from 
Shrewsbury ;  pop.  of  the  parish  in  1851, 1,961. 
It  receives  its  name  from  an  old  castle  belong- 
ing to  the  bishops  of  Hereford,  wliich  once  stood 
here,  but  has  been  long  since  demolished.  The 
town  is  an  old  corporation,  and  lias  had  8  char- 
ters, one  fr^m  Queen  Elizabeth,  the  second  fi^m 
James  I.,  and  tiie  last  from  James  II.  It  re- 
ceived from  Queen  Elizabeth  tlie  privilege  oi 
sending  2  members  to  the  house  of  commons, 
but  was  disfranchised  by  the  reform  bilL  It 
has  a  church  which  suffered  in  the  civil  wars, 
several  dissenting  chapels,  an  endowed  free 
school,  a  weekly  market,  and  6  annual  fairs. 

BISIGNANO  (anc.  Bmdla),  a  small  town, 
pop.  3,600,  in  the  province  of  Calabria  Oitra, 
in  the  kingdom  of  I^aples,  about  18  miles  north 
of  Oosenza.  Bisignano  gives  the  title  of  prince 
to  the  Sanseverinos,  and  is  a  bishop's  see. 

BISLEY,  a  market-town  and  parish  in  the 
county  of  Gloucester,  England,  96  miles  W.  of 
London ;  pop.  in  1851,  4,801.  It  is  intersected 
by  the  Gloucester  and  Bristol  railway  and  the 
Stroudwater  canal.  It  has  a  church,  an  endowed 
free  school,  and  woollen  manufactures. 

BISMABK,  Friedbich  Wilhelm,  count  von, 
a  Grerman  general,  born  at  Windheim,  in  West- 
phalia, July  28,  1788.  In  1796  he  entered  the 
army  of  Hanover  as  an  ensign,  and  in  1804  was 
attached  to  the  Hanoverian  legion  in  the  Eng- 
lish army.    The  result  of  a  dud  fbrcing  him  to 


BISMUTH 


BISON 


leave  the  EoffliBh  servioe,  he  entered  that  of 
the  king  of  Wortemberg,  in  1807,  and  was  soon 
after  appointed  captain  of  cavalry.  Dnring  the 
campaign  in  Bassia,  he  served  under  the  com- 
mand of  Nej,  and  distinguished  himself  at  the 
Beresina.  He  was  made  a  prisoner  at  Leipsic, 
hut  returned  to  Wurtemberg  in  1818.  In  1815 
he  received  the  title  of  count;  in  1819  he  was 
appointed  brigadier-generaL  In  1828  Count 
Bismark  introduced  his  system  of  cavalry  tac- 
tics into  the  Danish  army,  and  was  soon  after 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  cavalry 
of  Wurtemberg.  He  has  published  several  mil' 
itary  treatises,  and  also  a  work  upon  Buseda, 
which  he  visited  in  1829. 

BISMUTH,  a  brittle  metal  of  lamellar  tex- 
ture, a  reddi^  or  yeUowish  white  color,  and  so 
fusible  that  it  will  melt  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp, 
at  a  temperature  of  ^TS""  F.  Its  specific  gravity 
is  9.73  to  9.82.  and  its  hardness  only  from  2  to 
2.5.  It  is  volatile  at  high  temperatures,  and 
may  with  difficulty  be  distilled  in  close  vessels^ 
When  melted  and  left  to  cool  slowly,  it  crystal- 
lises in  cubical  forms.  Beautiful  groups  of  these 
maybe  obtained  by  first  pouring  the  purified 
metal  into  a  heated  mould,  and,  letting  it  cool  for 
some  time  slowly  and  quietly,  until  a  solid  crust  is 
formed  on  the  surface;  then  breaking  2  or  more 
holes  in  this,  and  pouring  out  the  liquid  metal : 
the  cavity  left  will  be  found,  when  cool,  lined 
with  the  crystals.  Bismuth  is  very  easily  oxi- 
dized, and  soon  loses  its  metallic  lustre  when 
expoeed  to  the  air.  The  air  let  in  through  the 
broken  crust  of  the  melted  metal  causes  a  thin, 
beautifully  iridescent  pellicle  of  oxide  to  be  in- 
stantly formed  over  the  surface  of  the  crystals. 
The  metal  is  generally  contaminated  with  sul- 
phur and  arsenic,  which  add  to  its  brittleness. 
Perfectly  pure  bismuth  \s  somewhat  malleable, 
particularly  when  heated.  The  arsenic  is  sepa- 
rated by  re-melting  with  1  part  of  nitre  to  10 
of  the  metal,  after  the  sulphur  has  been  re- 
moved by  pouring  off  the  liquid  metal  from  the 
portion  which  commences  to  solidify — this  con- 
taining all  the  sulphur.  Notwithstanding  the 
great  affinity  of  bismuth  for  oxygen,  it  is  found 
native,  especially  in  the  mines  of  the  Saxon 
En^birge,  at  Sohneeberg,  and  in  Bohemia, 
Sweden,  and  Transylvania.  It  is  also  ob« 
tftined  from  the  sulphuret,  found  associat- 
ed with  sulphurets  of  other  metals,  particu- 
larly of  cobalt,  arsenic,  silver,  gold,  copper, 
lead,  nickel,  and  tellurium.  The  treatment 
of  the  ore  containing  the  native  metal  is 
Tory  simple.  Pieces  are  introduced  into  the 
upper  end  of  wrought-iron  pipes,  which  are 
hud  in  an  inclined  position  over  a  fire,  and  as 
the  metal  melts,  it  eliquates  or  runs  out  of  the 
lower  end  into  clay  pots,  which  are  set  over 
hot  coals  to  receive  it.  From  these  it  is  poured 
into  ingot-moulds.  When  other  ores  of  value, 
as  of  cobalt,  are  present,  these  are  obtained 
freed  from  the  bismuth  in  the  residue  left  in  the 
tubes,  and  the  extraction  of  the  bismuth  is  only 
of  secondary  importance. — The  alloys  of  bis- 
muth are  interesting  for  their  great  fusibility. 


That  called  the  fbsible  alloy  of  Newton  has  been 
already  noticed  under  the  article  Allot.  One 
composed  of  5  parts  of  bismuth,  8  of  lead,  and 
2  of  tin,  is  stiU  more  fusible,  melting  at  197°  F. 
Safety  plugs  have  been  contrived  for  steam 
boilers  of  some  of  these  alloys,  which  were  ex* 
pected  to  melt  away  and  let  off  steam  when  the 
temperature  became  too  hiffh  for  safety ;  but  it 
appears  that  after  beiAg  long  exposed  to  an 
elevated  temperature,  they  undergo  a  sort  of 
eliquation,  the  more  fusible  alloy  meltinff  out^ 
and  leaving  the  remainder  much  less  msible 
than  it  was  originally.  Even  if  they  remained 
permanent,  it  is  probable  the  steam  acts  too  in- 
stantaneously in  exploding  for  the  plugs  to  serve 
any  purpose.  Though  abandoned  for  this  pur- 
pose, fusible  alloys  are  useful  for  making  casts 
for  anatomical  preparations  and  other  purposes. 
The  alloys  may  even  be  poured  upon  wood  or 
embossed  paper,  and  receive  a  perfect  fac-simUe 
of  their  form.  The  manufacturers  of  fiuicy 
soap  use  it  for  the  moulds  of  the  cakes  of  soap. 
It  is  also  an  ingredient  in  type-metal,  increas- 
ing the  fusibility,  and  causing  the  alloy  to  ex- 
pand and  fill  the  mould  perfectly  as  it  cools. — 
The  teroxide  of  bismuth  is  the  product  of  the 
combustion  of  the  metal  in  the  open  air.  It 
burns  with  a  faint  blue  flame,  and  forms  an  ox- 
ide of  a  yeUow  color,  which  consists  of  1  equiv- 
alent of  bismuth =218,  and  8  of  oxygen=24.  It 
is  also  obtained  by  dissolving  the  metal  in 
nitric  acid,  and  precipitatmg  by  caustic  potassa. 
—The  only  meaicinal  preparation  of  bismuth  is 
that  of  the  subnitrate.  This  is  produced  by 
adding  water  to  the  nitric  acid  solution,  and 
allowiDg  it  to  stand,  that  the  subsalt  may  sub- 
side. It  is  a  tasteless,  heavy  powder,  of  pure 
white  color,  and  frequently  contains  arsenic. 
This,  however,  does  not  prevent  its  being  used 
under  the  name  of  pearl-white  as  a  cosmetic 
for  the  complexion.  In  medicine  it  acts  as  a 
tonic  and  anti-spasmodic,  and  is  used  in  cases 
of  epilepsy,  palpitation  of  the  heart,  obstinate 
diarrhosa,  oc.  In  large  doses  it  acts  as  a  poi- 
son, for  whidi  the  remedies  are  mucilaginous 
drinks  and  bleeding. — ^Bismuth  was  not  known 
to  the  ancients.  It  was  formerly  confounded 
with  lead.  The  first  notice  of  it  as  a  metal 
was  by  Agricola^  in  the  year  1529.  AH  the 
metal  now  procured  for  commerce  comes  from 
the  mines  of  Schneeberg  and  Johann-(xeorgenr 
stadt,  and  the  cobalt  works  of  Saxony.  The 
whole  product  for  the  year  1880  was  only 
about  10,000  lbs.  Its  wholesale  price,  in  Eu- 
rope is  from  80  to  40  cents  per  lb. ;  imported 
into  England,  it  is  worth  $70  per  cwt  Native 
bismuth  is  found  in  Monroe,  Conn.,  also  at  a 
mine  in  South  Carolina,  and  in  Oalifomia. 

BISON,  a  peculiar  species  of  the  ox  fiunily,  of 
which  there  are  but  8  luiown  varieties.  First,  the 
European  or  Eur- Asiatic  species,  bosurtu,  known 
as  the  honamu^  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  an- 
cient tirtu  or  attroehs^  which,  in  the  times  of  the 
Romans,  abounded  in  the  woody  wildernesses 
of  Germany,  northern  Gaul,  and  what  is  now 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Zealand.    It  was  known 


296 


BISON 


in  tbose  regions  so  latdjr  as  the  latter  part  of 
the  middle  ages.  It  is  now  nearlj  extinct,  and 
is  found  only  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania.  Its 
distinguishing  characteristics  are  an  arched 
forehead,  wider  than  it  is  long,  short  horns  at- 
tached below  the  occipital  ridge,  unusual  length 
of  legs,  an  additional  pair  of  ribis,  and  the  thick 
W00U7  hair  which  covers  the  head,  neck,  and 
shoulders  of  the  male,  forming  a  shaggy  beard 
tinder  the  chin.  The  European  bison  is  an 
animal  of  vast  power,  and  is  singularly  fierce 
and  indomitable.-^The  second  species  is  the 
Indian  bison  (B.  gaunit).  This  animal  is  but 
partially  known  and  imperfectly  described.  It 
has  the  general  characteristics  of  the  bisons,  the 
short  horns,  huge  head,  unshapely  forehead, 
and  the  yast  masses  of  shaggy  wool  coTering 
those  parts.  It  frequents  the  Ghauts,  and  the 
wildest  forest  ranges  of  the  Himalayas. — The 
third,  and  best  known  variety,  is  the  bison, 
commonly  and  erroneously  caJled  buffido,  <^ 
Korth  America  (P.  Am&rieantu),  The  peculiar 
distinction  of  the  American  bison  is  its  singular 
hump  over  the  fore-shoulders ;  this  hump  is  of 
an  oblong  form,  diminishing  in  height  as  it  re- 
cedes, so  as  to  give  considerable  obliquity  to 
the  line  of  the  back.  The  eye  is  black  and 
brilliant;  the  horns  are  black,  and  very  thick 
near  the  head,  whence  they  curve  upward  and 
outward,  tapering  rapidly  toward  the  point. 
The  outline  of  the  face  is  oonvezly  curved,  and 
the  upper  lip,  on  each  side,  being  papUlous 
within,  dilates  and  extends  downward,  giviuff 
a  very  oblique  appearance  to  the  lateral  gap  of 
the  mouth,  in  this  particular  resembling  the 
ancient  a]^chiteotural  ba8-reli6&  representing 
the  heads  of  oxen.  The  physiognomy  of  the 
bison  is  menacing  and  ferocious;  and  no  one 
can  see  this  animal,  for  the  first  time,  in  his 
native  wilds,  without  feeling  incUned  immedi- 
ately to  attend  to  his  personal  safety.  This 
ferocious  appearance  is,  however)  a  mere  delu- 
sion and  an  outward  show,  since,  of  all  his 
species,  the  bison  is  the  most  pacific  and  inof- 
fensive. Even  in  his  breeding  season,  when- 
the  common  domestic  bull  is  not  seldom  dan- 
gerous, when  the  stag  and  elk  wiU  attack  pro- 
miscuously whatever  comes  in  their  way,  and 
when  most  animals  of  any  spirit  incline  to  pug- 
nacity, the  bison  will  not  attack  mankind.  The 
summer  coat  of  the  bison  differs  from  his  win- 
ter dress,  rather  in  difference  of  length  than  in 
other  particulars.  In  summer,  from  the  shoul- 
ders backward,  the  hinder  parts  of  the  animal 
are  all  covered  with  a  very  short  fine  hair, 
that  is  as  smooth  to  the  touch  as  velvet.  The 
tail  is  short,  and  tufted  at  the  end,  and  its 
utilitv  as  a  fl^-brush  is  very  limited.  The  col- 
or of  the  hair  is  uniformly  dun,  but  the  long 
hair  on  the  anterior  parts  of  the  body  is,  to  a 
certain  extent,  tinged  with  yellowish  or  rust 
color.  The  shaggy  masses  of  hair,  which  cover 
tiie  head,  shouldera,  and  neck  of  the  male, 
with  his  great  beard^  are  of  a  darker  shade  of 
the  same  hue.  The  sexual  season  of  the  bison 
oonunenoes  in  July,  toward  the  latter  end  of 


the  month,  and  lasts  till  the  beginning  of  Sep- 
tember; alter  which  time  the  cows  leave  the 
company  of  the  bulls  and  range  in  different 
herds.  They  calve  in  April,  and  the  calves 
never  leave  the  mother  until  they  are  a  year 
old,  while  they  often  follow  her  until  they  are 
8  years  old .  From  July  to  the  end  of  December 
the  cows  are  very  fat^  and  in  prime  condition; 
the  bulls  are  always  poor,  and  their  fledi  is 
lean  and  hard ;  during  the  breeding  season  it  is 
rank  and  positively  disagreeable.  At  this  time 
of  the  year,  the  roaring  of  the  bulls  on  the 
prairies  is  like  hoarse  t£under,  and  they  fight 
nirions  battles  among  themselves.  When  mi- 
grating, they  travel  in  vast  solid  columns  of 
thousuids  and  tens  of  thousands,  wMoh  it  ii 
almost  imposcdble  to  turn  or  arrest  in  their 
progress,  since  the  rearward  masses,  pressing 
madly  forward,  drive  the  leaders  on,  whether 
they  will  or  no;  of  which  habit  the  Indians 
take  advantage,  by  driving  t^em  in  vast  num- 
bers over  precipices,  as  a  wholesale  way  of 
hunting  them.  The  flesh  of  the  bison,  the 
cow  especially,  is  like  very  coarse-grained 
bee^  but  is  Juicy,  tender,  and  sapid,  in  the 
highest  degree.  The  favorite  portion  is  the 
hump,  which,  when  cooked  in  the  Indian 
fSsshion,  by  sewing  it  up  in  the  hide,  singed 
and  denuded  of  hair,  and  baking  it  in  an  etaih 
oven,  wherein  a  fire  has  been  previondy  kin- 
dled, and  over  which  a  second  fire  is  kept  bank- 
ing during  the  process,  is  considered  the  most 
exquisite  of  dainties;  the  tongue  and  the  mar- 
row-bones are  also  greaUy  priced ;  and  it  is  too 
often  the  case  that  the  American  hunter  of  the 
prairie,  in  the  venr  wantonness  of  epicurism, 
kills  fat  cows  by  the  score  and  hunored,  and, 
only  taking  the  tongues,  leaves  the  carcasses  to 
rot  on  the  plains,  or,  at  the  best,  to  feed  the 
vulture  and  the  wolf.  This  habit  of  indisorimi- 
nate  destruction  is  rapidly  depopulating  the  con- 
tinent, its  woods,  its  wastes,  and  its  waten,  of 
the  choicest  of  its  natural  denizens.  Numerous 
tribes  of  Indians  are  almost  entirdy  dependent 
on  the  bison  for  their  food,  their  clothing,  th^ 
dwellings,  and  even  their  fuel ;  fbr  the  dressed 
hides  with  the  luur  on  form  tiieirr(>bes--denn- 
ded  of  it,  the  covers  of  their  tents;  and  their 
dried  ordure — ^known  on  the  prairies  as  hod  de 
tNu^ltf— on  the  vast  treeless  plains  d  the  West, 
famishes  the  sole  materisl  for  their  fires.  The 
dressed  hides  are  a  considerable  article  of  com- 
merce, and  for  these,  as  well  as  for  the  other 
causes,  or  want  of  causes,  described  above,  the 
slaughter  of  these  animals  is  so  prodi^ons,  that 
vast  as  are  their  multitudes,  they  decrease  so 
rapidly  that  but  few  years  can  elapse  ere  they 
will  be  extinct.  Their  original  range  appears 
to  have  been  the  whole  of  the  North  American 
continent,  west  of  Lake  Cfaamplain  and  tiie 
Hudson  river,  with  the  exception  of  some  in- 
tervals on  the  Atlantic  sea-board,  and  south  of 
the  Ottawa  and  Columbia  rivers,  northward  of 
which  its  place  is  supplied  by  the  musk-ox,  as 
is  that  of  the  elk  and  moose  by  the  reindeer. 
For  many  years  they  have  ceased  to  exist  to 


BISSAGOS 


BISTOUBY 


297 


the  eastwud  of  the  MkBisnppi,  and  eyerjr  year 
drives  them  further  end  forther  toward  the 
Betting  sun,  which  seems  to  he  emhlematic  of 
their  ftitare,  as  of  that  of  the  red  Indian,  the 
noblest  savage  man  the  world  has  ever  pro- 
duced, who,  pari  pauu  with  the  wild  herds 
which  were  the  main  support  of  his  people,  is 
travelling  the  road  to  total  eztinctioo. 

BISSAGOS,  a  group  of  islands,  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  western  Afri- 
ca, between  lat  10°  %'  and  11*^  65'  N^  and  long. 
W  and  17**  W.  Only  16  of  them  are  of  any 
considerable  magnitude.  They  <ve  inhahited 
by  a  fierce  and  warlike  race.  MiUet,  ricei  and 
fruits  are  raised  in  great  abundance,  and  the 
islands  produce  a  singular  breed  of  cattle,  with 
a  hump  on  the  back. 

BISSAO,  one  of  the  Bissagos  ishuids,  situated 
opposite  the  delta  of  the  Jeba  river,  and  con- 
taining a  Portuguese  settlement.  It  is  the  cen- 
tre of  the  Portuguese  6lave-trade,«but  has  also 
considerable  trade  in  hides,  rice,  and  wax,  and 
imports  English  manufactures  to  the  value  of 
$100,000  annually.  Pop.  8,000.  Lat  of  fort 
ir61'N^W16<>87'^W. 

BISSAT,  or  BissAftT,  Patbick,  poet  and  philos- 
opher, horn  in  Scotland  in  1500,  died  at  Bolo- 
Sia  in  1568,  was  descended  from  the  earls  of  Fife. 
e  receiyed  his  education  at  St  Andrew^s,  and 
after  spending  some  time  in  the  university  of 
Pari%  removed  to  Bologna,  where  he  became 
professor  of  canon  law. 

BISSELL,  WuxiahH.,  governor  of  lUinois, 
bom  near  Gooperstown,  if.  Y.,  April  25, 1811. 
His  father,  a  pioneer  settler  from  Ccmneoticut 
gave  to  his  son  such  an  education  as  his  limited 
means  afforded.  Going  to  the  common  school 
in  winter  and  teaching  a  similar  school  in  sum* 
mer  formed  the  employment  of  young  Biasell 
till  his  17th  ^ear,  when  he  commenced  the 
study  of  medicine  and  graduated  at  the  Jeffer* 
son  medical  college  in  Philadelphia,  in  the 
spring  of  1836.  He  practised  medicine  2  yean 
at  Painted  Post^  N.  ¥.,  whence  in  1887  be  re- 
moved to  IllinoiB.  Here,  in  Monroe  county,  he 
pursued  the  practice  of  his  profession  with  suc- 
cess for  several  years.  He  was  elected  to  the 
state  legislature  in  1840,  and  there  earned  dis- 
tinction as  a  forcible  and  ready  debater.  Finding 
his  health  unable  to  bear  the  exposure  of  a 
physician^s  life  in  southern  Illinois,  he  deter- 
mined to  adopt  the  profession  of  the  law,  and 
after  the  necessary  studies  removed  to  Belle- 
ville, in  the  county  of  St  Glair,  and  there  prac- 
tised law  with  distinguished  success  till  in  1846- 
he  was  elected  colonel  of  the  second  Illinois 
regiment  of  volunteers  for  the  Mexican  war.  At 
this  time  he  held  the  office  of  state's  attorney 
for  the  second  judicial  district,  to  which  he  had 
been  elected  by  the  legislature  in  the  winter  of 
1844~'45.  In  the  execution  of  this  office,  in  a 
district  which  included  9  counties,  his  powers 
as  an  advocate  and  a  lawyer  found  ample  op- 
portunity. In  the  campaign  which  included 
the  biuttle  of  Bnena  Vista,  however,  he  became 
known  to  the  country  at  large.    On  his  return 


home  in  1849,  he  was  elected,  without  acompet- 
iter,  as  representative  in  congress  from  the  8th 
district  of  Illinois.  His  first  term  was  signalized 
by  a  speech  in  which  he  vindicated  the  merits 
of  his  own  regiment  at  the  battle  of  Buena 
Vista,  a  subject  which  was  drawn  into  the  de- 
bate by  an  attack  made  by  a  Virginia  member 
upon  tiie  north  and  northern  troops.  He  sub- 
sequently resisted  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
compromise,  though  he  nad  previously  acted 
with  the  democratic  party.  He  declined  a  third 
election  to  congress  in  1854  on  account  of  in- 
firm health.  In  1856  the  republican  party  of 
Illinois,  by  a  unanimous  vote  in  convention, 
seleoteahim  as  their  caudidate  for  governor, 
and  he  was  elected  by  a  laree  majority  over  2 
competitors,  although  Mr.  Buchanan  carried 
the  state  a^inst  Fremont,  the  presidential  can- 
didate of  Bissell's  party. 

BISSET,  Jajces,  an  artist  and  writer,  bom 
at  Perth,  Scotland,  in  1762,  and  died  at  Leam- 
ington, Aug.  17, 1882.  Previous  to  his  remov- 
al to  Leamington,  he  kept  in  Birmingham  a 
shop  for  curiosities.  He  had  a  wonderM  facil- 
ity for  rhyme,  and  his  euLde-books  and  par 
triotic  songs  are  printed  pell-mell  mingled 
with  **  comic  strictures  on  the  fine  arts,*'  all  of 
which  are  written  half  in  rhyme.  In  1814  he 
was  appointed  modeller  to  the  king.  His  curi- 
osity shop  is  said  to  have  contained  a  unique 
collection  of  old  furniture,  arms,  savage  wea- 
pons, with  a  strange  assortment  of  old  engrav- 
ings in  copper  and  steel. 

BISSET,  BoBEBT,  an  English  writer,  bom 
in  1759,  died  in  1805,  a  graduate  of  the  univer* 
sity  of  Oxford.  He  was  a  voluminous  writer, 
and  is  known  in  the  United  States  and  in  Eng- 
land as  the  continuator  of  the  histories  of  Hume 
and  SmoUet,  which  he  brought  down  to  the  end 
of  the  rdgn  of  Geoi^  III.  His  book  is  accurate, 
but  has  little  style  or  eloquence.  He  was  a 
violent  tory,  and  published  in  1786  an  essay  on 
democracy  and  a  life  of  Edmund  Burke.  He 
also  published  a  romance  called  *^  Doufflas,*'  in 
4  volumes  12mo.  We  are  also  indebted  to  him 
for  an  edition  of  the  "  Spectator,"  with  lives  of 
the  various  contributors  and  valuable  notes. 
He  had  a  brother  who  served  in  the  British 
navy  during  the  wars  with  the  French  republic. 

BISSEXTILE  TEAK,  the  ancient  name  of 
leap  year,  so  called  from  the  6th  dav  before  the 
calends  of  March  being  repeated  or  taken 
twice.    See  Oalbndab. 

BISSOLEE,  or  Bisnu,  a  town  of  the  Pun- 
Jaub,  situated  95  miles  N.  E.  of  Lahore,  on  the 
Bavee.  It  contains  a  large  palace,  resembling 
an  old  feudal  castle,  and  a  large  bazaar. 

BISTINEAU,  a  lake  in  north-western  Louis- 
iana, dividing-  Bossier  and  Bienville  parishes, 
about  80  miles  in  length  fW>m  K.  to  S.,  and  2 
in  breadth.  It  receives  the  Dauchite  river 
from  the  north,  and  communicates  with  Bed 
river  by  an  outlet  at  its  southern  extremity. 
It  is  navigated  by  steamboats. 

BISTOURY,  asurgical  instrument  for  making 
incisions.    According  to  Huet^  the  name  of  thia 


BISTRE 


BITHYNIA 


instnunent  is  derived  from  that  of  a  town  in 
Italj,  Pistoia,  or  Pistori,  formerly  renowned 
for  the  manufaotore  of  surgical  instruments, 
and  more  especially  the  bistoury.  It  is  either 
straight  or  curved  in  form,  the  blade  fixed  in 
the  handle  or  turning  like  tiiat  of  a  lanoet,  and 
varies  from  the  size  of  a  small  penknife  to  that 
of  a  large  pocket  knife,  according  to  the  use 
for  which  it  is  intended.  It  is  mainly  used 
to  make  incisions  through  the  skin,  or  through 
membranous  tissues. 

BISTEE,  a  reddish  brown  water-color,  gen- 
erally obtained  from  the  soot  that  collects  in 
chimney-flues.  This  is  pulverized  and  washed 
to  remove  the  saline  ingredients.  The  finest 
sediment  is  then  dissolved  in  vinegar,  to  which 
gum-water  is  afterward  added.  It  was  former- 
ly much  used  for  making  painters'  crayons^ 
and  also  for  a  paint  in  water-color  designs* 
Sepia,  however,  is  now  preferred  to  it,  as  it  has 
a  more  agreeable  color  and  is  more  easily  em- 
ployed. In  aquatint  engravings  it  is  some- 
times used  upon  the  plates,  the  effect  being  to 
give  the  engravings  the  appearance  of  original 
designs. 

BISTRITZ,  or  Bisstbttz,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral rivers  and  places  in  Transylvania,  Hun- 
gary. Bohemia,  Moravia,  Moldavia,  and  Illyria^ 
of  wnich  the  2  most  important  are:  I.  A  free 
royal  town,  pop.  7,000,  on  a  river  and  in  the 
circle  of  the  same  name  in  Transylvania  (the 
latter  called  also  Besztercze  Bideke),  called  by 
the  Saxon  settlers  Ndsen,  or  Ndsenstadt.  It 
has  8  gates  of  entrance,  2  suburbs  chieflv 
tenanted  by  Wallachs,  a  Protestant  church 
and  gymnasium,  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
gymnaaium,  and  2  monasteries  of  Minorite 
friars  and  Piarists  respectively,  and  2  hospi- 
tals. Wine,  potashes,  and  catUe-eelling  are 
the  chief  sources  of  wealth.  Near  it  are  the 
remains  of  a  castle  once  the  residence  of  the 
Hunyads.  IL  A  market-town  in  Moravia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Hostein ;  pop.  2,900.  It  has 
mines  of  gold  and  other  metals. 

BITOHE,  a  town  and  fortress  of  the  French 
department  of  Moselle;  pop.  in  1856,  8,297. 
The  fort  is  on  an  isolated  rock,  defending  the 
defiles  of  the  Yosges,  with  casemates  hewn 
from  the  rock,  and  bomb-proof,  is  well  supplied 
with  water,  and  defended  by  90  cannons.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  paper  and  porcelain. 

BITHYNIA,  an  ancient  country  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor, which  was  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
Euzine,  on  the  south  by  Phryeia  and  Qalatia, 
on  the  east  byPaphlagonia,  and  on  the  west  by 
the  Propontis  and  Mysia.  That  part  of  Bithy- 
nia  which  ac^oined  the  Propontis  and  Euzine 
was  often  called  Bebrycia  in  the  earlier  ages, 
from  the  Bebryces,  its  aboriginid  inhabitants. 
Homer  never  styles  the  people  of  this  country 
Bithynians,  lyit  always  Mysians  or  Phrygians ; 
and  Strabo  asserts  that  liie  Mysians  formerly 
occupied  the  most  fertile  portions  of  it ;  the  Be- 
bryces may  in  fact  have  been  a  Mysian  tribe. 
We  know  not  precisely  at  what  period  the 
Bithyni  seized  on  that  delightful  region  to 


which  they  afterward  communicated  their 
name,  but  we  can  have  no  doubt  as  to  their 
original  seat.  On  this  point  ancient  authors 
are  unanimous.  Herodotus  expressly  affirms 
that  the  Bithyni  came  from  the  banks  of  the 
Strymon  in  Thrace,  having  been  expeOed 
thence  by  a  more  powerful  horde ;  and  Thucyd- 
ides  and  Xenophon  corroborate  this  statement 
by  frequently  calling  their  descendants  Bi- 
thynian  Thracians.  The  inland  inhabitants  are 
sometimes  called  Bithyni,  and  those  of  the 
coast  Thyni.  This,  however,  is  a  distinction 
of  no  importance,  for  both  were  still  mere 
branches  of  one  common  race.  The  Bithynians 
maintained  their  independence  till  they  were 
subdued  by  Orcssus,  king  of  Lydia.  On  the 
overthrow  of  the  Lydian  monarchy  they  passed 
under  the  yoke  of  the  Persians,  and  their  coun- 
try became  a  part  of  the  satrapy  of  Phrygia. 
In  later  times,  however,  it  was  itself  constituted 
into  a  satrapy,  which  the  Greek  historians  and 
geographers  generally  style  the  satrapy  of 
Bithynia,  but  sometimes  that  of  the  Hellespont 
or  Dascylium.  Aft^  the  defeat  of  the  Persians 
on  the  Granicus,  Bithynia  fell  under  the  sway 
of  the  Macedonians,  who  did  not,  however,  long 
remain  masters  of  it.  For  during  the  anarchy 
which  followed  the  death  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  Botims,  a  Thracian  chie^  crossed  the 
Bosporus  with  a  strong  body  of  his  country- 
men, vanquished  Calantus,  the  Maoedoniaa 
governor,  and  took  possession  of  Bithynia  for 
imself  and  his  posterity.  Nicomedes,  the  4th. 
in  descent  from  Botirus^  was  the  first  of  this 
dynasty  who  assumed  the  title  of  king,  and 
raised  Bithynia  to  the  dignity  of  a  kingdom. 
This  potentate  changed  the  name  of  Astacus,  a 
Greek  city  which  his  ancestor  had  seized  on 
and  made  the  capital  of  his  principality,  to 
Nicomedia.  Here  he  fixed  the  seat  of  his  gov- 
ernment, and  here  the  Bithynian  monarchs 
continued  to  reside  during  tiie  existence  of 
their  little  state.  The  kingdom  of  Bithynia 
endured  for  over  2  centuries.  Its  last  king  was 
Nicomedes  III.,  who,  having  no  children,  be- 
queathed his  dominions,  when  dying,  to  the 
Komans,  76  B.  0.  The  Romans  annexed 
Bithynia  first  to  the  province  of  Asia,  and  then 
to  thiftt  of  Pontus.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus, 
however,  it  was  separated  from  the  latter,  and, 
together  with  the  western  part  of  Paphlagonia, 
was  constituted  a  proconsular  province.  This 
arrangement  was  set  aside  by  Theodosius,  who 
divided  the  province  into  2,  ^ving  to  the 
further  one  the  name  of  Honorids,  and  re- 
stricting to  the  nearer  one  that  of  Bithynia. 
Whether  they  were  ever  asain  reunited  we  are 
not  informed.  The  inland  districts  of  Bithy- 
nia were  mountainous  and  woody,  but  the 
country  near  the  coast  consisted  for  the  most 
part  of  fertile  plains,  which  were  studded  with 
villages,  and  produced  wine,  cheese,  figs,  and 
every  species  of  grain,  in  abundance.  Its  chief 
river  was  the  Langarins,  which  traversed  its 
territory  from  south  to  north.  The  Bithynians 
were  originally  averse  to  an  urban  life,  and 


BrroN 


BITTERN 


299 


Bldynia  o<nitaiiied  in  the  earlier  ages  no  con- 
siderable towns  save  the  Greek  maritime  cities 
of  Astacns  and  Ghalcedon.  Bnt  in  process  of 
time  tiie  case  came  to  be  otherwise^  and  at  the 
period  whea  Theodosius  divided  the  province  it 
contained  no  less  than  6  large  and  opulent  cities, 
each  governed  by  its  own  magistrates  and  laws. 
The  western  part  of  Bithynia  is  now  called 
Khudawendkiar,  and  that  part  contigaous  to 
the  Eozine  and  Bosporus  EojaUi. 

BITON  and  Olbobis,  according  to  the  old 
Greek  tale,  2  brothers,  sons  of  Gydippe,  priest- 
ess of  Jnno  in  Argos.  In  Herodotus,  their 
story  is  told  by  Solon  to  Orodsus,  for  the  pur- 

Cof  proving  tliat  it  is  better  to  die  than  to 
On  one  occasion  (the  story  cnns),  the 
oxen  who  usually  drew  the  chariot  of  the  priest- 
ess not  being  at  hand,  these  youths,  in  their 
seal,  supplied  the  place  of  the  animals,  and 
draped  their  mother  in  her  chariot  to  the  tem- 
plcL  a  distance  of  about  6  miles.  Wishing  them 
to  be  rewarded  for  their  filial  devotedness,  Oy- 
dippe  prayed  to  Juno  to  grant  to  her  2  sons 
what  was  best  for  mortals.  That  night  the 
brothera  slept  in  the  temple,  and  never  woke. 
This  was  the  greatest  boon  the  goddess  could 
grant. 

BITONTO  (ano.  BitutOum),  a  town  in  the 
province  of  Bari,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples ; 
pop.  16,250.  A  victory  was  gained  here  by 
the  Spaniards  over  the  Austrians,  May  25, 178^ 
which  gave  the  former  possession  of  the  king- 
dom of  Naples. 

BITTER  PBINOIPLES  (also  called  when 
evq>orated  to  the  consistence  of  sirup  Bittbb 
ExTKAiOTB),  substances  extracted  from  plauts  by 
digestion  in  water,  alcohol,  or  ether,  and  which 
posseea  in  concentrated  form  that  which  gives 
the  bitter  taste  to  plants,  and  which  was  for- 
meriy  referred  to  a  hypothetical  substance  call- 
ed the  bitter  principle.  Excepting  this,  these 
extracts  do  not  appear  to  possess  other  charac^ 
teristio  properties  in  common;  their  nature, 
however,  ia  not  very  well  understood.  From 
some  plants  the  bitter  extractive  is  obtained  in 
white  crystalline  grains,  as  the  eetrc^rioy  from 
the  lodand  moss  (cetraria  islandica);  some- 
times in  rhombic  prisms,  as  oiparaginy  from 
asparagn^  and  ealvmbvn^  from  the  calumba 
root;  and  £rom  numerous  other  plants  it  as- 
Bomee  the  forms  of  white  needles,  pearly  plates, 
y^Qowiah  white  masses,  brownish  and  yellowish 
led  matter^  uncrystallizable,  in  crystals  of  4  and 
6  nded  priama^  and,  in  the  case  of  the  lupulin^ 
or  bUUr  maiier  of  hcps^  in  powder  of  reddish 
jeUow  color.  Some  of  the  numerous  varieties 
of  bitter  are  acdnble  in  water ;  some  only  in  al- 
9obol  or  ether.  They  are  generally  neutral  in 
their  properties,  uniting  neither  wi^  acids  nor 
basaa.  The  bitter  extracts  are  used  in  medicine 
as  tonics,  and  also  as  aperients;  and  in  the 
mannfiftctnre  of  malt  liquors,  they  are  employed 
to  impart  tiieur  bitter  flavor  to  these.  Their 
presence  renders  food,  particularly  that  which 
Ib  of  a  glutinous  nature,  more  digestible  and 
nuAritions;    and  the  action  of  the  stomachy 


when  impaired  by  previous  disease  or  exhaus- 
tion, is  rendered  active  and  healthy,  the  benefit 
of  which  is  experienced  in  the  sympathetic  ac- 
tion of  other  parts  also  of  the  system.  The  ap- 
petite is  improved  by  their  use,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  blood  is  increased.  These  effects  indicate 
the  oases  in  which  the  use  of  bitter  drinks  may 
be  beneficial,  as  well  as  those  also  in  which 
they  may  prove  of  serious  injury.  Their  ex- 
cessive use  is  liable  to  induce  apoplexy,  or  pal- 
sy, the  fate  of  the  greater  proportion  of  malt 
liquor  drunkards. 

BITTERN,  the  bitter,  or  so-called  mother 
liquor,  which  remains  after  the  salt  is  deposited 
from  the  briny  waters  of  salt  works.  The  un- 
crystallizable fluid  contains  chloride  of  mag- 
nesium, from  which  the  commercial  sulphate  of 
magnesia  may  be  prepared  by  decomposing  the 
salt  with  carbonate  of  soda,  or  with  the  purified 
ammoniacal  liquor  of  gas  works;  the  bittern 
is  commonly  thrown  away  as  useless.  An 
analysis  of  a  sample  firom  the  salt  works  on  the 
Eiskiminetas  river,  above  Freeport,  Penn.,  Ib 

fiven  by  M.  H.  Boy6,  M.  D.,  in  the  ^'American 
ournal  of  Science^*'  2d  series,  No.  19,  as  fol- 
lows: 


Chlorid«  of  Potasslfim, 
Chloride  of  Sodium, 
Chloride  of  Caldain, 

Chloride,  with  ) 

Bromide  aad    VMagnealam, 

Iodide  of         f 

Water, 


0.128 
0.8n 


iai46  j  gj: 


6420» 

loaooo 


Mg.   SL575 

"•      6.86e 

0.701 

0.0085 


The  specific  gravity  of  the  liquid  was  1.889. — 
The  name  is  also  given  to  a  very  bitter  com- 
pound of  quassia  and  cocculus  indicns,  used  by 
firaudulent  brewers  in  adulterating  beer. 

BITTERN  (ardea^Unn.),  a  fen  fowl,  of  the 
order  graUator^  or  waders ;  family  gruida,  or 
allied  to  the  cranes ;  genus  ardea.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  this  bird,  which  is  nearly  al- 
lied to  the  herons,  in  Europe,  the  most  common 
of  which,  the  English  bittern,  is  famous  for 
the  peculiEur  nocturnal  booming  sound  which  it 
emits  in  the  deep  watery  morasses  of  which  it 
is  an  inhabitant,  to  which  sound  it  owes  several 
of  its  provincial  names,  as  the  bog-bumper, 
mire-drum,  dsc.  The  noise  is  very  peculiar, 
and  can  hardly  be  mistaken  when  once  heard; 
the  popular  impression  is  that  the  bird,  when 
making  it,  thrusts  its  long  bill  into  the  mud,  and 
forces  its  voice  through  that  medium  and  the 
superincumbent  water;  but,  like  most  popular 
impressions  on  natural  history,  it  is  utterly  un- 
founded. In  the  United  Btates  there  are  8 
varieties  of  the  American  bittern:  A.  minor; 
the  green  bittern,  or  green  heron  (A.  tirep- 
eens),  veiy  common  in  all  inland  streams  and 
mill  ponds,  a  beautiful  bird,  but  commonly 
known  by  a  vulgar  and  indelicate  nickname; 
and  the  least  bittern  (A,  exili»\  an  extremely 
small  and  beautifully  marked  little  bird.  All 
the  bitterns  are  handsome  birds,  with  long 
necks,  which  they  hold  proudly  erect,  fine  pen- 
dulous but  erectile  crests,  a  long  fringe  of  fea* 


800 


BITTOOR 


BITUMElir 


there  on  the  neck^  mottled  with  yeDov,  brown, 
and  black,  like  tortoise  sheU,  and  all  their  npper 
parts  variegated  with  black,  brown,  riist«oolor- 
ed,  yellow,  and  white,  like  those  of  the  wood- 
cock. Their  long  le^^  are  baro  far  above  the 
knee,  to  enable  them  to  wade  into  deep 
water,  in  pursuit  of  their  fisbj  and  reptile 
prey*  Thej  have  a  fine,  dear,  penetrating  eje, 
with  a  fearless,  defying  look,  which  well  expresses 
their  bold  and  self-relying  cnaracter.  If  wound- 
ed or  broken-winged,  Uiey  wUl  fight  bravely 
with  their  sharp-pointed  bills,  striking  at  the 
eyes  either  of  men  or  dogs,  to  the  latter  of 
which  they  are  formidable  antagonists.  Their 
voice  is  a  harsh  quorok;  their  night  slow  and 
heavy,  with  their  long  legs  outstretched  behind. 
Their  habits  are  nocturnal ;  their  haunts,  fresh* 
water  pools,  stagnant  rivers,  and  morasses ;  they 
build,  like  the  heron,  in  trees,  ordinarily  raising 
2  young  ones.  Their  food  is  small  fish,  lizards, 
frogs,  Md  frog  spawn,  of  which  they  are  vora- 
cious consumers.  They  are  good  eatmg  in  Sep* 
tember,  when  the  first  frosts  are  commencing, 
and  are  eaten  roasted,  with  currant  Jelly  and 
stuffing,  like  the  hare,  which  they  somewhat 
resemble. 

BITTOOR,  BiTHOOB,  or  Bhroob,  a  town  of 
Bengal,  province  of  Allahabad,  on  the  Ganges, 
12  miles  N.  W.  of  Oawnpoor ;  pop.  18,680.  As 
a  military  post  it  is  of  little  consequence,  but  as 
a  reli^ous  city  it  ei^joys  high  repute,  and  every 
year  m  November  and  December  is  the  scene 
of  a  festival  wherem  piety  and  traffic  are  curi- 
ously intermingled.  Beside  a  number  of  Hindoo 
temples  it  has  magnificent  ghats,  or  flights  of 
steps,  on  the  brink  of  the  sacred  river  where 
the  priests  and  worshippers  of  Brama  perform 
their  prescribed  ablutions.  One  of  these  ghats 
is  hela  to  have  been  honored  by  the  presence 
of  Brama  himself  who  there  sacrificed  a  horse 
after  creating  the  universe.  A  pin  fixed  in  one 
of  the  steps  and  firmly  believed  to  have  dropped 
from  the  god's  slipper  on  that  occasion,  is  still 
an  object  of  deep  veneration.  For  a  long  period 
this  town  was  tne  residence  of  the  chieft  of  the 
Mahrattaa,  the  last  of  whom  died  without  issue 
in  1861.  His  estate  then  reverted  to  the  East 
India  company,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  claim  of 
an  adopted  son,  Dhundoo  Punt,  who  was,  how« 
ever,  permitted  to  oooapy  the  town,  and  is  best 
known  as  the  rajah  of  Bittoor,  or  by  his  title 
of  the  Nena  Sahib.  It  is  to  the  fearful  interest 
which  centres  in  this  man,  as  a  leader  of  the 
sepoy  mutineers  in  1867-*6d,  that  the  place  now 
owes  its  chief  celebrity.  In  June  and  July,  1857, 
2  parties  of  Europeans,  mostly  women  and  chil- 
dren, who  had  escaped  down  the  river  fh>m 
Furruckabad  or  Futtehghur,  are  said  to  have 
been  captured  by  him  opposite  Bittoor  and  put 
to  death.  In  July,  Gen.  Havelock  drove  the 
Kena  from  the  town  and  disnantled  it;  it  was 
subsequently  reoccupied  by  the  mutineers,  and 
after  a  well-fought  battle  again  taken  by  Have- 
lock, Aug.  16, 1867. 

BirUMEN,  a  generic  name  for  a  varietv  of 
■ubstanoes  found  la  the  earth,  or  exuding  from 


it  upon  the  surfboe,  in  the  form  of  springs.  The 
liquid  varieties  become  inspissated  by  exposure, 
and  eventually  harden  into  the  solid  form,  which 
is  asphaltum.  The  bitumens  burn  with  a  flame 
and  thick  black  smoke,  giving  out  the  peculiar 
odor  called  bituminous.  Borne  of  the  impure 
fluid  bitumens^  and  the  solid  variety  when  melted, 
closely  resemble  coal-tar.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  bituminous  coal  in  giving  no  am- 
monia, or  mere  traces  of  it,  by  distillation,  and 
in  developing  neoative  electricity  by  friction 
without  being  insulated ;  also  when  ignited  upon 
a  grate,  the  bitumens  melt  and  run  through  at  the 
temperature  of  about  220^  F.,  but  the  ocmIs  bum 
to  ashes.  In  melting,  volatile  fluids  escape  from 
them  with  no  swelling  up  other  than  that  due 
to  ebullition.  This  property  of  dividing  by  heat 
into  fluids  and  solid  residues  having  a  poroos 
form,  assimilates  the  bitumens  to  ordinary  tur^ 
pontine  and  tar,  and  renders  them  unsuitable 
for  producing  gas  economically.  In  boiBng 
water  the  bitumens  soften,  adhere  to  the  sides 
of  the  vessel,  and  give  off  naphtha ;  coal  under- 
goes no  change.  The  bitumens,  again,  dissolve 
perfectiy  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  benzole,  rosin 
oil,  linseed  oil,  and  sulphuric  ether ;  while  coal, 
aftor  long  digestion  in  the  oik,  only  colors  the 
liquid  brown,  and  to  the  snlj^uric  ether  imparts 
a  naphtha-like  fluid  and  a  resinous  body.  The 
bitumens  decompose  nitric  acid,  coal  does  not ; 
they  combine  with  sulphuric  acid,  coal  is  not 
affected  by  it  Dropped  upon  melted  tin,  tem- 
perature 442**  F.,  the  bitumens  decompose  and 
give  off  C(^ions  fumes ;  coal  is  unaltered.  Most 
of  these  points  of  diffiBrence  were  given  in  evi- 
denceby  JJr.  A.  A.  HayesandDr.  0.  T.  Jackson  of 
Boston,  in  an  important  suit  tried  in  New  Bruns- 
wiok,  to  test  the  titie  to  the  Albert  coal-mining 
proper^,  this  turning  on  the  point  whether  the 
product  was  coal  or  asphaltum.  Dr.  Ure  notices 
that  the  fluid  bitumens  differ  from  the  coal-tar 
in  not  producing  the  6  substances  extracted  from 
the  hiUer  by  ifi.  Mansfield,  and  named  by  him 
alliole,  benzole,  toluole,  eamphole,  mortnole^  and 
nitro-benzole. — ^The  varieties  of  bitumen  com- 
monly described  are:  the  liquid  oil,  nanhtha,  or 
in  its  more  impure  form,  pttrolwm  ;  tne  viseid 
pitchy  bitumen,  which  passes  into  the  black 
resinous  oiphdUum;  and  the  elastic  bitumen,  or 
elaterite  of  the  mineralogists.  The  last  is  also 
called  mineral  caoutehouo,  from  its  property  of 
rubbing  out  pencil-marks.  It  was  first  found 
in  the  deserted  lead  mine  of  Odin,  in  Derby- 
shire, by  Dr.  Lister,  in  1678,  and  was  called  by 
him  a  subterranean  fnngua  It  occurs  in  9oh 
flexible  masses  of  blackish  brown  colors  and  res^ 
inous  lustre,  and  consists  of  about  86  per  cent, 
of  carbon,  and  the  remainder  hydrogen  with 
probably  some  oxygen.  Oompact  iHtumen  or 
asphaltum  has  ahfeady  been  noticed;  see  Aa- 
PHiLLTUiL  Further  consideration,  however,  win 
be  given  to  it  in  this  article  in  treating  of  the 
uses  of  the  bitumens.  Ohapa^U  is  an  as- 
phaltum found  in  abundance  near  Havana, 
and  elsewhere  in  the  island  of  Ouba.  It 
appears  to  be  a  consolidated  petnileuiD,  a 


BirnvEN 


801 


liqald  Yariety  of  which  is  often  seen  near 
it  oosing  through  the  fissures  of  the  lime- 
stone rocks.  The  aoM  product  is  of  Jet  black 
odor,  and  giyes  a  brown  powder,  and  a  strong 
bnt  not  nnpleasant  odor.  Its  spedio  gravity  is 
giyen  by  Br.  Hayes  at  from  1.165  to  1.170.  It 
melts  in  boiling  water  into  a  thick  liquor,  and 
forms  a  scum  upon  the  surCnoe.  Alone,  it  melta 
at  S14^  F.  into  a  uniform  fluid,  which  may  be 
poured  fr«n  one  ressel  to  another;  calcined  in 
dose  vesselsi  it  sweUs  and  leares  a  very  light 
coke ;  disady ed  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  it  makea 
a  ooairn  Tarnish.  Brown  colored  and  viscid  oils 
are  extracted  from  it.  Petroleum  and  naphtha 
are  fluid  substances,  called  also  rock  oil,  which 
flow  up  throQgh  fissures  in  the  rooks,  and  coUeot 
in  low  places,  and  are  firand  floating  upon  the 
Burfiue  of  the  waters  of  iakes»  When  indurated 
and  ozidised  by  esmosure,  th^  are  asphaltum. 
TIm  purer  form,  called  naphtha,  is  very  common 
in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  numerous 
|daoc0  is  turned  to  good  account  as  a  fuel,  and 
also  to  illumination.  On  Oil  creek,  Venango 
coun4^  Pennsylvania,  it  was  formerly  collected 
by  the  Seneca  Indians,  and  sold  by  the  name  of 
Seneca  or  Genesee  oiL  Similar  springs  are 
well  known  in  Ghantauque,  Erie,  Cattaraugus, 
and  Seneca  counties  of  New  York.  Carburet- 
ted  hydrogen  gas  ksues  with  the  oil,  and 
this  i»  so  abondant  that  the  town  of  Fre- 
donia,  in  the  first-named  county,  is  lighted 
with  it,  and  it  affi>rds  the  illumiuating  gas 
for  the  light-honse  of  Portland  harbor  on 
Lake  Erie.  At  Rangoon,  in  Bnrmah,  there  are 
upward  of  600  naphtha  wells,  from  which 
412,000  hogsheads  of  oil  are  annuallv  obtained. 
This  itttereedng  form  of  bitumen  will  be  more 
particularly  described,  and  more  localities  dted, 
under  tlie  artkde  Naphtha.  These  diflbrent 
varieties  of  Intumen  are  found  only  in  the  seo- 
ondary  and  tertiary  formations.  If  they  occur 
at  all  in  the  primary  rocks,  it  is  merely  in  veins 
and  fissures,  which  probably  have  l)een  filled 
long  after  their  Ibnnirfion.  They  are  very  gen* 
eraUy  met  with  in  connection  with  salt  springs, 
or  mines  of  rock-salt.  Near  vokMuioes,  petro- 
leum is  often  seen  Inniug  with  the  waters  of 
spnn^i,  or  floating  upon  the  sea,  furnished  from 
niings  at  its  bottom.  The  andent  Babylonians 
ODtafaied  the  imperishabto  cement  for  their 
stmcfiores  from  the  fountains  of  Is^  which  is 
the  modem  Hit,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  £u- 
phratea.  These  still  continue  to  pour  out  inex« 
naastible  surolies,  mingled  with  the  strongly 
saline  and  siuphuroua  waters.  Common  salt  is 
also  prepared  hoe  from  the  brine  springs.  The 
water  of  thespiings  has  atemperatore  of  about 
leo"*  F.  As  it  flows  do wly  ak>ng  a  conduit,  the 
oily  bitumen  gathers  on  the  surfoce,  and  is 
skunmed  off  and  laid  in  pits  exposed  to  the  air, 
in  which  it  speedily  hardens  into  flakes  of  about 
an  inoh  thick,  which  are  sdd  at  Hit  for  about  6 
cents  the  cwt.  It  is  much  used  for  covering 
the  hoDses  and  boats  of  the  region.  The  rock 
formatioa  is  an  argillaceous  limestone,  over 
which  is  found  in  some  places  a  coarsely  granu* 


lar  gypsum.  These  fountains  are  celebrated  as 
having  attracted  the  attention  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  Trajan,  and  Julian.  The  bituminous 
products  of  the  Dead  sea  in  Judea  have  been 
referred  to  in  the  article  Abphaltxtm.  They 
are  collected  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
lake,  and  are  supposed  to  be  derived  fi*om  a  bed 
of  bitumen  at  the  bottom.  The  pieces  resemble 
pitch,  and  though  one-eeventh  heavier  than  pure 
water,  float  upon  the  saline  water  of  the  Dead 
sea,  the  spedno  gravity  of  which  is  l.Sd.  They 
melt  in  boiling  water,  and  when  distilled  yield 
a  volatile  oil,  some  water,  and  traces  of  ammo- 
nia. The  residue  consists  of  charcoal,  amount- 
ing to  ^  of  the  weight  of  the  aq>haltnm,— 4t8 
ashes  composed  of  silica,  alumina,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  traces  of  lime  and  manganese.  It  is  from 
this  locality  the  name  Jews'  pitch  has  been 
given  to  asphaltum. — ^In  the  island  of  Trinidad, 
in  the  West  Indies,  there  is  a  famous  lake  of 
asphaltum  and  petroleum  called  Tar  lake,  ot  by 
the  French  Ze  Brai^  from  its  material  answer- 
ing the  purposes  of  pitch,  and  possessing  this 
additional  advantage,  that  it  keeps  off  the  tere- 
do or  borer,  which  in  warm  dimates  is  so  de- 
stmdave  to  the  timber  of  ships.  This  is  de- 
scribed by  Manross,  an  American  who  visited 
it,  as  being  about  f  of  a  mile  back  frt>m  the 

C,  separated  from  it  by  an  devated  tract  of 
d,  the  surface  of  which  \b  covered  with 
hardened  pitch,  upon  which  trees  ffro w.  About 
Point  Le  Brai  the  masses  of  pitch  appear  like 
black  rocks  among  the  foliage.  The  lake  seems 
to  be  about  a  mile  and  a  hau  in  circumference. 
It  is  nnderliud  by  a  bed  of  coaL  Near  the 
shores  the  bitumen  is  solid  and  cold,  appearing 
as  if  it  had  cooled  from  the  liquid  wnen  boiling 
up  in  large  bubbles.  Toward  the  middle  of  the 
lake  the  temperature  increases,  the  bitumen 
becomes  softer,  and  in  the  centre  is  boiling. 
The  English  anthorities  describe  the  lake  as  of 
droular  form,  and  8  miles  in  circumference ; 
^ey  aav  nothing  of  the  coal-bed  nor  of  the 
lake  boiling  in  the  centre.  It  appears  at  a  dis- 
tance like  water,  but  near  by  like  a  lake  of 
l^iass.  ^ -approaching,  a  strong  sulphurous 
smell  is  perceived  at  the  distance  of  8  or  10 
miles.  When  the  weather  is  hot  and  dry,  the 
surface  (tf  tiie  lake  is  so  soft  and  sticky  one 
cannot  walk  upon  it  A  foot  below  the  surface 
it  becomes  softer,  and  contains  an  oily  sub- 
stance in  littie  cells.  Specimens  of  this  bitu- 
men, which  were  regarded  as  pure,  and  taken 
to  Europe,  were  examined  by  Mr.  Hatohett, 
who  found  them  to  consist  of  a  porous  and  ar- 
gillaceous stone  thoroughly  impregnated  with 
bitumen.  It  does  not  bum  readUy,  but  becomes 
plastic  by  a  slight  increase  of  temperature. 
Bitumen  is  also  found  disseminated  through 
calcareous  and  sandstone  rocks,  and  saturating 
slates  and  shales.  Nearly  all  the  varieties  of  it 
are  liable  to  have  many  impurities  mixed  with 
them,  and  all  contain  volatile  oils  and  water. 
The  bitumens  are  purified  by  first  boiling  them 
with  water.  The  sand  and  other  mineral  snb- 
stanoes  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  the  bitumen 


802 


BirniCEair 


floating  or  sticking  to  the  sides  of  the  holler  is 
skimmed  off  and  pat  into  another  holler,  hy 
which  more  water  is  separated.  It  is  then 
hoiled  hj  itself  for  some  time,  and  is  entirely 
freed  from  water  and  oils  and  the  solid  impuri* 
ties,  which  subside  to  the  bottom.  It  is  thos 
obtained  in  the  form  of  a  thick  fatty  pitch, 
ready  to  be  barrelled  for  the  market  or  applied 
to  its  uses. — ^The  resnlts  of  the  ultimate  analy- 
sis of  the  pure  natural  bitumens,  whether  liquid 
or  solid,  vary  but  little  from  88  per  cent  of 
carbon  and  12  of  hydrogen.  A  solid  bitumen  of 
Cozltambo,  near  Cuonca  in  Eqnador,  gave  88.7 
per  cent,  of  carbon,  and  9.7  of  hydrogen,  with 
1 .6  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  usually 
present  to  the  extent  of  a  trace,  and  in  the  solid 
asphaltum  it  has  been  found  to  the  extent  of  12 
per  cent,  and  oxygen  also  in  the  same  varietv 
about  8  per  cent.  By  treating  asphaltum  with 
different  solvents,  three  distinct  bodies  may  be 
separated.  Water  dissolves  nothing.  Anhy- 
drous alcohol  dissolves  a  yellow  resin  equal  to 
«V  of  the  weight  of  the  asphaltum;  tills  is  so- 
luble also  in  ether.  The  residue  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  treated  with  ether,  yields  a  dark 
brown  resin,  which  is  separated  by  evap- 
orating the  ether.  It  amounts  to  y\  the 
weight  of  the  asphaltum.  It  dissolves  easily 
in  volatile  oils,  and  in  oil  of  petroleum.  Tho^i 
latter  also,  as  well  as  turpentine  oil,  takes  up 
the  residue  which  the  ether  leaves.— *The  fol- 
lowing formul89,  exhibiting  the  composition  of 
petroleum  and  asphalt,  are  given  by  Dr.  Mus- 

Sratt,  as  setting  forth  in  a  striking  manner  the 
erivation  of  the  latter  by  oxidation  of  the 
former : 

Kapbtha,  or  Petroleum C^  Hi«,  or  Oo  H,^ 

Asphalt,  or  Bitamea 0^^  U^  ^«> 

Great  expectations  have  been  entertained  of  the 
important  uses  to  which  the  natural  bitumens 
might  be  applied;  and  in  France,  particularly, 
where  several  qualities  of  asphaltum  are  found, 
there  appears  to  have  prevailed  quite  a  specu- 
lative fever  in  introducing  those  substances  to 
a  great  variety  of  purposes  in  the  arts  and  man- 
n&ctures,  so  that  her  large  cities  and  capital 
have  been  spoken  of  as  museums  of  asphaltio  ' 
appliances.  Though  this  excitement  soon  sub- 
sided, and  the  use  of  asphaltum  was  abandoned 
for  many  of  the  purposes  proposed,  it  was  proved 
to  be  a<hnirably  adapted  for  the  construction  of 
walks,  terraces,  roofs,  and  every  kind  of  hy- 
draulic work.  The  great  Place  de  hi  Ooncorde 
is  covered  with  a  beautiful  mosaic  asphaltum 
pavement,  and  many  of  the  promenades  on 
the  Boulevards  with  a  clean  thin  bed  of  bitu- 
minous mastic;  beside  these,  a  great  number 
of  other  public  places  have  been  similarly  cov- 
ered. As  is  well  remarked  by  Dr.  Ure,  in 
treatmg  of  this  subject:  ^'It  is  a  singular  fact 
in  the  history  of*  the  useful  arts,  that  asphalt 
which  was  so  generally  employed  as  a  solid  and 
durable  cement,  in  the  earliest  constructions  upon 
record,  as  in  the  walls  of  Babylon,  should  for 
po  many  thousand  years  have  fallen  well-nigh 
into  disuse  among  civilized  nations.*'    Its  use 


being  reoommended  in  the  highest  tenns  by  this 
and  other  authorities,  as  pr^erable  to  that  of 
coal-tar,  which  in  this  country  has  enturely  sa* 
perseded  the  employment  of  the  natural  asphal- 
tum, it  is  well  to  give  more  consideration  to 
this  subject,  than  it  would  seem  otherwise  tore- 
quire,  particularly  as  in  Cuba  and  Trmidadtheta 
are  such  large  repositories  of  it,  convenieotlv  sit- 
uated for  its  importation.  It  appears  that  m  Eng- 
land several  attempts  have  been  made  to  constmct 
carriage-ways  of  asphaltum  and  gravel,  and  the 
fEolure  of  these  attempts  has  thrown  discredit 
upon  all  uses  of  the  kind  for  this  substance, 
ifow,  it  is  not  probable  that  it  will  prove  a  suit- 
able material  for  the  parement  of  crowded  thor- 
oughfares; and^  moreover,  for  whatever  pur- 
pose it  is  used,  it  should  be  laid  in  dry  weather, 
and  be  previously  thoroughly  prepared  by  boiling 
it  for  some  time  to  expel  all  the  water  and  vola- 
tile oils,  both  of  which  impfur  its  useful  proper- 
ties, by  causing  it  to  crack.    Neither  of  these 
requisites  appears  to  have  been  regarded  in  the 
London  attempts.    The  material  most  success- 
fhlly  employed  in  France  for  prodncing^e  bi- 
tundnous  mastic,  is  liquid  bitumen  mixed  with 
a  bituminous  limestone,  which  is  ground  to 
powder,  sifted  and  stirred  into  the  boiling  ss- 
phaltum,  four  parts  of  the  stone  to  one  of  the 
bitumen.     Dry,  common  limestone,  or  broken 
bricks,  will  answer  as  well  Tlie  mixture^  when 
of  homogeneous  consistency,  is  poured  out  upon 
a  table  covered  with  sheets  of  paper,  and  upon 
which  a  square  frame  is  placed  for  receiving  the 
sheets  of  mastic.    It  is  spread  smoothly  bv  a 
heated  iron  roller,  sprinkled  with  sand,  and  left 
to  cool    When  laid,  they  are  united  by  solder- 
ing with  a  hot  iron.    Coal-tar  is  often  substi- 
tuted for  the  natural  bitumen,  but  it  is  consid- 
ered far  inferior  to  it  in  durability  and  strengtL 
Dr.  Ure  says  of  them :  ^^  Factitious  tar  and  pitch, 
being  generated  by  the  force  of  fire,  seem  to 
have  a  propensity  to  decompose  by  the  joint 
agency  of  water  and  air,  whereas  mineral  pitch 
has  been  known  to  remain  for  ages  without  al- 
teration."   The  bituminous  limestone  is  found 
at  Yal  de  Travers,  in  the  canton  of  Neufch&tel, 
in  the  Jura  limestone  formation,  corresponding 
to  the  English  oolite.    It  consists  of  80  per  cent 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  20  per  cent  of  bitumen. 
It  is  tough,  difficult  to  break  with  a  hammer, 
and  is  excavated  by  blasting.    Sligfatiy  heated, 
it  exhales  a  fragrant  odor,  quite  different  from 
that  of  the  factitious  compounds.   The  carbonate 
of  lime  is  so  protected  by  the  bitumen,  that  it 
does  not  effervesce  with  muriatio  add.    In 
any  artificial  mixture  it  would  be  impossible 
to  produce  so  intimate  a  combination  of  these 
substance^  as  is  found  in  this  natural  asphalt 
rock.    Silicious  matters,  as  sand  and  smooth 
pebbles,  are  not  so  well  adapted  for  the  jHrepa- 
ration  of  durable  mastic  as  calcareous  substances, 
as  they  have  little  attraction  for  the  bitumen,  and 
the  mixture  is  liable  to  crack  and  crumble.  Bit- 
umen is  also  applied  in  the  form  of  an  ex- 
ternal coating  of  mastic  to  give  strength  and 
protection  to  thin  sheet-iron  pipes  and  glass 


BITUMINOUS  SHALE 


BIXIO 


803 


tabes  used  for  oonTeying  water.  To  Bome  ex- 
tent aspbaltum  may  be  used  as  a  ftiel,  especially 
for  beating  meters  in  gas  works.  It  appears 
to  bave  been  a  principal  ingredient  in  the  de- 
Btruotiy e  Greek  nre.  (See  Fibb,  Gbbek.)  Bricks 
of  poor  quality  saturated  with  it  are  rendered 
strong  and  impervioos  to  water.  It  answers 
most  of  the  purposes  for  which  coal-tar  is  used. 
It  makes  the  strongest  cement  for  laying  brick 
and  stone  work.  The  ancient  Egyptians  need 
some  form  of  it  for  embalming  bodies.  The 
hardness  of  the  mammies  is  probably  owing  to 
the  combination  of  bitumen  with  the  animid 
substances.  It  is  useful  for  lubricating  ma- 
chinery and  carriage-axles.  Petroleum  ^ords 
^an  oil  and  paraffins,  and  an  English  patent  has 
lately  been  granted  for  a  method  of  extracting 
them.  In  France  a  process  has  been  patented 
for  spreading  fluid  bitumen  upon  canvas  sheets 
or  netting,  and  passing  it  between  metallic  rolls, 
thus  coating  the  doth  on  one  or  both  sides,  and 
to  any  desired  thickness.  The  use  of  the  ma- 
terial is  for  lining  buildings.  In  medicine,  pe- 
trolenm  is  employed  as  a  sudorific  and  antispaa- 
modic,  and  mixed  with  asafodtida  it  is  a  remedy 
for  the  ti^ie-worm.  It  is  applied  externally  for 
chilblaios,  cutaneous  aflfections,  chronic  rheu- 
matism, and  affections  of  the  joints.  It  is  an 
ingredient  in  British  oil.  The  Seneca  oil  was 
much  used  for  an  external  application.  Ck>m- 
bined  with  soap,  it  gives  to  it  an  emollient  prop- 
erty, which  is  very  agreeable  in  hot  climates, 
and,  indeed,  acts  beneficially  upon  the  skin  in 
all  climates.  In  the  mechanical  and  chemical 
uses  of  the  bitumens,  it  is  likely  we  have 
yet  much  to  learn;  and  it  is  probable 
that  this  substance  will  hereafter  be  much 
more  advantageously  employed  for  many 
purposes  than  we  now  have  any  idea  of. — The 
origin  of  the  bitumens  has  been  regarded  as 
very  doubtfuL  Their  composition  would  seem 
to  refer  them  to  vegetable  matters,  though  tiiey 
possess  very  marked  differences  from  the  coals. 
Their  properties,  however,  may  be  changed  by 
the  different  influences  to  which  thev  have 
been  subjected,  and  particularly  to  those  of 
heated  waters  long  acting  upon  them  under 
great  pressure,  and  combined  with  various 
saline  bodies.  They  are  often  found  in  regions 
subject  to  earthquiiJces  and  volcanic  action,  and 
the  causes  that  produce  these  must  have  un- 
known effects  in  modifying  the  bodies  of  min- 
eral coal  or  vegetable  collections  they  may  come 
in  contact  with. 

BITUMINOUS  SHALE,  a  soft  variety  of 
argillaceous  slate,  found  usually  associated  with 
ooal.  It  contains  a  variable  proportion  of  bitu- 
men, sometimes  so  much  of  it,  that  it  will  burn. 
In  Hansfeld,  Germany,  the  bituminous  schist 
Ibnnd  immediately  over  the  new  red  sandstone 
contains  also  a  small  quantity  of  copper  pyrites, 
and  though  it  yields  only  1^  per  cent  of  metal, 
it  is  made  to  pay  a  proflt  by  the  ore  furnish- 
ing its  own  fuel  for  mluction.  It  is  proposed 
to  substitute  it  for  animal  black,' in  removing 
by  its  bleaching  properties  the  colors  of  airapsi 


it  being  composed,  like  bones,  of  an  earthy  and 
an  organic  constituent^  and  yielding  a  similar 
charcoal 

BITZIUS,  Albebt,  a  popuhur  Swiss  author, 
better  known  under  the  pseudonyme  of  ^^  Jere- 
mias  Gotthelf,"  bom  Oct  4, 1797,  at  Morat,  in 
the  canton  of  Freyburg,  died  Oct  22, 1854,  at 
Latzelfltth,  in  the  Emmen  valley  of  the  canton 
of  Bern.  In  early  life  he  officiated  as  pastor 
in  Bern,  and  for  some  time  took  part  in  politics, 
but  from  1837  till  his  death  he  devoted  himself 
exclusively  to  literature.  His  writings  consirt 
chiefly  of  tales  descriptive  of  the  home  life  of 
Switzerland.  A  complete  edition  of  his  works 
in  12  vols,  is  in  course  of  preparation  at  Berlin. 
Some  of  his  tales  are  especially  intended  to  illus- 
trate the  horrors  of  drunkenness,  while  others 
describe  the  results  consequent  upon  a  defective 
education.  He  was  also  the  author  of  several 
popular  almanacs. 

BIVALVE  (Lat  his^  twice,  and  taUxiy  flap), 
a  term  in  conchology,  appliea  to  shells  which 
are  composed  of  2  valves,  as  the  oyster,  clam, 
Ac  In  botany  it  is  applied  to  the  seed-veasel, 
when  this  opens  into  2  parts. 

BIVERI,  BivixBB.  or  Lentini,  a  hike  of  Si- 
cily, 17  miles  W.  14.  W.  of  Agosta.  It  is  19 
mUes  in  circumference,  but  during  the  heat  of 
summer  the  greater  part  of  it  b^mes  a  mere 
swamp.  Its  waters  abound  with  eels,  mullets, 
and  other  fish,  in  takinir  which  60  or  60  boata 
are  constantly  employed. 

BIVOUAO  (Ft.,  probably  from  Ger.  5d  and 
toaehe),  air  encampment  of  troops  by  night 
in  the  open  ^r,  without  tents,  each  soldier 
sleeping  in  his  dothes,  with  his  arms  by  his 
side.  In  the  warfare  of  the  ancients,  the 
troops  were  protected  by  tents,  as  by  movable 
cities.  In  medisval  times,  casties  and  abbeys 
were  opened  to  feudal  and  princely  armies  as 
they  marched  by.  The  popular  masses  wha 
impelled  by  religious  enthusiasm,  precipitated 
themselves  in  the  crusades  into  Asia,  formed 
rather  a  mob  than  an  army,  and  all  but  the 
leading  knights  and  princes  and  their  immedi- 
ate followers  bivouacked  upon  the  ground,  like 
the  wild  nomadic  tribes  who  roam  the  plalna 
of  Asia.  With  the  return  of  regular  warfare 
tented  camps  again  reappeared,  and  were  com- 
mon in  Europe  during  the  last  2  centuries. 
But  in  tiie  gigantic  Napoleonic  wars  it  was 
found  that  rapid  movements  were  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  health  of  soldiers,  and  the 
luxury  of  tents  disappeared  from  the  fields  of 
Europe^  excepting  sometimes  in  the  case  of 
the  English  armies.  Entire  armies  bivouacked 
around  fires,  or,  if  the  neighborhood  of  the 
enemy  rendered  it  necessary,  without  fires, 
sleeping  upon  straw,  or  perhaps  upon  the  naked 
ground,  a  part  of  the  soldiers  keeping  guard. 
Among  historical  bivouacs  none  has  been  more 
celebrated  by  poetry  aud  painting  than  that  of 
the  eve  of  the  battie  of  Austerlitz. 

BIXIO,  Jacques  Alexandre,  a  French  pel* 
itician,  born  in  1808  at  Chiavari,  in  the  depart^ 
meat  of  the  Apennines.    He  studied  medicine, 


804 


BIZERTA 


BLACK 


foonded  the  Eeme  de»  detsx  numd€$  in  conjnno- 
tion  with  M.  Boloz,  and  produced  some  agri* 
coltural  works  of  repute.  In  1848  he  was  in 
&vor  of  a  regency,  and  during  the  eyening  of 
Feb.  24  made  vain  efforts  to  prereiit  the  de- 
cree which  proclaimed  the  republic  from  be- 
ing inserted  m  the  Mimit&ur,  Two  days  after^ 
ward  he  took  office  under  the  provincmal  gov* 
ernment,  and  was  sent  as  minister  to  Turin. 
Elected  to  the  legislative  assembly,  he  was 
zealous  against  the  insurrectionary  movements 
of  May  15  and  June  24.  In  the  latter  outbreak 
he  was  slightly  wounded  as  he  was  rallying  the 
soldiers  after  Gen.  Bedeau  had  fallen.  Subse* 
quently  he  was  appointed  vice-president  of  the 
assembly,  and  was  5  times  rejected  to  that 
office.  When  Louis  Napoleon  became  presi* 
dent,  Bixio  was  made  minister  of  agriculture 
and  commerce,  but  in  8  days  he  retired.  After 
the  coup  cPStat  of  Dec.  2, 1861,  he  was  kept 
8  months  in  prison,  and  has  not  since  mingled 
ki  public  affairs. 

BIZERTA,  or  Bbnzsbta,  afortlfied  seaport 
in  Tunis,  on  a  gulf  which  communicates  with  a 
lake  in  the  interior;  pop.  10,000.  The  harbor 
was  formerly  conmiodious,  but  is  now  choked 
up  with  sand,  and  receives  only  small  vessels. 
The  a^oining  hike  abounds  in  fish,  the  roes  of 
which,  dried  and  formed  into  a  aubstanco 
called  hotargo,  are  an  artide  of  Meditenraneaa 
commerce. 

BJOERNSTJERNA,  Magvub  Fbbdbik  Fjeb- 
MNAKD,  count,  a  Swedish  statesman,  bom  Oct. 
10,  17T9,  at  Dresden,  died  Oct.  6;  1847,  at 
Stockholm.  In  1793  he  went  to  Sweden  and 
entered  the  army,  where  he  served  in  the  war 
with  Finland,  ana  in  Germany  at  the  battles  of 
Dessau  and  Leipsic,  negotiated  the  capitulation 
of  Lllbeck  with  Gen.LflJlemand,  and  after  taking 
an  active  part  in  the  military  operations  in  Hoi- 
stein  and  i^orway  he  concluded  the  convention 
which  established  the  union  of  Sweden  and 
Norway.  In  Oct  1812,  he  n^tiated  at  Lon^ 
don  the  sale  of  Guadeloupe.  He  was  envoy  in 
London  from  1828  to  1846.  His  political  opin- 
ions were  moderate.  He  wrote  a  work  on  the 
theogony,  philosophy,  and  cosmogony  of  the 
Hindoos,  and  another  on  the  British  rule  in  In« 
dia. 

BJOREOf  a  Swedish  idand  on  the  lake  of 
M&lar,  18  miles  from  Stockholm,  with  ancient 
gates,  walla,  and  other  ruins,  which  confirm  the 
current  belief  that  the  island  is  the  site  upon 
which  formerly  stood  the  flourishing  <nty  of 
BjOrkO. 

BLAOAS,  PiBBBB  Louis  Jsan  Oabdob,  duke 
de,  a  French  statesman,  bom  Jan.  1%  1771,  at 
Aulps,  died  at  Goritz,  Nov.  17, 1889.  At  the 
conmienoement  of  the  revolution  he  emigrated, 
and  returned  to  France  with  Loms  XVUL 
Sent  to  Rome  as  ambassador,  Blaoas  negotiated 
the  concordat  of  1817.  In  1820  he  reftised  to 
be  made  prime  minister.  When  Louis  Philippe 
became  king  of  the  French,  Blaoas  returned  to 
exile  and  offered  Charles  X.  his  fortune. 

BLACK.     A  substance  is  said  to  be  black 


when  no  oolor  is  reflected  from  its  flar&oe, 
but  all  the  colors  are  absorbed. 

BLACK,  Adam,  a  Scottish  publisher,  bom  in 
Edinbur^  in  1784.  In  coig unction  with  his 
brother  Charles,  he  established  the  puUlshing 
firm  in  Edinburgh,  which  for  many  years  rival* 
led  the  establishments  of  Constable  and  Black* 
wood,  and  still  continues  in  high  repute  as 
publishers  of  Sk  Walter  Scott's  works,  of  the 
M Edinburgh  Review"  (in  coz^unction  with 
the  Longmans  of  London),  and  the  ^'Enoydo- 
psdia  Britannica,"  to  the  8th  edition  of  which 
Mr.  Black  has  contributed  several  articles. 
He  held  and  avowed  liber^  opinions  at  a  tima 
when  they  were  unfMhionable,  and  assisted  to 
secure  their  triumph,  very  warmly  joining  in  the  ^ 
movement  to  secure  parliamenta^  and  muni* ' 
oipal  reform.  He  was  elected  twice  to  the 
office  of  lord  provost  of  Edinbuigfa^  which  he 
oocupied  fktMn  1848  to  184a  During  a  visit 
to  Eiogland,  while  holding  that  position,  he 
declined  the  honor  of  kn^thood,  whidi  was 
e!&red  to  him  by  the  queen  at  the  suggestioa 
of  Lord  John  RusselL  In  Feb.  1866,  on  the 
final  rethement  of  Mr.  Maoanlay  from  the 
representation  of  Edinburgh,  "Mx.  Black  was 
unanimously  chosen  to  soeceed  him,  and  was 
refileoted  in  1867,  without  opposition.  As  a 
legislator  he  has  supported  Lord  John  Bussell's 
education  bill  of  1868,  and  advocates  pariia- 
mentary  reform  and  the  vote  by  baUot  He  is 
decidedly  opposed  to  all  religious  endowmenta 
by  the  state.  Mr.  Black,  though  a  good  speakec^ 
18  rarely  heard  in  the  house  of  commona 

BLACK,  Jbbsmiah  S.  JJnited  States  attorney- 
general  under  President  Buchanan,  bom  Jan.  10, 
1810,  in  the  Glades,  Somerset  co,  Penn.  At  17 
yearsof  agehe  entered  thelaw  office  of  Channcey 
Forward,  in  Somerset^  an  eminent  membw 
of  the  bar,  and  was  admitted  to  the  courts 
in  1880,  being  stiU  in  his  minority.  In  April, 
1842,  he  was  appointed  bv  the  governor  presi- 
dent judge  of  the  judicial  district  in  which  he 
resided,  and  confirmed  by  the  senate  upon  a 
strict  party  vote.  In  1861,  when  a  change  ia 
the  state  oonstitution  made  tibe  judges  elective^ 
he  was  nominated  as  Judge  of  the  supreme 
court  by  the  democratic  convention,  before 
which  he  was  not  a  candidate.  Of  the  10  can- 
didates named  by  the  2jparties,  he  obtained  the 
largest  popular  vote.  Under  the  mode  of  draw* 
ing  provided  by  the  constitution,  a  8  years'  term 
was  aasiffned  to  him,  and  he  became  chief  jna- 
tice  of  ue  court  In  1864  he  was  rej^lected  to 
this  place,  by  a  mi(jority  of  47,000  votes,  thou^ 
the  candidate  for  governor  on  the  same  ticket 
was  defeated  by  87,000.  On  March  6,  1867, 
while  engaged  in  the  dischaige  of  his  Judicial 
duties  at  Philadelphia,  he  received  a  telegraphic 
despatch  from  President  Buchanan,  tendering 
him  the  appointment  of  attorney  ^general  of  the 
ITnited  States.  He  has  since  appeared  on  be« 
half  of  the  government,  in  a  diluted  land 
claim  from  California,  involving  an  important 
principle  upoA  which  hundreds  of  similar  cases 
depended    He  achieved  a  great  success^  at  onoa 


BLACK 


805 


establisbiDg  his  repntation  as  a  jurist  with  the 
court  and  the  bar. 

BLACK,  John,  a  London  journalist,  bom  at 
Dunse,  in  the  county  of  Berwick,  in  1788,  died 
June,  1856.  He  received  the  ordinary  Scottish 
parochial  education,  and  commenced  active  life 
at  the  age  of  14  in  his  native  place,  as  errand 
boy.  In  his  18th  year,  he  removed  to  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  struggled  for  several  years, 
chiefly  as  writing  derk  in  a  lawyer^s  office. 
He  taught  himself  Latin,  Greek,  and  French, 
and  also  acquired  German  and  Italian.  In  1810, 
at  the  age  of  27,  he  arrived  in  London,  with  8 
half-pence  in  his  nocket,  having  walked  the 
whole  way  from  Edinburgh.  He  had  a  letter 
•  to  Mr.  Perry,  of  the  "Morning  Chronicle,**  who 
engaged  him-  first  as  a  parliamentary  reporter, 
and,  soon  after,  as  translator  of  die  foreign 
journals.  In  1819,  2  years  before  Mr.  Perry's 
death  Mr.  Black  rose  to  the  position  of  princi- 
pal editor  of  that  journal,  in  which  his  fearless- 
ness, tact,  probity,  and  general  knowledge  were 
largely  available.  When  the  ^'  Morning  Chron- 
icle "  was  sold  (in  1828  to  Mr.  Clements,  and 
to  Sir  John  Easthope  in  1834),  Mr.  Black  was 
continued  as  editor,  and  retired  in  1844.  He 
was  then  in  such  distressed  circumstances,  that 
he  was  compelled  to  sell  his  large  and  valuable 
library,  the  collection  of  over  80  years.  The 
leaders  of  the  liberal  party,  whose  opinions  he 
Lad  devoted  his  life  to  advocating,  subscribed 
enough  to  purchase  him  an  annuity,  on  which 
he  lived  iif  easy  circumstances,  until  hiB  death. 
Mr.  Black,  whom  Cobbett  delighted  to  call 
''the  Scotch  feelosopher,"  was  a  heavy  political 
writer,  fond  of  fiUing  his  articles  with  long  ex- 
tracts from  old  books,  and  fully  persuaded 
that  his  duty  as  a  journalist  was  to  write  all 
the  "leaders''  himself.  Latterly  he  had  the 
assistance  of  many  able  writers.  Indeed,  while 
the  *'  Chronicle  "  was  in  Mr.  Ferry's  hands,  al- 
most every ''  old  whig"  of  note  occasionally  con- 
tributed to  it.  Mr.  Black  never  wrote  an  origi- 
nal book,  but  translated  Humboldt's  work  on 
Hew  Spain,  Leopold's  "  Travels  in  Norway  and 
Lapland,"  Golaoni's  ''Autobiography,"  and 
Schl^gel's  "Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Arts  and 
literature." 

BLACK,  JossFB,  a  Scotch  chemist  bom  of 
Scotch  parentage  at  Bordeaux,  in  Irance,  in 
1728,  died  in  Edinburgh,  Nov.  20,  1799.  He 
was  sent  in  his  12th  year  to  prosecute  his 
studies  at  Belfast,  and  6  years  later  to  the  uni- 
versity of  Glssgow,  where  he  displayed  a  fond- 
ness for  physical  science,  selected  the  profession 
of  medicine,  and  became  the  favorite  pupil  of 
Dr.  Cullen,  under  whom  he  made  great  progress 
in  chemical  studies.  Physicians  and  chemical 
professors  were  at  that  time  discussing  the  cause 
of  the  causticity  of  lime  and  the  mode  of  its 
action  as  a  lithontriptic  medicine,  and  Mr. 
Black,  as  the  assistant  of  Dr.  CuUen  in  his 
chemical  operations,  began  to  make  experi- 
ments upon  this  subiect,  which  he  continued 
with  ardor  after  his  departure  to  the  university 
of  Edinburgh,  where  he  took  his  medical  degree 
TOL.  m. — 20 


in  1764.  It  hod  formerly  been  supposed  that 
quicklime  held  in  absorption  some  igneous  par- 
ticles or  something  of  an  igneous  character,  but 
the  investigations  of  Black  led  him  to  the  dis- 
covery that  the  causticity  of  the  calcareous 
earths  was  not  derived  from  any  combination, 
but  was  their  peculiar  property,  and  that  they 
lost  this  property  when  they  combine  with  a 
certain  portion  of  air,  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of  fixed  air,  but  which  is  now  known  as 
carbonic  acid  gas.  This  discovery,  which  forms 
an  era  in  the  history  of  chemistiy,  and  opened 
the  way  for  the  experiments  of  Priestiey,  Cfaven- 
dish,  and  Lavoisier,  was  stated  and  explained 
by  Black  in  his  dissertation  when  he  received 
his  medical  degree.  Dr.  Black  was  invited  in 
1756  to  succeed  Dr,  Cullen  at  Glasgow,  the 
latter  having  removed  to  Edinburgh,  and  in 
'this  position  he  made  his  second  and  most  im- 
portant discovery.  Ice,  he  observed,  being  con- 
verted into  water,  absorbs  a  large  amount  of 
heat,  the  existence  of  which  is  no  longer  indi- 
cated by  the  thermometer.  Water  being  con- 
verted into  vaoor  absorbs  another  large  amount 
of  heat,  whicn  is  in  like  manner  lost  to  the 
senses  or  the  thermometer.  To  change  a  solid 
into  a  fluid,  or  a  fluid  into  a  gas,  a  quantity  of 
heat  has  to  lose  its  existence,  as  it  were,  in  the 
newly  created  state  of  the  body*  On  the  other 
hand,  heat  is  given  out  when  a  gas  b  liquefied, 
or  a  liquid  solidified ;  that  is,  the  heat  which 
was  apparently  lost  when  the  solid  was  made  a 
liquid,  becomes  sensible  again  when  the  liquid 
is  made  a  solid ;  and  the  same  is  true,  also,  of 
the  change  from  a  gas  to  a  fluid.  Thus  a  freezing 
process  is  always  a  warming  process  to  the 
things  which  are  nearest  it,  because  the  heat 
which  was  lost  in  the  fluid  is  let  loose  when 
the  solid  is  formed.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
melting  process  is  always  a  cooling  process  to 
the  things  in  the  neighborhood,  because  to  melt 
a  substance  a  lar^  amount  of  heat  has  to  be 
sacrificed,  and  this  heat  is  abstracted  from  the 
nearest  bodies.  Thus,  on  a  sunny  spring  day 
in  the  north,  when  the  snow  is  melting,  there 
is  always  a  raw  chill  in  the  air,  because  the 
heat  is  constantiy  taken  out  of  the  air  to  chimge 
the  snow  into  water,  and  becomes  insensible 
in  the  latter.  Dr.  Black,  observing  these  phe- 
nomena, said  that  the  heat  is  concealed  {laUt) 
in  the  water  and  vapor,  and  introduced  the 
name  and  the  theory  of  latent  heat.  This  dis- 
covery suggested  to  Watt,  who  was  a  pupil  of 
Black,  his  iniprovements  in  the  steam  engine. 
In  1766,  Dr.  ]Black  was  again  made  the  succes- 
sor of  Dr.  Cullen,  being  appointed  to  the  chemi- 
cal chdr  of  the  university  of  Edinburgh.  Im> 
pressed  with  his  responsibility  as  a  lecturer 
before  the  large  concourse  of  students  who  fre- 
quented that  university,  he  made  no  further 
mvestigations,  devoting  himself  exclusively  to 
the  preparation  of  his  lectures,  and  so  great 
was  his  success  that  he  made  chemistry  a 
fasihionable  study  at  Edinburgh,  and  a  branch 
of  a  polite  education.  His  lectures  were  re- 
sorted to  by  the  gentlemen  of  the  capital  and 


806 


BLACK  ASSIZE 


BLAOE  FOREST 


by  men  of  science  from  all  parts  of  Europe.  It 
is  a  carious  fact  that  Dr.  Black,  having  given  np 
experimenting  for  lectnring,  combated  for  sev- 
eral years  results  which  other  chemists  had 
legitimately  founded  upon  his  own  discoveries. 
A  feeble  constitution  obliged  him  to  husband 
his  strength  in  his  later  years,  and,  unable  to 
develop  his  views  with  the  completeness  and 
nicety  which  he  desired,  he  desisted  at  length 
from  any  attempts  at  composition,  and  various 
continental  diemists  put  forth  in  their  own 
names  the  ideas  which  they  had  received  in 
the  lecture-room  of  Dr.  Black.  His  only  pub- 
lications were  8  dissertations,  giving  an  account 
of  his  experiments  on  magnesia^  quicklime,  and 
other  alkaline  substances ;  his  observations  on 
•the  more  ready  freezing  of  water  that  has  been 
boUed ;  and  his  analysis  of  some  boiling  springs 
in  Iceland.  His  death  occurred  while  he  was 
dtting  at  table,  and  so  gently  that  he  did  not 
drop  the  glass  of  milk  whioh  he  held  at  the 
moment  in  his  hand,  but  rested  it  upon  his 
knee,  and  was,  at  first,  thought  to  have  fallal 
asleep. 

BLAOE  ASSIZE,  a  judicial  sitting  of  the 
courts  held  at  Oxford  in  1677,  and  rendered  his- 
torical by  the  pestUential  and  deadly  fever  which 
was  introduced  into  the  court  from  the  gaol, 
and  swept  away  Judges,  jurymen,  and  counsel, 
and  extended  itself  into  the  town  and  neigh- 
borhood. The  superstitions  of  the  age  invested 
it  with  a  special  character,  and  it  was  remarked 
that  no  women  nor  poor  people  died  of  it. 

BLAOE  BAND,  the  name  given  by  Mushet 
to  certain  layers  of  argillaceous  carbonate  of 
iron  of  the  coal  formation  found  near  Air- 
drie,  E.  of  Glasgow,  as  also  in  other  parts  of 
Scotland,  and  in  Wales,  and  which,  until  he 
called  attention  to  them,  had  escapad  notice. 
They  are  of  the  common  variety  of  this  ore, 
only  of  a  darker  color  than  usual,  and  in  blocks 
of  pretty  regular  thickness.  The  great  extent 
ana  convenient  access  of  the  beds  in  Scothmd, 
together  with  their  occurrence  near  beds  of  coal 
and  limestone,  have  given  to  this  ore  an  impor- 
tance due  neither  to  its  percentage  of  iron  nor 
to  the  quality  of  the  metal  it  produces.  It  may 
be  also  that  its  value  is  somewhat  enhanced  by 
the  mixture  of  bituminous  and  coaly  matters, 
which  renders  a  less  amount  of  fuel  necessary  to 
produce  the  iron.  A  rich  specimen  of  it,  of 
specific  gravity  8.0583,  analyzed  by  Dr.  Col- 
quhoun,  gave :  per  cent  carbonic  acid,  85.17; 
protoxide  of  iron,  68.08 ;  lime,  8.88 ;  magnesia! 
1.77;  silica,  1.4;  alumina,  0.68;  peroxide  of 
iron,  0.28 ;  carbonaceous  or  bituminous  matter, 
8.08 ;  moisture  and  loss,  1.41.  Its  percentage 
of  metallic  iron  is  41.25. 

BLAOE  OOPPER,  the  crude  metal  produced 
by  the  first  smelting  of  copper  ores,  and  which 
requires  subsequent  melting  and  refining  to  con- 
vert it  into  merchantable  copper.  It  is  some- 
times conveniently  and  rudely  prepared  in  cheap 
ihmaces  near  the  copper  mines,  as  the  easiest 
method  of  concentrating  the  metallic  portions 
of  the  ore  and  reducing  the  oost  of  transporta- 


tion to  distant  markets.  It  generally  contains 
from  70  to  95  per  cent  of  copper,  mechanically 
mixed  with  metallio  iron  and  a  small  proportion 
of  other  foreign  matters. 

BLAOE  DEATH.    See  Plaoub. 

BLAOE  FEET,  a  powerful  Indian  tribe  at  the 
foot  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  between  the 
Tellowstoneriver  and  the  Missouri.  They  are 
one  of  the  most  powerful  and  formidable  tribes 
in  the  western  territory,  and,  until  recently,  have 
given  much  trouble  to  the  government,  which, 
on  more  than  one  occasion,  has  found  it  neces- 
sary to  send  troops  to  overawe  them.  Against 
them  the  famous  expedition  to  the  Yellow- 
stone, in  1826  and  1827,  under  command  of  Gen. 
Atkinson,  was  directed.  They  are  said  to  num- 
ber about  10,000  warriors,  but  as  they  receive 
no  annuities  from  the  government  but  little  care 
has  been  taken  to  obtain  a  correct  census.  Thev 
are  great  robbers  and  depredators,  and  furnish 
large  quantities  of  furs,  ^c,  to  the  American 
traders,  who  have  a  statioa  on  the  Yellowstone 
at  the  falls.  They  seem  to  have  more  affinity 
in  language  and  customs  with  the  tribes  west 
than  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 

BLAOE  FLUX,  a  mixture  of  carbonate  of 
potash  and  carbon  in  a  state  of  the  finest  di- 
vision. It  is  prepared  by  intimately  mixing  1 
part  of  nitre  with  2  to  8  parts  of  crude  tartar 
or  cream  of  tartar,  and  deflagrating  the  mix- 
ture by  dropping  ignited  charcoal  into  it.  When 
the  chemical  action  has  ceased,  the  black  pro- 
duct is  ground  in  a  mortar,  passed  through  a 
fine  hair-sieve,  and  then  put  away  for  use.  It 
must,  from  its  property  of  deliquescing  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air,  be  kept  in  well-stopped  bot- 
tles. It  is  employed  as  a  fiux  in  reducing  ores 
of  metals,  particularly  of  lead  and  copper;  and 
it  has  the  properties  both  of  the  reducing  and 
of  the  desulphurizing  fluxes.     See  Tlxjx, 

BLAOE  FOREST,  the  south-western  ex- 
tremity of  the  ancient  Hercynian  forest,  called 
by  the  Romans  SyU)a  Martiana,  and  which  re- 
ceived during  the  middle  ages  the  name  of 
Bchwartzwald  or  Black  Forest.  It  is  a  range  of 
woody  mountains  in  the  south-western  part  of 
Germany,  travening  the  territories  of  Baden  and 
WUrtemberg,  and  forming  the  eastern  boun- 
dary of  the  basin  of  the  Khine.  It  extends  85 
miles  in  length,  almost  parallel  with  the  course 
of  the  Rhine,  from  which  it  is  distant  in  many 
places  not  more  than  20  miles,  and  has  a  breadth 
in  its  southern  part  of  about  80  miles,  and  in 
its  northern  part  of  about  18.  The  Black  For- 
est consbts  rather  of  elevated  plains  or  table- 
land, than  of  insulated  mountains,  and  describes 
itself  upon  the  horizon  in  regnlar  undulating 
lines  without  any  of  those  sudden  peaks  and 
notches  which  mark  the  summits  of  the  Alps 
and  Pyr6n6es.  Its  greatest  elevation  is  near 
and  to  the  east  of  Freiburg,  in  the  region  where 
the  Wiesen  takes  its  rise,  and  where  is  the 
famous  defile  called  Hell,  a  narrow  valley  sur- 
rounded by  lofty  mountains,  and  celebrated  in 
the  retreat  of  Moreau  in  1T96.  The  highest 
summits,  the  Feldberg,  the  Belchenberg,  and 


BLACK  FOREST 


BLAOE  HOLE 


807 


the  Kandel,  are  between  4,000  and  6,000.  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The  descent  oi  the 
Black  Forest  toward  the  Bhine  is  very  abrupt, 
oannng  the  rivers  which  take  thefar  rise  on  this 
nde,  the  Marg^  Kinag,  and  Eltz,  to  swell  grad- 
ually daring  the  rains,  and  to  merit,  nntil 
their  union  with  the  Rhine,  the  name  of  ca- 
pricious torrents.  The  eastern  slope  is  very 
gentle,  and  ^ves  rise  to  the  Neckar  and  the 
Danube,  the  former  soon  changing  its  direction 
to  the  north  and  west,  and  joining  the  Rhine, 
the  latter  receiving  numerous  tributaries  from 
the  Alpine  systems  as  it  continues  its  course  to 
the  east.  The  Black  Forest  is  composed  mainly 
of  granite,  though  the  surface  is  in  some  places 
covered  with  sandstone,  and  gneiss  appears 
around  its  basOb  On  some  of  the  heights  por- 
phyry is  found,  and  there  are  many  mines  of 
silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  cobalt.  Its  min- 
eral waters  too,  especially  those  of  Baden  and 
Wildbad,  have  a  European  celebrity.  The  sum- 
mits of  the  Bhiok  Forest  are  during  8  months 
of  the  year  covered  with  snow ;  they  are  gen- 
erally destitute  of  trees,  and  except  during  the 
greatest  heats  oi  summer  display  no  verdure. 
Descending  from  the  top,  the  first  trees  that 
appear  are  the  pine,  the  beach,  and  the  maple, 
which  are  succeeded  by  the  dense  forests  of  fir 
with  which  all  the  middle  and  lower  parts  of 
the  mountains  are  covered.  These  firs  make  the 
timber  of  ships  for  navigating  the  Rhine,  and 
also  furnish  those  forests  of  masts  which  fill  all 
the  groat  ports  of  Europe.  Here,  near  the  foot 
of  the  mountains,  are  many  picturesque  valleys^ 
of  which  that  of  the  Murg,  situated  near  the 
thermal  waters  of  Baden,  is  particularly  dis- 
tinguished for  its  natural  beauty.  Villages  and 
hamlets  are  interspersed,  and  the  Inhabitants 
are  mainly  engaged  in  rearing  live  stock,  trad- 
ing in  timber,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  nu- 
merous toyS)  which  are  spread  over  the  world 
for  the  amusement  of  the  youthful  generation. 
The  most  £unous  of  these  is  the  wooden  dock, 
of  which  it  is  estimated  that  the  number  of 
180,000  are  annually  distributed  through  Eu- 
rope and  America.  Agriculture  is  there  of 
little  importance,  the  soil  being  unfruitful  and 
the  climate  severe,  yet  the  valleys  produce  ex- 
cellent fruits. — ^The  middle  and  more  recent 
ages  have  left  traces  of  their  history  on  the 
whole  range  of  the  Black  Forest  Abbeys  and 
castles  stand  in  decay,  the  monuments  of  a  past 
greatness,  and  pious  and  poetic  legends  hover 
about  their  ruins.  There  is  the  castle  of  Qer^ 
oldseck,  founded,  if  tradition  be  true,  by  the 
brother  of  Charlemagne ;  the  castle  of  StaufiTen- 
burg,  once  occupied  by  a  bold  knight,  the 
lover  of  an  Undme  or  water-spirit ;  the  2  castles 
of  Baden,  one  in  ruins,  transformed  into  a  park 
and  made  open  to  all  the  other  near  by,  built 
over  a  dungeon  in  wnich  the  Yehmic  tribunal 
used  to  meet ;  the  castle  of  Yberg,  ill-famed  in 
the  mouths  of  the  people,  because  an  impious 
and  rapacious  knight  had  there  exhumed  the 
bones  of  one  of  his  ancestors  to  find  treasure; 
and  the  castle  of  Roeteln,  in  the  vale  of  Wiesen, 


the  abode  of  Hebel,  the  German  song  writer. 
These  traditional  attractions,  joined  to  its  beau- 
tifnl  scenery  and  its  mineral  waters,  make  the 
Black  Forest,  despite  its  unpropitious  name,  a 
most  interesting  locality.  The  peculiar  in- 
dustry and  simplicity  of  the  inhabitants,  some 
of  them  constructing  children's  playthings  in 
cottages,  some  gniding  rafts  of  timber  down 
the  mountain  torrents,  give  an  additional  in- 
terest. Agreeable  sketches  of  home-life  in  the 
Black  Forest  may  be  found  in  the  tales  of  Ber- 
thold  Auerbach. 

BLAOK  GUM,  the  arbitrary  name  of  a  tree 
without  gum,  a  species  of  nyssa  or  tupelo  of  Ad- 
anson,  which  is  the  only  genus  of  Endlioher's 
suborder  nyuaeem  of  his  order  iantalacea, 
Linnssus  had  it  in  polygamia  dicacia;  Elliott* 
placed  it  in  diacia  pentandria,  and  Darlington 
in  pentandria  manogynia.  The  black  gum  is 
the  If,  mvUiflora^  and  is  known  in  Kew 
England  as  snag-tree  and  hornpipe;  in  New 
York  as  pepperidge,  and  as  the  gum-tree  in 
the  middle  states.  It  thrives  in  low,  clayey 
soil,  and  in  dense  forests  grows  to  40  feet  high. 
Its  external  habits  are  various,  and  it  is  often 
confounded  with  other  trees.  It  has  very  many 
branches,  which  are  often  crooked;  a  dense 
pyramidal  head ;  leaves  1  to  6  inches  long,  and  of 
a  lustrous  green,  in  tufts  of  4  or  more  at  the  ends 
of  the  branches ;  greenish  flowers  in  clusters, 
ripening  to  blue-black ;  mouse-colored  bark  in 
longitudinal  furrows;  wood  close  and  tough, 
resists  splitting,  though  it  decays  sooner  in  the 
weather  than  that  of  the  elm.  The  wood  is 
used  for  water-pipes  in  the  salt  works  at  Syra- 
cuse ;  it  u  also  good  for  hatters'  blocks,  wheel 
naves,  and  cog-wheels.  The  tree  is  very  vigor- 
ous ;  it  was  introduced  into  Europe  as  an  orna- 
mental tree  in  1789 ;  it  thrives  in  the  south  of 
England,  and  even  in  Hanover. 

BLACK  HAWK,  a  N.  E.  central  county  of 
Iowa,  with  an  area  of  576  sq.  miles,  divided  by 
Oedar  river  into  nearly  equal  parts.  The  sur- 
fhce  is  occupied  mainly  by  prairies,  though  por- 
tions of  it  are  well  woodea.  The  productions 
of  the  county  in  1866  amounted  to  217,168 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  26,821  of  wheat,  2,865 
tons  of  hay,  86,667  lbs.  of  butter,  and  5,904  lbs. 
of  cheese.    Pop.  5,638. 

BLAOK  HlLl^,  the  name  given  to  a  moun- 
tain range  of  Missouri  territory.  Oonmiencing 
near  the  Missouri  river,  in  lat.  47^  N.  and  long. 
108^  W.,  it  stretches  along  this  meridian  to 
about  48*  K.  lat,  after  which  it  suddenly 
changes  its  course  to  the  west,  and  is  finally 
lost  among  the  Bocky  mountains.  On  the 
W.  side  of  this  range  are  the  tributaries 
of  the  Yellowstone  river;  on  the  E.  and 
8.  the  afl9uents  of  the  Missouri  and  the  Platte. 
Laramie  Peak  is  the  highest  known  sum- 
mit; it  has  an  elevation  of  8,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  Recent  explorations  have  shown  the 
Black  Hills  to  be  mnch  nearer  the  Missouri 
river  than  was  formerly  supposed.  f 

BLACK  HOLE,  a  small  close  dungeon  in 
Fort  William,  Calcutta,  which  will  long  be  re- 


808 


BLAOK  HOLE 


BLACK  MAIL 


memb^red  as  the  eceoe  of  one  of  tbe  most 
tragical  events  in  tbe  bistorj  of  British  India, 
On  the  capture  of  Calcutta  by  Snrcjah  Dowlah, 
June  20, 1756,  the  British  garrison,  consisting 
of  146  men,  under  tbe  command  of  Mr.  Hoi* 
irell,  were  taken  prisoners  and  locked  np  for 
the  night  in  the  common  dungeon  of  the  fort* 
ress,  a  strong] j  barred  room,  18  feet  square, 
and  never  intended  for  the  confinement  of  more 
Uian  2  or  8  men  at  a  time.  There  were  onl/  2 
windows,  both  opening  toward  the  west, 
whence,  under  the  best  of  circumstances,  but 
little  air  could  enter.  Add  to  this  that  a  pro- 
jecting verandah  outside,  and  thick  ii'on  bars 
within,  materially  impeded  what  little  ventila- 
tion there  might  be,  while  conflagrations  raging 
«ln  different  parts  of  the  fort  gave  the  atmos- 
phere an  oppressiveness  unusual  even  in  that 
sultry  climate,  and  we  may  form  a  faint  idea 
of  the  sufferings  of  these  unhappy  creatures, 
exhausted  with  previous  fatigue,  and  packed  so 
tightly  in  their  prison  that  it  was  with  difficul- 
ty the  door  could  be  closed.  A  few  moments 
sufficed  to  throw  them  into  a  profuse  perspira- 
tion, the  natural  consequence  of  whicn  was  a 
raging  thirst.  They  stripped  off  their  clothes 
to  gain  more  room,  sat  down  on  the  floor  that 
the  air  might  circulate  more  freely,  and,  when 
eveiy  expedient  failed,  sought  by  the  bitterest 
insults  to  provoke  the  guards  to  fire  on  them. 
One  of  tbe  soldiers  stationed  in  the  verandah 
was  offered  1,000  rupees  to  have  them  removed 
to  a  larger  room.  He  went  away,  but  returned 
saying  it  was  impossible.  The  bribe  was  then 
doubled,  and  he  made  a  second  attempt  with  a 
like  result ;  the  nabob  was  asleep,  and  no  one 
durst  wake  him.  By  9  o^clock  several  had  died, 
and  many  more  were  delirious.  A  frantic 
cry  for  water  now  became  general,  and  one 
of  the  guards,  more  compassionate  than  his 
fellows,  caused  some  to  be  brought  to  the 
bars,  where  Mr.  Holwell  and  2  or  8  others 
received  it  in  their  hats,  and  passed  it  on 
to  the  men  behind.  In  their  impatience 
to  secure  it  nearly  all  was  spilt,  and  the  little 
they  drank  seemed  only  to  increase  their  thirst. 
Self-control  was  soon  lost;  those  in  remote 
parts  of  the  room  struggled  to  reach  the  win- 
dow, and  a  fearful  tumult  ensued,  in  which  the 
weakest  were  trampled  or  pressed  to  death. 
They  raved,  fought,  prayed,  blasphemed,  and 
many  then  fell  exhausted  on  the  fioor,  where 
suffocation  put  an  end  to  their  torments.  The 
Indian  soldiers,  meanwhile,  crowded  around  the 
windows^  and  even  brought  lights  that  they 
might  entertain  themselves  with  the  dreadful 
spectacle.  The  odor  which  filled  the  dungeon 
became  more  deadly  every  moment,  and  about 
11  o^dock  the  prisoners  began  to  drop  off  fast. 
At  length,  at  6  in  the  morning,  Snriyah  Dowlah 
awoke,  and  ordered  the  door  to  be  opened.  Of 
the  146  only  28,  including  Mr.  Holwell  (from 
whose  narrative,  published  in  the  Annual  Reg- 
AsUt  for  1758,  our  account  of  this  event  is 
partly  derived),  remained  alive,  and  they  were 
either  stupefied  or  raving.    Fresh  air  soon  re- 


vived them,  and  the  oommander  was  then 
taken  before  the  nabob,  who  expressed  no  re- 
^et  for  what  had  occurred,  and  gave  no  other 
sign  of  sympathy  than  ordering  the  Eoglish- 
man  a  chair  and  a  glass  of  water.  Notwith- 
standing this  indifference,  Mr.  Holwell  and 
some  others  acquit  him  of  any  intention  of 
causing  the  catastrophe,  and  ascribe  it  to  the 
malice  of  certain  inferior  officers,  but  many 
think  this  opinion  unfounded.  Holwell  aud  8 
others  were  sent  prisoners  to  Muxadavad ;  tbe 
rest  of  the  survivors  obtained  their  liberty,  and 
the  dead  bodies  were  carelessly  thrown  into  a 
ditch.  The  Black  Hole  is  now  used  as  a  ware- 
house, and  an  obelisk,  50  feet  high,  erected  in 
memory  of  the  victims,  stands  before  the  gate. 
It  was  struck  by  lightning  some  years  ago, 
and  has  since  been  gradually  filing  to  ruin. 

BLACK  JACK,  a  term  looeely  applied  by 
miners  to  blende,  the  sulphnret  of  zinc,  or  to  any 
other  ore  which  resembles  it  in  being  obnoxious 
to  them,  if  in  no  other  respect. — It  is  also  tbe 
name  commonly  given  in  tiie  southern  states  to 
a  small  species  of  oak  tree  (cutfnmi  9tdi4iii]^y 
also  called  post-oak,  for  its  Deing,  when  fall 
grown,  of  a  convenient  size  for  ma^i^  posts. 

BLACK  LEAD,  an  incorrect  name  for  Gki- 
PHiTB,  which  see.  It  contains  no  lead,  and  has 
no  relations  with  lead  ore. 

BLACK  LETTER,  a  term  applied  to  the  old 
Enfflish  or  modem  Gothic  letter,  in  which  the 
early  manuscripts  were  written,  and  the  first 
English  books  were  printed. 

BLACK  MAIL,  a  tribute  formerly  paid  by 
the  occupants  of  lands  in  the  northern  counties 
of  England  to  some  Scottish  chieftain  for  pro- 
tection against  the  depredations  of  border 
rievers  or  moss  troopers.  By  the  terms  of  the 
arrangement  the  borderer  receiving  this  tribute 
was  bound  not  merely  to  abstain  from  injury  to 
the  person  paying  it,  but  also  to  recover  bis 
property  if  taken  by  others — hence  it  has  been 
called  protection  rent.  (See  6oott*8  introdao- 
tion  to  ^^  Border  Minstrelsy.")  At  a  later  period, 
after  dvil  order  had  been  established  in  the 
border  counties,  and  agriculture  and  peaceful 
habits  prevailed  in  the  lowlands  of  Scotland, 
the  custom  of  paying  black  mail  to  the  highland 
diiefs  by  the  lowland  farmers  became  common, 
and  continued  till  within  a  century.  Some  in- 
cidents of  this  custom  are  related  in  2  of  Scott^s 
novels,  "  Waverley"  and  "  Rob  Roy."  The  ori- 
gin of  the  term  seems  to  be  this :  mail  in  the 
old  Scottish  law  was  used  for  rent  of  an  estate. 
It  seems  to  have  been  the  name  of  a  small  coin 
in  England  and  Scotland.  Black  mails  may  be 
considered  therefore  as  equivalent  to  black  rents, 
which  were  payable  in  kind,  that  is,  what  was 
produced  by  the  estate;  being  tbe  same  as 
the  reditut  nigri,  in  contradistinction  to  the 
redituB  ML,  which  were  payaUe  in  silver.-— The 
modem  sense  of  tbe  phrase  is  mainly  derived 
from  the  fact  that  such  rent  was  paid  to  robbers 
and  thieves  as  the  price  of  immunity ;  hence 
now  used  for  money  paid  under  any  extortion, 
especially  when  the  iiy  ury  sought  to  be  guarded 


BLACK  MOtTM-AINS 


BLACK  SEA 


809 


ftgunst  is  one  for  which  there  is  no  adeqnate 
protection  by  law.  It  generally  implies  a  oor^ 
rapt  speculation  ont  of  some  advantage  which 
it  is  unconscionable  to  use.  It  is  also  sometimes 
used  for  money  paid  to  prevent  an  ezposare  of 
some  wrong  doing,  being  in  this  sense  what  is 
called  hnsh  money. 

BLACK  MOUNTAINS,  the  culminating 
group  of  the  Appalachian  system^  already  refer- 
red to  in  the  article  Appalachian  Mouxtainb. 
named  from  the  dark  growth  of  balsam-firs  and 
other  evebgreens  which  cover  their  summits. 
Their  position  is  in  Yancey  afad  Buncombe 
counties,  North  Carolina,  between  the  main 
central  i-idges  on  the  west  and  a  portion  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  on  the  east.  Unlike  the  other 
ridges  of  thet  Alleghanies,  they  lie  for  the  most 
part  transverse  to  the  general  trend  of  the 
range,  and  give  this  direction  to  tiie  great  val- 
leys and  rivers  included  between  them.  They 
rise  from  a  district  of  great  elevation,  the  height 
of  the  valley  at  Asheville,  on  the  French  Broad 
river,  being  about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea^ 
and  that  of  Toe  river,  at  Bumsville,  Yancey 
county,  about  2,500  feet.  From  thb  plateau 
the  drainage  is  toward  the  Ohio  in  a  northerly 
direction  by  the  branches  of  the  Great  Kana- 
wha, by  those  of  the  Holston  and  the  French 
Broad  toward  the  south-west,  and  by  those  of 
the  Yadkin  and  the  Catawba  into  the  Pedee 
and  Santee  toward  the  south-east.  This  posi- 
tion at  the  sources  of  streams  flowinff  in  sudi 
diverse  directions,  long  since  pointed  out  this 
district  as  probably  the  most  elevated  east  of 
the  Bocky  mountains.  The  distinguished  bota- 
nists, Michaux,  father  and  son,  were  led  to  the 
aame  opinion  by  their  observations  upon  the 
northern  character  of  the  forest  growth  with 
which  these  mountains  are  covered.  In  1885, 
the  first  attempts  to  determine  the  elevation  of 
the  greatest  heights  were  made  by  Dr.  £.  l^itch- 
ell,  late  professor  at  the  university  of  North 
Carolina  at  Chapel  Hill.  The  principal  peidc, 
-which  is  known  in  North  Carolina  as  Mount 
Mitchell,  he  estimated,  according  to  the  state- 
ments of  his  friends,  bv  barometrical  observa- 
tions, to  be  0,476  feet  above  the  sea,  calculating 
Mbrgantown,  his  base,  to  be  968  feet  above 
tide.  The  late  railroad  surveys  give  this  point 
an  elevation  of  1,169  feet,  or  of  that  where  his 
stationary  barometer  hunff  about  1,200  feet^ 
which  would  make  the  hei^t  of  the  peak  about 
6,700  feet  In  1844  he  visited  the  locality  agun, 
and  calculating  from  a  base  of  more  uncertain 
elevation  at  Asheville,  he  made  the  height 
6,673  feet  In  1855,  the  Hon.  T.  L.  Clingman 
of  North  Carolina  made  the  elevation  6,941 
feet,  and  in  1856  Prof.  Guyot  determined  the 
highest  point,  which,  as  stated  in  the  article  Ap- 
palachian MouHTAnro,  he  then  called  the  Black 
Dome,  to  be  6,760  feet  high.  The  following 
are  the  elevations  and  names  of  the  12  highest 
points,  all  of  which  are  higher  than  Mount 
Washington  in  New  Hampshire,  as  published 
in  1857  from  the  investigationa  of  Ftofessor 
Quyot : 


1.  OUngnan^t  Peak 4,101 

8.  Gayofs  Peak,  or  BalMm  Com  C,661 

a  BoiidozEnob ASIS 

i.  Hairy  B«ar ft^MT 

&  CatTaU  Peak ^805 

«.  Oibbe*8Peak 6<B66 

7.  Mltcheirs  Peak «,WS 

a  Bagar  Loai;  or  HaUlMck  Peak S,401 

9.  PoUtoTop «JB^ 

10.  Black  Knob «,87T 

11.  Bowler's  Pyramid M«5 

12.  BoaaMoantaia C,818 

The  summit  of  Mt  Washington  is  6,286  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  In  1857  Dr.  Mtch- 
ell  made  a  third  excursion  to  these  moun- 
tains, for  the  purpose  of  establishing  his  claim 
to  having  first  measured  the  elevation  of  the 
highest  summit,  the  honor  of  which  was  also 
claimed  by  the  Hon.  Mr.  Clingman.  He  went 
well  provided  with  several  of  Greenes  barome- 
ters, recommended  bv  the  Smithsonian  institu- 
tion, intending  not  onlj  to  make  exact  measure- 
ments of  the  highest  point,  but  also,  at  the  same 
time,  to  test  in  this  latitude  the  formula  adopt- 
ed for  barometrical  observations.  Before  ne 
had  fixed,  however,  upon  a  series  of  points  by 
the  spirit  leiml,  preparatory  to  the  observations 
with  the  barometer,  the  sad  accident  occurred 
by  which  he  lost  his  life,  as  he  was  traverung 
alone  one  of  the  mountain  ravines.  His  name 
is  thus  stUl  more  intimately  associated  with 
these  high  summits,  by  which  one  of  them  will 
long  continue  to  be  known. 

BLACK  RIVER,  of  New  York,  rises  in  Her- 
kimer  co.,  and  after  passing  through  Oneida  and 
Lewis  counties,  changes  its  course  at  a  place 
called  Great  Bend,  passes  by  Watertown,  and 
flows  through  Black  Kiver  bay  into  Lake  Ontario. 
Near  Turin,  in  Lewis  co.,  it  has  a  &11  of  about 
68  feet  Below  the  fall,  it  is  navigable  to  Car- 
thage, a  distance  of  40  miles.  From  Carthage 
to  Watertown  is  a  series  of  rapids,  rendering 
navigation  almost  impossible.  A  canal  has  been 
opened,  however,  from  the  Upper  falls  to  Rome 
on  the  Erie  canal.  The  whole  length  of  the  river 
is  125  miles,  and  its  breadth  at  Watertown  (6 
m.  from  its  mouth)  is  60  yards. — Black  Rivies, 
or  Big  Black  river,  of  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  is 
the  lanrest  affluent  of  White  river.  It  rises  in 
the  S.  £.  part  of  the  former  state,  takes  a  south- 
erly course,  enters  Arkansas,  and  joins  the 
White  river  40  miles  below  Batesville.  Dnrhig  9 
months  of  the  year  it  is  navigable  for  a  distance 
of  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  entire  length  is 
about  400  miles.  Trout  and  other  excellent  fidi 
are  caught  in  its  waters  in  great  abundance. 

BLACK  ROD,  the  usher  to  the  order  of  the 
garter,  so  called  from  the  black  rod  which  he 
carries  at  the  feast  of  St.  George,  when  the  or- 
der annually  assembles.  He  also  notifies  the 
election  of  new  knights^  carries  the  garter  to 
foreign  princes  and  others,  and  is  the  principal 
officer  of  the  college  of  arms,  and  chief  of  the 
heralds. 

BLACK  SEA  ^anc.  Pontus  Buxfnvs\  an  in- 
land sea,  on  the  border  between  Asia  and  Eu- 
rope, bounded  by  Turkey,  Russia  in  Europe, 
and  the  Caucasian  provinces,  and  connectea 
with  the  Mediterranean  through  the  straits  of 


810 


BLAOK  SEA 


BLAOE  SNAKE 


the  Bosporus  and  Dardanelles.  It  Hes  be- 
tween 28°  and  41<»  80'  E.  long^  and  41**  and  46° 
40'  K  lat.  Its  extreme  length  is  700  miles  from 
E.  to  W.,  its  extreme  breadth 400miles on  the  81st 
meridian.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  more  than  2,000 
rnUeS)  and  a  superficial  area  of  about  180,000  sq. 
m.  It  receives  the  waters  of  the  Danube, 
Dnieper,  Dniester,  and  Don,  beside  smaller 
rivers,  and  drains  by  these  a  territory  in  Europe 
and  Asia  of  scarcely  less  than  1,000,000  sq.  m. 
There  are  geological  indications  that  the  Black 
sea  was  at  one  time  much  larger  than  it  is  now ; 
that  it  once  had  no  outlet  to  the  Mediterranean ; 
that  its  waters  were  much  higher  than  at  pres- 
ent, flooding  a  considerable  part  of  soutnem 
Russia,  and  reaching  even  to  the  Caspian  and 
Aral  seas,  with  which  it  formed  one  body ;  and 
that  at  a  period  not  fiEur  antecedent  to  the  earliest 
history,  some  concussion  of  nature  opened  for 
this  huge  collection  of  water  a  passage  into  the 
Mediterranean.  Something  like  this  was  the 
universal  belief  of  the  ancients,  more  probably 
a  tradition  than  a  fancy.  Thus  the  Oyanesa, 
the  2  volcanic  rocks  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bos- 
porus, which,  under  the  name  of  Symplegades, 
were  represented  by  the  Greek  po^ts  as  some- 
times closing  together,  indicate  by  their  geolog- 
ical structure  that  they  were  once  united,  and 
must  have  closed  the  passage.  And  the  south- 
em  provinces  of  Bnssia  bear  evident  marks  of 
having  once  been  a  bed  of  the  sea^  and  of  hav- 
ing been  laid  bare  at  a  comparatively  recent 
period.  The  modem  name  of  Black,  which  all 
the  European  languages  conspire  to  fix  upon  this 
sea,  is  thought  to  have  been  given  it  primarily 
by  the  Turks,  in  their  terror  at  looking  out  up- 
on the  first  large  expanse  of  water  with  which 
they  became  acquainted.  Natural  features  prob- 
ably assisted  in  suggesting  the  name.  The  prev- 
alent wind  is  from  the  N.  E. ;  it  comes  laden 
with  moisture  fi-om  a  wide  swampy  territory, 
and  frequently  veils  the  sea  in  darkness  by  fogs 
and  rains.  Owing,  too,  to  the  confined  extent 
of  the  water,  a  strong  wind  quickly  lashes  it  in- 
to a  tempest,  and  g^ves  to  the  whole  sea  some- 
thinff  of  the  appearance  of  a  whirlpool.  These 
brief  but  troublesome  tempests  are  especially 
frequent  during  the  winter.  Thunderstorms 
are  rare,  but  masterpieces  of  their  kind  when 
they  do  occur,  and  are  often  accompanied  by 
water-spouts  and  hailstones.  The  difficultieB 
which  the  atmosphere  offers  to  tlie  navigation 
of  the  Black  sea  are  compensated  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  sea  itself.  Both  its  shores  and  its 
interior  parts  are  remarkably  free  from  rocks^ 
sandbanks,  or  shallows,  and  ships  may  always 
lie  to,  or  ride  at  anchor,  with  very  little  danger. 
There  is  but  one  island  in  the  whole  sea,  ber- 
pent  Me,  80  miles  from  the  mouth  of  Uie  Dan- 
ube, once  a  sacred  place,  with  a  temple,  but  un- 
occupied for  centuries,  till  lately  it  was  made  a 
station  for  En^^ish  and  French  vessels.  It  is 
now  purposed  to  build  a  light-house  upon  iL 
The  aepth  of  the  sea  increases  regularly  accord- 
ing to  the  distance  from  the  shore ;  and  in  its 
central  parts,  no  bottom  is  reached  even  by  a 


line  of  1 60  fathoms.  There  is  no  observable  ebb 
and  flow  to  its  waters,  but  its  large  accessions 
from  the  rivers  occasion  strong  currents,  which 
all  set,  wiUi  more  or  less  directness,  toward  the 
Bosporus.  When  these  currents  are  also  help- 
ed by  the  winds,  the  waters  are  sent  through 
the  straits  with  such  violence,  that  vessels  are 
sometimes  detained  for  months  outside,  unable 
to  enter  against  them.  Its  climate  has  wide 
extremes,  but  is  generally  colder  than  would  be 
inferred  from  its  latitude,  owing  to  the  prevar 
leuoe  of  north  winds.  Its  fisheries  fure  unim- 
portant. Ther  specific  gravity  of  its  water  is 
1.142.  On  its  coast,  Odessa  is  the  most  important 
commercial  port,  and  Varna  is  the  chief  Turkish 
fortress;  beside  which,  the  principal  harbors 
are  Kherson,  Sebastopol,  Sinope,  and  Trebi- 
zond. — ^The  shores  of  the  Black  sea  are  known 
both  in  fabulous  and  genuine  history.  Col- 
chis, the  goal  of  the  Argonantic  en)edition,  was 
located  on  its  east;  uie  original  Cimmerian 
darkness  was  upon  its  north,-  and  on  all  its 
sides  the  Lydian,  Persian,  Byzantine,  Turkish, 
and  Russian  powers  have  acted  the  events  of 
their  history.  From  the  time  of  Constantine 
till  the  15th  century,  it  was  the  centre  of  the 
transplanted  Roman  world ;  and  till  the  cape  of 
Good  Hope  was  discovered  and  sailed  round,  it 
was  the  passage- way  of  the  Grenoese  and  other 
European  trade  with  the  Indies.  The  Turks 
for  a  time  excluded  the  ships  of  all  other  na- 
tions from  it,  and  lately  Russia  sought  to  make 
it  a  closed  sea  under  its  own  military  command ; 
but  the  result  of  the  late  war  between  Rusda 
and  the  2  western  powers  of  Europe  has  been 
the  neutridization  of  the  Black  sea,  the  equal 
exclusion  from  it  of  all  ships  of  war  belonging 
to  whatever  nation,  and  the  equal  admission  to 
it  of  all  ships  of  commerce. 

BLACK  SILVER,  called  also  Bbtttlb  Silvxb 
Obb  and  Stbphanitb,  a  compound  of  sulphuret  of 
silver  and  sulphuret  of  antimony,  found  near 
the  cobalt  and  bismuth  mines  of  Saxony. 

BLACK  SNAKE  {coluber  comtrictor,  linn.), 
one  of  the  most  common  snakes,  very  gener- 
ally distributed  over  North  America.  The 
head  is  oval  and  long;  the  snout  prolonged  and 
rather  pointed;  the  nostrils  are  lateral,  very 
large  near  the  snout,  and  open  outward  and  a 
little  backward;  the  eyes  are  large  and  bright^ 
the  pupil  black,  and  the  iris  very  dark  gray; 
the  Doay  is  long  and  slender,  and  covered  with 
large  smooth  scales  above,  and  with  broad 
plates  below ;  the  tail  is  also  long  and  slender, 
and,  aoconling  to  Holbrook,  may  be  used  as  a 
prehensile  instmment ;  according  to  Dr.  Storer. 
the  abdominal  plates  are  184,  and  the  caudal 
scales  86.  The  color  above  is  a  dark  bluish 
black;  below,  slate-colored;  chin  and  throat 
pure  white,  with  occasionally  a  few  black  spots; 
the  margin  of  the  jaws  and  snout  yellow.  The 
usual  length  is  from  4  to  5  feet,  of  which  the  head 
is  14  inch,  and  the  tail  about  16 ;  one  was 
killed  at  Hingham.  Mass.,  in  1842,  7  feet  long, 
which  had  entbldea  and  severely  crushed  in  its 
coil  a  rabbit,  and  which  had  in  its  body  15 


BLACK  TIS 


BLACKBIRD 


811 


qoail's  eggB,  unbroken,  and  some  of  them  con- 
taining the  young  bird.  It  ia  rery  active,  being 
from  its  rapid  motions  frequently  called  "  the 
racer ;"  it  climbs  trees  with  great  facility,  and 
is  often  found  entwined  around  buahes  contain- 
ing birds^  nests.  It  frequents  shady  and  shrub- 
by places  near  ponds  and  streams,  though  it  is 
very  fond  of  basking  in  the  son.  It  feeds  on 
mice,  moles,  frogs,  toads,  lizards,  eggs,  and 
young  birds;  the  larger  specimens  prey  upon 
8qQirre]&  chickenSi  and  even  young  rabbits;  it 
is  very  destructive  to  young  birds,  and  a  noted 
robber  of  nests.  Its  specific  name  indicates  that 
it  possesses  the  power  of  destroying  its  prey  by 
the  constriction  of  its  folds;  its  power  in  this 
respect  is  known  to  many  a  school  bov,  around 
whose  leg  or  arm  it  has  coiled,  when  the  human 
robber  of  birds*  nests  has  come  into  contact 
with  the  serpent  thief  similarly  inclined.  The 
one  killed  at  Hingham  had  a  rabbit  in  its  coils; 
but  it  doubtless  seizes  its  smaller  and  ordinary 
prey  with  its  mouth  only.  It  is  very  darinff, 
and,  during  the  breeding  season,  will  often  attadc 
persons  passing  at  a  distance;  its  bite  is  per* 
feotly  harmless.  There  is  no  good  evidence 
that  it  has  any  power  of  ^^fascination,"  its  vio- 
tims  being  taken  by  activity  and  direct  assault, 

BLACK  TIN,  tin  ore  that  has  been  concen- 
trated by  stamping  and  washing,  and  brought 
into  the  condition  to  be  sold  to  the  smelters. 

BLACK  VOMIT,  the  last  vomiting,  in  many 
eases  of  yellow  fever,  of  a  dark  mncous-looking 
fluid,  like  coffee-erounds.  It  is  regarded  as  a 
fatal  symptom.  The  disease  itself  is  sometimes 
called  by  this  name.  The  blood  is  blackened 
and  partially  coagulated  by  a  free  acid,  perhaps 
aeetjo  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which  form  m 
the  system.  

BLACK  WALNUT.    SeeWALinjT. 

BLACK  WAKRIOR,  a  river  of  Alabama, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Mulberry  fork 
and  Locust  fork,  in  Walker  county.  It  follows 
a  south-westerly  course^  and  enters  the  Tombig- 
bee  above  Demopolis.  The  river  is  navigable 
for  steamboats  for  160  miles,  or  nearly  its  whole 
Imgth.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  along  its 
banksL    It  is  sometunes  called  the  Tuscaloosa. 

BLACKALL,  OFFSPSiKe,  an  English  prelate, 
was  born  at  London  in  1654,  died  at  Exeter  in 
1716.  For  a  years  after  the  coronation  of  Wil- 
liam m.  he  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance, 
but  finally  yielded.  In  1699  he  engag^  in  a 
controversy  with  Toland,  who  had  denied,  in 
his  life  of  Milton,  that  Charles  I.  was  the  author 
of  the  ^^  Icon  Basilike,''  and  expressed  doubts  of 
the  genumeness  of  the  Scriptures.  Blackoll 
was  consecrated  bishop  of  Exeter  in  1707.  His 
workfl^  in  2  vols,  folio,  were  published  in  1728. 

BLACKBERRY,  the  berry  of  the  bramble, 
a  papular  name  applied  to  different  varieties  of 
the  genus  ndna  and  their  fruit  Blackberry 
root  is  an  excellent  astringent,  much  employed 
in  chronic  diarrhoea  and  in  dysentery.  Dew* 
berry  root  (J2.  trivialU)  and  blackberry  root 
(221 9iUo9us)  have  the  same  medicinal  proper* 
ties.    They  occur  in  pieces  of  various  lengths, 


of  a  brownish  color,  being  covered  with  a  thin 
bark,  which  abounds  most  in  the  astringent 
principle,  tannic  acid.  The  decoction  is  made 
by  boiling  an  ounce  of  the  smaller  roots  in  3 
half  pints  of  water  down  to  2 ;  the  dose  being 
2  fluid  ounces,  or  -^th  portion  oi  a  pint. 

BLACKBIRD  {tardus  merula^  Linn.),  a  £u« 
ropean  species  of  the  thrush  family,  called  also 
merle  in  France  and  some  parts  of  England.  The 
plumage  is  full,  soft,  and  glossy ;  the  length  in 
the  male  is  1 0}  in  ches,  and  the  extent  of  wings  1 6 
inches,  the  length  in  the  female  is  10  inches,  and 
the  extent  of  wings  16  inches.  In  the  adult  male 
the  bill  is  jths  of  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  bright 
orange  color,  as  ai*e  the  mouth,  tongue,  and 
margins  of  the  lids,  the  iris  hazel,  the  feet  and 
claws  dusky  brown,  the  heel  and  soles  yellow ; 
the  general  color  of  the  plumage  is  deep  black, 
sometimes  slightly  tinged  with  brown ;  the  pri- 
maries are  lighter,  and  obscurely  edged  with 
brown ;  the  central  part  of  the  hidden  portion 
of  each  feather  is  light  gray.  In  the  female, 
the  bill  is  dark  brown ;  the  generid  color  of  the 
plumage  is  deep  brown  above,  lighter  beneath ; 
the  throat  and  fore  neck  pale  brown,  streaked 
with  darker  triangular  spots.  The  young  are 
dusky  brown  above,  with  dull  yellowish  streaks ; 
pale  yellowish  browii,  spotted  with  dusky,  be- 
neath. Albino  specimens  are  occasionally  seen. 
The  blackbird  is  an  admirable  singer,  its  notes, 
though  simple,  being  loud,  rich,  and  mellow, 
most  flrequently  heard  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing. It  prefers  cultivated  districts,  in  winter 
frequenting  the  neighborhood  of  houses,  and 
keeping  in  the  shelter  of  the  garden  hedges. 
Its  food  consists  of  snails,  seeds  of  grasses  and 
grain,  insects,  larv»,  worms,  berries  of  various 
kinds,  and  also  fruits.  It  is  a  very  shy  and 
active  bird,  hopping  on  the  grdund  with  tail 
raised  and  wings  loose;  its  flight  along  the 
hedges  is  fitful  and  wavering,  but  in  an  open 
field  very  steady  and  sustained.  It  is  not  gre* 
garious,  more  than  8  or  4  being  seldom  seen  to- 
gether. The  blackbird  pairs  in  early  spring, 
making  a  nest  externally  of  grass  stalks,  twig& 
fibrous  roots,  and  mosses,  the  inside  being  lined 
with  mud  and  afterward  with  dry  grass ;  the 
nest  is  usually  placed  in  a  hedge,  bramble  thicket, 
or  buiBhy  pine.  The  e^gs  are  from  4  to  6  in 
number,  of  a  pale,  blui^  green,  spotted  with 
pale  umber.  The  female  sits  18  days,  the  male 
singing  till  the  young  are  hatched ;  2  broods  are 
commonly  reared,  one  in  May,  Uie  second  in 
July.  The  flesh  is  excellent  for  food.  The 
blackbird  is  often  kept  in  cages,  where  its  song 
is  as  joyous  as  in  its  native  naunts ;  it  is  a 
troublesome  species  in  an  aviary,  as  it  pursues 
and  harasses  other  birds;  in  conflnement  it  will 
eat  crumbs,  and  raw  or  cooked  flesh. — ^Blaok- 
BisD  (agelaius  phanieetu,  linn.),  more  com- 
monly called  in  New  England  red-winged 
blackbird,  and  belonging  to  the  family  of 
$tumidm.  The  bill  is  straight,  strong,  conical, 
and  black ;  the  hind  toe  and  daw  the  strongest. 
The  plumage  of  the  adult  male  is  slossy  black, 
except  the  smaller  wing  coverts,  the  first  row 


812 


BLACKBURN 


BLACKCAP 


of  which  are  oream-oolored,  the  rest  scarlet; 
the  length  is  9  inchee,  extent  of  wings  14  inches. 
The  female  is  nearly  2  inches  less ;  the  upper 
parts  hlack,  the  feathers  with  a  pale  browa 
margin,  underneath  streaked  with  black  and 
dull  white ;  a  band  of  pale  brown  over  the  eye, 
and  some  of  the  smaller  wing  ooverts  slightly 
tinged  with  red.  According  to  Nnttall,  this  bird 
is  found  during  the  summer  over  the  whole  of 
North  America  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Mexico. 
It  arrives  in  New  York  and  New  England  about 
the  Ist  of  April,  preferring  swamps,  meadows, 
and  low  situations ;  at  this  season  it  lives  on 
insects  and  grubs,  afterward  on  the  young  and 
tender  com.  It  begins  to  build  its  nest  early  in 
May,  on  an  alder  bush  or  tuft  of  grass  in  some 
marsh  or  meadow ;  the  eggs,  from  8  to  6,  are 
white,  tinged  with  blue,  with  &int  purple 
marks.  They  congregate  in  such  numbers  in  a 
very  small  space,  that  great  havoc  may  be  made 
at  a  single  discharge  of  a  gun.  The  flight  is 
usually  even ;  on  the  wing  the  brilliant  scarlet 
of  the  coverts  contrasts  finely  with  the  black  of 
the  general  plumage.  Some  of  its  notes  are 
agreeable  to  the  ear.  In  August,  when  the 
young  are  ready  to  associate  in  flocks,  they  do 
considerable  mischief  to  the  Indian  com;  they 
are  then  killed  in  abundance,  and  are  very  good 
eating.  6uch  is  their  confidence  in  man,  in 
spite  of  his  persecutions,  that,  when  fired  upon, 
they  only  remove  from  one  part  of  a  field  to 
another. — ^The  name  blackbird  is  given  in  the 
north-western  states  and  Canada  to  the  rusty 
grakle  (wolecaphagvs  ferrugineuiy  Wils.),  and 
in  other  parts  of  the  country  to  the  purple 
grakle  (quigcahia  versicoloTy  Yieill.) ;  bbth  gen- 
era belong  to  the  family  Humido^  or  starlings. 

BLACkBUBN,  a  town,  parish,  and  parlio^ 
mentary  boroQgh  of  England,  county  of  Lan- 
caster. It  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  barren  dis- 
trict, containinga  number  of  valuable  coal  mines, 
to  which,  as  well  as  to  its  proximity  to  the  Lon- 
don and  Liverpool  canal,  the  importance  of 
Blackburn  as  a  commercial  place  is  mainly  to 
be  ascribed.  Cotton  goods,  especially  of  the 
coarser  kinds,  are  manufactured  to  a  great  ex- 
tent in  the  town  and  vicinity ;  the  annual  value 
of  the  fabrics  produced  is  estimated  at  above 
£2,000,000.  Blackbum  is  irregularly  built,  but 
contains  some  fine  buildings.  In  aadition  to  a 
number  of  chapels,  schools,  public  halls,  &c.,  it 
has  a  magnificent  church,  rebuilt  in  1819  at  a 
cost  of  £26,000.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  James 
Hargreaves,  the  inventor  of  the  spinning-jenny. 
Pop.  of  the  borough  in  1851,  46,686. 

BLACKBUBNE,  Fbakois,  an  English  theo- 
logian, bom  at  Richmond,  Yorkshire,  June  9, 
1705,  died  there  Aug.  7,  1767.  He  graduated 
at  Cambridge  in  1726,  and  was  presented  to  the 
rectory  of  his  native  town,  and  in  1750,  be- 
came archdeacon  of  Cleveland  and  prebendary 
of  Bilton.  He  wrote  several  polemical  works, 
among  which  the  ^^  Confessional"  appeared  in 
1766.  It  was  greatly  objected  to  by  many  or- 
thodox clergymen ;  indeed,  so  heterodox  was  he 
aooa  ooDflidered  that  on  the  death  of  Dr.  Chan- 


dler, pastor  of  the  dissenting  chapel  in  the 
Old  Jewry,  London,  the  congregation  actaally 
invited  Archdeacon  Blaokburne  to  fill  the  va- 
cancy, believing  that  he  would  not  object  to 
leave  the  church  of  England.  When  the  Cath- 
olic question  was  mooted,  in  1768,  he  published 
a  work  contending  that  Roman  Catholics  were 
persecutors  whore  they  had  the  power,  and 
ther^ore  were  entitled  to  no  toleration  from 
Protestants. 

BLACKCAP  {9yh>ia  atrux^iOa,  Briss.),  be- 
longing to  the  family  of  luscinieUB^  or  warblers, 
a  native  of  Europe,  migrating  to  the  north  in 
early  spring.  The  male  has  the  upper  parta 
light  yellowish  gray,  the  head  black,  cheeks, 
neck,  and  lower  parts  ash-gray,  paler  behind 
and  tinged  with  yellow ;  wings  and  tail  grayish 
brown ;  the  length  to  end  of  tail  is  about  6 
inches,  extent  of  wings  9  inches.  The  female 
is  a  trifle  larger,  but  is  colored  like  the  male, 
except  that  the  upper  part  of  the  head  is  light 
reddish  brown.  It  frequents  woods  and  thick 
hedges,  gardens  and  orchards.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  nightingale,  it  is  considered  the 
flnest  songster  in  Great  Britain;  its  notes  are 
full,  deep,  and  mellow,  and  its  trill  is  exceed- 
ingly flne ;  it  will  imitate  very  exactiy  the 
notes  of  the  nightingale,  thrush,  and  blackbird. 
Its  song  is  continued  trom  early  in  April  to  the 
end  of  June,  the  period  of  pairing  and  incuha^ 
tion.  This  bird  is  shy,  going  by  short  flights 
from  one  thick  bush  to  another ;  it  feeds  on 
insects,  larva,  and  berries.  The  nest,  which 
is  placed  in  the  fork  of  some  shrab,  is  made  of 
dried  stalks  of  grass,  bits  of  wool,  moss,  fibrous 
roots,  and  hairs;  the  eggs  are  4  or  5  in  num- 
ber, about  f  of  an  indi  long,  and  very  nearly 
as  broad,  grayii^  white,  faintiy  stained  and 
freckled  with  purplish  gravand  blackish  brown. 
Both  sexes  sit  up(m  the  eggs. — ^Blaokoap 
{partu  atrieapillus,  Wils.),  an  American  species 
of  titmouse,  belonging  also  to  the  luBcinidm, 
This  bird  is  5^  inches  long,  and  8  in  extent  of 
wings.  The  bill  is  brownish  black ;  whole 
upper  part  of  the  head  and  hind  neck,  and  a 
large  patch  on  the  fore  neck  and  throat,  pore 
black ;  between  these  a  white  band,  from  the 
bill  down  the  sides  of  the  neck,  growing  broad- 
er behind  and  encroaching  on  the  bade,  which, 
with  the  wing  coverts,  is  ash-gray  tinged  with 
brown ;  lower  parts  brownish  white ;  qalDs 
brown,  and,  with  the  secondaries,  edged  with 
white,  leaving  a  conspicuous  white  bar  on  the 
wings;  tail  brown,  white  edged.  The  Carolina 
tit  (parus  CaroUnmnBj  Aud.^  is  almost  precise- 
ly the  same,  being  only  an  mch  smaller.  The 
blackcap  is  better  known  in  New  England  as 
the  chickadee,  which  is  an  imitation  of  its 
note  as  it  explores  the  trees  in  searoh  of  tiie 
eggs  and  grubs  of  insects,  which  form  its  prin- 
cipal food.  It  destroys  immense  numbers  of 
canker-worms,  doing  in  this  way  eminent  ser- 
vice to  man;  in  the  winter  it  comes  near  the 
houses,  picking  up  seeds  and  crumbs  which 
are  thrown  out  of  doors.  It  is  an  exceedingly 
lively  bird,  running  over  trees  in  all  directions^ 


BLAOKOOQK 


BLAOKFRIARB»  BRIDGE        818 


and  throstixig  its  biil  into  ererj  orevioe  where 
an  insect  might  creep.  The  seyerest  cold  does 
not  affect  its  vivaci^  nor  the  numbers.  The 
eggs  are  6  to  10  in  number,  of  a  white  color, 
with  brownish-red  specks,  and  are  generally 
laid  in  holes  excavated  in  trees  by  means  of 
their  bills: 

BLAOEOOOK,  or  Black  Gboubb  {Utrao 
tetrix^  Unn.),  a  highly  prized  game-bird,  of 
the  fiunily  tetraonidcB^  very  generally  spread  over 
the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Great 
Britain,  particularly  in  the  wild  and  wooded 
districts  of  Bootland.  The  male  weighs  some- 
times 88  much  as  4  pounds,  and  the  female 
abont  2.  In  the  male,  the  length  to  the  end 
of  the  tail  is  abont  28  inches,  and  the  extent 
of  wings  88  inches ;  bill  an  inch  long,  strong, 
and  brownish  black;  the  iris  brown;  over  the 
eye  a  bare  granulated  skin  of  a  scarlet  color ; 
the  whole  npper  plumage  of  a  steel-blue  color, 
the  scapulars  and  wings  tinged  with  brown; 
the  primaries  brown,  with  brownish  white 
shafts,  the  secondaries  tipped  with  whitish, 
forming  a  bar  across  the  wings,  conspicuous  in 
ffight ;  the  under  wing  coverts  whiter  a  few  of 
them  being  visible  when  the  wing  is  closed ; 
the  breast  and  sides  brownish  black,  the  ab- 
dominal feathers  tipped  with  white ;  the  legs 
and  thiglis  dark  brown,  with  grayish-white 
apedfcs,  the  former  feathered  to  the  toes ;  the 
lower  tail  coverts  white,  the  upper  brownish 
black ;  the  tail,  which  is  forked,  with  the  lat- 
eral feathers  curved  outward,  deep  black.  The 
female  is  about  18  inches  long,  and  81  inches  in 
extent  of  wings ;  she  resembles  the  other  fe- 
males of  the  family  in  her  less  brilliant  mark- 
ings; tiie  general  color  of  the  plumage  is 
liBrrnginoua,  mottied  and  barred  with  black 
above,  and  with  dusky  and  brown  bars  on  a 
paler  gronnd  below ;  the  tail  is  nearly  even  at 
the  end,  strai^t,  and  variegated  with  ferrugl* 
noQB  and  blade ;  the  white  about  the  seconda- 
ries and  bend  of  the  wing  is  much  as  in  the 
male.  The  &vorite  abode  of  the  blackcock 
is  in  the  highlands  and  glens,  among  the  hills 
dothed  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  birch, 
hasel,  willow,  and  alder,  with  an  undergrowth 
of  deep  fern;  here  th^  find  abundant  food 
and  shelter  from  the  winter's  cold  and  sum- 
mer's sun.  Their  food  consists  of  tender  twigs, 
buries,  heaths,  and  occasionally  the  seeds  from 
the  stttbble-fidds.  The  flight  is  heavy,  straight, 
of  moderate  vdodty,  and  enable  of  •being 
protracted.  They  perch  readily  on  trees,  but 
the  ordinary  station  is  the  ground,  on  which 
they  repose  at  night.  The  blackcocks  are 
poiygamoiu,  and  fight  desperately  for  the  fe^ 
males  during  April;  having  driven  off  all 
rivals,  the  nusle  selects  some  eminence  early  in 
the  morning,  on  which  he  struts,  trailing  hie 
wings,  swelling  out  his  plumage  and  wattles 
over  tiie  eyes  l&e  a  turkey-cock ;  the  females 
answer  to  bis  call  and  soon  crowd  around  him. 
After  the  conrting  season  the  males  assodate 
together  peaceably.  The  eggs  are  0  to  10  in 
nmnber,  ii  a  ^rty  white  oolor,  with  rusty 


Bpots,  and  are  laid  in  a  very  rude  nest  on  the 
ground,  among  the  heaths ;  the  young  are 
reared  entirely  by  the  female,  which  they  re- 
semble in  color.  Their  flesh  is  an  excellent 
and  important  article  of  food.  Foxes  and  ra- 
pacious birds  kill  great  numbers  of  them. 

BLAOKFISH,  a  name  g^ven  in  New  England 
to  two  entirely  different  kinds  of  fish ;  the  one  a 
smaller  kind  of  whale,  15  to  20  feet  in  length :  and 
the  other,  the  tautog  {T,  Americana^  Dekay), 
caught  with  hook  and  line  on  rocky  bottoms.  It 
abounds  on  the  coast  of  New  England,  on  both 
sides  of  Long  Island,  and  off  Sandy  Hook,  New 
Jersey.  The  name  blaokfiah  is  given  to  it  on 
account  of  the  color  of  its  back  and  sides ;  the 
lips,  lower  jaw,  and  belly,  in  the  males  particu- 
larly, are  white.  The  tail  is  entire,  somewhat 
convex,  the  middle  rays  being  somewhat  longer 
than  the  external  ones.  The  body  is  covered 
with  small,  hard  scales.  They  vary  in  size  from 
2  to  12  or  14  pounds.  They  are  caught  early 
in  the  spring,  and  through  the  summer,  from  off 
the  rocky  l^ges  of  the  coast,  or  from  boats  an- 
chored over  the  reefs.  The  fishing  for  them  is 
a  fevorite  sport  in  the  warm  summer  weather, 
and  the  fish,  though  of  dry  flavor,  are  much  es- 
teemed when  baked. 

BLACKFORD,  a  county  in  theE.  N.  E.  part 
of  Indiana,  drained  by  the  Salamonie  river,  and 
having  an  area  of  180  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  di- 
versified by  plains  and  rolling  lands,  and  the  soil 
is  fertile.  The  productions  in  1850  amounted 
to  67,060  bushels  of  corn,  18,262  of  wheat, 
9,884  of  oats,  and  1,254  tons  of  hay.  There 
were  6  churches  in  the  county,  and  20  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  Pop.  2,860;  capital, 
Hartford. 

BLAGKFRIAKS,  a  name  given  to  the  Do- 
minican order  of  mendicant  monks  in  England, 
from  the  color  of  their  garments.  Thirteen 
Dominicans  first  came  into  £ngland,  A.  D.  1221, 
and  fixed  their  first  house  at  Oxford  in  that  year. 
The  Blackfriars'  at  London  was  their  second 
house,  whence  the  parochial  district  still  bears 
the  name  of  the  order.  At  the  time  of  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries  in  England  and 
Wales,  there  were  58  houses  of  this  order. 

BLAOKFRIARS'  BRIDGE,  one  of  the  T 
bridges  over  the  Thames  in  London,  and  8d  in 
point  of  date.  A  monastery  of  Dominicans  for- 
merly existed  near  its  site.  The  north  end  is 
situated  in  the  city  of  London,  the  south  in  the 
borough  of  Southwark.  It  consists  of  9  ellipti- 
cal arches,  of  which  the  central  arch  is  100,  and 
the  nde  arches  70  feet  span.  The  whole  length 
is  1,085  feet  The  breadth  of  the  carriage-way 
is  28  feet,  and  the  foot-ways  7  feet  each.  The 
greatest  height  of  the  bridge,  from  the  caissons 
in  which  the  piers  are  laid  to  the  top  of  the 
balustrades,  is  about  70  feet.  The  roadway  was 
very  steep,  being  in  some  places  as  much  as  1 
in  16.  The  designer  and  builder  was  Robert 
Mylne.  The  first  stone  was  laid  Oct  81,  1760, 
and  was  finished  in  1770.  The  bridge  was  built 
by  the  corporation  of  the  city  of  Ix>ndon,  who 
raised  dmost  the  whole  of  the  money  by  public 


814 


BLAOKQUABD 


BLAOKLOOK 


snbscription.  The  total  oost  of  the  work  was 
nearly  £300,000.  At  first  the  dij  levied  toll 
upon  it,  but,  about  1T70,  the  government 
bought  up  all  the  shares,  and  made  a  present 
of  the  bridge  to  the  public,  free  of  toll,  as  it 
has  ever  since  remained.  It  is  constructed  of 
Portland  stone.  In  consequence  of  its  d^cay, 
it  was  repaired  in  1883  and  following  years, 
and  the  approaches  made  less  steep.  The  suc- 
cess of  Blackfriars*  bridge  demonstrated  the 
equal  adaptedness  of  the  elliptical  arch  with 
the  semicircular — a  fact  which  was  previously 
doubted. 

BLACKGUARD,  originally  a  semi-contemp- 
tuous, semi-iocular  name  given  to  the  lowest 
menials  of  the  court  of  Qaeen  Elizabeth,  the 
carriers  of  coals  and  wood,  turnspits  and  labor- 
ers in  the  scullery,  who  all  followed  the  court 
in  its  progresses.  In  Hodge's  '*  Illustrations" 
we  read :  *^  Her  mf^esty,  by  some  means  I  know 
not,  was  lodged  at  his  house,  Enston,  farre  un- 
meet for  her  highness,  but  fitter  for  the  llacke 
farde,^^  The  term  blaehs  garde  was  aoplied  in 
reland  in  those  times  to  iJl  abandoned  women 
of  violent  character,  and  also  both  in  Ireland 
and  England  to  low  ruffians. 

BLACXHEATH,  an  elevated  heath  in  the 
county  of  Kent.  It  borders  on  Greenwich 
park,  and  is  about  1^  mile  long  by  i  wide, 
about  5  miles  from  St.  PauFs,  London.  It  is  a 
place  of  popular  resort,  and  is  used  for  cricket- 
playing.  A^oining  the  heath,  on  the  east,  is 
Morden  college,  founded  in  1695,  by  Sir  John 
Morden,  for  the  support  of  40  decayed  mer- 
chants above  60  years  old.  Each  of  the  pen- 
sioners receives  £6  per  month,  and  has  an 
apartment,  with  medicine,  coals,  candles,  wash- 
ing, and  attendance  free.  The  Roman  road 
from  London  to  Dover  crossed  Blaokheath. 
Many  Roman,  Oeltio,  and  Saxon  antiquities 
have  been  found  there.  In  1381  Wat  Tyler 
and  John  Ball  mustered  their  followers  there. 
Jack  Oade  occupied  the  same  position  twice  in 
1450.  In  1497  the  Cornish  insurgents,  under 
Lord  Audley,  were  routed  there  by  the  king's 
forces.  Blackheath  has  been  the  scene  of 
many  historical  pageants  and  processions,  as  it 
was  formerly  the  custom  for  the  mayor  and 
corporation  of  the  dty  of  London,  and  even  the 
king  and  court,  to  repair  thither  to  meet  iUua- 
trious  foreigners  from  the  continent  Henry 
lY.  met  there  (1400)  the  Byzantine  emperor, 
Hichael  PalsBologus ;  the  corporation  of  London 
there  met  Henry  V.,  on  his  return  from  Agin- 
court,  and  the  year  afterward,  the  Emperor  Si- 
gismund.  The  most  splendid,  and  one  of  the 
last  of  all,  was  the  reception  of  Anne  of  Olevea, 
by  Henry  YIU.,  Jan.  1641 ;  she  was  conducted 
through  Greenwich  park  to  the  palace  at  Green- 
wich, followed  by  prodigious  numbers  of  nobiU- 
ty  and  gentry,  and  1,200  privileged  citizens,  clad 
in  velvet  and  chains  of  gold. 

BLACKING,  a  preparation  applied  to  leather, 
designed  either  to  preserve  or  to  pdish  it  There 
are  a  ffreat  variety  of  recipes  for  its  manufac- 
ture, all  of  which  are  empirical,  and  some  in* 


trodaoe  ingredients  which  must  be  decidedly 
injurious  to  the  l^ftther.  Ivory  black,  vinegar 
or  sour  beer,  sugar  or  molasses,  and  a  licUe 
sweet  oil  and  sulphuric  acid,  are  the  common 
ingredients.  The  corrosive  properties  of  the 
acids  are  neutralized  bv  the  lime  in  the  ivory 
black,  and  the  new  combinadon  thus  produced 
is  well  adapted  to  the  purposes  desired.  It  is 
made  in  the  form  of  a  paste,  and  also  liquid. 
The  following  recipe  (patented  in  England) 
is  designed  to  give  the  leather  somewl^t  of 
a  waterproof  quality  by  the  caoutohonc,  one 
of  its  ingredients:  18  oz.  of  this  substance 
are  to  be  dissolved  in  9  Ibsw  of  hot  rape  oil; 
to  this  add  60  lbs.  ivory  black,  and  45  lbs. 
molassea,  with  1  lb.  finely  ground  gum  arable, 
previously  dissolved  in  20  gallons  of  vine- 
gar, of  strength  Ko.  24;  the  whole  to  be 
weU  triturated  in  a  paint-mill  till  smooth. 
Then  add,  in  small  snooessive  quantities,  12  lbs. 
eulphnrio  acid,  stirring  strongly  for  half  an 
hour.  The  stirring  is  to  be  continued  for  half 
an  hour  a  day  during  a  fortnight,  when  8  lb& 
of  gum  arabic»  in  fine  powder,  are  to  be  added, 
and  the  half  hour's  daily  stirring  continned  an- 
other fortnight,  when  it  is  ready  for  use.  For 
paste  blacking  the  same  ingredients  and  qoan- 
titiea  are  used,  except  that  instead  of  20  gallons 
of  vinegar,  12  gallons  will  answer,  and  a  week 
of  stirring  only  is  requured.  A  good  blacking 
is  also  made  more  simply  by  mixing  8  oi.  of 
ivory  black,  two  of  molasses^  a  table-spoonful 
of  sweet  oil,  1  oz.  of  sulphuric  acid,  1  of  gtun 
arable,  dissolved  in  water  and  a  pint  of  vinegar. 
<— 'An  excellent  blacking  for  harness  is  prepared 
by  melting  2  oz.  of  mutton  suet  with  6  oz*  of 
beeswax,  to  which  are  to  be  added  6  oz.  of 
sugar  candy,  2  oz.  of  soft  soap  dissolved  m  wa- 
ter, and  1  oz.  of  indigo  finely  powdered,  and, 
when  melted  and  well  mixed,  a  gill  of  turpen- 
tine. It  is  to  be  put  on  with  a  sponge  and  pol- 
ished with  a  brudiu—Blacking  for  stoves  may 
be  made  of  finely  powdered  black  lead,  of 
which  i  lb.  may  be  mixed  with  the  whites  of 
8  eggs  weU  beaten.  The  mixture  is  then  to  be 
diluted  with  sour  beer  or  porter,  well  stirred, 
and  heated  to  simmering  for  about  half  an  hour. 
BLACKLOCK.  Thomib,  D.  D„  a  clergyman 
of  the  establiahea  church  of  Bootland,  bom  at 
Annan,  Nov.  10, 1721,  died  July  7, 1791.  He 
became  blind  at  the  age  of  6  montha.  Hia  Ei- 
ther, who  was  a  mechanic,  used  to  read  to  him 
frtmi  the  best  English  authors.  The  habit  of 
mental  concentration,  induced  by  his  loss  of 
sight,  was  of  great  advantage  to  him.  He  earty 
aoquhred  a  knowledge  of  Latm.  At  12  he  pro- 
duced creditable  verses.  At  20  he  was  intro- 
duced into  a  drcle  of  more  highly  educated  as- 
sociates. Dr.  Btevenson,  of  Edinbui^h,  now 
offered  him  an  education  at  the  university,  and 
in  1741  he  commenced  his  course  of  studies,  bat 
^e  rebellion  in  1746  interrupted  them.  He  af- 
terward returned  to  Edinburgh,  and  remained 
there  6  years  more,  becoming  proficient  in  the 
dassios  and  in  music.  A  quarto  edition  of  hia 
poems  waa  published  in  1756,  in  London,  by 


BLAOKLOW  mix 


BLAOKSTONE 


815 


solbaoription,  vhen  David  Hune  exerted  him- 
fl^  to  promote  its  ciroalation.  Two  octavo 
editions  had  heen  previoosly  iasaed  in  1746  and 
1754.  la  1759  he  was  lioensed  as  a  minister 
of  the  goepel.  In  1762  he  married,  and  was  or- 
duned  mioister  of  Xirkcadhright  In  1764  he 
rengned,  and  retired  to  Edinburgh  on  a  smali 
pension.    He  also  instruoted  a  few  young  men. 

BLAOKLOW  HILL,  an  eminenoe  near  the 
town  of  Warwick,  Warwickshire,  England, 
upon  which  is  a  stone  cross,  marking  the  spot 
where  Piers  Gaveston,  the  favorite  of  Edward 
II.,  was  beheaded  by  the  barons  in  1312. 

BLACKMOBE,  Sm  Rxohasd,  an  English 
poet,  born  in  1650,  died  Oct  9, 1729.  He  was 
the  anthOT  of  6  epic  poems,  which  owe  their 
principal  celebrity  to  the  Danciad.  He  was 
also  physician  to  William  III. 

BLAOKSTONE,  Williav,  the  first  inhabi- 
tant of  Boston,  was  an  Episcopal  minister,  who 
settled  there  as  early  as  1625  or  1626,  and  died 
May  26, 1675,  on  Blackstone  river,  a  few  miles 
norm  of  Providence.  On  the  arrival  of  Gov. 
Winthrop  at  Ghailestown,  in  the  summer  of 
1680,  it  is  stated  in  the  records  of  that  place 
that  "Mr.  Blackstone,  dwelling  on  the  other 
side  of  Charles  river,  alone,  at  a  place  by  the 
Indians  called  Shawmut,  where  he  only  had  a 
cottage^  at  or  not  £ur  off  from  the  place,  called 
Blaokstone's  point,  he  came  and  acquainted  the 
f^ovemor  of  an  excellent  spring  there,  withal 
mviting  him  and  soliciting  him  thither ;  where- 
npon,  after  the  death  of  Mr.  Johnson  and  divers 
others,  the  governor,  with  Mr.  Wilson,  and  the 
greatestpartof  the  church,  removed  thither."  At 
a  court  held  in  April,  1688, 50  acres  of  land  near 
his  house  in  Boston  were  granted  to  him  forever. 

BLACKSTONE,  Sib  Wii.lia.m,  LL.  D.,  an 
eminent  English  Jurist,  bom  in  London,  July 
10,  1723,  died  Feb.  14,  1780.  He  was  the 
son  of  a  silk-mereer  of  London,  the  youngest 
of  4  ohildren,  and  was  born  a  few  months 
after  his  father's  death.  His  feither  seems 
to  have  left  no  provision  for  the  education 
of  his  children,  and  the  future  Judge  was  in- 
debted to  a  maternal  uncle  for  his  education. 
In  his  7th  year  he  was  placed  at  the  school 
of  the  Charter-house,  and  in  his  devotion  to  his 
studies  exhibited,  at  that  early  age,  the  oon- 
Btant  assiduity  for  which  he  was  distinguish- 
J6d  through  life.  In  his  12th  year  he  lost  his 
mother,  and,  being  an  orphan,  was  admitted, 
in  1785,  on  the  nomination  of  Sir  Bobert  Wal- 
pole,  upon  the  fonndation  of  the  charter-house. 
His  natural  aptuess  and  persevering  attention  to 
his  studies  made  him  tiie  fiavorite  pupil  of  the 
MhoaL  When  he  had  attained  his  15th  year 
lie  was  at  the  head  of  it,  and  his  progress  was 
so  rapid  that  at  16  he  was  found  fully  qualified 
for  the  university.  He  accordingly  entered 
Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  Nov.  80,  1788,  and 
had  scarcely  more  ^an  commenced  his  colle- 
giate course,  when  he  distinguished  himself  by 
oarrying  off  the  gold  prize  medal  for  some 
yeraes  upon  Milton,  beside  receiving  other 
macka  of  diatinotion  from  the  society  of  Pem- 


broke college,  and  from  the  governors  of  his 
former  school.  In  college  he  pursued  his 
studies  with  unremitting  ardor,  making  himself 
extensively  acquainted  with  the  Greek  and 
Latin  poets,  and  giving  his  attention  especially 
to  the  study  of  logic,  the  mathematics,  and  to 
several  of  the  sciences.  At  20  he  compiled, 
for  his  own  use,  a  treatise  upon  architectare, 
a  branch  of  the  arts  of  which  he  was  particu- 
larly fond.  He  also  exhibited  a  talent  for  po- 
etry, of  which  some  favorable  specimens  were 
the  fruits  of  his  leisure  hoars.  Upon  complet- 
ing his  collegiate  course,  he  was  entered  at 
the  Middle  Temple,  J^ov.  80,  1741,  and  giv- 
ing himself  up  to  the  exacting  study  demanded 
in  this  profession,  he  bade  adieu  to  the  poetical 
pursuits  so  congenial  to  his  mind  iu  a  copy  of 
verses  entitled  "  The  Lawyer^s  Farewell  to  his 
Muse,"  which  still  holds  its  place  in  English 
literature.  In  1748  he  was  elected  a  feUow  of 
All  Souls'  college,  and  from  this  period  contin- 
ued to  divide  his  time  between  Uie  university 
and  his  chambers  in  the  Temple,  until  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1745.  Having  no  influ- 
ential connection,  and  fiuling  to  acquire  the  art 
of  speaking  extemporaneously  with  ease  and 
feusility,  he  attracted  but  little  notice  j  and  af- 
ter spending  7  years  without  obtaimng  sufii- 
cient  employment  even  for  the  support  of  a 
man  of  his  moderate  views  and  inexpensive 
habits,  he  resolved  to  abandon  his  profession, 
to  fall  back  upon  his  fellowship  and  devote  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  academic  pursuits.  But 
this  period  of  weary  waiting  was  not  unpro- 
ductive of  results.  Upon  his  return  to  Oxford 
he  had  already  conceived  the  plan  of  the  cele- 
brated work,  which  in  a  popular  sense  has 
made  his  name  almost  a  synonyme  for  law ;  and 
one  of  his  first  undertakings,  upon  going  back 
to  the  university,  was  the  reading  of  a  series  of 
lectures  upon  me  laws  of  England,  which  at 
once  attracted  a  crowded  class  of  young  men. 
among  whom  was  Jeremy  Bentham,  then  a  lad 
.of  16,  afterward  destined  to  become  one  of  the 
most  formidable  opponents  not  only  of  the  sys- 
tem of  Blackstone.  but  of  the  whole  structure 
of  English  law,  ana  the  most  subtle  and  sarcas- 
.tic  critic  of  the  work  that  Blackstone  has  lefb 
to  posterity.  But  the  active  mind  of  the  future 
commentator  was  not  confined  to  his  lectures 
upon  law.  He  wrote  treatises  upon  different 
subjects  connected  with  the  government  and 
administration  of  the  university ;  established  an 
exact  and  methodical  system  of  accounts ;  re- 
stored the  muniments  of  the  colleges  from  a 
state  of  confusion  to  sysftmatic  order;  applied 
his  architectural  taste  and  knowledge  to  the 
rectifying  of  mistakes  in  buildings;  partially 
finished  and  superintended  the  erection  of 
others,  especially  the  Godrington  library,  the 
books  of  which  he  classified  and  arranged; 
took  upon  himself  the  superintendence  of  the 
press  of  the  university ;  and  that  he  might  cor* 
rect  abuses  and  effect  a  thorough  reform  in 
its  management,  went  so  far  even  as  to  make 
himself  master  of  the  mechanical  art  of  print- 


316 


BLAOKSTONE 


ing;  in  addition  to  which  he  seoored,  by  his 
legal  knowledge  and  active  exertions,  several 
importaQt  bequests  which  had  been  left  to  the 
college.  In  1749  he  was  elected  recorder  of 
Wallingford,  an  old  borongh  town  between 
London  and  Oxford,  the  dnties  of  which  he 
continued  to  discbarge  for  the  9pace  of  20  years. 
In  his  periodical  visits  to  this  town  he  did  not 
limit  himself  merely  to  his  Judicial  duties,  but 
found  time  to  render  most  important  service  to 
the  place.  To  these  manifold  labors  were  add^ 
ed  the  stewardship  of  All  Souls'  college,  and 
the  office  of  assessor  olthe  vice-chancellor's 
court,  which  he  filled  for  6  years,  and  the  pub- 
lication of  an  analysbof  the  laws  of  England  as 
a  guide  to  his  lectures,  and  tracts  upon  anti- 

Suarian,  legal,  political,  and  historical  subjects, 
n  1760  he  was  created  a  doctor  of  the  civil 
law.  Mr.  Viner,  author  of  the  "Abridgment 
of  the  Common  Law,"  having  bequeathed  the 
profits  of  this  voluminous  work,  together  with 
a  large  sum  of  money,  for  the  establishment  of 
a  professorship  of  the  common  law  at  Oxford, 
this  bequest  was  carried  into  effect  in  1768, 
and  Blackstono  was  unanimously  elected  the 
first  professor.  He  now  set  to  work  to  exe- 
cute what  he  had  long  meditated,  a  course 
of  lectures,  which  should  embrace  a  complete 
survey  of  the  laws  and  political  constitution  of 
England ;  and  in  five  days  after  his  appoint- 
ment he  prepared  and  delivered  the  opening 
lecture,  constituting  the  celebrated  introduc- 
tion to  his  "  Commentaries,"  a  production  which 
has  ever  since  been  esteemed  one  of  the  most 
easy,  flowing,  and  graceful  compositions  upon 
a  subject  in  itself  unattractive,  to  be  found  in 
the  English  tongue.  This  course  drew  togeth- 
er a  great  concourse  of  students,  the  fame  of 
the  lectures  spread  over  England,  and  copies 
of  them  were  transmitted  to  the  prince  of 
Wales,  afterward  George  III.,  then  pursuing 
his  education,  for  his  perusal  and  instruct 
tion.  The  extensive  reputation  he  had  now 
acquired  emboldened  him  to  make  another  at- 
tempt to  establish  himself  in  the  practice  of 
the  law  in  London,  which  he  did  with  the 
most  complete  success.  His  great  capacity 
for  the  management  of  business,  his  exten- 
sive learning  and  his  unwearied  industry,  were 
universally  recognized,  and  he  rose  almost 
at  once  to  eminence.  In  littie  more  than  a 
year  he  was  offered,  but  declined,  the  chief  jus- 
ticeship of  the  common  pleas  in  Ireland,  and 
had  scarcely  more  than  refused  Uiis  office,  when 
be  was  raised  to  the^igh  rank  of  king's  coun- 
sel, and  had  the  honor  conferred  upon  him  of  a 
seat  in  parliament,  by  a  town  in  Wiltshire,  the 
county  of  his  ancestors.  He  was  now  in  his 
88th  year,  and  his  worldly  proepects  warranting 
the  step,  he  married  a  lady  of  good  family,  by 
whom  he  had  9  children,  and  was  enabled  to 
purchase  a  villa  at  Wallingford,  to  which  he  re- 
tired annually  when  released  from  his  labors  in 
London  and  in  Oxford.  For  7  years  he  con- 
tinued the  delivery  of  his  lectures  at  Oxford, 
the  remainder  of  his  time  being  given  to  his 


baseness  in  the  law  courts  in  LondQn,'to  his  dn- 
ties in  parliament,  to  his  reoordership  at  Wal- 
lingford, and  other  minor  posts,  the  duties  of 
which  he  still  continued  to  discharge.  During 
this  time  he  collected  and  published  his  various 
tracts  upon  legal  subjects  in  2  volumes,  and  in 
1763  he  was  appointed  solicitor-general  to  the 
queen.  When  he  accepted  the  Yinerian  profes* 
sorship  at  Oxford,  he  had  formed  the  design  of 
establishing  in  one  of  the  halls  or  separate 
buildings  a  regularly  organised  college  of  the 
common  law,  which  was  in  his  opinion  the  ob- 
ject of  Mr.  Viner,  and  of  settiing  himsdf  in 
that  seat  of  learning  for  life.  But  the  authori- 
ties of  the  university  rejected  the  plan,  and 
Blackstone,  feeling  that  he  could  not  discharge 
the  duties  of  the  profeasorship  properly,  unless 
it  was  placed  u]^n  a  footing  that  would  enable 
him  to  give  his  tune  exclusively  to  it,  and 
abandoning  all  hope  of  being  able  to  carry  out 
the  intention  of  Mr.  Viner,  resigned,  to  tlie 
great  regret  of  all  who  had  looked  forward  to 
the  establishment  in  Oxford  of  a  school  where 
the  law  would  be  taught  theoretically  as  in  for- 
eign universities. — ^In  the  year  preceding  hia 
resignation,  Blackstone,  having  found  that  im- 
perfect copies  of  his  lectures  had  got  abroad, 
and  that  an  edition  of  them  was  about  to  be 
printed  in  Dublin,  resolved  to  publish  them 
nimsel^  under  the  titie  of  **  Commentaries 
on  the  Laws  of  England."  He  accordingly 
commenced  the  publication  of  them  in  1765, 
and  continued  it  until  1769,  when  the  work 
was  completed  in  4  vols.  8vo.  Its  publication 
was  followed  by  a  degree  of  laudation  border^ 
ing  upon  extravagance.  Sir  William  Jones, 
who  was  not  only  a  great  scholar,  but  a  g^reat 
lawyer,  thought  it  the  most  correct  and  beau- 
tiful outline  tiiat  had  ever  appeared  of  any  ho* 
man  science;  and  others,  among  whom  was 
Chitty,  declared  it  to  be  the  most  valuable 
work  that  had  ever  been  produced  by  the 
labor  of  a  single  man.  These  opinions,  how- 
ever, were  not  universal  Priestiey  attacked  ife 
with  great  vigor  and  severity  for  the  ezpositioii 
it  gave  of  the  nature  of  the  offonoes  against  the 
church  of  England,  and  Bentiiam,  who  subject- 
ed it  to  a  close  legal  criticism,  could  find  nothing 
in  it  to  admire  but  the  "  enchanting  harmony" 
of  its  style.  Both  of  these  writers  detected 
grave  errors,  which  were  corrected  in  a  subse- 
quent edition.  As  respects  the  value  of  this 
celebrated  work,  we  are,  at  the  present  day, 
better  enabled  to  form  a  just  judgment,  as  it 
has  been  subjected  to  the  truest  of  all  teats, 
time.  So  far  as  it  treats  of  the  principles  ox 
law  in  general,  it  is  not  to  be  compared  witii 
the  great  work  of  Montesquieu,  and  as  an  ex- 
position of  the  nature  or  principles  of  the  Eng^ 
iish  constitution,  it  is  greatly  inferior  to  tiie 
work  of  De  Lolme,  who  was  a  foreign^ ;  but 
as  a  general  treatise  upon  the  laws  of  England, 
it  must  be  regarded,  espeoially  when  it  is 
viewed  with  respect  to  the  time  at  which  it 
was  written,  as  a  production  of  uncommon, 
merit    With  the  exception  ci  the  wock  of 


BLA0K8TONE 


817 


Bracton,  -who  wrote  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III^ 
there  was  no  treatise  professing  to  present,  as 
a  whole,  the  system  of  English  jurispradence. 
The  ^  Institutes"  of  Lord  Ooke  consisted  main- 
ly of  a  running  commentary  upon  a  small  trea- 
tise by  Littleton,  and  though  a  most  accurate 
and  learned  work,  it  was  limited  in  its  scope, 
and  so  unmethodically  arranged,  that  none  but 
a  disciplined  Uiwyer  could  comprehend  it.  The 
treatise  of  Sir  Matthew  Hale  embraces  merely 
the  criminal  law,  and  the  bulk  of  the  rules  and 
principles,  which  constitute  the  English  system, 
were  to  be  collected  only  from  an  immense 
mass  of  statutes,  reports,  digests,  abridgments^ 
old  charter^  and  ancient  treatises.  To  weave 
oat  of  this  mass  of  incongruous  material  an  or- 
derly, well-arranged,  aod  luminous  exposition 
of  a  system  of  jurisprudence,  the  result  of  8 
centuries  of  legislation  and  judicial  decision, 
was  an  nndertaking  that  no  one  before  Black- 
stone  had  been  able  to  accomplish.  To  con- 
dense such  a  vast  subject  within  the  limits  of 
4  moderate-sized  volumes,  and  present  it  in 
a  style  bo  popular  and  easy  of  comprehension, 
that  all  dasses  could  read  and  understand  it^ 
was  no  ordinary  achievement  He  very  justly 
said  that  he  was  unassisted  in  his  eztenave  and 
arduous  task  by  preceding  examples,  and  ac- 
knowledged that  what  he  had  accomplished 
fell  &r  short  of  his  own  ideas  of  perfection. 
The  ohief  objection  to  the  work  is  its  over- 
estimation  of  every  thing  to  be  found  in  the 
English  law,  for  if  Blackstone  was  quick  to 
perceive  the  merits  that  lie  in  the  English  sys- 
tem, he  was  equally  blind  to  its  defects,  and 
this  undistingnishing  admiration  constantly  led 
him  to  suggest  reasons  for  artificial  and  arbi- 
trary rules  that  had  nothing  but  precedent  to 
support  them — ^reasons  frequMitly  more  absurd 
than  the  rules  themselves.  But  these  defects 
are  slight  when  weighed  against  the  work  as  a 
whole.  The  best  evidence  of  its  merits  is  that 
no  writer  has  been  able  to  supplant  it,  that  it  has 
passed  through  innumerable  editions,  that  it 
nas  had  no  leas  than  10  different  editors,  many 
of  them  among  the  most  distinguished  and  learn- 
ed of  legal  writers,  who  have  enriched  it  with 
valuable  notes,  and  that  at  this  dav,  nearly  a 
century  after  its  publication,  it  is  stul  the  first 
book  which  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  stu- 
dent to  give  him  a  compr^ensive  knowledge  of 
the  nature  of  the  science  he  is  about  to  learn,  and 
that  it  is  to  be  found  as  an  indispensable  text- 
book in  the  library  of  every  lawyer  in  this  coun- 
try^ and  in  England.  The  low  estimate  formed 
of  it  by  Bentham  is  not  that  of  the  majority  of 
legal  critics  and  foreign  jurists,  who  rank  it 
with  the  great  work  of  Domat  Of  the  won- 
derful care  displayed  in  the  treatment  of  a  sub- 
ject demanding  on  the  part  of  a  writer  the 
greatest  condensation  and  clearness,  there  is  but 
one  opinion.  Chancellor  Kent,  after  an  expo- 
sition in  his  "  Commentaries"  of  one  of  the  most 
intricate  and  difficult  parts  of  the  law  of  real 
property,  is  so  little  satisfied  with  his  own  per- 
formance, that  he  advises  his  reader  to  peruse 


Blackstone's  chapter  upon  the  same  subject^ 
with  the  remark  that  he  had  read  it  many 
times,  but  never  without  mingled  feeling%of  de- 
light and  despair. — ^In  parliament  Blackstone 
was  a  uniform  supporter  of  the  government. 
He  participated  occasionally  in  the  discussions, 
but  exhibited  no  talent  as  a  speaker  or  debater. 
Upon  one  occasion,  when  he  undertook  to 
satisfy  the  house  tliat,  by  the  laws  of  England, 
Wilkes  as  an  expelled  member  was  ineligible  to 
reelection,  Granville  completely  discomfited 
him  by  citing  a  passage  from  his  own  book. 
The  passage  was  not  incapable  of  explanation, 
but,  according  to  Junius,  Blackstone  looked 
thunderstruck,  and  was  unable  to  make  any 
reply.  8ir  William  Heredith  attacked  him  in 
a  pamphlet  for  his  inconsistency,  which  he 
answered  by  another,  when  Junius  assailed 
him,  and  he  became  involved  in  a  discussion 
with  that  writer.  But,  as  in  his  controversy 
with  Priestley,  he  exhibited  no  skUl  in  this  kind 
of  warfare.  In  both  cases  his  defence  was 
calm,  dignified,  and  plausible,  but  it  availed 
little  before  the  vehement  rhetoric  of  Priestley, 
or  the  stinging  sarcasms  of  Junius.  The  assaiQt 
of  Junius  commended  him  but  the  more  strong- 
ly to  the  government,  and  when  Mr.  Dunning 
resigned  in  1770  he  was  tendered  the  office  of 
solicitor-general;  but  feeling  himself  deficient 
in  the  forensic  quidities  demanded  by  this 
office,  he  declined  it.  In  a  month  after,  a  judge- 
ship becoming  vacant  in  the  court  of  common 
]deas^  the  pliuse  was  offered  to  him,  and  was 
accepted.  At  the  request  of  Justice  Tates,  who 
wished  to  leave  the  court  of  king^s  bench,  he, 
with  the  assent  of  the  government,  exchanged 
for  the  king's  bench;  but  upon  the  death  of 
Justice  Yates,  a  few  months  after,  he  was  again 
made  judge  of  the  common  pleas,  and  continued 
in  that  office  for  the  remainder  of  his  life.  As- 
siduous and  attentive  to  his  Judicial  duties,  he 
still  found  leisure  for  other  employments,  and 
gavp  much  of  his  time  to  the  subject  of  prisons, 
earnestly  advocating  the  modern  penitentiary 
^stem  as  a  substitute  for  transportation.  When 
he  had  passed  his  60th  year,  the  severe  mid- 
night studies  of  his  youth,  and  the  arduous  sed- 
entary labor  of  his  manhood,  began  to  tell  upon 
his  constitution.  He  was  affected  by  a  nervous 
disease,  and  was  subject  to  occasional  attacks 
of  gout,  which  increased  as  he  grew  corpulent, 
and  were  a^^avated  by  the  objection  he  al- 
ways had  to  bodily  exercise.  For  10  years, 
however,  he  continued  regularly  to  disdiarge 
the  duties  of  his  iudgeehip,  interrupted  by  oc- 
casional fits  of  illness,  but  at  the  end  of  that 
time  he  b^;an  to  exhibit  symptoms  of  dropsy, 
and,  coming  up  to  London  to  attend  the  open- 
ing of  the  court,  he  was  seized  with  a  drowsiness 
and  stupor  that  baffled  all  the  arts  of  medicine. 
For  several  days  he  remained  insensible,  and 
expired  at  his  house  in  London  in  the  67th  year 
of  his  age. — ^Throughout  the  active  and  laborious 
life  of  this  remarkable  man,  he  was  influenced 
by  the  ever-prevailing  desire  to  make  himself 
useful.    With  all  his  elegant  attaininents,  ex- 


318 


BLA0K6T0NE  CANAL 


BLAOKWELL 


qtiisite  taste,  and  varied  learning,  he  had  a 
oonstant  eje  to  utility,  devoting  himself  chiefly 
to  those  pursnits  which  be  considered  the  most 
aerviceabie  in  the  ordinary  affairs  of  men. 
Whether  in  his  own  matters,  or  in  the  discharge 
of  public  duties,  he  was  exact  and  methodical, 
remarkable  for  his  punctuality,  his  probity,  and 
eonsdentiousness.  As  a  judge  he  wos  honest  and 
patient,  though  subject  to  a  constitutional  irri- 
tability which  occasionally  broke  forth  beyond 
his  power  of  control.  A  heavy  brow,  which,* 
being  short-sighted,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  con- 
tracting, gave  his  countenance,  as  we  see  it  in 
his  portrait  by  Gainsborough,  an  air  of  stern- 
ness; and  a  natural  reserve  proceeding  from  a 
diffidence  that  he  never  entirely  got  rid  of,  to- 
gether with  a  ceremonious  observance  of  what 
he  thouglit  essential  to  the  gravity  and  dignity 
of  the  judicial  station,  gave  outwardly  the  im- 
pression of  pride;  and  many,  from  his  oc- 
casional irritability,  thought  him  ill-natured, 
but  he  was  in  fact  a  most  amiable  man,  cheer- 
ful, agreeable,  and  even  facetious,  a  kind  fa- 
ther, an  affectionate  husband,  and  a  very  faith- 
fiil  friend.  He  managed  his  affairs  with  great 
prudence  and  economy,  but  was  liberal  within 
his  means,  and  always  benevolent  In  re- 
ligious matters  he  was  earnest  and  (uncere, 
without  affectation,  profoundly  believing  in  the 
church  of  England,  and  conforming  strictly  to 
its  rules  and  practices.  As  a  public  man,  the 
tendency  of  his  mind  inclined  him  strongly  to 
the  support  of  existing  institutions,  but  at  the 
same  time  he  was  noted  for  his  moderation,  for 
his  contempt  for  the  mbtives  that  influence, 
and  which  are  frequently  the  mainspring  of, 
party  contests,  and  for  his  generally  tolerant 
spirit.  Indeed,  in  his  conduct  in  all  public 
afSeiirs,  whether  as  a  statesman,  a  judge,  or  as  a 
prominent  member  of  the  church  of  England, 
he  was  far  more  tolerant  than  might  be  sup« 
posed  from  his  writings.  Before  Ms  death  he 
communicated  some  vcdnable  notes  and  emen- 
dations upon  Shakespeare  to  Malone,  which 
were  made  use  of  by  Steevens,  in  his  edition  of 
the  poet;  and  he  left  the  materials  for  9  vol- 
umes of  reports,  which  were  published  by  his 
executors  for  the  benefit  of  his  family,  but  as 
they  consisted  mainly  of  imperfect  notes  that 
required  his  supervision,  they  have  added  noth- 
ing to  his  reputation.  Having  a  large  famUy 
to  bring  up,  he  was  not  able,  witii  all  his  care 
and  economy,  to  leave  much  behind  him ;  but 
George  III.,  considering  that  he  had  rendered  a 
great  service  to  the  nation  by  his  **  Ck>mmenta^ 
liee,'^  made  a  liberal  and  ample  provision  for  hi9 
wife  and  children.  At  his  own  request  his  re- 
mains were  interred  in  the  church  at  Wallingford, 
which  his  architectural  taste  had  embellished. 
A  marble  statue  was  erected  to  his  memory  at 
Oxford;  his  arms  were  directed  to  be  em- 
blazoned upon  the  windows  of  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal halls,  and  his  portrait  was  hung  among 
tiie  worthies  of  the  college. 

BLA0K8T0NE  CANAL,  laid  out  in  1828, 
from  Worcester,  Mass.,  to  Providence,  E.  I.,  46 


miles,  along  the  valley  of  the  Blackstone  river, 
with  chartered  privileges  for  the  production  and 
sale  of  water  power.  It  was  completed  in  1829. 
Upon  the  introduction  of  railroads,  it  was  snper-^ 
seded  by  one  laid  out  along  its  general  course, 
and  only  those  portions  of  the  canal  remain 
which  are  used  for  water  power. 

BLACKSTONE  RIVER  rises  in  Paxton  and 
Holden  townships,  Worcester  co^  Mass.,  and 
flows  S.  S.  into  the  state  of  Rhode  island,  where 
it  is  called  the  Pawtucket.  It  affords  abundant 
water  power,  and  for  a  great  part  of  its  course 
flows  through  an  almost  continuous  village  of 
manufacturing  establishments.  The  scenery  of 
the  narrow  vdlev  is  attractive.  The  soil  is  high- 
ly cultivated,  and  •with  the  opportunities  of  both 
uie  canal  and  the  river  for  the  use  of  water,  the 
meadows  for  many  miles  have  been  carefhUy 
graded  for  irrigation.  The  water  is  let  into 
ditches,  over  the  slopes  of  which  it  flows  in  a 
thin  sheet,  and  is  received  in  others,  so  as  to  be 
used  several  times  over.  It  is  usndly  let  on  after 
the  crop  of  grass  is  removed,  and  is  kept  on 
about  8  days.  By  this  means,  4  or  6  crops  are 
obtained  in  a  season. 

BLACKWALL,  AmrHoirr,  an  EngliflJi  school- 
master and  author,  bom  in  1674,  died  at  Mar- 
ket Bosworth  in  Leicestershire,  April  8, 1780. 
In  1726  appeared  his  **  Sacred  Olives  Defended 
and  Illustrated,"  in  2  vols. 

BLAOKWELL,  Alexaitdsr,  a  native  of 
Aberdeen,  who  practised  medicine  in  London, 
set  up  a  printing  establishment,  became  a  bank- 
rupt in  1784,  and  was  supported  by  the  sale  of 
a  herbal,  containing  drawm^  and  descriptions 
of  the  plants  most  useful  m  the  practice  of 

Shysic,  prepared  by  his  wife  Elizabeth.  In  1740 
e  went  to  Sweden,  and  was  afterward  tried 
upon  a  charge  of  conspiring  against  the  royal 
family  of  Sweden,  and  beheaded  Aug.  9, 1748. 

BLAOKWELL,  Elizabeth,  the  first  womaa 
who  ever  received  the  degree  of  M.  D.  in  the 
United  States,  bom  at  Bristol,  England,  in  1821. 
Her  father  removed  to  this  country^with  his 
family,  in  1881,  and  settled  in  New  York  as  a 
sugar  refiner,  but  meeting  with  reverses  in 
business,  he  emigrated  in  1837  to  Cincinnati, 
Ohio,  where  he  died  a  few  months  afterward, 
leaving  a  widow  and  9  children  almost  desti- 
tute. Elizabeth,  then  a  girl  of  17  years,  opened 
a  school,  which  she  conducted  successfully  for 
several  years.  But  her  energetic  temperament 
and  strong  desire  for  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 
edge demanded  a  wider  field ;  and  long  reflec- 
tion having  persuaded  her  that  some  avenue 
should  be  opened  to  women  whom  either  neces- 
sity or  choice  impelled  to  gain  a  subsistence  by 
their  own  exertions,  she  fdt  that  her  path  of 
duty  lay  in  that  direction.  A  friend  su^^ted 
to  her  the  study  of  medicine  as  a  profession  for 
which  she  was  peculiarly  adapted,  and  one 
which  woman  could  well  fill.  It  so  happened 
that  the  art  of  healing  was  one  for  which,  up 
to  that  time^he  had  idways  felt  a  peculiar  re- 
pugnance. The  suggestion,  however,  after  ma- 
ture consideration,  conuuended  itself  to  her  bet- 


BLAOKTOELL 


BLACKWOOD'S  MAGAZINE       819 


er  Jtidgment^  and  she  oonsnlted  seyeral  friendB 
in  regard  to  it,  and^  amoDg  others,  some  physi« 
oians  of  eminence.  8he  received  on  all  hands 
only  diaoonragement.  But  as  the  objections  to 
encli  a  plan  of  life  were  based  ratlier  npon  the 
difficnlties  to  be  encountered  than  upon  any 
inherent  impropriety  or  imreasonableness  in  it, 
they  only  served  to  quicken  her  zeal  and  deter- 
mination. Bhe  resolved  to  become  a  physician, 
and  to  return  again  to  teaching  to  acquire  the 
requisite  means  of  education.  A  situation  aa 
governess  was  found  in  the  family  of  Dr.  John 
Dixon,  of  AshevUle,  N.  0.,  where  she  remained 
a  year,  having  access,  during  that  time,  to  a 
medical  library,  and  receiving  from  Dr.  Dixon 
some  direction  as  to  her  reading,  but  no  en-' 
couragement  in  her  purpose.  At  the  end  of 
the  year  she  removed  to  Charleston,  8.  0.,  BtUl 
acting  as  a  teacher  of  music,  but  pursuing  her 
studies  with  the  aid  and  sympathy  of  Dr.  6.  H. 
Dixon,  subsequently  professor  of  the  institute 
and  practice  of  medicine  in  the  university  of 
New  York. — ^lOss  Blaokwell  next  went  to 
Philadelphia,  and  passed  6  months  in  study  un* 
der  Dr.  Allen  and  Dr.  Warrington,  of  that  city. 
During  that  time  she  made  formal  application 
to  the  medical  schools  of  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  and  Boston,  for  admission  as  a  student. 
In  each  instance  the  request  was  courteously 
but  firmly  denied,  on  the  ground  of  a  want  of 
precedent  for  such  an  admisnon,  and  of  the  im- 
propriety of  such  an  innovation  upon  establish- 
ed custom.  Several  of  the  professors,  however, 
avowed  a  sincere  interest  in  her  hopes  and  pur- 
poses, and  some  of  them  urged  her  to  seek  ad- 
mission into  one  or  another  of  the  schools  under 
the  disguise  of  a  feigned  name  and  male  attire. 
She  declined  to  take  into  consideration  any  such 
suggestion,  for,  though  anxious  to  obtain  a  med- 
ical education  for  herself  she  was  hardly  less  de- 
sirons  of  asserting  her  right  to  it  as  a  woman. 
Undismayed  by  these  difficulties,  however,  she 
next  made  application  to  10  oth&t  medical  sehools 
in  different  parts  of  the  country,  which  was  re- 
jected by  all  except  those  at  Geneva,  N.  Y.,  and 
at  Oastleton,  Y t  At  Geneva,  the  faculty,  after 
expressing  their  own  acquiescence,  laid  the 
proposition  before  their  students,  leaving  the 
decision  with  thenL  The  young  men  unani- 
mously assented  to  the  reception  of  the  new 
pupil,  and  pledged  themselves  that  no  conduct 
of  theirs  diould  ever  cause  her  to  regret  the 
step  she  had  taken.  It  is  to  their  ci^it  that 
they  fmthfuUy  observed  this  pledge  during  the  2 
snbeequent  collegiate  years  that  she  passed 
among  them.  Here  Miss  Blaokwell  took  her  de- 
gree of  M.  D.,  in  regular  course,  in  January,  1849. 
During  her  connection  with  the  coUej^  but 
when  not  in  attendance  there  upon  lectures^ 
she  pursued  a  course  of  clinical  study  in  Block- 
ley  hospital,  in  Philadelphia.  The  spring  after 
her  graduation  she  went  to  Paris,  and  remain- 
^  6  months  as  a  student  in  the  MaUrnit^  de- 
voting herself  to  the  study  and  practice  of  mid- 
wifery. The  next  autumn  she  was  admitted, 
as  a  ph  jaicianf  to  walk  the  hoq»itai  of  St  Bar- 


tholomew, in  London,  where  she  could  not 
have  been  received  as  a  student.  After  nearly 
a  year  spent  in  St.  Bartholomew's  she  returned 
to  New  York,  where  she  has  since  practised 
her  profession  with  credit  and  success. 

BLAOKWELL,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  writer, 
bom  in  Aberdeen,  in  lYOl,  died  in  1Y67 ;  was 
professor  of  Greek  in  Marischal  college,  and  in 
1748  took  charge  of  that  institution.  He  pub- 
lished works  on  Homer  and  various  other  class- 
ical subjects. 

BLACKWOOD'S  MAGAZINE,  a  monthly 
periodical  published  in  Edinburgh,  one  of  the 
leading  organs  of  the  tory  party  of  Great  Brit- 
ain. Its  name  is  derived  from  William  Black- 
wood, a  sagacious  Edinburgh  bookseller,  who 
projected  it,  published  the  first  number  April  1, 
1817,  under  the  title  of  '*  Blackwood's  Edin- 
burgh Magazine,''  and  was  its  proprietor,  and^ 
after  the  mrst  4  numbers,  its  editor  during  the 
remaining  17  years  of  his  life.  He  was  a  zeal- 
ous partisan  of  tory  principles,  and  from  his  first 
conception  of  the  magazine,  determined  to  make 
it  an  assailant  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review,'* 
which,  established  and  supported  by  young  men 
and  whigs,  had  for  16  years  been  offering  vio- 
lence to  the  cherished  convictions  and  tastes  of 
the  tory  party.  The  first  numbers  were  edited 
by  2  journalists,  of  repute  at  the  time,  Pringle 
and  Oleghom,  and  though  containing  contribu- 
tions from  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  Henry  Macken- 
zie, were  yet  truly  characterized  as  "dull  and 
decent."  After  the  4th  number  Blackwood 
quarrelled  with  and  dismissed  his  editors,  took 
the  editorial  care  upon  himself,  and  looked  about 
for  assistants.  He  speedily  obtained  the  ser- 
vices of  James  Hogg,  who,  by  his  "  Queen's 
Wake,"  had  just  taken  rank  among  the  first 
poets  of  Scotland,  of  John  Wilson,  then  in  the 
flush  of  vigorous  manhood,  of  the  gifted  and 
highly  cultivated  J.  G.  Lockhart,  and  of  the 
German  scholar  and  critic,  R.  P.  Gillies,  aftei^ 
ward  the  Eempferhausea  of  the  "  Noctes." 
The  first  article  which  gave  a  distinctive  and 
formidable  character  to  the  magazine,  was  that 
entitled  "  Translation  from  an  ancient  Ohaldee 
Manuscript,"  for  October,  1817.  It  was  couched 
in  biblical  language,  and  divided  into  chapter 
and  verse,  but  was  in  reality  a  most  vigorous 
and  severe  satire  npon  the  noted  members  of 
the  whig  party  in  Edinburgh.  The  number 
containing  it  created  astonishment,  dismay,  and 
wrath,  throughout  the  capital;  it  was  declared 
not  only  unpardonable  ibr  its  personalities,  but 
an  attack  on  the  interests  of  religion  and  society, 
and  a  ribald  and  profane  parody  upon  the  Bi- 
ble. Blackwood,  in  great  alarm,  determined  to 
withdraw  the  offensive  article,  which  conse- 
quently appeared  in  only  the  first  200  copi^ 
and  an  edition  of  the  magazine  containing  it  is 
now  a  rare  literary  curiosity.  The  main  author- 
ship of  this  literary  rocket  is  due  to  Hogg, 
though  all  the  wits  of  Maga  added  points  and 
bitterness  to  it,  and  from  this  time  ^^Black- 
wood" was  looked  for,  month  after  month,  in 
the  expectation  of  har^  personalities,  an  ex- 


820 


BLADDEB 


pectation  which  &t  length  was  not  disanpointed. 
The  list  of  writers  was  now  increasea  by  the 
accession  of  Dr.  Maginn,  a  learned  Irishman, 
John  Gait,  the  novelist,  and  Robert  Sjme,  the 
Timothy  Tickler  of  the  "  Noctes,"  and  "  one  of 
the  greatest  tories  in  all  broad  Scotland."  The 
overture  to  the  renowned  ^'  Noctes  Ambrosianss^' 
was  given  in  1819  in  the  series  entitled,  *^  Chris- 
tonher  in  the  Tent,*'  and  from  tills  time  the 
eidolon  called  Christopher  North  was  the  re- 
cognized editor  of  the  magazine.  The  first  of 
the  *^  Noctes  Ambrosianffi"  appeared  in  March, 
1822.  The  series  continued  till  February,  18S5, 
having  extended  to  71  numbers,  and  won  for 
the  magazine  great  attention  and  favor  through- 
out Great  Britain,  and  in  America.  Dr.  Maginn 
was  the  principal  writer  of  the  earlier  of  them, 
but  soon  the  master  mind  of  Wilson  became 
predominant  in  them,  and  the  series  became  more 
trainable  as  years  brought  more  sober  thought  to 
the  coterie  of  writers.  The  departure  of  Lock- 
hart  to  London,  in  1826,  to  edit  the  **  Quarter- 
ly Review,"  took  away  much  of  the  personal 
and  caustic  sarcasm  of  the  magazine;  under  the 
ascendant  of  Wilson  more  generous  impulses 
prevailed,  and  the  onslaughts  upon  what  was 
termed  the  cockney  school  of  literature,  which, 
had  exceeded  in  virulence  any  thing  ever  before 
introduced  into  respectable  periodiod  literature, 
became  less  frequent.  The  contributors  to 
^^  Blackwood,"  from  this  time,  embrace  many 
of  the  most  eminent  writers  of  Great  Britain. 
Wordsworth  and  Coleridge  both  gave  some  of 
their  thoughts  to  the  public  through  this  ave- 
nue, and  Charles  Lamb,  in  his  later  years,  here 
indulged  his  delicate  fancy.  Here  Caroline 
Bowles  published  her  chapters  on  churchyards, 
and  her  simple  and  touching  lyrics ;  Allan  Cun- 
ningham wrote  "prose  by  a  poet,"  in  the  "Ad- 
ventures of  Mark  Macrobin ;"  De  Quincey  pour- 
ed out  diffusely  his  subtleties,  and  Mrs.  Ilemans 
occasionally  occupied  a  page  or  two  with  some 
of  her  noblest  poems.  Here  the  attractive  nov- 
els of  Samuel  Warren  were  first  published;  the 
^^  Men  of  Character"  of  Douglas  Jerrold,  the 
"  Marston  "  of  Croly,  the  "  My  Cousin  Nicholas  " 
of  Ingoldsby,  the  delightful  "Literary  Lore"  of 
John  Sterling,  the  "  Imaginary  Conversations" 
of  Walter  Savage  Landor,  and  the  "  Caxtons" 
and  "  My  Novel"  of  Bulwer.  Here,  too,  appear- 
ed several  striking  articles,  chiefly  on  Ameri- 
can politics  and  literature,  by  the  American 
poet  and  critic,  John  NeaL  Since  the  death  of 
Wilson,  in  1854,  his  son-in-law,  William  E.  Ay- 
toun,  who  had  been  accustomed  from  his  school 
days  to  contribute  to  "Blackwood,"  has  been 
one  of  the  most  prominent  of  the  writers  for  it. 
The  circulation  of  "  Black wood^s  Magazine"  baa 
never  been  lower  than  7,500  a  month ;  it  has 
been  as  high  as  10,000,  and  some  numb^s  have 
been  reprinted  more  than  once;  at  present  the 
sale  is  not  less  than  9,000  a  month. 

BLADDER.  The  bladder  is  a  musculo-mem- 
branous  bag,  cyst,  or  pouch,  which  serves  as  a 
reservoir  for  the  urine,  secreted  in  the  kidneys. 
It  is  called  wsum  urinaria^  to  distinguish  it 


fh>m  the  gall-bladder,  a  small  cyst  oonneGted 
with  the  liver  and  the  biliary  ducts  as  a  reser- 
Toir  for  bile.  The  bladder  is  situated  in  the 
pelvis,  immediately  behiod  the  iymphytig  pu- 
blic and  in  front  of  the  rectum  or  terminal  por- 
tion of  the  intestines,  in  the  male — ^in  front  of 
the  uterus  and  vagina,  in  the  female.  Thus 
placed  in  the  lowest  portion  of  the  trunk  in  fronts 
It  communicates  by  means  of  2  long  tubes,  called 
ureters,  with  the  2  kidneys,  plac^  high  up  in 
the  back,  just  above  the  lumbar  region,  on  each 
side  of  the  vertebral  column.  It  communicates 
with  the  exterior  by  means  of  a  single  tube 
called  the  urethra,  through  which  the  urine  is 
voided.  In  uifancy  it  is  of  a  pyriform  shape, 
and  situated  almost  entirely  in  the  abdomen; 
it  undergoes  a  change  of  form  in  the  adult, 
and  sinks  deeper  in  the  pelvic  cavity.  It  then 
assumes  the  shape  of  a  short  ovaL  compressed 
in  its  anterior  and  posterior  walb ;  its  lower 
surface  expands  on  the  rectum,  and  forms  what 
IS  termed  by  anatomists  the  bas-fond  of  the 
bladder.  In  the  female,  its  transverse  diameter 
is  greater  than  it  is  in  the  male,  owing  to  the 
position  of  the  uterus  and  vagina  between 
the  bladder  and  the  rectum.  It  increases  in 
dimensions  with  advancing  ag&  and  is  lamr  ia 
females  than  in  males;  probably  from  habitual 
distention,  arising  from  constraint  and  female 
modesty.  The  direction  of  the  bladder  is 
oblique,  beins  inclined  forward  and  upward. 
It  is  retained  in  its  position  by  appropriate 
ligaments.  Anatomists  have  divided  it  into  6 
regions  or  surfaces,  for  the  facility  of  descrip- 
tion and  surgical  operation:  these  are  named 
anterior,  posterior,  superior,  inferior,  left  and 
right  lateral.  The  anterior  surface  lies  behind 
the  symphysis  pubis,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  loose  connective  tissue.  When  distended, 
the  bladder  rises,  and  its  anterior  surface  comes 
in  contact  with  the  recti  muscles  of  the  ab- 
domen. The  posterior  surface  is  covered  by 
the  peritoneum,  which  is  reflected  upon  it 
from  t^e  rectum  in  the  male,  and  from  the 
uterus  and  vagina  in  the  female.  The  lateral 
and  superior  regions  are  partially  covered  by 
the  peritoneum.  The  inferior  region,  or  ba^- 
fond,  is  the  most  important  in  a  surgical  point 
of  view.  It  is  bounded  before  by  the  prostate 
gland,  and  behind  by  the  peritoneum.  At- 
tached to  it,  in  the  male,  we  find  the  veneulm 
9&ininalM  and  the  uisa  d^ererUia^  which  con- 
verge to  the  prostate  gland,  leaving  a  triangular 
space,  where  the  bladder  is  only  separated  firom 
the  rectum  by  a  quantity  of  fiaty  connective 
tissue  surrounding  numerous  small  vessels, 
chiefly  veins.  In  the  femade,  this  region  rests 
on  the  vagina,  which  separates  it  from  the 
rectum.  The  anterior  and  inferior  regions  of 
the  bladder  being  left  uncovered  by  folds  of 
the  peritoneum,  enables  the  surgeon  to  perform 
operations  on  those  parts  without  injuring  that 
membrane,  which  is  so  liable  to  dangerous  in- 
flammation from  wounds. — ^The  walls  of  the 
bladder  are  composed  of  8  layers  or  coats, 
united  by  connective  tissue:  an  internal  or 


BLADDER 


BLADENBBURG 


S21 


mnooos  membrane,  a  middle  or  mnscnlar  coat^ 
and  ftD  external  or  serous  coat,  formed  by  folds 
of  the  peritoneam.  The  muscular  coat  is  com- 
posed of  pale  fibres  interlacing  in  all  directions, 
and  enabling  the  bladder  to  contract  so  perfect- 
ly as  to  expel  every  drop  of  its  contents.  The 
neck  of  the  bladder  difGars  in  structure  from  the 
rest  of  the  organ,'  being^  composed  of  a  some- 
what fibroos  whitish  substance,  and  forming  a 
ocNmeoting  medium  between  l^e  bladder  and 
the  urethra.  Its  posterior  part  rests  upon 
the  rectum;  its  anterior  is  surrounded  below 
and  at  the  sides  by  the  prostate  gland,  which  is 
peouliar  to  the  male.  This  gland  is  composed 
of  an  aggregation  of  mucous  follicles,  forming 
S  lobes,  1  on  each  side  of  the  neck  of  the 
bladder,  and  1  below,  communicating  by  means 
of  small  ducts  with  the  urethra.  The  inner  coat 
or  lining  of  the  bladder,  being  a  portion  of  the 
genito-nrinary  mucous  membrane,  not  only 
fines  the  bladder,  but  is  prolonged  upward 
through  the  ureters  into  the  kidneys,  and  down- 
ward along  the  urethra.  It  is  of  a  pale  rose- 
eolor,  with  a  smooth  surface  when  the  bladder 
is  distended,  and  corrugated  when  empty.  This 
membrane  secretes  a  viscid  fluid  termed  mucus, 
which  protects  it  from  the  acrimony  of  the 
orine  with  which  it  would  otherwise  be  in  con- 
tact.— ^The  secretion  of  the  urine  is  performed 
by  the  kidneys,  which  are  constantly  active. 
without  any  apparent  alternation  of  action  and 
repose,  although  within  a  given  period  they  do 
more  work  at  one  time  than  another;  as  a 
machine  which  never  stops,  may  move  more 
rapidly  at  one  time  than  another.  The  urine 
thus  secreted  dribbles  incessantly  along  the 
ureters,  drops  into  the  bladder,  where  it  ac- 
cumulates until  the  walls  are  distended,  and  a 
general  uneasy  sensation  is  produced  which 
oaDs  for  an  evacuation  of  the  contents. — Con- 
genital malformations  of  l^e  bladder  are  not 
onfreqaent  Sometimes  the  bladder  is  alto- 
gether wanting ;  and  in  such  cases  the  ureters 
emp^  into  the  rectum,  as  into  the  cloaca 
of  birds,  or  at  the  pubes,  or  directly  into  the 
urethra.  A  still  more  frequent  malformation 
is  that  in  which,  the  lower  portions  of  the 
recti  muscles  being  imperfect,  and  the  anteri- 
or wall  of  the  bladder  deficient,  the  posterior 
wall  is  protruded  and  forms  a  red  fungus-like 
tumor  above  the  pubes.  The  tumor  presents 
2  orifioes,  which  are  the  mouths  of  the  ureters, 
from  which  the  urine  constantly  dribbles. 
Blasius  describes  a  case  in  which  the  bladder 
was  double.  Mollinetti,  it  is  said,  found  in  a 
female  subject  5  kidneys,  6  ureters,  and  6  blad- 
dersL — ^Inflammation  may  affect  the  coats  of  the 
bladder  singly  or  together.  When  the  mucous 
membrane  is  inflamed,  there  is  a  sense  of  irrita- 
tion M4a  constant  desire  to  dischai^e  the  con- 
teota^'^lJlcers,  gangrenous  spots,  and  indurations 
of  various  kin£  may  be  produced  by  inflamma- 
tion. The  secretion  of  the  mucous  membrane 
may  be  increased  or  altered,  constituting  what 
is  termed  catarrh  of  the  bladder.  The  mucous 
membrane  is  sometimes  found  in  a  varicose 
VOL.  HL — ^21 


state.  In  other  oases  it  gives  origin  to  cysts  of 
different  kinds,  and  fungous  growths ;  the  lat- 
ter occur  mostly  in  old  people.  Various  acci- 
dents and  diseases  may  prevent  the  bladder 
firom  evacuating  its  contents,  in  which  case  it 
becomes  excessively  distended,  and,  unless  re- 
lieved, inflammation  ensues,  a  portion  mortifies, 
through  which  the  urine  escapes  into  the  ab- 
domen, and  speedy  death  is  the  result.  After 
8  days'  retention  the  bladder  usually  attains  its 
utmost  limits  of  distention,  and,  if  not  relieved, 
the  contents  are  evacuated  in  small  quantities, 
as  they  would  be  in  a  case  of  mere  incontinence 
of  urine ;  and  it  is  of  great  importance,  there- 
fore, not  to  mistake  retention  for  incontinence 
where  there  is  this  point  of  similarity  in  their 
respective  symptoms.  When  there  is  danger 
in  delay,  and  a  catheter  cannot  be  introduced, 
the  bladder  may  be  punctured,  either  through 
the  perineum  or  the  rectum,  or  above  the  pubes, 
as  it  is  not  covered  by  the  peritoneum  in  these 
regions. — Where  urinary  calculi  exiat  in  the 
bladder,  they  are  removed  by  surgical  opera- 
tions. When  smdl,  they  may  be  extracted 
through  the  urethra  by  a  pair  of  forceps  in- 
vented for  the  purpose ;  when  large,  they  may 
sometimes  be  reduced  into  smaU  pieces,  minute 
enough  to  pass  away  with  the  urine ;  and  where 
this  is  not  practicable,  they  may  be  removed  by 
cutting  into  the  bladder. — In  the  whole  class  of 
birds  there  are  no  urinary  bladders ;  the  ureters 
descend  from  the  kidneys  and  open  into  the 
cloaca,  a  musculo-membranous  bag,  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  rectum,  the  uterus,  and  the 
bladder  of  the  higher  animals,  and  serves  as  a 
reservoir  for  solid  excrement,  for  urine,  and  for 
eggs.  In  these  animals  the  urine  dilutes  the 
fi»ces,  and  forms  the  carbonate  of  lime,  or  hard 
substance  of  the  shelL  The  urinary  bladder  ex- 
ists in  several  genera  and  species  of  fishes. 

BLADEN,  a  south-eastern  county  of  North 
Carolina,  with  an  area  of  about  800  sq.  m., 
bounded  on  the  K  K  by  South  river,  and  in- 
tersected by  the  Cape  Fear,  which  is  here  navi- 
gable by  steamboats.  The  surface  is  generally 
level,  and  diversified  by  a  number  of  small  and 
beautiful  lakes,  abounding  in  excellent  fish. 
Much  of  the  land  is  occupied  by  extensive  pine 
forests,  viduable  for  the  tar  and  turpentine 
which  they  yield  in  large  quantities,  and  for  the 
preparation  of  which  there  were  in/^e  county 
in  1850,  6  distilleries  and  41  manufactories. 
The  agricultural  products  during  the  same  year 
amounted  to  217,415  bushels  of  corn,  100,623 
of  sweet  potato^  and  78,680  pounds  of  rice. 
The  county  was  organized  in  1784,  and  was 
named  in  honor  of  Martin  Bladen,  one  of  the 
lords  commissioners  of  trade  and  plantations. 
Elizabeth  is  the  capital.  Pop.  in  1850,  9,767, 
of  whom  4,858  were  slaves. 

BLADENSBURG,  a  small  town  in  Prince 
George  county,  Maryland,  on  the  east  branch 
of  the  Potomac,  about  6  miles  east  fh>m  Wash- 
ington, with  about  150  houses.  It  is  a  post 
town  and  the  centre  of  a  large  agricultural  pop- 
ulation, at  one  time  rivalling  or  contending  with 


BLABOK 


BLAINVILLE 


Alexandria,  Ya.,  and  with  Georgetown.  Near 
it  are  manj  large  plantations,  now,  however, 
nearlj  exhausted.  At  the  bridge  over  the  Po- 
tomac west  of  Bladensbarg,  the  battle  with  the 
English  which  preceded  the  oaptnre  of  Wash- 
ington by  Oookburn  and  Boss,  took  place  Aag. 
24, 1814. 

BLABON,  a  parish  in  the  co.  oi  Oxford, 
England.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  aknshouse  for 
poor  women,  which  in  1798  was  endowed  by 
the  duchess  of  Marlborough  with  £8,000  consols. 

BLAEU,  or  Buluw,  Wnxxii,  a  learned 
printer  of  Amsterdam,  died  in  1688,  the  Mend 
and  pupil  of  Tycho  Brahe.  His  atlas,  treatises 
of  the  ^obM,  and  other  works,  hare  preserred 
his  memory. 

BLAGBAVE,  Johk,  the  author  of  several 
floientifio  works,  chiefly  mathematical,  born  at 
Sunning,  in  Berkshire,  died  in  1611.  Among 
his  published  writings  are,  **A  Mathematical 
Jewel,''  AMtroldbium  wranicum  generaU^  and 
"The  Art  of  Dialling," 

BLAINE,  Ephbahc,  an  officer  in  the 
revolutionary  war,  belonging  to  the  Pennsylvap 
nia  line,  died  at  Carlisle,  Pa.,  in  1808.  He  en- 
tered the  army  as  a  colonel,  at  the  commence* 
ment  of  the  war,  and  was  subsequently  made 
oomndssary  general.  His  services  were  gallant 
*and  patriotic.  He  was  with  Washington  in 
many  of  the  most  trying  scenes  of  the  revolu- 
.  tion,  and  enjoyed  ^e  confidence  of  his  chief 
to  the  fullest  extent.  During  the  "  dark  win- 
tor"  at  Valley  Porge,  the  preservation  of  the 
American  army  from  starvation  was  in  a  great 
degree  owing  to  the  exertions  and  saczmcea 
of  OoL  Blaine. 

BLAINYILLE,  Hbnbx  Mabib  Dxtobotat  db, 
a  French  naturalist,  born  Sept.  12, 1777,  at 
Arques,  near  Dieppe  in  Normandy,  died  in  Paris, 
May  1, 1850.  He  received  his  first  rudiments 
of  education  from  a  Oatholic  priest  with  whom 
he  was  placed  in  a  neighboring  town,  at  a  very 
early  period.  He  was  afterward  seat  to  a 
boarding  school,  and  from  that  to  the  military 
school  of  Beaumont-en- Auge,  and  placed  under 
the  direction  of  Benedictine  monks.  This  estab« 
lishment  was  demolished  by  the  revolution  of 
1792,  and  De  Blainville  returned  home.  In 
1794  or  1795.  he  entered  the  school  ol  design  at 
Bouen.  In  1796  he  went  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  as  a  pupil  in  the  studio  of  Vincent,  the 
historical  painter.  There  he  pursued  his  studies 
for  some  time,  being  exempted  from  tiie  con- 
scription in  consequence  of  an  accident  which 
rendered  him  ineligible  for  military  service ; 
and  sometimes  went  to  hear  lectures  on  science 
in  the  college  of  France,  and  on  one  occasion  to 
hear  Lefebvre-Gineau  on  natural  philosophy.  He 
became  deeply  interested  in  the  study  of  physical 
science,  ana  soon  made  the  acquaintance  of  tiio 
professor.  In  company  with  one  of  his  young 
friends,  Constant  Prevost,  he  began  to  frequent 
the  lectures  on  natural  history  at  the  garden  of 
plants,  and  at  the  college  of  France.  The  lec- 
tures of  Ouvier  were  then  very  celebrated,  and 
De  Blainville  became  one  of  his  most  diligent 


disciples  and  attentive  hearers.  His  stadies  of 
art  gave  way  to  those  of  science.  He  became 
acquainted  with  scientific  men,,  and  following 
the  advice  of  Dum6ril,  at  that  time  assistant 
professor  to  Lac^p^e  in  the  museum  of  natural 
history,  he  gave  all  his  time  to  the  study  of  hu- 
man anatomy.  He  thus  became  a  regular  student 
of  medicine,  and  Aug.  80, 1808,  obtained  his 
degree  of  M.  D.  On  that  occasion  his  thesis 
was  entitied  "  Propositions  extracted  from  an 
Essay  on  Respiration,  followed  by  practical  Ex- 
periments on  the  eighth  pcur  of  Nerves  in  Bea- 
piration."  During  some  years,  in  concert  witii 
the  German  naturalist,  Oppel,  he  gave  great  at- 
tenticHi  to  the  study  of  reptiles,  and  myolt^ 
became  a  favorite  branch  of  study  with  him. 
Guvier  became  interested  in  his  studies,  and  re- 
quested his  cooperation  in  a  work  on  compara- 
tive anatomy,  on  which  the  great  master  had 
been  long  engaged,  but  not  with  a  view  to  an 
early  publication.  De  Blainville  accepted,  and 
took  his  place  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Ulustrious 
professor.  Soon  afterward  Ouvier  asked  him 
to  supply  his  place  as  professor  at  the  college 
of  France  and  at  the  Athennum.  This  position 
gave  eminence  to  De  Blainville ;  and  a  vacancy 
occurring  in  the  chair  of  anatomy  and  zoology 
in  the  faculty  of  sciences  of  Paris,  De  BlainviUe 
sustained,  March  81, 1812,  his  celebrated  thesis 
on  the  omythorynchuiy  or  duck-bill,  and  ob> 
teined  the  professorship.  From  unknown  caosea 
Ouvier  and  De  Blainville  became  estranged  from 
each  other  about  this  time,  and  never  afterward 
were  reconciled.  The  temper  of  De  Blainville 
was  irascible,  and  it  is  conjectured  that  he  could 
not  easily  brook  <^erence  of  opinion  on  any  of 
his  £Bivorite  ideas.  He  evidentiy  undervalued 
the  labors  of  Ouvier,  and  the  latter  took  no 
notice  of  him  or  of  his  views,  after  the  rup- 
ture. In  1814,  the  section  of  zoology  placed  De 
Blainville  first  on  the  list  of  candidates  for  the 
place  left  vacant  by  tiie  death  of  Olivier,  in  the 
academy  of  sciences;  but  Latreille  was  elected. 
2  years  later,  Dum6ril  was  elected  on  the  deatii 
of  Tenon;  but  in  1825,. De  Bhunville  was  elect- 
ed successor  to  Lac6pdde,  as  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences.  At  the  death  of  De  La- 
marck, Dec.  18,1829,  the  chair  of  natural  history. 
at  the  garden  of  plants,  was  divided  into  several 
professorships,  and  De  Blainville  was  appointed 
to  the  department  of  mollusca,  zoophytes,  and 
worms.  On  July  28, 1832,  he  left  this  chair  to 
become  the  successor  of  Ouvier,  in  the  chair  cf 
comparative  anatomy.  During  the  18  yean 
that  De  Blainville  occupied  this  place,  he 
continued  the  work  of  Ouvier  on  the  foesils  of 
extinct  species ;  but  while  Ouvier  had  only  con- 
sulted the  skeletons  of  living  species  as  a  means 
of  comparison  with  fosal  spedes,  De  Blainville 
attempted  to  treat  the  osteology  of  all  types  of 
organism,  living  as  well  as  extinct,  under  the 
title  of  Ostiogrc^hu,  ou  deacription  iconogra- 
phiqu€  compart  du  iqutlette  et  dd  9y9thM  d&9^ 
taire  des  eing  elasies  ^animaux  wrUbrSs  rScentB 
etfosnlea.  The  work,  however,  was  never  fin- 
ished ;  about  80  genera  of  mammalia  only  being 


BLAIR 


328 


treated  «b  iihetime  of  his  deaUi,  vhioh  ooomred 
saddenlT'  in  a  railway  carriage,  as  he  was  pro- 
ceeding on  avifiit  to  his  niece  at  aahort  distanoe 
from  Paris. — Tlie  soieotific  works  of  De  Blain- 
▼ille  are  very  numerons, .  and  treat  of  dirers 
questions  and  investigations  in  relation  to  the 
animal  Idngdom.  like  Gavier,  his  whole  life 
was  spent  in  the  stody  of  oomparative  anatomy 
and£oology.  In  his  Prodrome  d^une  nowoelle 
dititribuUon  mSthodiqtte  du  rigne  ammal  (Paris, 

classmcation  of  animals  which  hare  sinoe  heen 
generally  accepted.  lxilo\AlHction7kaWo^hUtairo 
natureUe  he  published  a  remarkable  treatise  on 
worms,  which  marks  an  epoch  in  the  progress 
of  that  branch  of  science.  Beside  numerous 
contributions  to  scientific  periodical,  he  pub- 
lished a  work  entitled  IhuTis  FranfaUe  (Paris, 
1821,  1880),  a  Gown  de  phyiiologie  ginSrale  et 
eomparSey  profeaae  d  lafaevlU  dee  eeieneee  de 
Parte  (1888),  Manuel  de  malaeologie  et 
de  eonehyUologie  (Strasbur^  1825-^27),  and 
HUtoire  dM  edeneee  naturellee  au  moyen  dge 
(Paris,  1845).  In  the  clas^cation  of  animals, 
I)e  Blainyille  was  decidedly  of  opinion  that  the 
external  form  should  be  the  leaoing  character- 
istic feature,  in  forming  groups  and  fiamilies  of 
allied  species ;  while  other  natoralbts  maintain 
that  the  internal  structure  of  animals  is  of 
more  importance  in  pointing  out  affinities  and 
similarities  of  form  and  structure,  as  guides  to 
a  natorai  method  of  classification. 

BLAIB,  a  S.  W.  county  of  Pennsylrania, 
with  an  area  of  660  square  miles.  It  is  drained 
by  Glorer  creek,  the  Little  Jnniata,  and  one  of 
its  branches.  The  surface  is  yery  rugged,  and 
nearly  half  of  the  land  is  unfit  for  cmtivation. 
The  Alleghany  mountains  form  the  western 
boundary ;  Donning's  and  Brush  mountuns  tra- 
verse the  interior,  and  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
county  rises  Tussey's  mountain.  Between 
these  ridges  lie  feitile  and  highly  cultivated 
valleys,  the  soil  of  which  is  well  adapted  to  the 
production  of  grain  and  hay.  Bituminous  coal 
is  found  in  the  western  part,  and  there  are  nu- 
merous and  valoable  mines  of  iron.  The  county 
yielded  in  1850,  267,849  bushels  of  whea^ 
145,851  of  corq,  178,017  of  oats,  18,687  tons 
of  hay,  and  208,088  pounds  of  butter.  There 
were  80  floor  and  gnst  mills,  12  saw  mills,  8 
iron  mining  establishmentflL  and  a  number  of 
furnaces,  forges,  fiw^tories  of  various  kinds,  tan- 
neries, &a  The  public  schools  contained  6,249 
pupils;  there  were  89  churches,  and  4  news- 
paper offices.  Bhiir  county  was  formed  in 
1845-^6,  out  of  portions  of  Bedford  and  Hunt^ 
ingdon,  and  was  named  in  honor  of  John  Blair, 
one  of  the  first  settlers  of  this  part  of  the  state. 
C^Ud,  Hdiidaysburg ;  pop.  in  1850,  21,777. 

BLAIR,  EsAjrois  Pbestoit,  an  American 
jonmalist  and  politidan,  bom  at  Abingdon, 
\Fashinffton  oo.,  Ya.,  April  12, 1791.  His  father, 
James  Slair,  afterward  attorney-general  of  Ken- 
tucky, removed  to  that  state  about  1800;  the 
son  was  graduated  at  Transylvania  university ; 
studied  law,  but  f^om  ill  health  and  weakness 


of  voice  never  engaged  in  its  practice ;  volun- 
teered, however,  as  a  private  soldier  in  1812,  and 
marched  toward  the  Canadian  frontier,  but  was 
taken  sick  and  left  behind  on  the  way.  Early 
a  politician,  he  was  a  friend  of  Mr.  Clay,  and 
supported  him  for  the  presidency  in  1824,  but 
separated  from  him  after  he  gave  his  vote  fbr 
J.  Q.  Adams  and  entered  the  Adams  adminis- 
tration ;  but  this  did  not  extinguish  their  per> 
sonal  friendship,  which  remained  even  after 
tlie  ardent  controversies  in  which  they  were 
subsequently  engaged.  Before  this  final  separa- 
tion from  Mr.  Clay,  Mr.  Blair  had  diverged  from 
his  policy  in  various  local  questions,  and  still 
more  in  opposmg  the  U.  8.  bank,  and  in  con- 
tending for  the  power  of  the  states  to  tax  its 
branches.  When,  in  the  first  year  of  Gen. 
Jackson's  administration,  the  nullification  move- 
ment was  developed,  an  article  against  it,  writ- 
ten by  Mr.  Blair,  in  a  newspi^r  of  Kentucky, 
attracted  the  noUce  of  the  president,  and  result- 
ed in  an  invitation  to  Mr.  &lair,  though  he  was 
then  personally  unknown  to  Qen.  Jackson,  to 
remove  to  Washington  and  become  the  editor 
of  tt  democratic  journal  to  be  establbhed  there. 
Under  such  auspices  the  **  Globe*'  was  com- 
menced in  Nov.  1880 ;  and  there  soon  grew  up 
a  most  intimate  and  confidential  rdation  b^ 
tween  the  preddent  and  the  editor,  which  con- 
tinned  until  Gen.  Jackson*s  death.  Mr.  Blair 
retained  the  control  of  the  '^  Globe,*'  notwith- 
standing the  oppo^tion  of  several  prominent 
democrats  who  were  inclined  to  &vor  tbe  r^ 
diartering  ot  the  IT.  S.  bank,  throughout  Gen. 
Jackson's  2  terms  of  office;  and  subsequently, 
through  the  terms  of  Van  Buren,  of  Harrison, 
and  ot  Tyler,  until  the  accession  of  Mr.  Polk 
to  the  presidency  in  March,  1845,  who  required 
him  to  sell  that  journal  to  Mr.  Ritchie,  on 
the  ground  that  the  change  was  necessary  to 
the  harmony  of  the  democratic  party.  Mjt. 
Polk  afterward  besought  him  to  resume  his 
positicm  as  editor,  but  he  declined,  as  he  did 
the  offer  of  the  Spanish  mission  for  himself  and 
of  another  diplomatic  appointment  for  his  son. 
He  retired  to  Silver  Spring,  Montgomery  co., 
Md.,  where  he  has  since  been  snccessfhlly  en- 
gaged in  agriculture.  In  the  presidential  eleo- 
tion  of  1848,  he  withdrew  from  the  democratic 
party  and  supported  Mr.  Van  Buren  and  the 
\¥ilmot  proviso.  After  the  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri compromise,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in 
the  orgamzation  of  the  republican  party,  and 
in  the  attempt,  in  1856,  to  elect  Col.  Fremont 
to  the  presidency. — ^Fbanois  Pebstoit,  Jb.,  a 
leader  of  the  free-labor  or  emandpation  party 
in  Missonri^d  son  of  the  preceding,  born  at 
Lexington,  JCy.,  Feb.  19,  1821 ;  was  graduated 
at  Princeton  college,  N.  J.,  in  1841 ;  and  took 
up  his  residence  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  and  devoted 
himself  to  the  law.  In  1845  he  made  a  journey 
to  the  Rocky  mountains  with  a  party  of  trap- 
pers for  the  improvement  of  his  health ;  and  on 
the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war  he  joined 
the  force  under  Kearney  and  Doniphan  in  New 
Mexico^  and  served  as  a  private  sfldier  until 


824 


BLAIR 


BLAKE 


1847,  when  he  retarned  to  8t  Locds  and  re- 
samed  the  practice  of  his  profession.  In  1848, 
like  his  father,  he  gave  his  support  to  the  fi-ee- 
Boil  partj  and  to  Mr.  Van  Baren,  and  in  a 
speech  delivered  at  the  coort-honse  in  81  Lonis 
contended  against  the  extension  of  slavery  into 
the  territories  of  the  nnion.  In  1862  he  was 
elected  from  St  Lonis  co.  to  the  legislatore  of 
Mo.,  as  an  avowed  free-soiler :  and  he  was  re- 
elected in  1854,  though  GoL  Benton,  the  con* 
ffressional  candidate  of  his  party,  was  beaten. 
in  1856  he  was  himself  returned  to  congress 
from  the  St.  Louis  district,  over  Mr.  Kennett 
who  had  defeated  Col.  Benton  2  years  before. 
In  Jan.  1857,  he  delivered  an  elaborate  speech 
in  the  house  of  representatives  in  favor  of  col- 
oni^ng  title  black  population  of  the  United 
States,  in  Oentral  America.  Mr.  Bhur  has  also 
been  an  editor  and  writer  of  the  '^  Missouri  Dem- 
ocrat'' a  daily  journal  of  St  Louis,  which  con- 
stantly advocates  the  political  and  economical 
principles  with  which  he  has  become  identified. 
BLAIR,  Hugh,  a  Scotch  divine  and  author, 
bom  in  Edinburgh,  April  1, 1718,  died  Dec.  27, 
1800.  In  1759  he  delivered  his  course  of  lec- 
tures on  rhetoric  and  belles-lettres,  which  were 
80  well  received  that  the  king  was  induced  to 
establish  a  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  polite 
literature  at  the  university  of  Edinburgh,  and  to 
appoint  Dr.  Blair  its  first  professor.  In  1768  he 

C*  ^ished  a  dissertation  on  the  authenticity  of 
pherson's  "  Ossian,"  and  in  1777  the  first  vol- 
ume of  his  sermons,  subsequently  followed  by  4 
others.  These  discourses  were  not  only  sought 
after  in  England  and  Scotland,  but  were  even 
translated  into  foreign  languages.  They  were 
dedicated  to  the  queen,  at  whose  instance  a 
pension  of  £200  a  year  was  conferred  on  their 
author.  To  this  annuity  an  additional  £100 
was  added  in  1788,  on  account  of  his  failing 
health.  In  that  year  his  lectures  were  publish- 
ed in  8  volumes,  8vo. 

BLAIR,  Jaiob,  first  president  of  William  and 
Mary  college,  in  Virginia,  a  native  of  Scot- 
land, died  Aug.  1748,  at  an  advanced  age.  Kot 
succeeding  in  that  country  as  a  minister  of  the 
Episcopal  church,  he  went  to  England,  where 
he  became  intimate  witii  Oompton,  bishop  of 
London,  who  sent  him  as  a  missionary  to  Vir- 
ginia in  1685.  In  this  capacity  he  evinced  so 
much  ability  and  zeal  that  he  was  nused  to  the 
high  office  of  ecclesiastical  commissary  of  the 
Virginia  church  in  1689.  He  was  so  anxious 
to  promote  the  educational  interests  of  the  colo- 
nists that  he  undertook  a  voyage  to  England, 
after  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  to 
raise  funds  and  obtain  a  patent  for  the  erection 
of  a  college  in  his  adopted  country.  He  suc- 
ceeded beyond  his  most  sanguine  expectations, 
and  on  his  return  he  superintended  the  erection 
of  a  college,  which  he  named  after  the  reign- 
ing sovereigns,  and  of  which  he  was  president 
for  nearly  60  years.  He  was  also  prendent  of 
the  council  of  Vir^g^nia  and  rector  of  Williams- 
burg for  many  years.  His  sermons  were  pub- 
lished in  I^ndon  in  1722,  in  4  vols.  8vo. 


BLAIR,  Jomr,  one  of  the  assodate  J  odgee 
of  the  supreme  court  of  the  United  Statesi 
bom  in  Virginia  in  1782,  died  Aug.  81,  18001 
He  was  a  Jud^  of  the  court  of  appeals  in  his 
native  state  in  1787,  and  a  member  of  the 
convention  which  framed  the  constitaticm  of  the 
United  States.  After  the  establishment  of  the 
federal  goveinment,  Washington  luypointed  him 
one  of  the  federal  ludiciary.  This  office  he 
held  till  his  death,  which  took  place  at  the  age 
of  68.  He  was  distinguished  for  the  admira- 
ble virtues  of  his  private  chuacter,  no  lees  than 
for  the  ability  with  which  he  discharged  the 
ftanotions  of  public  office. 

BLAIR,  John,  chronologist  and  geographer, 
bom  in  Scotiand,  died  June  24^  1782.  In  1764 
he  published  his  ^'  Ohronological  History  of  the 
World,  from  the  creation  to  A.  D.  1768."  He 
now  received  in  succession  several  ecdesiastical 
preferments,  was  appointed^Jin  1757,  oh^ilain 
to  the  princess  dowager  of  Wales,  and  in  1768 
was  selected  to  accompany  the  duke  of  York 
on  a  tour  to  the  continent. 

BLAIR,  RoBEBT,  Scottish  poet,  author  of  the 
^'  Grave,''  bom  at  Edinburgh  m  1699,  died  Feb. 
4, 1746.  He  was  minister  of  Athelstaneford,  in 
East  Lothian,  where  he  spent  most  of  his  life. 

BLAIR-ATHOL,  a  village  and  pariah  of 
Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Perth,  76  miles  from 
Edinburgh;  pop.  in  1851, 2,084.  It  contains  Blair 
Oastie,  a  seat  of  the  duke  of  Athol,  and  for- 
merly a  baronial  fortress,  occupied  by  Montrose 
in  1644,  stormed  b^  OromwdTs  troops  in  1668, 
and  defended  by  Sir  Andrew  Agnew,  in  1746, 
against  a  portion  of  the  pretender's  army.  The 
pass  of  Killiecrankie,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the 
victory  of  the  Highlanders  under  Dundee  over 
King  William's  troops,  under  Mackay,  is  distant 
about  2  miles  from  the  castie.  Two  miles  to 
the  westward  are  the  Alls  of  Bruar,  celebrated 
by  Bums. 

BLAIRSVILL&,  the  largest  post  borough  of 
Indiana  co.,  Pennsylvania,  sitnated  on  tiie 
Ooneman^  river  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  ca- 
nal^ at  a  distance  of  76  miles  by  canal  from 
Pittsburg,  and  about  8  miles  from  the  oentral 
railroad.  It  has  fMilities  fw  an  active  trade, 
and  is  the  shipping  point  of  nearly  all  the 
grain,  pork,  lumber,  and  coal  enorted  from 
the  county.  It  has  a  number  of  substantial 
buildings,  5  or  6  churches,  2  newspapers,  and  a 
handsome  bridge,  which  crosses  the  Oonem«igfa 
river  with  a  single  arch  of  295  feet    Pop.  1,186. 

BLAIRSVIIXE,  the  capital  of  Umon  oo., 
6a.,  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  valuable 
mineral  region,  possessmg  <raarries  of  marble 
and  rich  mines  of  sold  and  iron.  The  sur- 
rounding scenery  of  the  Blue  Ridge  can  hardly 
be  surpassed  for  grandeur  and  magnificoice. 
Blairsville  contains  a  court  house,  a  school,  2 
hotels,  and  a  few  stores. 

BLAKE,  Fb  AKOis,  a  NewEngland  lawyer,  bom 
in  Rutland,  Mass.,  Oct  14, 1774,  died  in  Worces- 
ter, Feb.  28, 1817.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  col- 
lege at  a  very  early  age,  was  admitted  to  the  bar 
in  1794^  and  commenced  practice  in  Ratland, 


BLAKE 


325 


whoQoe  he  removed  to  Woroeetor  in  1802.  Aa 
an  adTooate  he  was  the  aoknowledged  head  of 
the  har  of  his  own  aod  the  acyoiDiog  cotmties. 
Two  or  8  orations  and  tracts  are  the  sole  print- 
ed memorials  of  his  splendid  talents. 

BLAKE,  John  Laubis,  D.  D.,  an  American 
author  and  Episcopal  clergyman,  bom  at  North- 
wood,  N.  H.,  Deo.  21,  1768,  died  at  Orange. 
N.  J.,  Jolj  6, 1867.  His  early  years  were  pas^ 
upon  hia  father's  farm,  where  he  labored  dili- 
gently daring  the  sammer  months,  and  attend- 
ed the  district  school  in  the  winter.  As  he  grew 
op  he  manifSasted  a  decided- predilection  for 
mechanicfl,  and  when  about  18  years  of  age 
was  spprentioed  to  a  cabinet  maker,  with  whom 
he  worked  2  years,  and  then  bought  the  re- 
mainder of  his  time  and  went  to  8^em,  Mass., 
where  he  labored  as  a  journeyman.  Under  the 
ministry  of  the  Ber.  Samud  Worcester  his  at- 
tention was  turned  to  religious  subjects,  and  he 
finally  made  a  public  profession  of  religion  in 
c(»neotionwithMr.  Worcester's  church.  Very 
soon  after  this  he  formed  the  determination  to 
procore  a  colle^te  education,  and  at  the  age 
of  17  quitted  the  work-bench,  and  entered 
Phillips  academy  at  Exeter,  N.  H.,  then  under 
the  care  of  the  celebrated  Dr.  Bei\jamin  Abbot, 
to  pr^are  ISor  college.  In  1808  he  entered  the 
sophomore  class  of  Brown  university,  and  grad- 
uated in  1812.  In  1814  he  made  his  first  ap- 
pearance as  an  author,  publishing  at  that  time 
his  ^  Text  Book  of  Geography  and  Ohronology," 
a  work  of  which  seyeral  editions  were  subse- 
quently sold.  In  1818  he  was  licensed  by  the 
Ichode  Island  association  of  Oongregational  min- 
isters, but  preached  but  liUJe  in  that  connection. 
Having  formed  the  acqmuntance  of  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Grodker,  then  rector  of  St.  John's  church, 
Providence,  he  became  mterested  in  the  church 
service,  ana,  after  considerable  hesitation,  de- 
termined to  enter  the  ministry  of  the  Episcopal 
church.  Accordingly,  he  was  admitted  to  dea- 
con's orders  in  1816  by  Bishop  Griswold,  and 
became  the  fourth  Episcopal  clergyman  in  the 
diocese  of  Rhode  Island.  Boon  after  his  ordi- 
nation he  organised  the  parish  of  6t  Paul's  at 
Pftwtncket,  now  one  of  the  largest  in  the  dio- 
cese, where  he  remained  nearly  5  years,  and 
was  eminently  successfhl  in  his  ministry.  In 
1820  he  returned  to  New  Hampshire,  and  tak- 
ing temporary  supervision  of  the  churches  in 
CoDoord  and  Hopkinton,  established  at  the 
former  place  a  young  ladies'  seminary,  which, 
in  1822,  he  removed  to  Boston^here  it  attain- 
ed s  veiy  high  reputation.  He  continued  in 
this  sebool  till  1880,  having  diarge  also  of  St. 
Matthew's  church  in  that  city  most  of  the  time. 
It  was  here  that  he  fairly  commenced  his  career 
of  authorship,  publishing  first  the  text  books 
which  he  had  prepared  mr  his  own  cLisses,  the 
peraliar  and  ori^vud  faatures  of  which  led  to 
their  extensive  mtrodnction  in  other  schools. 
Snbseaoentlv,  he  was  connected  for  a  time 
with  the  "  Literary  Advertiser"  and  with  the 
^'Oospel  Advocate."  as  editor,  and  rendered 
efficient  service  to  toe  public  schools  of  Boston 


as  an  active  member  of  tlie  school  committee 
for  several  years.  In  1885  appeared  the  first 
edition  of  his  "  Biographical  Dictionaij,"  a  work 
of  great  labor,  and  one  by  whudi  Se  is  best 
known.  The  first  edition  had  a  very  large  sale, 
and  the  revised  work,  issued  only  a  few  months 
before  his  death,  and  on  the  revision  of  whidi 
he  had  bestowed  years  of  toU,  bids  fiEor  to  be 
still  more  widely  circulated.  Though,  like  every 
other  biographical  dictionary,  it  leaves  muon 
to  be  desired,  it  is  just  to  say  that  it  is  surpass- 
ed by  no  work  of  the  kind  in  a  single  volume. 
After  leaving  his  school  in  1880,  he  devoted 
himself  exclusively  to  literary  pursuits,  and  ac- 
quired the  reputation  of  being  a  very  prolific 
author.  He  was  the  writer  or  compiler  of 
nearly  50  different  works,  of  which  the  greater 
part  were  text  books  for  schools,  embracing  a 
series  of  reading  books,  treatises  on  astronomy, 
chemistry,  natural  philosophy,  botany,  geogra- 
phy, and  history.  There  were  also  2  or  8  vol- 
umes on  rural  economy,  the  "Family  Oyolopfla* 
die,"  ^^  Letters  on  Oonfirmation,"  a  volume 
onj)rayer,  sermons,  addresses,  isc 

BLAKE,  RoBEBF,  English  admiral,  bom  at 
Bridgewater,  in  Somersetshire,  Aug.  1599,  died 
at  Plymouth,  Aug.  17. 1657.  He  was  the  eldest 
son  of  a  merchant  wno  had  become  rich  and 
settled  at  Bridgewater.  He  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1617,  and  then  lived  gravely  andpeace- 
fnlly  in  his  native  place,  taking  no  open  part  in 
politics,  although  he  had  adopted  the  principles 
of  the  Puritans,  and  was  theoretically  an  ardent 
republican.  In  the  parliament  of  1640  he  was 
returned  member  for  Bridgewater,  and  so  soon 
as  it  appeared  certwi  that  the  differences  be- 
tween tbe  king  and  the  nation  could  not  be  set- 
tled except  by  the  sword,  he  applied  himself  to 
military  affairs,  and  took  up  arms  among  the 
first  against  the  king  in  the  west  of  England, 
where,  until  near  the  end  of  the  war,  the  royal- 
ists were  constantly  superior,  and  were  only 
prevented  from  becoming  all-powerful  by  the 
stubborn  obstinacy  with  which  2  or  8  insignifi- 
cant places^  scarcely  deserving  the  name  of  for- 
tified towns,  held  out  against  regular  armies, 
and  supported  sieges  of  such  duration  as  to 
produce  the  greatest  effect  on  the  general  re- 
sults of  the  war,  by  rendering  it  impossible  Ibr 
the  cavaliers  to  concentrate  Uieir  forces  in  the 
eastern  and  northern  counties,  and  crush  the 
parliamentarians  where  they  were  the  strongest. 
Two  of  these  places — ^Lyme  Regis  on  the  coast 
of  Dorsetshire,  which  detained  Prince  Manrioe 
before  its  hardly  defensible  walls  until  his  army 
melted  away ;  and  Taunton,  in  his  own  county 
of  Somerset,  which,  though  small,  ruinous,  and 
half  destroyed,  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  Gran- 
ville and  Groring,  with  8,000  foot  and  8,000 
horse,  until  tbe  war  was  ended  by  the  defeat 
and  capture  of  Lord  Astley  at  Stowe-on-the- 
Wold,  in  1646— owed  their  defence  to  the  stem 
and  resolute  character  of  this  natural  com- 
mander, who  had  never  served  an  apprentice- 
ship in  arms,  nor,  it  is  most  likely,  had  ever 
seen  a  battalion  set  in  array  before  the  48d  year 


826 


BLAKE 


of  his  a^.  In  1649,  after  the  exeootion  of  the 
king,  the  nav/  having  remained  firm  in  its 
illegianoe,  Prinoe  Rnpert,  who  had  been  ap- 
pointed aomiral,  rode  the  channel  in  defiance, 
and,  it  is  believed,  might  at  an  earlier  date,  when 
the  king  was  a  primner  in  the  isle  of  Wight, 
have  rescued  him  by  a  well-concerted  and  sod- 
den eaup-^t^-main.  Bat  now  the  common- 
wealth being  firmly  established,  its  rolers  be- 
gan to  look  abont  them  for  an  officer  fit  to 
take  command  of  the  sqnadron  which  they 
proposed  to  fit  ont,  in  order  to  retrieve 
the  mastery  of  their  own  coasts  at  least,  and, 
if  possible,  to  recover  something  of  the  reputa- 
tion which  the  English  nation  had  formerly 
possessed  at  sea.    Whether  it  was  the  military 

fdnins  which  Blake  had  exhibited  at  L3rme  and 
bnnton,  or,  what  is  more  probable,  his  stern 
republican  principles,  that  recommended  him  to 
the  men  who  sat  at  the  helm  of  the  republic, 
does  not  appear ;  nor  Is  it  even  dear  that  he  had 
ever  been  on  board  a  ship  of  war,  when  he  was 
appointed,  at  the  mature  age  of  60,  to  command 
a  squadron  of  the  line,  witib  the  title  of  general 
of  the  sea.  His  orders  were  to  pursue  Rupert, 
with  the  roysl  squadron,  whithersoever  he  should 
find  him.  During  the  preceding  year  the  prince 
had  lain  within  the  harbor  of  Klnsale,  protected 
by  the  batteries  on  land,  but  strictly  blockaded 
by  a  superior  force  witiiout,  until  Cromwell's 
progress  by  land  gave  him  assurance  that  the  bat- 
teries which  hitherto  had  protected  him  would 
shortly  be  turned  against  his  vessels,  when  he 
ran  the  gauntlet  of  the  blockading  ships,  and, 
with  the  loss  of  three  of  his.  squaw)n  sunk  or 
taken  in  the  attempt,  made  his  way  into  the 
Tagus,  where  he  received  the  protection  of  the 
king  of  Portugal  In  the  spring  Blake  appear- 
ed off  the  mouth  of  that  river  with  18  sail,  and 
sent  in  a  flag  requesting  permission  to  'attack 
the  pirate  at  his  anchorage.  To  this  request  he 
received  a  point-blank  refusal,  when  he  stood 
in,  with  op^n  ports  and  lighted  matche^  but 
was  unable  to  force  his  way  up,  or  was  unwilling 
to  incur  the  risk  of  losing  his  ships,  when  he 
well  knew  himself  possessed  of  the  power  to 
enforce  his  demands.  To  this  end,  he  at  once 
proceeded  to  capture  20  Portuguese  galleons, 
tidily  laden,  which  he  sent  in  as  prizes  to  the 
English  channel  harbors,  threatening  to  con- 
tinue his  sdzures  until  tne  king  should  expel 
the  enemy.  This  the  Portuguese  speedily  found 
it  their  interest  to  do,  and  Rupert  set  sail  for 
the  West  Indies,  where  the  Bermudas,  Antigua, 
and  Virginia  still  feebly  held  out  for  the  crown. 
He  lost,  however,  a  considerable  part  of  his 
squadron,  by  an  attack  of  Blake,  off  Malaga  (Jan. 
1651 ).  His  brother  Maurice  was  shipwrecked  in 
a  hurricane  among  the  islands,  and,  after  a  while, 
subsisting  himself  and  the  ships  under  his  com- 
mand by  privateering,  or  what  may  be  more 
properly  called  piracy,  he  returned  to  France ; 
where,  finding  the  seas  too  hot  to  hold  him,  he 
sold  both  the  remains  of  his  own  squadron  and 
his  prizes.  In  the  mean  time,  the  colonies  were 
easily  reduced  by  Sir  George  Aysoue,  while  the 


channel  islands,  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and  the  Isle 
of  Man,  the  latter  defended  by  Charlotte,  count- 
ess of  Derby,  were  brought  under  subjection  by 
Blake.  For  some  years  after  this  the  govern- 
ment of  England  was  not  so  strong  at  home, 
being  engaged  in  intestine  oonfiicts  in  Ireland 
and  Bcotuind,  as  to  undertake  any  foreign  war. 
But  affironts  had  been  offered  to  the  republic 
by  the  states-general  of  Holland  which  it  was 
determined  to  resent.  During  the  lif<»time  of 
William  11.  of  Orange,  who  had  married  a 
daughter  of  Oharles  I.,  no  redress  could  be 
had  for  the  slaughter  of  Dr.  Doridaus,  the 
envoy  of  the  commonwealth  at  the  Hague^  nor 
could  Strickland,  the  resident  ambassador, 
obtain  a  hearing.  On  the  death  of  that 
prince,  when  it  was  supposed  that  the  demo- 
cratic party  in  the  states  would  have  obtained 
the  preeminence,  on  account  of  the  long  minor- 
ity of  his  heir,  afterward  William  IH.  of  Eng- 
luid,  negotiations  were  renewed  by  England, 
with  a  view  either  to  the  erection  of  a  great 
consolidated  republican  power,  by  a  close  alli- 
ance of  the  2  governments,  or  to  the  creating  of 
a  rupture  which  should  afford  a  pretext  fbr  hos- 
tilities. The  latter  was  the  result,  for  the  cav- 
aliers and  the  young  duke  of  York,  in  person, 
offered  insult,  and  even  personal  violence,  to 
the  envoys,  which  the  states-general  did  not 
punish;  and  the  English  government  having 
prescribed  a  precise  day,  before  which  their 
proposals  must  be  offered  or  withdrawn,  the 
commissioners  returned  to  England.  The  Eng- 
lish asserted  that  the  Hollanders  were  awaiting 
the  termination  of  the  struggle  between  Charles, 
who  had  been  proclaimed  king  of  Scots,  and 
Cromwell;  while  the  other  side  laid  the  blame 
on  the  arrogance  and  undue  haste  of  the  ambas- 
sadors. In  the  mean  time,  the  ^  crowning  mer- 
cy "  of  Worcester  turned  the  scale  of  afiGsiirs, 
and  the  states-general  now  sent,  in  their  turn,  to 
London  to  seek  accommodation.  Butth^fonnd 
the  aspect  of  the  case  wholly  changed.  The 
Englisn  navigation  laws  had  just  been  passed, 
which,  in  their  operation,  would  deprive  the 
Hollanders  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world, 
which  they  had  long  enjoyed ;  and  when  they 
asked  for  their  suspension,  at  least  during  the 
pendency  of  negotiations,  not  only  were  they 
peremptorily  refbsed,  but  they  were  met  by  a 
counter  demand  for  reparation  of  the  cruelties 
committed  on  the  English  at  Amboyna^some 
80  years  before,  by  a  complaint  that  the  Dutch 
ships  were  caiTying  to  the  enemy  contraband 
supplies,  and  by  an  order  to  the  English'  naval 
officers  to  compel  the  states'  men-of-war  to  salute 
the  English  fllag  by  striking  their  topsails  on 
meeting  in  the  channel.  In  the  mean  time  let- 
ters of  marque  were  granted  by  the  English 
government,  and  above  eighty  prizes  were 
brought  into  the  English  ports;  whereon  the 
states-general,  refusing  to  grant  letters  of  repri- 
sal to  their  own  merchants,  fitted  out  a  great  fieet, 
not,  as  they  explained  to  the  neigbbormg  pow- 
ers, that  they  designed  to  make  war,  but  mere- 
ly to  protect  their  commerce^    A  few  days  after 


BLAKE 


827 


this,  Admiral  Young,  Mihig  in  with  a  fleet  of 
Dutch  nMrcha&tmen,  fired  into  them,  and  after 
a  sharp  action  compelled  them  to  salute  the 
British  flag.  Shortly  after  this,  again,  Van 
Tromp,  with  42  sail  of  Dutch  men-of-war,  en- 
tered the  roads  of  Dover,  as  he  asserted,  driven 
hi  by  stress  of  weather,  with  loss  of  anchors 
and  cables ;  but,  according  to  Blake^s  account, 
in  order  to  insult  the  En^^ish  fleet  as  it  lay  at 
anchor,  and  to  refuse  it  we  salute  which,  possi- 
bly, the  Oranfle  party,  to  which  Van  Tromp  be^ 
longed,  considered  due  to  the  king,  not  to  the 
nation.  It  is  a  question  to  this  day  which  par- 
ty commenced  the  attack,  for  each  admiral  sent 
in  a  relation,  countersigned  by  every  capt^  in 
his  fleet,  diflering  in  every  particular  from  that 
of  the  other.  Blake  had  in  the  beginning  but 
15  ships,  but  Oapt  Bourne  joined  him  with  8 
more  after  the  action  had  commenced.  It  has 
been  alleged:  1,  that  it  is  improbable  that  the 
Dutch,  who  had  already  sought  for  peace  by 
negotaation,  should  have  commenced  the  i^av; 
and  2,  that  it  is  yet  more  improbable  that  the 
English,  with  but  28  ships,  should  have  begun 
booties  against  a  fleet  of  42.  Neither  answer  is, 
however,  complete,  since  it  is  more  than  probable 
that  Van  Tromp's  own  temper,  which  was  hot 
and  fiery,  and  the  politics  of  the  war  party,  to 
which  he  belonged,  would  have  rendered  him 
willing  somewhat  to  exceed  his  orders,  in  order 
to  brinff  about  an  affront  to  the  Dutch  flag,  such 
aa  should  arouse  the  national  anger,  and  render 
war  inevitable;  while  it  was  clearly  not  in 
Blake's  character  to  tdce  account  of  odds, 
or  to  decline  attacking  a  superior  force  when  he 
thought  it  neceasaiy.  However  this  may  be, 
Van  Tromp  with  the  Dutch  fleet  retired  to  his 
own  shoresi  with  the  loss  of  2  ships  of  30  guns,  1 
taken  and  1  sunk,  the  action  lasting  6  hours,  and 
being  terminated  only  by  night  (May  19, 1662). 
The  Dutch  sent  commissioners  to  explain,  and, 
if  possible,  to  put  off  the  war,  on  any  endurable 
terms ;  but  the  English  parliament  was  insolent 
and  inexorable,  and  replied  only  by  a  fresh  de- 
mand for  reparation,  which  not  being  made, 
enei^etic  booties  followed.  Blake's  flrst  op- 
eration was  an  onaUught  on  the  Dutch  herring 
busses  to  the  northward,  escorted  by  12  shios 
of  war,  in  which  he  took  or  dispersed  the  whole 
convoy.  Van  Tromp  pursued  him  with  a  fleet 
of  above  100  sail ;  but  when  the  2  admirals  were 
in  aght  of  each  other,  and  engaged  in  clearing 
for  action,  they  were  separated  by  a  furious 
atorm,  which  dispersed  and  greatiy  shattered 
the  Dutch  fleet,  while  the  English  admiral  got 
off  cheaply  into  the  English  harbors.  Shortly 
after  this,  Ayscue,  who  had  just  returned  firom 
the  reductk>n  of  the  West  Indies,  with  40  ships 
of  war,  fell  in  with  De  Buy  ter,  commanding  50 
ahipe  of  war  and  80  merchantmen.  The  action 
lasted  till  it  was  closed  by  night,  when  the 
Dutch  convoy  and  the  covering  squadron  got 
off  uniiyured,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  the  remissness 
of  the  inferior  officers  of  Ayscue's  squadron. 
He  was,  however,  removed  from  his  command 
by  the  parliament|  who  suspected  him  of  lean- 


ing toward  the  royal  cause,  though  they  re- 
warded his  services  in  America  by  a  pension 
and  grant  of  Irish  lands.  De  Witt  was  now 
joined  by  De  Ruyter,  Van  Tromp  having  re- 
signed in  indignation  at  the  temporary  unpopu- 
larity into  which  he  had  fallen  on  the  disper- 
sion of  his  great  armament,  and  a  long  and 
obstinate  action  was  fought  off  the  coast  of 
Kent  (Sept.  28),  in  which  the  ship  of  the  Dutch 
rear-admiral  was  carried  by  boarding,  2  other 
capital  ships  were  sunk  and  one  blown  up,  and 
as  before,  night  separated  the  combatants.  On 
the  following  day,  however,  the  Datch  fleet 
made  all  sail  for  Goree,  and,  setting  into  shoal 
water,  where  the  heavy  English  ships  could  not 
follow  them,  escaped  by  their  light  draught — 
After  this  action,  Blake,  who  supposed  that 
winter  would  bring  a  suspension  of  hostilities, 
divided  his  fleet  into  squadrons  of  observation, 
and  retaining  himself  only  87  ships,  was  attack- 
ed (Dec.  9),  near  the  Goodwin  Sands,  by  Van 
Tromp,  who  had  received  a  fresh  commission,  at 
the  head  of  twice  that  number  of  sail,  and  not 
choosing  to  decline  battie,  fought  all  day  with 
desperate  courage,  and  at  night  carried  off  his 
shattered  squadron,  and  secured  it  within  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames.  The  English  burnt  1  large 
ship  of  the  enemy  and  disabled  2  others ;  but 
they  lost  the  Garland  and  the  Bonaventure,  and 
4  other  ships,  burned  and  sunken.  Blake  him- 
self was  severely  wounded,  but  he  gained 
rather  than  lost  honor ;  since  his  defence  was 
admirable,  against  a  force  so  superior,  and  his 
saving  his  fleet,  under  the  circumstances,  was 
regarded  justiy  by  his  countrymen  as  equivalent 
to  a  victory.  It  is  this  battie,  the  results  of 
which  so  intoxicated  Van  Tromp  that  he  in- 
sulted all  the  coasts  of  England,  sailing  the 
channel  with  brooms  at  his  mast-head,  as  if  he 
would  sweep  or  had  already  swept  the  nan^w 
seas  of  the  English  fleet,  and  which  so  delighted 
the  Hollanders  that  Europe  was  flooded  by 
them  with  prints,  publications,  broadsides,  and 
pamphlets,  both  in  prose  and  verse,  recounting 
their  exploits  and  the  defeat  of  tneir  enemy. 
The  English  people  were  proportionately  roused 
and  excited.  A  large  number  of  new  and  large 
^ips  were  put  in  commission ;  2  regiments  of 
infantry  were  embarked  to  serve  as  marines ; 
and  in  February,  1658,  Blake  was  enabled 
to  take  the  sea  agaiiLat  the  head  of  above  70 
sail  On  Feb.  18,  van  Tromp,  having  gone 
down  to  the  isle  of  Bh6,  to  convoy  the  home- 
ward bound  fleet,  with  76  vessels  of  war,  made 
his  appearance  in  the  channel  with  800  mer- 
chantmen, when  Blake  intercepted  him  off 
Portland  island,  and  immediately  attacked, 
with  signals  for  the  closest  action  flying  at  all 
his  mast-heads.  From  morning  tiU  night  of  the 
flrst  day,  the  battie  rased  at  close  quarters. 
Blake  was  again  severely  wounded,  and  had 
1  of  his  ships  sunk ;  but  he  had  taken  6  of  the 
enemy  and  aisabled  many  more^  and  the  success 
of  the  day  was  his.  On  the  following  morning, 
at  daybreak,  the  action  was  renewed,  off  Wey- 
mouth, the  Dutch  admiral  interposing  bis  ships 


828 


BLAKE 


of  war  in  a  great  semioirde,  to  cover  the  eva* 
sion  of  his  convoy,  and  making  signal  to  his 
merchantmen  to  shift  for  themselves.  Again, 
daring  the  whole  day,  the  whole  width  of  the 
channel  was  filled  with  the  contending  fleets, 
and  the  rocks  of  the  Norman  coast  and  the  flat 
shores  of  Dorsetshire  and  Hampshire  were 
shaken  equally  hy  the  roar  of  the  rival  cannon 
of  the  2  powerful  and  rich  repnhlios.  The 
straggle  was  as  obstinate  as  on  the  previous 
day ;  but^  as  before,  the  success  leaned  to  the 
English  side.  On  the  8d  morning,  off  Boulogne, 
the  terrific  contest  recommenced,  and  again 
lasted  until  ni^ht,  when  the  Dutcn,  at  the  end 
of  a  long  rannmg  fight,  got  into  ehoal  water, 
and  succeeded  in  getting  their  merchant  ships 
and  their  sorely  shattered  vessels  under  cover 
of  the  dangerous  shoals  and  sand-banks  which 

C  their  coasts,  and  bar  the  mouths  of  their 
rivers.  They  lost  17  men  of  war,  with 
2,000  men  killed  and  1,500  prisoners,  beside  60 
sail  of  their  convoys.  The  English  had  1  ship 
sunk,  but  none  taken,  and  lost  no  prisoners; 
their  shun  were  little  if  at  all  inferior  to  those 
of  the  Hollanders.  Van  Tromp  lost  no  honor, 
for  the  conduct  of  his  retreat  was  masterly,  and 
the  inferiority  of  his  ships  in  size  and  weight  of 
metal,  if  it  ultimately  favored  his  escape,  ac* 
counted  for  his  iuability  to  support  the  dose 
attack  of  the  English.  The  extraordinary  gal- 
lantry of  the  Dutch  defence  may  be  estimated 
by  the  fact  that  the  English  loss  in  this  action, 
of  men  killed  and  wounded,  was  greater  than  in 
the  annihilating  victory  of  Trafalgar,  where  26 
siul  of  the  line  were  utterly  destroyed  or  taken, 
with  20,000  prisoners,  at  a  loss  of  only  1,690 
English  killed  and  wounded.  The  real  loss  of 
the  Dutch,  however,  now  that  their  fieets  were 
shut  up  in  their  harbors,  consisted  in  the  anni- 
hilation of  their  fisheries,  and  the  ruin  of  their 
trade  by  the  Englieih  privateers,  which  took 
no  less  than  1,600  prizes,  and,  while  they  utterly 
closed  the  channel  to  their  trade,  infested  the 
north  sea^  and  made  even  the  Baltic  too  hot  to 
hold  them. — ^At  this  crisis  of  the  war,  the  long 
parliament  was  dissolved  by  Oromwell,  who 
assumed  the  absolute  government  of  the  realm, 
and  infused  fresh  vigor  into  the  conduct  of  the 
war.  It  was  now  that  Blake  displayed  his 
patriotism,  not  inferior  to  his  conduct  or  cour- 
age ;  for,  although  it  is  known  that  he  was  a 
stem  rq>ublican,  he  preserved  the  fleets,  by  his 
own  influence  with  the  men,  flrm  in  their  duty 
to  the  government  de  faeto^  telling  his  officers 
that  ^*  it  was  not  for  them  to  mind  state  aflbirSf 
but  to  keep  the  enemy  from  fooling  them.*^ 
Later  in  the  year,  the  contests  of  uie  fleets 
were  renewed  with  equal  furv»  eoual  obstinacy, 
and  the  same  result.  They  fought  again  2  ter- 
rible actions,  June  8  and  4,  1658,  each  of  one 
day^s  duration,  in  which  the  Hollanders  lost' 
20  ships,  and  were,  in  tlie  end,  compelled  to  re- 
tire into  shoal  water.  After  this  the  bad  health 
of  Blake  compelled  him  to  leave  the  sea,  and  he 
was  not  present  at  the  battle  of  July  29,  in 
which  the  Dutch  lost,  beside  sliips  and  men, 


their  great  admiral  Van  Tromp,  who  was  shot 
through  the  heart  by  a  musket-ball,  while  ani- 
mating his  men,  sword  in  hand,  to  the  attack. 
His  death  closed  the  stubborn  strife,  for  the 
Dutch  were  determined  by  it  to  make  snch  sub- 
mission as  would  secure  a  peace,  which  they 
were  enabled  to  do  on  terms  so  favorable  aa 
showed  the  war  in  itself  to  have  been  impolitic 
and  nearly  causeless.  In  fact,  it  was  waged  on 
both  sides  without  animosity,  with  litUe  ex- 
pectation of  advantage,  and  in  the  main,  h<mori$ 
catudf  for  the  empty  glory  of  being  called  sov- 
ereigns of  the  sea. — After  tlus,  Blake  was  reelect- 
ed by  his  old  constituents  for  Bridgewater,  and 
was  received  with  extraordinary  honor  by  Orom- 
well, who  little  cared  what  were  a  man's  abstract 
opinions,  and  still  less  whether  he  was  politically 
hostUe  to  himself  or  not,  so  long  as  he  did  his  daty 
to  the  government.  When  that  great  man  found 
it  necessary  to  make  a  demonstration  in  favor 
of  the  European  Protestants,  and  caused  it  to 
be  intimatea  to  the  pope  that,  under  certain 
contingencies,  his  Holiness  would  be  likely  to 
hear  the  sound  of  English  guns  in  the  YaticaxL 
Blake  was  the  person  whom  he  chose  to  uphola 
the  character  of  the  nation  in  the  Mediterranean, 
as  he  had  already  done  in  the  narrow  seaa. 
He  brought  the  duke  of  Tuscany  to  terms ;  he 
forced  the  dey  of  Algiers  to  conclude  an  igno- 
minious peace,  and,  entering  the  harbor  of 
Tunis,  he  silenced  tiie  casties  which  defended 
it  with  hia  broadsides,  and  burned  evenr  diip 
within  the  defences  with  his  long  boats.  Sabae- 
quentiy,  war  being  declared  against  Spain,  in 
1656,  on  grounds  which  were  so  doubtfid  that 
many  officers  threw  up  their  commissions  rather 
than  obey,  he  took  the  view  that  it  is  always  a 
soldier's  or  a  sailor's  duty  to  obey  his  orders,  not 
question  them,  and  performed  his  most  splen- 
did exploits  in  capturing  2  Spanish  silver  fleets 
of  gaUeons ;  the  latter  of  which  he  cut  out  from 
under  the  casties  and  forts  of  Teneriffe,  where 
Nelson  himself  met  the  only  considerable  re- 
verse which  ever  befell  his  arms.  Shortiy  after- 
ward he  died  of  scurvy,  just  as  his  victorioua 
fleet  was  entering  Plymouth  sound.  His  body 
was  buried  in  King  Henry  YH.'s  ch]4>el,  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  but  on  the  restoration  his 
ashes  were  removed. 

BLASE,  WiLUAM,  an  English  artist  and 
poet,  bom  in  London,  Nov.  28, 1757,  died  Ang; 
12,  1828.  He  was  apprenticed  to  an  en- 
graver, and  before  he  was  20,  had  composed 
some  70  pages  of  verse,  consisting  of  stmgs,  baL 
lads,  and  a  drama,  which  were  published  in 
1787,  at  the  instance,  and  partiy  at  the  expense^ 
of  John  Flaxman,  the  sculptor.  The  structore 
of  these  verses  was  often  defective ;  but  they 
abounded  in  pleasant  melody,  and  fine  poetic 
thought  He  studied  design  for  a  time  under 
Flaxman  and  Fuseli.  In  1793  he  married  a 
most  estimable  woman,  Eatherine  Boutcher, 
and  commenced  business  as  an  engraver.  He 
wrote  songs,  composed  music,  and  painted  at 
the  same  time ;  but  in  the  excitement  of  his 
labors,  he  began  to  conceive  that  he  was  un- 


BLAIi% 


BLAKELY 


829 


der  fpiritofll  inflnenoes;  and  as  external  pros- 
perity iras  wanting,  be  grew  more  and  more 
abstracted  and  retired,  until  tbe  visionary  ten- 
dendee  of  bis  nature  dominated  bis  life,  .^ong 
bia  friends  be  gave  oat  tbat  tbe  works  on  wbicb 
be  was  engaged  were  copied  from  great  works 
rerealed  to  Mm,  and  that  bis  lessons  in  art  were 
given  him  by  celestial  tongues.  An  original 
and  beantiM  method  of  engraving  and  tinting 
his  plates  be  ascribed  to  tbe  dead  brother  of  bU 
wife,  Robert  He  conversed  familiarlv  with  tbe 
^iritB  of  Homer,  Moses,  Pindar,  Pante,  Sir 
William  Wallace,  Milton,  and  other  illustrious 
dead,  and  sometimes  be  wrangled  with  demons. 
Tet  he  continued  to  pursue  his  art  with  assiduity, 
bis  wife  ever  sitting  by  bis  side,  or  assisting  him 
at  the  press.  His  earliest  work  was  called^^  The 
Songs  of  Innocence  and  of  Experience ;''  it  was 
published  in  1789.  with  65  etched  illustrations. 
The  next  was  ''The  Gates  of  Paradise,"  in  Id 
small  designs,  somewhat  mystical  in  character. 
In  1794  there  followed  "  Ulrizen,"  consisting  of 
27  singnlar  but  powerful  drawings,  which  dis- 
doeed  the  mysteries  of  belL  He  was  after- 
ward employed  to  make  margmal  illustrations 
to  Yonng^s  ''  Night  Thoughts ;"  and  in  1800  he 
removed  to  Felpham,  in  Sussex,  to  make  designs 
for  Hay  ley 's  "  Life  of  Oowper."  He  wrote  from 
his  cottage  there  to  flaxman,  addressing  him  as 
'^Dear  Sculptor  of  £temity,''  and  saying,  in  bis 
stnnge  wild  way,  *^  In  my  brain  are  studies  and 
chambers  filled  with  books  and  pictures  of  old, 
which  I  vnvte  and  painted  in  ages  of  eternity, 
before  my  mortal  life ;  and  these  works  ore  the 
ddight  and  study  of  archangels."  After  re« 
torning  to  I/mdon,  be  published  "Jerusalem," 
a  series  of  about  100  strange  designs ;  12  de- 
signs to  Blair's  ** Grave ;"  12  "Inventions" 
a£d  a  water-color  painting  of  "The  Oanter- 
bary  Pilgrims."  In  1809  be  made  an  exhibi- 
tion of  this  and  other  works.  His  best  produc- 
tion was  tiie  '*  Inventions  for  the  Book  of  Job," 
eooaisting  of  21  illustrations.  For  the  greater 
part  of  bis  life  he  "lived  in  a  garret,  on  crusts 
of  bread.*^  He  died  with  bis  pencil  in  band, 
making  a  likeness  of  his  wife,  and  chanting 
pleasant  songs. 

BLAKE,  WiLUAM  RxnTUB,  an  American  actor, 
bom  in  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  in  1806.  His 
first  appearance  on  tbe  American  stage  was  at 
the  old  Chatham  theatre,  New  York,  under  the 
management  of  Mr.  Barrere,  in  1824  as  Frede- 
ric, in  the  "Poor  Gentleman,"  and  in  Ellis- 
ton'a  favorite  character  in  tbe  "  Three  Smgles." 
His  sttocesB  was  great;  and  he  now  stands  at  the 
bead  of  bis  profession.  His  Jesse  Rural,  in  "  Old 
Heads  and  Young  Hearts,"  is  pathetic  and  touch- 
ing to  a  great  degree,  bringing  domestic  comedy 
to  tbe  very  frontier  of  trade  feeling  itself.  Mr. 
Blake,  who  is  well  educated,  is  a  fluent  and  effi9ct« 
ive  speaker.  He  has  been  stage  manager  of  the 
Tremont  theatre,  Boston,  Joint  manager  of  tbe 
Walnut  street  theatre,  Philadelphia,  and  stage 
manager  of  the  Broadway  theatre,  New  York. 

BLAKELY,  Johnstok,  a  master  and  com- 
mander in  the  U.  S.  navy,  born  in  Ireland,  Oct 


1781,  and  while  very  young  brought  to  tbe  Unit- 
ed States  by  his  parents,  who  established  them- 
selves in  North  Carolina.  He  was  educated  in 
the  university  of  tbat  state,  and  entered  tbe  navy 
as  midshipman  in  1800.  In  1818  be  command- 
ed, as  lieutenant,  tbe  brig  Enterprise,  of  14 
guns,  in  which  vessel  be  cruised  very  actively 
upon  the  eastern  coast,  and  rendered  important 
services  in  the  protection  of  tbe  coasting  trade 
from  English  privateers.  In  August  of  that 
year  be  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  master- 
commandant  (this  title  is  now  altered  by  law 
to  commander),  and  appointed  to  the  new  sloop 
Wasp,  in  which  vessel  he  sailed  from  Ports- 
mouth, N.  H.,  on  a  cruise.  May  1,  1814.  June 
28,  in  lat.  48°  86'  N.,  long.  11°  15'  W.,  be  fell 
in  with,  and  captured,  after  an  engagement 
of  28  minutes,  H.  B.  M.  sloon  Reindeer,  Capt 
Manners,  of  18  241b.  carronaaes,  and  1  shifting 
gun,  and  a  complement  of  118  souls.  This  ac- 
tion was  a  very  severe  one,  and,  as  was  usual 
in  the  naval  combats  in  tbe  war  of  1812,  there 
was  a  manifest  superiority  of  gunnery  on  the 
American  side.  The  upper  works  of  tbe  Rein- 
deer were  completely  cut  to  pieces,  and  she  bad 
25  killed  and  42  wounded,  Oapt.  Manners 
among  tbe  former,  while  tbe  Wasp  was  bulled 
by  round  shot  but  6  times,  and  bad  5  killed  and 
22  wounded.  Tbe  Reindeer  made  8  attempts 
to  board,  which  were  repulsed  with  great 
steadiness.  In  tbe  last  attempt,  her  gallant 
commander  was  slain.  She  was  finally  boarded 
in  her  turn,  and  carried.  The  danger  of  re- 
capture being  great,  Gapt  Blakely  d^troyed 
bis  prize,  put  into  L^Orient  with  bis  prisoners, 
with  the  exception  of  a  portion  of  the  wounded, 
who  were  received  by  a  neutral  vessel  soon 
after  the  action.  The  Wasp  sailed  ftomL^Orient 
Aug.  27,  on  another  cruise,  and  immediatelv 
made  several  captures,  one  a  vessel  laden  with 
guns  and  military  stores,  which  was,  with  great 
address,  cut  out  of  a  convoy  in  charge  of  a  line- 
of-battle  ship.  On  tbe  evening  of  Sepi  1, 
while  running  free,  the  wind  blowing  fresh,  4 
sail  were  discovered,  2  on  each  bow,  and  the 
Wasp  hauled  up  for  the  most  weatherly  of 
them.  At  20  minutes  past  9  she  was  brought 
to  action,  which  continued  62  minutes,  when 
the  enemy  surrendered.  As  the  Wasp  was 
lowering  a  boat  to  take  possession,  8  other  ves- 
sels hove  in  sight  astern,  and  it  became  neces- 
sary to  abandon  the  prize.  One  of  these  ves- 
sels pursued,  and  fired  a  broadside  into  the 
Wasp,  and  then  Joined  the  ship  which  had  sur- 
rendered, being  called  to  hw  by  signals  of  dis- 
tress. It  was  forward  ascertained  that  this 
vessel  was  the  Avon,  Oapt.  Arbuthnot,  of  18 
821b.  carronades,  and  120  men,  and  that  her  loss 
was  from  80  to  50  in  killed  and  wounded, 
though  this  was  not  known  with  certainty. 
The  combat  was  very  close.  The  Wasp  bad 
but  2  men  killed,  and  1  wounded,  the  latter  by 
a  wad.  The  Avon  sunk  soon  after  the  engage- 
ment, and  the  lives  of  her  officers  and  men  were 
saved  with  d ifficulty .  The  vessel  which  pursued 
and  fired  upon  the  Wasp  was  tbe  Oastilian;  and 


880 


BLAKELT 


BLAKO 


one  of  tbe  other  vessels  in  sight  was  also  a  crniaer. 
Bat  littie  more  was  ever  known  of  the  Wasp. 
She  made  several  captures  after  her  engagement 
with  the  Avon,  wl\ichwere  destroyed;  and  on 
Sept.  21,  she  captnred  the  brig  Atalanta,  which 
being  vcdoable,  a  prize  crew  was  pnt  on  board 
her,  and  she  was  ordered  to  Savannah,  in  charge 
of  Midshipman,  now  Commodore,  Geisinger. 
She  arrived  safely,  and  brought  the  last  direct  in- 
telligence ever  receivedfrom  the  Wasp.  Several 
years  afterward,  it  was  shown  that  on  Oct.  9, 
1814,  nearly  50  days  after  the  captnre  of  the 
Atalanta,  e&e  was  spoken  by  a  Swedish  brig, 
and  received  from  her  3  American  naval  officers, 
Messrs.  McKnight  and  Lyman,  who  had  been 
captured  in  the  Essex,  exchanged,  and  were 
then  on  their  passage  to  England,  as  the  only 
means  of  reaching  the  United  States.  Vague 
rumors  as  to  her  fate  have  prevailed  from  time 
to  time.  One,  that  an  English  frigate  put  into 
Cadiz,  in  a  very  crippled  state,  and  reported 
that  she  had  engaged  and  snnk  an  American 
corvette.  Another,  that  she  was  lost  upon  the 
coast  of  Africa,  and  that  all  on  board  her  were 
captured  by  the  Arabs.  Another,  that  about 
the  time  her  arrival  upon  the  American  coast 
was  looked  for,  2  English  fiigates  chased  an 
American  sloop  of  war  off  the  southern  coast, 
and  that  in  a  violent  squall  which  struck  the  3 
ships,  the  sloop  suddenly  disappeared.  None 
of  these  rumors  were  ever  traoea  to  an  authentic 
source.  The  Wasp,  like  most  sloops  of  war  of 
that  day,  was  a  vessel  of  but  little  over  600 
tons,  heavily  armed  and  sparred,  and  very  deep 
waisted.  Such  ships  are  proverbially  unsafe, 
and  she  probably  foundered  in  a  gale.  Capt. 
Blakely  was  an  officer  of  great  merit.  He  was 
brave,  skilful,  and  modest,  and  had  he  lived, 
would  doubtless  have  risen  to  the  highest  pro- 
fessional distinction.  He  left  a  widow,  and  an 
infant  daughter,  who  was  educated  by  the  state 
of  North  Carolina* 

BLAKELY,  a  pleasant,  healthy  viQage,  port 
of  entry,  and  the  capital  of  Baldwin  co.,  Ala- 
bama, situated  on  the  Tensaw  river,  just  above 
its  entrance  into  MobUe  bay.  It  is  well  sup- 
plied with  water,  and  contains  the  county 
buildings,  some  handsome  dwellings,  and  nu- 
merous stores.  Its  harbor,  which  admits  ves- 
sels of  11  ft.  draught,  is  deeper  and  more 
easily  accessible  than  that  of  Mobile,  12  m.  S. 
W.,  and  it  was  thought  that  this  would  render 
it  a  great  commercial  rival  of  the  latter  city — an 
expectation  which  is  yet  unfulfilled. 

BLANC,  LE,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  de- 
partment of  Indre,  on  the  river  Creuse.  It  is 
a  very  andent  phice,  and  was  often  visited  by 
the  Roman  lemons.    Pop.  in  1856,  0,781. 

BLANC,  Mont.    See  Mokt  Blano. 

BLANC,  Jban  Joseph  Louis,  a  political  and 
historical  writer  of  France,  born  at  Madrid,  where 
his  father  held  the  office  of  inspector-general  of 
finance,  under  Joseph  Bonaparte,  Oct.  28, 1818. 
His  mother  was  a  Corsican,  and  the  sister  of 
the  celebrated  Pozzo  di  Borgo.  At  7  years  of 
age  he  was  sent  to  school  at  Bodez,  where  he 


pursued  his  studtes  for  10  years,  exhibiting  great 
capacity  for  learning,  and  unusual  ability.  He 
had  been  originally  designed  for  diplomatic  ser- 
vice, but  98  his  father  lost  his  fortune  in  the 
revolution  of  1880,  he  was  compelled  to  teach 
mathematics  to  earn  his  support.  In  1882  he 
became  tutor  to  a  private  fiimily  residing  at 
Arras,  and  while  there  wrote  several  articles 
for  a  local  journal,  which  attracted  attention. 
Bemoving  to  Paris  in  1884,  he  was  chosen  an 
editor  of  the  Ban  JSens,  a  periodical  of  con- 
siderable influence.  He  left  it  in  1888,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  dispute  with  the  proprietor  on  an 
important  question  of  pditical  economy.  The 
next  year  he  established  La  Beoue  du  JProgri», 
to  promote  the  combination  of  the  democratic 
associations,  and  to  further  the  cause  of  politi- 
cal reform.  A  treatise  on  the  ^  Oi^gamzation  of 
Labor"  came  ftom  his  pen  in  1840,  and  by  the 
spirit  and  eloquence  witn  which  it  was  written, 
gave  him  a  position  as  one  of  the  ablest  writers 
of  the  socialistic  school  in  Paris.  He  maintained 
in  it  that  industry,  in  its  present  unregulated 
and  competitive  state,  impoverishes  and  de* 
bases  tiie  working  classes,  and  that  it  oug^t  to 
be  organized  on  a  principle  of  community,  by 
which  each  should  contribute  according  to  his 
capabilities,  and  receive  according  to  his  wants. 
A  more  important  work,  issued  not  long  after* 
ward,  was  a  ^'History  of  Ten  Tears,'*  in  which 
the  political  inddents  of  the  period  fivm  1880 
to  1840  were  described  with  remarkable  anima- 
tion, sagacity,  and  effect.  The  work  inflicted  a 
dreadful  blow  upon  the  administration  of  Louia 
Philippe,  and  is  supposed  to  have  exerted  a 
great  influence  in  bringing  about  the  revcdn* 
tion  of  1848,  by  which  that  monarch  was  do* 
throned.  When  that  outbreak  came,  he  waa 
one  of  the  leadmff  spirits  of  it,  was  a  member 
of  the  provisionu  government  from  February 
to  May,  and  as  such  procured  the  adoption  of  a 
decree  abolishing  capital  punishment  tor  politi- 
cal offences.  He  also  contended  for  the  crea^ 
tion  of  a  ministry  of  progress,  and  not  being 
able  to  carry  that  measure,  withdrew  from  the 
government,  but,  at  the  request  of  his  colleagues, 
took  back  his  resignation,  and  became  the  pres- 
ident of  a  commission  to  consider  the  labor 
question,  which  held  its  sittings  at  the  Luxem- 
bourg, but  which  accomplished  nothing.  The 
foundation  of  the  so-called  national  workshopsi 
out  of  which  finally  grew  the  insurrectioik>  of 
June,  1848,  has  been  ascribed  to  him,  but  in 
fact  he  opposed  the  step ;  and  he  has  since  re- 
peatedly declared,  and  witiiout  any  authorita- 
tive contradiction,  that  they  were  founded  rather 
to  injure  than  illustrate  his  views  of  industri- 
al organization.  After  the  insurrection  of  June, 
he  was  accused  of  conspiracy  against  the  gov- 
ernment on  the  occasion  of  the  previous  rising 
of  May  16,  in  which  he  had  not  been  included, 
and  on  the  advice  of  his  fHends  went  into  vol- 
untary exile  in  England.  Before  that,  how- 
ever, he  had  commenced  a  *^  History  of  the 
French  Revolution,"  which  he  has  since  contin- 
ued.   It  is  a  work  of  great  research  and  vigor 


BLANOHABD 


881 


of  execution,  giving  the  sooialistio  view  of  the 
events  of  the  great  insorrection,  and  describinff 
characters  veith  a  rare  innght  into  motives,  and 
a  comprehensive  philosophy  of  cause  and  ^ect 
The  &8t  volome^  being  an  introduction  to  the 
rest,  is  the  most  striking  rSeumi  of  the  causes 
of  t^e  revolution,  both  public  and  private,  that 
has  perhaps  ever  been  written.  In  person, 
Louis  Blanc  is  so  diminutive  asto  have  the  look 
of  a  mere  boj,  but  his  bearing  is  grave,  digni* 
fied,  and  impressive. 

BLANOHABD,  Fbanqoib,  aeronaut,  bom  at 
Andelys^epartment  of  Euro,  France,  in  1788, 
died  in  Pans,  March  7,  1809.  He  was  distin* 
goisbed  from  his  youth  hj  his  mechanical  in- 
genuitj'.  The  invention  of  the  balloon  by  the 
brothers  Montgolfier,  in  1788,  greatly  interested 
him,  and  he  constructed  a  balloon  with  wings 
and  a  rodder,  in  which  he  ascended  in  March, 
1784.  Jan.  7, 1785,  he  crossed  the  British  chan- 
nel from  Dover  to  Clalais.  for  which  Louis  XVI. 
rewarded  him  with  a  gift  of  12,000  francs,  and 
a  life-pension  of  1,200  francs.  He  invented  a 
parachute,  to  break  the  &11  in  case  of  accident, 
and  first  used  it  in  London,  in  1785.  He  visited 
yarioiB  parts  of  £on>pe,  displaying  his  agro- 
nantio  skill,  and  sojourned  for  a  short  time  in 
Kew  York.  Betnming  to  France,  in  1798,  he 
ascended  from  Bouen  with  16  persons  in  a  large 
balloon,  and  descended  at  a  place  15  miles  dis- 
tant. In  1808,  while  making  his  66th  ascent, 
at  the  Hague,  he  had  an  apoplectic  stroke,  from 
the  effects  of  which  he  died  in  the  succeeding 
year. — ^Madame  Blanchard,  his  wife,  who  had 
partaken  of  his  dangerous  successes,  continued 
to  make  atrial  voyages ;  but  in  June,  1819,  hav- 
ing ascended  f^om  Tivoli,  in  Paris,  her  balloon 
took  fire,  at  a  considerable  height,  owing  to 
some  fireworks  which  she  carried  with  her,  and 
burnt)  while  the  hapless  aeronaut  was  dashed  to 
pieces  on  the  ground. 

BLAKOHABD,  Lahait,  an  English  author, 
bom  at  Great  Yarmouth,  May  15,  1808,  died 
at  London,  Feb.  15, 1845.  At  the  age  of  5  he 
was  removed  to  London,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated at  St  Olave's  school,  Southwark.  His  first 
ooounation  was  as  reader  in  a  printing-office, 
whidi  afforded  him  time  and  opportunity  for 
cultivating  his  literarr  tastes.  In  1827  he  was 
appointed  secretary  of  the  xoological  society,  in 
whioh  office  be  continued  until  1881,  when  he 
became  acting  editor  (under  Bulwer)  of  the 
"  New  Monthly  Magazine."  He  had  previously 
published  a  small  volume  of  poetry,  called  the 
^  Lyric  Offering."  Mr.  Blanchard^s  connection 
with  the  magazine  so  far  established  his  reputa- 
tion as  a  ready  writer,  with  aptitude  and  tact, 
that  he  successively  obtained  editorial  employ- 
ment on  the  "  True  Sun,"  "  Courier,"  "  Oonsti- 
tntional,"  ^^  Oourt  Journal,"  and  ^^  Fxaminer," 
beside  contributing  largely  to  periodicals  and 
annuals.  He  touched  on  a  great  varietv  of  sub- 
jectS)  in  prose  and  verse,  and  generally  with 
marked  abUity.  For  some  time  his  wife  had 
been  insane,  and  his  own  health  gave  way  under 
the  contemplation  of  her  affliotioD.    On  her 


death  his  mindlost  its  balance,  and  he  committed 
suicide.  It  was  alleged  that  pecuuiary  pressure 
was  a  proximate  cause  of  his  own  suffering, 
but  Mr.  Blanchard^  who  was  not  extravagant, 
always  had  a  sufficient  income  from  his  pen, 
and  at  his  death  was  not  only  sub-editor  of  the 
'^Examiner,"  but  acting  editor  of  ^^  Ainsworth's 
Magarine,"  and  well  paid  for  both.    He  was 

Sopular  with  literary  men,  from  his  amiable 
isposition  and  unaffected  manners.  His  ^  Es- 
says and  Sketches,"  collected  from  various  peri- 
odicals, were  published  for  the  benefit  of  his 
orphans,  in  8  volumes,  pre&ced  by  a  very  in- 
teresting biography  of  the  author,  by  Sir  Ed- 
ward Bulwer  Ly  tton. 

BLANOHABD,  Thomas,  an  American  me- 
chanic and  inventor,  bom  in  Sutton,  Worcester 
ca,  Mass.,  June  24^  1788*  From  a  strong  bias 
for  mechanical  employments,  he  joined  his 
brother,  who  was  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  tacks  by  hand,  a  very  slow  and  tedious  pro- 
cess, and  at  the  age  of  18  commenced  his  in- 
vention of  a  tack  machine.  It  was  six  years 
before  he  could  bring  it  to  the  desired  perfec* 
tion.  FLually,  so  effective  was  the  machine, 
that  by  placing  in  the  hopper  the  iron  to  be 
worked,  and  applying  the  motive  power,  500 
tacks  were  made  per  minute,  with  better  finish- 
ed heads  and  points  than  had  ever  been  made 
by  hand.  For  this  machine  Blanchard  secured 
the  patent,  and  sold  the  right  to  a  company  for 
$5,000.  About  this  time  various  attempts 
were  made  in  the  United  States  armories  at 
Springfield  and  Hiurper's  Ferry,  to  turn  musket 
barrel  with  a  uniform  externid  finish.  Blanch- 
ard undertook  *'  the  construction  of  a  lathe  to 
turn  the  whole  of  the  barrel^  from  end  to  end, 
by  the  combination  of  one  single  self-directing 
operation."  About  8  inches  of  the  barrel  at 
the  breech  was  partiy  cylindrical  and  partiy- 
witii  flat  sides ;  these  were  all  cut  by  the  same 
machine,  ingeniously  changing  to  a  vibrating 
motion  as  it  approached  the  breech.  A  knowl- 
edge of  tills  invention  came  to  the  superintend- 
ent of  the  Springfield  armory,  who  contracted 
with  Mr.  Blanchard  for  one  of  his  machines. 
While  it  was  in  operation,  one  of  the  workmen 
remarked  that  his  own  work  of  grinding  the 
barrels  was  done  away  with,  ^nother,  em- 
ployed on  the  wooden  stocks^  which  were  then 
aUmade  by  hand,  sud  that  Blanchard  could  not 
spoil  his  Job,  as  he  could  not  make  a  machine 
to  turn  a  gunstock.  Blanchard  answered  tliat 
he  was  not  sure,  but  he  would  think  about  it, 
and  as  he  was  driving  home  through  the  town 
of  Brimfield,  the  idea  of  his  lathe  for  turning 
irregular  forms  suddenly  struck  him.  In  his 
emotion  he  shouted,  '*  I  have  got  it,  I  have  got 
it!"  The  pruiciple  of  this  machine  is,  that 
forms  are  turned  by  a  pattern  the  exact  shape 
df  the  object  to  be  produced,  which  in  every 
part  of  it  IS  sucoessively  brought  in  contact  with 
a  small  friction  wheel ;  this  wheel  precisely  reg- 
uUtes  the  motion  of  chisels  arranged  upon  a 
cutting  wheel  acting  upon  the  rough  block,  so 
that  as  the  friction  wheel  successively  traverses 


882        BLANCHE  OF  BOURBON 


BLANCHE  OF  OAfiULE 


every  portion  of  the  rotating  pattern,  the  out- 
ting  wheel  pares  off  the  superabundant  wood 
from  end  to  end  of  the  block,  leaving  a  precise 
resemblance  of  the  model.    This  remarkable 
machine,  with  modifications  and  improvements, 
is  in  use  in  the  national  armories  as  well  as  in 
England,  and  in  various  forms  is  applied  to 
many  operations  in  making  musket  stocks,  such 
as  cutting  in  the  cavity  tor  the  lock,  barrel, 
ramrod,  butt  pktes,  and  mountings,  comprising, 
together  with  the  turning  of  the  stock  and  barrel, 
no  lees  than  18  different  machines.     Beside 
gunstocks,  it  is  also  applied  to  a  great  variety 
of  objects,  such  as  busts,  shoe  lasts,  handles, 
spokes,  &0.    Mr.  Blanchard  was  also  interested 
at  an  early  day  in  the  construction  of  railroads 
and  locomotives,  and  in  boats  so  contrived 
as  to  ascend  the  rapids  of  the  Connecticut,  and 
rivers  in  the  western  states.    He  has  taken  out 
no  less  than  24  patents  for  different  inventions. 
From  few  of  them,  however,  has  he  realized 
any  considerable  sums.    At  present  he  resides  in 
Boston,  engaged  in  the  bending  of  heavy  tim- 
bers by  some  new  and  as  yet  unrevealed  process. 
BLANCHE  OF  Boubbon,  queen  of  Castile, 
bom  in  France  about    1838,  died   in   Spain 
in  1861.    When  15  she  was  betrothed  to  bon 
Pedro  IV.  of  Castile,  afterward   called  the 
Cruel.    He  was  already  controlled  by  his  love 
for  Maria  Padilla,  and  reluctantly  consented 
to  the  performance  of  a  purely  political  mar- 
riage.   The  ceremony  took  place  June  8,  1858, 
at  Yalladolid,  when  the  king  did  not  even  take 
the  trouble  of  concealing  his  indifference,  not 
to  say  hb  hatred,  for  Uie  young  and  lovely 
bride.    Forty-eight  hours  later,  he  fled  from 
her  to  his  mistress.    Yielding  to  the  entreaties 
of  Maria,  who  wished  to  act  with  great  circum- 
spection, he  paid  a  visit  to  the  forsaken  wife : 
but  a  stay  of  2  days  in  the  same  palace  was  all 
that  his  impatience  could  endure.    He  then  left 
forever  the  unfortunate  queen,  who  was  sent 
a  prisoner  to  Tordesillas,  on  the  Douro.   Mean- 
while her  beauty,  sweetness  of  temper,  and  the 
harsh  treatment  of  her  husband,  awoke  the 
sympathy  of  the  people,  which  was  evinced  on 
the  occasion  of  her  removal  to  the  Alcazar  of 
Toledo.    On  her  way  thither  she  was  allowed 
to  enter  the  cathedral  to  say  her  prayers,  and 
the  inhabitants,  moved  by  pity  and  fearing  her 
life  was  in  danger,  rose  agamst  the  king's  ofil- 
oers.  and  declared  they  would  protect  her  at  the 
peril  of  thehr  lives.    The  city  therefore  made 
preparations  for  defence,  and  called  in   the 
king's  bastard  brothers,  who  were   then  in 
arms  against  Don  Pedro.    The  rebelcL  in  the 
hope  that  the  queen's  popularity  would  serve 
theur  cause,  proclaimed  themselves  her  cham- 
pions, but  do  not  seem  to  have  car^  much 
for  her  safety.    The  inhabitants  of  Toledo  were 
more  faithAil ;  unfortunately,  they  were  unable 
to  resist  the  troops  of  Don  Pedro,  who  took  the 
city  hv  storm.    His  wife,  now  again  a  prisoner, 
he  remsed  to  see,  but  ordered  her  to  the  castle 
of  Siguenza.  From  this  place  she  was  removed  to 
XerezdehiFrontera.  Bhe died  suddenly,  whether 


from  poison,  as  was  then  generally  believed,  or  in 
consequence  of  her  sorrows  and  long  imprison- 
ment, it  is  difficult  to  decide.  The  news  of  her 
death  sent  a  thrill  of  pity  and  indignation 
through  France;  and  a  few  years  later,  when 
the  '^  great  companies."  under  Dn  Guesdin, 
marched  into  Spain  to  help  Henry  Trastamare 
against  Don  Pedro,  many  a  Imight  engaged  in 
the  war  merely  for  the  purpose  of  avenging  the 
unhappy  Blanche. 

BLANCHE  or  Castilb,  queen  of  France, 
bom  in  1187,  died  Dec.  1,  1252.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Alfonso  IX.,  king  of  Castile,  by 
Eleonora  of  England,  sister  of  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted  and  John  Lackland.  By  the  treaty  of 
peace  concluded  in  1206,  between  John  and 
Philip  Augustus,  it  was  agreed  that  Bhmche 
should  marry  Louis,  heir«apparent  to  the  crown 
of  France ;  the  marriage  ceremony  was  conse- 
quently performed  in  &e  beginning  of  the  fbl* 
lowing  year.  Her  beauty  and  sweet  temper 
secured  at  once  Hie  affections  of  her  husband, 
while  her  good  sense,  energy,  and  prudence 
won  the  regard  of  her  fadier-in-Iaw,  who, 
shrewd  monarch  as  he  was,  frequently  took 
advice  from  the  young  princess.  She  conse- 
quently mingled  in  political  affinirs,  giving  re- 
feated  evidence  of  ooth  ability  and  decision, 
n  1216,  when  her  husband  was  called  to  Eng- 
land by  the  lords  confederated  a^nst  John, 
she  insisted  upon  his  accepting  their  offer;  she 
spared  no  exertion  to  help  him  in  this  bold  un- 
dertaking, and  sent  him  money  and  reinforce- 
ments. Undoubtedly,  if  the  English  crown 
could  have  been  won  by  good  management  and 
chivalrous  conduct,  the  young  couple  would 
have  been  successful ;  but  John  being  dead,  the 
lords  returned  to  their  allegiance  to  his  son.  Lou- 
is saw  himself  deserted  by  his  former  adherents, 
and  a  fleet,  despatched  by  Blanche,  having  been 
defeated  off  Dover^  Aug.  24, 1217,  no  alternative 
was  left  to  him  but  to  return  to  France.  His  wife 
consoled  him  in  his  defeat,  and,  18  months  later, 
encouraged  him  in  a  crusade  against  the  Albi- 
genses.  On  the  death  of  Philip  Augustus,  and 
the  accesdon  of  Louis  YIIL  to  the  throne,  she 
was  more  than  ever  the  inspiring  genius  of  her 
husband.  She  accompanied  him  in  his  new 
crusade  against  the  Albigenses,  and  received 
from  him,  on  his  death-bed,  at  Montpensier, 
the  guardianship  of  his  eldest  son,  afterward 
Louis  IX.  The  attention  given  by  Blanche  to 
politics  had  never  interfered  with  the  motheriy 
care  she  bestowed  on  her  children,  and  the  new 
king,  then  a  pious  and  good-natured  boy,  evinced 
in  after  life  all  the  virtues  of  a  hero  and  a  saints 
Through  her  title  of  guardian,  she  at  <Hice  aa- 
sumed  the  regency,  and  ruled  with  such  ability 
that  she  overcame  all  the  difficulties  fringing 
from  the  ambitious  schemes  of  insubordinate 
vassals.  A  formidable  league  had  been  formed 
in  the  north  of  France,  claiming  the  regency 
for  young  Philip  Hurepel,  a  son  of  Philip  Au- 
gustus by  Agnes  de  Meranie.  Among  the 
number  was  Thibault  IV.,  count  of  Cham- 
pagne, said  to  be  in  love  with  the  queen ;  she 


BLAND 


BLANDRATA 


8S3 


M>  adroitly  used  her  inflneDoe  over  the  mind, 
and  perliai>s  the  heart  of  her  alleged  lover,  that 
she  made  him  the  stanohest  supporter  of  her 
son.  She  was  thns  enabled,  after  a  sftrnggle  of 
nearly  4  yean,  to  defeat  the  confederates. 
Meanwhile  ahe  had  secnred  to  the  crown  the 
rioh  inheritance  of  the  oonnts  of  Tonlonse,  by  a 
treaty  signed  at  Paris  in  1229 ;  she  then  forced 
to  snomiBsion  the  nnmly  dnke  of  Brittany,  and 
helped  her  friend,  the  connt  of  Champagne,  in 
taiang  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Navarre. 
In  1284  she  married  her  beloved  son,  then  19 
vears  old.  to  Margnerite  of  Provence,  who  was 
but  12,  tiins  paviDg  the  way  for  the  ultimate 
reunion  of  that  beautiful  country  with  France. 
When,  in  1286,  she  resigned  her  power  into  the 
hands  of  Louis  IX.,  the  kingdom  was  in  a  flour- 
iabmg  condition,  and  had  received  many  im^r- 
tant  territorial  aoclsaons.  The  young  kmg, 
who  entertained  for  his  mother  the  tenderest 
love  and  deepest  respect,  could  not  but  be  sen- 
sible of  her  great  services,  and  retained  her 
near  him  as  his  best  and  constant  adviser.  But 
with  all  his  condescension  to  her  wisdom,  he 
had  a  will  of  his  own,  as  was  evidenced  by  his 
engaging,  against  all  her  remonstrances  and  en- 
treaties, in  a  crusade  to  the  Holy  Land.  She 
wept  bitterly  on  their  parting,  as  if  she  felt 
that  they  were  not  to  meet  again.  She  now 
resumed  the  duties  of  regent,  and  displayed  her 
wonted  ability  among  the  new  difficulties  she 
had  to  encounter.  The  defeat  and  captivity  of 
her  son  in  Egypt  was  a  bitter  grief  to  her: 
while  the  necessity  of  paying  his  ransom,  ana 
eendmg  liim  money  for  his  journey  to  Palestine, 
obliged  her,  however  reluctant,  to  lay  heavy 
taxes  upon  the  i>eople.  She  had  beside  to  sup- 
press, by  somewhat  cruel  measures,  the  revolt 
of  the  poor  F(utaur€aux^  which  was  also  a 
severe  trial  to  her  feelinffs.  Notwithstanding 
her  piety,  she  kept  free  from  the  sway  of  the 
clergy,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  restrain  the  en- 
croaohmenta  of  that  powerful  body.  Her 
death  caused  universal  mourning. 

BLAND,  Jomr,  a  martyr  in  the  reign  of 
queen  Mary,  burned  at  Oanterbury,  July  12, 
1655,  with  another  clergyman  and  2  laymen, 
boldly  admitting  the  chiu^es  made  against  him 
of  denying  the  corporal  presence,  the  propriety 
of  celebrating  the  sacrament  in  an  unlmown 
tongue,  and  in  one  kind  only  to  laymen. 

BLAND,  OoL.  Thbodobio,  a  Virginia  pa- 
triot, was  bom  in  Prince  George  county,  Ya.,  in 
1742,  died  in  New  York,  June  1, 1790.  Throuffh 
his  grandmother,  Jane  Bolfe.  he  was  fourth  m 
descent  from  Pocahontas.  At  an  early  age  he 
was  sent  to  England,  where,  at  Wakefield,  the 
scene  of  Goldsmith^s  **  Vicar,"  and  afterward 
at  Edinburgh,  he  pursued  his  academical  and 
medical  studies  with  success.  Together  with 
Drs.  Lee,  Field,  Blair, ,  Gilmer,  and  Bank- 
head,  his  fellow-students,  he  drew  up  a 
petition  to  the  Virginia  house  of  burgesses,  to 
enact  a  law  forbidding  any  person  to  practise 
medicine  in  the  colony  without  a  proper  license. 
Soon  afterward,  in  1764  oc  '65.  Dr.  Bland  re- 


turned to  Virginia,  and,  marrying  Miss  Danger- 
field,  of  the  *'  Northern  Neck,''  commenced  the 
practice  of  his  profession,  which  he  assiduously 
pursued  to  the  opening  of  the  revolution. 
Abandoning  medicine,  he  at  once  enlisted  in  the 
contest,  in  all  the  struggles  of  which  he  bore  an 
active  and  prominent  part.  He  was  one  of  a  score 
of  gentlemen  who  removed  from  Lord  Dun- 
more's  palace  the  arms  and  ammunition  which 
that  nobleman  had  abstracted  from  the  public 
arsenal ;  and  soon  afterward  he  published  a  series 
of  bitterly  indignant  letters  against  the  governor, 
under  the  signature  of  "Cassius,"  in  which  his 
excellency  was  charged  with  "  giving  currency 
to  lies,"  holding  ^'  lewd  and  nightly  orgies  with 
negroes  in  his  palace,"  and  oppressing  the  colo- 
ny generally.  GoL  Bland  was  made  captain  of 
the  first  troop  of  Virginia  cavalry,  but  when  6 
companies  were  enrolled,  became  lieutenant- 
colonel,  with  which  rank  he  Joined  the  main 
army  in  1777.  With  the  exception  of  a  single 
term  in  the  senate  of  Virginia,  he  remained  in 
military  service  to  the  end  of  the  war,  eojoying 
the  high  esteem  and  confidence  of  Washington, 
who  frequently  employed  him  in  responsible 
afiOEdrs.  Among  other  trusts  confided  to  him, 
was  the  command  of  the  prisoners  taken  at 
Saratoga,  when  they  were  marched  to  Gharr 
lottesTille,  Va.  Upon  the  termination  of  the  rev- 
olutionary contest,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  general  congress,  which  then  sat  at  Phila- 
delphia. Here  his  mansion  was  the  resort  of 
Washington,  Lafayette,  M.  de  Noailles,  H.  de 
Dumas,  and  many  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  epoch.  He  continued  in  congre98 
until  1788,  when  he  returned  to  Virginia.  He 
was  elected  a  member  of  the  convention  of  1788 
to  ratify  the  federal  constitution,  against  which 
he  voted,  but  was  chosen  as  the  first  repre- 
sentative to  congress  under  that  instrument. 
He  died  at  New  York,  where  that  body  was 
then  sitting,  at  the  age  of  48.  Dr.  Bland  was 
greatly  prized  for  his  sodal  accomplishments, 
which  set  off  an  elegant  and  imposing  person. 
He  was  tall,  his  countenance  noble,  his  man- 
ners dimified  and  frdl  of  well-bred  repose.  In 
his  public  and  private  character,  all  his  actions 
were  characterized  by  rigid  integrity,  and  un- 
faltering devotion  to  principle  and  duty. 

BLANDRATA,  Gioboio,  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  Unitarianism  in  Poland  and  Transylvania, 
bom  in  the  marquisate  of  Saluzzo,  in  Redmont, 
in  the  first  part  of  the  16th  century,  died  about 
1590.  A  physician  by  profession,  he  united 
great  talent  with  great  personal  advantages, 
which  endeared  him  to  a  numerous  circle  of 
friends  at  Pavia,  where  he  resided  for  some 
time.  Having  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the 
reformation,  he  retired  to  Geneva,  but  having 
manifested  anti-Trinitarian  opinions,  he  soon 
found  the  religious  atmosphere  of  Switzerland 
equally  uncongenial,  and  first  repaired  to  Ger- 
many and  subsequently  to  Poland.  Notwith- 
standing the  admonition  of  Calvin,  he  was  re- 
ceived with  distinction,  and  gained  such  credit 
among  the  Protestants  of  Poland,  that  he  was 


834 


BLANE 


BLANK  VERSE 


elected  one  of  the  saperintendents  of  the  Hel- 
yetian  churches  of  Little  Poland.  This  gave 
him  great  facilities  for  spreading  his  opinions, 
and  the  reformed  ohnrches  of  Poland  seemed 
to  be  in  the  waj  of  being  wholly  pervaded  by 
the  fast  spreading  anti-Xrinitarianism.  More 
cautions  than  Btancor,  and  other  religions  re- 
formers, he  faiffned  to  subscribe  to  the  Galvinist 
creecL  and  made  an  apology  for  his  belief  at  the 
synod  of  Xionz.  In  rain  were  all  the  endeav- 
ors of  Calvin  to  expose  the  insincerity  of  his 
professions.  The  Italian,  instead  of  being  con- 
sidered as  a  heretic,  found  many  followers  among 
the  most  eminent  personages,  and  among  others, 
Prince  Radziwil,  who  appointed  him  as  his 
plenipotentiary  to  the  s^nod  of  Pinczow  in 
1561.  Having  accepted  the  place  of  physician 
to  John  Sigismund,  prince  of  Transylvania, 
in  1568,  Gregorins  Pauli,  of  Brzeziny,  became 
his  successor  in  Poland,  and  gave  to  the  anti« 
Trinitarian  doctrines  a  more  complete  develop- 
ment, while  Blandrata  now  aimea  at  propagat- 
ing his  views  in  Transylvania.  He  succeeded 
in  causing  the  prince  and  the  court  to  embrace 
his  doctrines,  and  at  a  diet  held  in  1671  at 
Maros-Vafiarhely,  Unitarianism  was  legally  re- 
cognized as  one  of  the  religions  of  Uie  land. 
This  took  place  after  a  public  disputation  which 
he  had  held,  in  conjunction  with  Davidis,  a  cele- 
brated Unitarian  divine,  against  the  Lutheran 
ministers  at  Weissenburg,  and  which  lasted  10 
days.  After  the  death  of  John  Sigismund,  he 
returned  to  Poland,  and  was  physician  to  Ste- 
phan  and  Ohnstopher  Bathori,  the  rank  of 
privy  councillor  being  conferred  upon  him  after 
Stephanas  accession  to  the  throne  of  Poland. 
The  Bathoria^  although  not  peculiarly  favorable 
to  Unitarianism,  were  unable  to  prevent  the 
growth  of  the  new  doctrines.  The  denomina- 
tion increased  in  power  and  influence  all  over 
the  oounlry,  and  especially  numerous  were  the 
congregations  in  the  Truisylvanian  towns  of 
Weissenburg  and  Sllaasenburg.  The  rights  and 
privileges  which  the  Transylvanian  Unita- 
rians enjoy  at  the  present  day,  are  thus  all  to 
be  traced  to  the  seed  sown  by  Blandrata  and 
his  fellow-laborers.  Blandrata,  however,  seems 
to  have  been  swayed  by  worldly  consid- 
erations in  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  and  to  the 
great  consternation  of  his  friend  Faustus  Soci- 
nus,  and  of  the  other  adherents  of  his  church, 
he  endeavored  to  ingratiate  himself  with  King 
Stephan,  and  to  augment  his  fortunes  by  aban- 
doning his  former  religious  grounds.  He  finally 
met  with  a  violent  death  from  the  hand  of 
hi^  own  nq>hew,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
been  instigated  by  mercenary  motives,  as  he 
was  afi:iiid  lest  die  religious  differences  be- 
tween him  Bnd  his  'uncle  might  alienate  from 
him  the  latter^s  large  {voperty,  which  he  con- 
sidered himself  entitled  to  inherit  Henke 
published  in  1795,  G.  JBlandratm  ea^fessio  AnH» 
trinitaria  ^usque  cortfaUUio^  auctors  MaWiia 

BLANE,  Sib  Gilbert,  an  English  physician, 
born  in  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  Aug.  29,  1749, 


died  June  26, 1834.  Throni^  the  reoommeD* 
dation  of  Dr.  Wm.  Hunter,  of  London,  he  became 
private  physician,  first  to  Lord  Holdemease,  and 
then  to  Admiral  Lord  Rodney,  who,  for  his  gal- 
lant conduct  during  an  engagement,  made  him 
physician  to  the  fleet.  In  1783  he  received  a 
pension  from  the  crown,  and  published  **  OlMser- 
vations  on  the  Diseases  of  Seamen.**  In  the 
West  Indies  he  obtained  the  friendship  of 
Prince  William  Henry  (afterward  William  IV.), 
then  a  midshipman  nnder  Lord  Bodney,  and 
this  greatly  advanced  him  in  his  professional 
cai*cer,  obtaining  him  large  private  practiee, 
and  the  presidency  of  the  naval  medical  board. 
He  wrote  a  variety  of  tracts  and  pamphlets  on 
medical  subjects,  and  on  the  best  i^ode  of  pre- 
serving public  health.  In  1812  he  was  made  a 
baronet. 

BLANGINI,  GniBEPFE  Mabco  Mabia  Feuob» 
a  musical  composer,  was  bom  in  Turin  in  1781, 
and  died  in  Paris,  Deo.  1841.  At  12  he  was 
organist  of  the  cathedral  in  that  city,  and  at  14 
led  a  mass  with  a  full  orchestra.  He  went  to 
Paris  in  1799,  and  was  for  several  years  a  suc- 
cessful composer  of  opera  there.  His  famOi 
however,  rests  chiefly  on  his  smaller  pieces, 
which  were  received  with  much  favor,  especi- 
ally in  Germany,  where  he  officiated  for  some 
time  as  chapelmaster  at  the  courts  of  the 
elector  of  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  and  of  the 
king  of  Westphalia. 

BLANK  VERSE,  verse  without  rhyme  or 
the  consonance  of  final  syllables.  All  the  Grreetk 
and  Latin  verse  is  of  tiiis  species.  Ehyme  waa 
the  native  growth  of  the  heroic  and  primitiv^e 
literature  of  the  northern  barbarians.  During 
the  dark  ages  not  only  did  rhyme  preserve  its 
monopoly  over  the  vernacular  languages  of 
Europe,  but  even  intruded  itself  into  the  Latin. 
Gonsalvo  Perez,  a  Spaniard,  the  secretary  of 
state  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  and  afterward 
to  Philip  II.,  brought  blank  verse  into  Euro- 
pean notice  by  tran^ating  Homer^s  "  Odyssey  " 
into  the  Spanish  with  that  metre.  FeUoe 
Figliucci,  in  his  Italian  commentary  on  the 
ethics  of  Aristotle,  published  1651,  dedaims 
against  the  Gothio  barbarity  of  rhyme,  says 
that  it  is  unworthy  of  the  favor  of  a  son  of 
Italy,  and  puts  his  precepts  into  practice  by 
trandating  the  quotations  from  Euripides  and 
Homer  which  are  found  in  Aristotle  into  Italian 
verse  without  rhyme.  In  1647  and  1548, 
Trissino  published  his  Italia  Lib&rata  di  QaUy 
in  blank  verse.  Tet  from  the  nature  of  the 
language,  and  inasmuch  as  Dante  and  the  great 
Italian  poets  of  the  middle  ages  had  all  used 
rhyme,  Italy  has  not  been  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  a  blank  verse  literature.  Trissino 
is  generally  recognized  as  the  introducer  of 
bluik  verse  into  tiie  modem  Italian,  and  it  is 
sdd  composed  the  tragedy  of  SofonMa  as 
early  as  1524.  In  the  Frendh  language  Jodelle 
and  De  Bai^  who  lived  in  the  second  quarter  of 
the  16th  century,  composed  in  blank  verse. 
Nicholas  Rapin,  who  lived  at  the  end  of  the 
16th  century,  was  a  fanatical  worshipper  of 


BLAUKENBtJBG 


BLANQUI 


335 


blank  rerse.  He  dedared  that  it  vas  his  wish 
to  extirpate  rhyme.  De  la  Motte  le  Yayer  in 
the  age  of  Lonia  XIV.  wrote  in  it,  but  gen- 
erally speaking  the  French  ear  abhors  blank 
Terse.  The  first  English  blank  verse  was  the 
^  Fourth  Boke  of  Yirgill  intreeting  of  the  Lone 
betwene  J^eas  and  Dido ;  translated  into  £ng- 
liahe,  and  drawen  into  strannge  metre"  (Lond. 
1557),  by  Lord  Surrey.  This  book  must  have 
been  composed  more  than  10  years  previously, 
as  Lord  Surrey  was  executed  in  1547.  Nich- 
olas Grimalde  followed  Surrey  with  great  suc- 
cess. The  first  theatrical  piece  in  blank  verse 
was  Lord  Sackville's  tragedy  of  "  Gorboduc" 
(1561).  When  Shakespeare  began  to  write  his 
dramas,  the  popular  ear  had  grown  quite  famil- 
iar with  the  use  of  this  metre.  Blank  verse  did 
not  flourish  much  off  the  stage  in  Engli^  Uter- 
atore  until  Milton's  ^'Paradise  Lost"  (1667) 
vindicated  its  capabilities.  In  the  pre&oe  to  the 
second  edition  of  the  poem  Milton  says :  **  This 
neglect  of  rhyme  is  so  little  to  be  taken  for  a 
defidct^  though  it  may  seem  so  perhaps  to  vul- 
gar readers,  that  it  is  rather  to  be  esteemed  an 
example  set,  the  first  in  English,  of  ancient 
liberty  recovered  to  heroic  poem  from  the 
tronblesome  and  modem  bondage  of  rhyming. 
.  .  .  Some  both  Italian  and  Spanish  poets  of 
prime  note  have  rejected  rhyme  both  in  longer 
and  shorter  works,  as  have  also  long  since  our 
best  Englkh  tragedies."  Longfellow's  **  Evan- 
geline" is  x>erhap8  the  most  fovorable  example 
of  the  hexameter,  a  species  of  blank  verse 
to  which  the  English  language  does  not  take 
kindly.  The  Grerman,  of  all  the  languages 
of  modem  Europe,  admits  the  greatest  variety 
of  blank  verse  measures.  The  10  syllable  heroic 
pervades  the  dramas  of  Schiller  and  Goethe,  as 

Bio  Bchonen  Tage  von  Arai^aez ; 

but  in  Germany  not  one,  but  every  species  of 
ancient  Greek  and  Roman  metre  has  taken 
root.  The  phrase  blank  verse  is  of  English 
ori^n.  The  Italians  call  it  verm>  tcioih,  tliat  is, 
loosened  or  emancipated  verse.  The  oldest  ex- 
ample of  the  use  of  the  phrase  is  in  Shake- 
speare :  ^'  The  lady  shall  say  her  mind  freely,  or 
the  blank  verse  shall  halt  for  it." 

BLANKENBURG,  a  province  of  Branawick, 
in  Germray ;  area  178  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1857, 
22,479.  The  southern  part  of  it,  bordering  on 
the  Hartz  mountains,  contains  valuable  iron 
mines  and  marble  quarries.  Louis  XYIU.,  on 
his  flightfrom  Dillingen,  resorted  to  the  capital 
of  Blankenburg,  a  town  of  8,500  inhabitants, 
which  bean  the  same  name,  and  resided  there 
from  Aug.  24^  1796,  to  Feb.  10, 1798,  under  the 
name  of  Gomte  de  liUe. 

BLANQUI,  JicR6iCE  Adolfhb,  a  distinguish- 
ed political  economist  of  France,  born  at 
Nice,  Nov.  20.  1798,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  28, 
1854.  Hia  father,  Jean  Dominique,  formerly 
a  deputy  to  the  national  convention,  one  of  the 
78  imprisoned  in  1793,  for  protesting  against 
a  measure  of  the  Jacobins,  afterward  a  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  five  hundred,  and  a 


sub-prefsct  under  Napoleon,  devoted  much 
care  and  time  to  his  early  education.  He  was 
originally  destined  to  the  study  of  medicine,  but 
his  love  for  general  letters  caused  him  to  turn 
his  attention  to  other  pursuits.  For  a  while  he 
was  a  sub-professor  in  a  boarding-school,  when 
he  removed  to  Paris,  and  made  the  acquaintance 
of  Jean  Baptiste  Say,  then  a  renowned  teacher 
of  political  economy.  Through  him,  the  studies 
of  Blanqui  were  turned  in  the  direction  of  that 
subject,  and  he  made  it  the  pursuit  of  his  life. 
In  1826,  a  MesunU  of  the  history  of  commerce 
and  industrv  was  the  first  fruits  of  his  labors. 
It  was  speedily  followed  by  a  FrScia  Slemmtaire 
^economie  politique^  and  several  minor  pub* 
lications,  including  accounts  of  voyages  to  Eng- 
land and  to  Spain.  In  1880  he  was  chosen 
a  professor  in  the  special  school  of  conmierce, 
where  his  course  in  the  histoiy  of  commerce 
and  industrial  civilization  attracted  unusual  at- 
tention. When  Say  retired  from  hb  professor- 
ship in  the  eonseroatoire  de9  arts  et  metiers^ 
Blanqui  succeeded  to  his  place.  In  1837-42  he 
issued  his  most  important  work,  Histoire  de 
Veeonomie  poUtique  en  Europe  depui$  les 
anciens  juequ^d  nosiotirt,  which  was  a  succinct 
but  dear  and  intelligent  review  of  the  move- 
ments of  industry  from  the  earliest  time,  and 
of  the  teachings  of  the  great  writers  in  regard 
to  the  laws  of  trade.  The  peculiarities  of  the 
work  were,  that  the  author  did  not  begin  his 
history  with  Adam  Smith  or  the  old  French 
physiocrats,  as  if  the  ancients  were  wholly  ig- 
norant of  the  subject,  but  with  the  earliest 
nations  and  the  earliest  writers,  while  he  was 
also  sufficiently  comprehensive  to  recognize  the 
scientific  position  of  the  socialist  school  of 
speculators.  Attaching  himself  to  the  class  of 
tiiinkers  which  adopts  the  system  of  free  trade, 
he  was  yet  disposed  to  do  justice  to  thinkers  of 
another  class.  In  1846-''48,  Blanqui  sat  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  chamber  of  deputies  from  Bordeaux. 
At  the  industrial  congress  which  assembled  in 
Brussels,  during  the  year  1847,  his  discourses 
were  remarked  for  their  mingled  vivacity  and 
learning. — Louis  Auqustb,  a  socialistic  and 
revolutionary  agitator,  brother  of  the  preced- 
ing, bom  at  Nice  in  1805.  Early  initiated  in 
the  secret  societies  of  that  country,  he  strong- 
ly imbibed  the  communistio  and  republican 
doctrines,  which  he  has  made  it  the  business 
of  his  life,  to  assert  His  first  public  appear- 
ance was  after  the  elections  of  1827  in  Paris, 
when  the  royal  troops  fired  upon  the  populace 
in  order  to  quell  a  transient  political  diiBturb- 
ance,  and  Blanqui  was  among  the  wounded. 
In  1880,  while  yet  a  student  of  law,  he  took 
up  arms  on  the  popular  side,  against  the  rule 
of  Charles  X.,  and  for  his  bravery  and  spirit 
afterward  received  the  decoration  of  July. 
Under  the  government  of  Louis  Philippe,  be 
prosecuted  a  fervent  contest,  by  means  ot  pam- 
phlets and  articles  in  the  liberd  papers,  against 
the  bimrgeinsie,  or  trading  classes.  A  member 
of  the  club  called  la  eocUtS  dee  amis  du  peuplcy 
he  became  one  of  the  most  active  propagators 


886 


BLARNEY 


of  the  doctrines  which  led  to  the  revolution  of 
1848.  A  discourse  pronounced  before  this  so- 
cietj  in  1885  directed  the  attention  of  the  gov- 
emment  to  him,  when  he  was  arrested,  tried, 
and  sentenced  to  1  year's  imprisonment,  and  a 
fine  of  200  francs.  A  few  months  later,  being 
suspected  of  complicity  with  fleschi,  who  dis- 
charged the  infernal  machine  at  the  king,  he 
was  again  arrested,  sent  to  prison  for  2  years, 
and  fined  8,000  francs.  He  was  amnestied 
before  the  expiration  of  his  term,  although  a 
return  to  Paris  was  interdicted.  As  soon  as  he 
was  released,  he  began  the  organization  of  an 
immense  affiliated  association,  which,  under  the 
names  of  sociSte  de$  iaisons  and  lea  tncnr 
tagnardSj  renewed  the  anti-monarchical  pro- 
pagandism.  The  members  of  these  were  sup- 
posed to  amount  to  1,000,000  in  number. 
With  Barb^s  and  others,  he  attempted  a  revo- 
lution at  Paris,  in  May,  1889.  It  Mled,  and 
Blanqui  was  seized  and  condemned  to  death ;  but 
again  his  punishment  was  eommuted  to  perpetu- 
al imprisonment  The  revolution  of  Feb.  1848, 
freed  him  from  his  fetters,  and  he  became  a 
leader  of  the  people.  The  insurrection  of 
May  16  was  organized  by  him,  and,  at  the  head 
of  a  large  body  of  delegates,  he  marched  to 
the  hall  of  the  national  assembly,  to  inaugu- 
rate, if  possible,  a  more  effective  government ; 
but  he  was  overpowered  by  the  troops  under 
Ohangarnier,  placed  once  more  under  arrest, 
and,  upon  trial,  remanded  to  prison  for  10 
years. 

BLARNEY,  a  small  village  in  the  south  of 
Ireland,  4  miles  distant  from  the  city  of  Cork. 
Its  surrounding  scenery  is  beautiM,  but  it  is 
chiefly  visited  on  account  of  its  castle,  cele- 
brated in  song  and  legend.  This  antique  pile 
formerly  belonged  to  the  Mao  Carthy  family, 
until  forfeited,  in  1689,  by  Lord  Olancarty, 
when  it  was  purchased  by  an  ancestor  of  Mr. 
Jefireys,  the  present  owner.  It  stands  on  the 
north  side  of  a  precipitous  ridge  of  limestone 
rock,  rising  from  a  deep  valley,  and  part  of  its 
base  is  washed  by  a  small  and  beautiftdly  clear 
river  called  the  Aw-Martin.  Near  it  are  tiie 
famous  groves  of  Blarney — literally  a  thick 
shrubbery  of  large  laurel  trees.  Of  the  origi- 
nal fortress  there  remains  only  a  large,  square, 
massive  tower — a  sort  of  keep.  The  top  of  this 
is  surrounded  with  a  parape^  breast  high,  and 
on  the  summit  is  the  famous  stone,  which  is 
said  to  confer  on  the  person  kissing  it  the  pecu- 
liar property  of  saying  any  thing,  by  way  of 
coaxing,  compliment  or  praise,  most  agreeable  to 
the  hearer.  From  the  virtue  it  thus  communi- 
cates, the  well-known  word  blivney  is  derived. 
Various  are  the  traditions  respecting  the  origin 
of  this  term.  The  most  plausible  (related  by 
Crofton  Groker)  declares  tiiat  in  1602,  when 
the  Spaniards  were  exciting  the  Irish  chieftains 
to  harass  the  English  authorities^  Oormac  Mc* 
Dermod  Carty  held,  among  other  dependencies, 
the  oastie  of  Blarney,  and  had  concluded  an  ar- 
mistice ¥rith  the  lord  president,  on  condition  of 
surrendering  this  fort  to  an  Kngiji^T^  garrison. 


Day  after  day  did  his  lordship  look  for  the  ful- 
filment of  this  compact,  while  the  Irish  chief 
continually  put  him  off  with  soft  promises  and 
delusive  delays,  until,  at  last,  the  lord  president 
became  the  laughing-stock  of  Queen  EHzabeth's 
ministers,  and  Blarney  talk  proverbial.  In 
the  '^Prout  Papers"  is  an  amusing  attempt  to 
show  that  the  Blarney  stone  (described  as  ^  the 
palladium  of  Ireland'')  was  originally  brought 
over  by  the  Phosnician  colony  who  are  said  to 
have  peopled  that  island,  and  that,  indeed,  the 
inhabitants  of  Tyre  and  Oarthage,  who  long  were 
its  custodians,  made  great  use  of  the  privilege, 
as  the  proverbs,  Punica  fdea^  Tyrioaque  JnUn- 
gnefy  clearly  testify;  that  a  body  of  Cartha- 
ginian adventurers  stole  away  the  stone  to  Mi- 
norca (where  Port  Mahon  was  settied  by  the 
clan  of  the  O'Mahonys),  and  afterward,  driven 
into  Cork  harbor,  deposited  the  treasure  in  the 
present  spot,  and  the  shadiest  ^groves  of  its  vi- 
cinity; and  that  the  famous  song,  '^  The  Groves 
of  Blarney,"  instead  of  being  an  original  compo- 
sition, was  translated  from  the  Greek  I  The  ao- 
tnal  Blarney  stone  is  not  the  one  commonly  sa- 
luted as  such,  but  is  said  to  form  part  of  the  wall 
aeverol  feet  below  its  representative,  and  only 
to  be  touched  by  the  lips  by  the  person  being 
held  over  the  parapet  by  the  heels— an  opera- 
tion so  dangerous  and  unpleasant  as  rarely  to 
be  resorted  to.  It  is  believed,  in  Ireland,  that 
a  shot  from  one  of  Cromwell's  cannon  loosened 
the  stone;  but  it  is  doubtfal whether  CromweU 
ever  visited  Blarney,  and  it  was  Lord  Broghill 
who  became  master  of  the  casde  in  1646.  Mr. 
Richard  Alfred  lHUiken,  a  poetical  lawyer  of 
Cork,  being  struck  with  the  amusing  extrava- 
gance of  some  doggerel  rhymes  composed  by  an 
itinerant  cobbler,  in  favor  of  Castie  Hyde,  near 
Fermoy— -in  which  he  spoke  of 

The  trout  and  the  ealmoa 


A-plAving  beckgunmon, 
AU  by  the  baoke  of  tweet  Ctetle  Hyd*- 

wrote  "  The  Groves  of  Blarney,"  as  a  burlesque, 
in  the  saAe  metre,  about  the  year  1798  or  1799. 
In  the  following  year  it  was  heard,  at  Cork,  by 
the  late  Mr.-  Mathews,  the  comedian,  who  sang 
it  frequentiy  at  private  parties.  It  was  after- 
ward sung  on  the  stage,  and  by  none  more  ef- 
fectively than  the  late  Tyrone  Power.  Pecu- 
liar suavity  of  speech  is  the  presumed  virtue 
derived  from  kissing  the  Blarney  stone.  What 
is  called  impudenee  is  said  to  be  bestowed 
(when  not  naturally  and  nationally  inherited) 
by  a  dip  in  the  river  Shannon,  a  ceremony 
probably  traceable  to  the  dipping  of  Achilles  in 
the  Styx.  Among  the  many  pilgrimages  to 
Blarney,  none  was  more  memorable  than  that 
of  Sir  Walter  Scott  (accompanied  by  his  daugh- 
ter, Ifiss  Edgeworth,  and  Mr.  Lockhart),  in  1825. 
They  had  a  right  mirthful  picnic  among  the 
groves,  says  LcHokhart,  and  ^'Sir  Walter  scram- 
bled up  to  the  top  of  the  castie,  and  kissed,  with 
due  &ith  and  devotion,  the  famous  Blarney 
stone,  one  salute  of  which  is  said  to  emancipate 
the  pilgrim  from  all  ftiture  visitations  of  maW' 


BLASPHEMY 


BLASTING 


8S7 


BLASPHEICT  (6r.  PKatnfnffua),  impious 
speaking  or  writing  concerning  sacred  thingSi 
which  indades  not  merely  profane  nse  of  &e 
name  of  Grod,  but  anv  scoffing  or  scurrilous  lan- 
guage in  respect  to  the  commonly  received  doc- 
trines of  religion.  In  the  Mosaic  laws,  blasphemy 
was  any  thing  irreverent  of  Jehovah.  The  name 
was  not  to  be  spoken  except  in  religious  services, 
nor  was  the  name  of  any  heathen  god.  The 
case  referred  to  in  Lev.  zziv.  11,  seems  to  have 
been  an  improper  use  of  the  prohibited  name, 
though  in  a  different  sense  from  what  is  intend* 
ed  in  the  2d  commandment  The  latter  refers 
to  a  trifling  or  inconsiderate  use  of  tiie  name  of 
God — ^the  other  more  particularly  has  reference 
to  such  language  as  expressed  disbelief  in  God, 
or  his  attributes;  and  this  is  the  proper  dis* 
tinction  between  blasphemy  and  profiane  swear- 
ing. The  punishment  by  tiie  Jewish  law  was 
deatii.  In  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  it  appears 
to  have  been  considered  blasphemy  to  chdm 
divine  ^wer  (Matt,  ix  8,  John  x.  88).  Paul 
called  mmself  a  blasphemer  before  his  oonver* 
rion  (1  Tim.  L 13).  The  same  word  which  in  the 
Greek  is  used  for  blasphemy,  is  sometimes 
translated  "  railing"  (1  Tim.  vi.  4).  In  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  not  only  irreverent  language 
ren>ecting  God  or  Christ,  but  avowal  of  oisl^ 
lief  in  certain  articles  of  futh  or  popular  tenets, 
has  been  held  to  be  blasphemy,  and  punished 
by  the  civil  power  as  a  crime.  By  the  common 
law  of  England,  blasphemy  is  indictable  as  a 
criminal  offence,  and  it  Ib  defined  to  be  a  denied 
of  the  being  or  providence  of  God,  contume- 
lious language  respecting  Christ,  or  profane 
scoffing  at  the  holy  Scriptures.  This  was  so 
held  on  the  ground  that  uie  Christian  reli«^on 
is  a  part  of  the  laws  of  England.  A  pubuca- 
tion  containing  scurrilous  or  contemptuous  lan- 
guage respecting  our  Saviour  has  been  held  to 
be  a  libd  at  common  law ;  and  as  a  general 
principle  it  has  been  adjudged  to  be  u^wful 
to  write  asainst  Christianity  in  general,  or 
against  its  doctrines,  if  there  be  apparent  a  de- 
sign to  undermine  it  altogether,  but  that  it  b 
allowable  to  write  upon  controverted  points  in 
a  decorous  manner,  even  though  some  articles 
of  fiuth  held  by  the  church  of  England  should 
be  affected.  In  the  United  States  the  Christian 
religion  has  been  received  as  a  part  of  the  com- 
mon law,  and  blasphemy  is  consequentlv  a 
criminal  offence.  In  some  of  the  Kew  Enmnd 
states,  and  perhaps  in  some  others,  there  have 
been  statutes  regulating  the  punishment^  but 
practically  they  are  inoperative,  and  the  oases 
nave  been  rare  of  any  proceedings  under 
them.  In  the  state  of  New  York  it  has  been 
held  that  whatever  tends  to  impair  public  re- 
Bpeot  for  the  Christian  religion,  is  subversive  of 
civil  society,  and  that  indecorous  language, 
whether  spoken  or  written,  offensive  to  ine 
general  religious  tone  of  feehng  of  the  commu- 
nity, is  an  indictable  offence,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  is  conceded  that  there  is  liberty  of  con- 
troverting any  matter  of  doctrine,  so  that  it  be 
done  in  a  proper  manner. 
VOL.  m. — 22 


BLASTING,  the  prooeas  of  breaking  rocks 
by  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder.  The  ap- 
pncation  of  tins  force  has  very  properly  been 
suggested  as  a  new  mechanical  power.  When 
it  was  first  employed  for  this  purpose  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  certain  that  it  was  long  after 
gunpowder  was  used  as  a  destructive  agent  in 
war.  Burat,  iu  his  OSologie  ofpliquSs^  states 
that  the  use  of  gunpowder  for  mming  purposes 
is  traced  back  as  fEu*  as  the  year  1682.  Bocks 
were  previously  broken  up  by  the  hammer,  and 
by  the  introduction  of  wedges,  whidi  were 
sometimes  of  wood,  and  were  then  made  to 
swell  and  burst  the  rock  •by  absorbing  water 
that  was  placed  around  them.  Water  was  also 
used  alone,  being  introduced  into  holes  and 
crevices  and  exposed  to  a  freezing  temperature, 
when  the  expansion  of  the  ice  acted  like  power- 
ful wedges.  Fire,  too,  was  employed  to  heat  the 
surface,  and  this  being  suddenly  chilled  by  the 
application  of  cold  water,  the  rock  was  render- 
ed brittle,  so  as  to  be  easily  reduced.  But 
these  slow  and  expensive  methods  were  soon 
mostly  abandoned  lor  the  blasting  process,  and 
the  expenses  of  mining  were  estimated  to  have 
been  lednced,  in  consequence,  more  than  one- 
half.  The  enormous  force  evolved  by  exploding 
powder  is  owing  to  its  sudden  conversion  into 
gases,  amounting  in  bulk  to  more  than  450 
times  that  of  the  powder,  supposing  them  to  be 
cooled  down  to  the  freezing  temperature;  but 
in  the  highly  heated  condition  attending  their 
production,  their  volume  is  estimated  to  be  from 
4,000  to  6,000  times  that  of  ttiQ  powder.  Ac- 
cording to  the  calculations  of  Button,  the  elas- 
tic gas  expands  with  a  velocity  of  10,000  feet 
per  second,  and  with  a  pressure  equal  to  that 
of  1,000  atmospheres,  wnich  would  be,  upon 
every  square  inch  or  surflftce  exposed  to  the 
force,  not  less  than  6^  tons. — ^Powder  is  applied 
to  blasting  rocks  in  different  methods,  accord- 
ing to  the  object  m  view.  It  is  introduced  into 
small  cylindrical  holes,  bored  for  the  purpose^ 
and,  being  securely  confined,  is  there  exploded. 
These  hoks,  in  mines,  are  not  often  more  than 
4  or  5  feet  deep,  generally  not  more  than  8 
feet,  and  of  1  incn  to  1}  inch  in  diameter ;  yi 
quarries  they  are  sometimes  20  feet  deep  and  4 
inches  in  diameter.  This  is  in  such  situations 
that  advantage  may  be  taken  of  a  vertical  bank, 
and  the  powder,  nearly  filling  the  hole  from  the 
bottom  up,  can  throw  off  the  wall  along  its  whole 
height.  Another  method  is  that  of  the  "  sand- 
blast." This  is  employed  when  crevices  are 
found  exten^g  into  bodies  of  rock,  or  when 
cracks  are  opened  by  a  previous  blast,  which 
fiuled  to  break  up  the  rock  sufficiently  for  its 
removal  Powder  is  poured  loosely  into  such 
opening  in  large  quantity,  and  it  b  then  cov- 
ered with  dry  sand,  a  communication  being  se- 
cured to  it  by  the  introduction  of  pieces  of  safe- 
ty fuse  before  the  powder  is  covered.  For 
breaking  down  the  huge  sheets  and  blocks  of 
native  copper  in  the  copper  mines  of  Lake  Su- 
perior, no  other  known  method  but  shaking 
them  by  the   sand-blast  could  be  effectoaL 


838 


BLASTING 


Standing  npon  their  edges  in  the  veins,  and 
entireljT  enclosed  in  solid  rock,  they  are  first 
nncovered  along  one  of  their  sides  by  exca- 
vating a  horizontal  drift  or  gidleiy.  Small 
oayities  are  then  made  behind  the  mass,  along 
its  npper  edge,  by  repeated  blasts  in  the  tangled 
rock  and  copper.  As  these  cavities  are  enlarg- 
ed, more  powder  is  introdaced,  till,  if  the  mass 
be  very  large,  several  hundred  ponnds  are 
spread  in  the  crevice  behind  it^  and  fired  at 
o^ce,  before  it  is  finally  thrown  over  into  the 
open  space  previously  excavated.  At  the  lOn- 
nesota  mine  26  kegs,  of  25  pounds  each,  were 
thus  fired  at  once  atr  the  time  of  a  visit  of  the 
writer,  in  the  summer  of  1856.  The  effect  was 
hardly  perceived  on  the  surface,  except  by  a 
low.  rumbling  sound,  and  a  rush  of  air  up  the 
shafts. — ^In  the  ordinary  mode  of  blasting  in 
small  holes,  steel  drills  are  employed  for  cutting 
out  the  cavity.  At  the  cutting  end  they  are 
brought,  rather  bluntly,  to  a  sharp  edge,  called 
the  bit,  the  length  of  which  is  made  greater 
than  the  diameter  of  the  rest  of  the  drill.  This 
18  in  order  that  it  may  cut  a  hole  large  enough 
for  the  octagonal  bar  to  work  in  freely,  and  it 
is  made  longest  at  the  extreme  edge  to  prevent 
the  bit  from  jamming  in  the  hole.  A  conven- 
ient point  upon  the  rook  is  selected,  where 
the  shape  oflfers  the  opportunity  for  the  great- 
est fracture,  and  the  hole  is  commenced  with 
the  use  of  a  drill  of  a  foot  or  thereabout  in 
length,  which  is  struck  by  one  person,  and  held 
and  turned  partly  round  at  each  blow  by  an- 
other. For  very  small  holes  the  same  person 
holds  the  drill  in  one  hand  and  strikes  with  a 
hammer  held  in  the  other.  The  fine  particles 
of  stone  broken  by  the  drill  are  scooped  out 
with  an  iron  spoon.  As  the  hole  gains  in  depth 
water  is  introauced  to  prevent  the  overheating 
of  the  steel  edge,  and  longer  drills,  widi  bits  of 
less  diameter,  are  used  in  place  of  the  shorter, 
and  sometimes  2  men,  or  even  8,  are  employed 
to  strike  in  turn  the  head  of  the  drill.  The 
rate  at  which  it  is  driven  into  the  rock  varies 
with  the  hardness  of  this,  and  with  the  temper 
and  sharpness  of  the  drills.  Some  silicious 
recks  of  dose  texture,  like  the  sharp  grits  of 
the  lower  stratified  rocks,  and  some  trap  rocks, 
also,  are  so  hard  that  tiiey  cannot  be  penetrated 
Teven  when  the  drill  is  struck  by  2  men)  at  a 
sister  rate  than  an  inch  an  hour,  and  this  when 
the  drills  are  of  the  best  character  of  steel,  and 
are  kept  well  tempered  and  sharpened.  It  is 
not  unusual  in  boring  a  hole  from  2^  to  8  feet 
deep,  in  such  rocks,  to  dull  as  many  as  40  drills, 
so  that  they  require  fresh  sharpening  by  the 
blacksmith.  Ordinarily,  however,  the  work  is 
prosecuted  with  much  less  labor  and  greater 
speed.  When  the  hole  is  completed,  it  is  next 
thoroughly  dried  by  a  swab.  It  is  then  i  or  f 
filled  with  powder.  The  end  of  a  piece  of  safe- 
ty fbse  is  pushed  into  the  powder,  and  the  tamp- 
ing, which  consists  of  broken  pieces  of  brick, 
or  of  any  soft  kind  of  stone  without  grit,  is  then 
introduced  and  driven  down  with  a  copper  bar, 
•called  the  tamping-bar.    As  this  is  struck  by  a 


hammer,  it  is  important  that  it  should  be  made 
of  a  soft  material,  that  will  not  strike  fire  against 
the  sharp  particles  of  the  rock.  Tamping  a  hole 
is  the  dangerous  part  of  the  process  of  blasting^ 
as  the  bar  itself,  if  of  iron,  may  strike  fire,  or 
the  fragments  of  the  tamping  may  possibly  do 
the  same,  when  rubbed  against  each  oUier  or 
a|;ainst  the  sides  of  the  hole,  and  this  comma- 
moating  with  the  powder  may  produce  a  pre* 
mature  explosion.  Sand  thrown  in  loosely  is 
sometimes  used  to  fill  the  hole,  and  by  many  it 
is  thought  equally  advantageous  as  the  hiurd- 
driven  tamping.  Both  coverings  occaaonally 
shoot  out  when  the  blast  is  fired,  but  perhaps 
not  one  more  fi*equent]y  than  the  other.  In- 
stead of  these,  a  wooden  plug  is  sometimes  used 
for  covering  the  powder,  but  this  method  is  also 
attended  with  danger.  In  driving  a  closely  fit* 
ting  plug  by  heavy  blows,  fire  is  almost  certain 
to  be  produced  by  the  sudden  compression  of 
the  confined  air.  A  serious  accident  occurred 
from  this  cause  at  Oopper  Harbor,  Lake  Supe- 
rior, July  4^  1856.  When  the  hole  is  filled, 
the  fuse  is  cut  off  from  the  coil,  leaving  a  sufii- 
cient  length  to  give  the  person  who  fires  it  time 
to  retire.  The  report  soon  follows  the  applica- 
tion of  the  match,  and  one  judges  by  its  sound  of 
the  execution  of  the  blast  If  loud  and  sharp,  it 
indicates  that  but  little  effect  has  been  produoed, 
while  a  dull,  compressed  sound,  tells  that  the  foree 
of  the  powder  has  been  expended  in  shaking  up 
and  cracking  large  bodies  of  rock.  As  the  holes 
bored  in  mines  are  pointed  in  every  direction,  it 
sometimes  happens  that  one  in  the  roof  of  the 
mine  cannot  be  made  to  hold  the  powder,  un- 
less this  be  introduced  in  a  cartridge,  and  in 
wet  places  cartridges  are  always  required  that 
are  water-tight.  These  are  sometimes  made  of 
tin,  though  stiff  brown  paper,  well  coated  with 
tar  or  pitch,  will  generally  answer  aa  well. 
A  superior  quality  of  safety  fuse,  prepared  also 
water-tight,  is  used  with  them.  In  ordinary 
blasting  other  expedients  are  frequently  used 
instead  of  the  safety  fuse,  which  is  quite  a  re- 
cent invention.  A  stif^  slender,  tapering  rod, 
called  the  priming  wire,  is  set  into  the  powder, 
resting  against  the  side  of  the  hole,  until  this  is 
filled.  It  is  then  drawn  out  by  putting  the 
tamping-bar  through  the  eye  at  the  upper  end 
of  me  wire,  and  striking  it  gentiy  upward. 
The  small  hole  left  by  it  is  then  filled  with 
powder,  which  may  be  fired  by  a  slow  match. — 
As  the  great  labor  in  blasting  consists  in  drill- 
ing the  holes,  which  after  all  contain  but  a 
small  quantity  of  powder,  various  plans  have 
been  devised  for  enlargbg  the  cavity  at  the 
bottom,  in  order  to  make  it  contain  a  larger 
quantity  of  the  exploding  material  In  calcare- 
ous rocks  this  has  been  effected  by  the  use  of 
acids,  which  dissolve  the  stone.  For  other 
rocks,  a  very  ingenious  process  has  been  in- 
vented and  patented  by  Mr.  A.  Stickney,  of 
Concord,  New  Hampshire,  which,  though  a  very 
effectual  method,  has  not  yet  come  into  gen- 
eral use.  After  the  hole  (which  should  be  not 
less  than  8  inches  in  diameter)  is  bored  to  the 


BLASTING 


depth  of  5  or  6  &et>  fragmenliof  the  best  haord- 
wood  charooal  are  thrown  into  the  bottom  and 
ignited.  A  blast  is  then  blown  in  from  a 
portable  bellows,  through  a  wronght-iron  tabe^ 
to  whidh  is  adoed,  at  its  lower  extremity,  a 
tube  of  platinmn  not  less  than  a  foot  in  length 
and  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  lower  ez- 
tremitj  of  this  is  dosed,  bat  its  sides  are  per- 
forated with  numerous  small  holes.  Ajs  the 
blast  curoulatea  through  these,  the  oharcoal 
bums  yiridly,  producing  intense  heat,  and 
melting  away  the  side  of  l^e  cavity.  The 
tubes  must  be  frequently  withdrawn  to  hook 
out  the  fragments  of  cinder  which  aocnmnhite. 
Ab  the  operation  goes  on,  and  the  size  of  the 
diamber  increases,  the  fire  is  kept  up  by  con- 
tinually dropping  more  charooal  into  the  hole 
by  the  side  of  the  tube,  the  hole  being  left  open 
for  the  escape  of  the  gases.  The  walls  of  the 
chamber  are  then  more  rapidly  acted  upon,  so 
that  in  the  course  of  a  few  hours  tiie  cavity  is 
sufficiently  large  to  hold  20  or  80  pounds  of 
powder.  In  granitic  rocks  the  effect  of  this 
operation  is  veiy  remarkable;  the  ingredients 
melt  down  into  a  liquid  shig,  and  if  a  bucket  of 
cold  water  is  dashed  in  upon  the  highly  heated 
surfihoe,  this  is  scaled  off  m  large  flakea  by  the 
sudden  chill,  and  by  the  meohanicid  action  of 
the  high  steun,  which  is  Instantly  generated. 
In  hard  silicious  rooks^  as  the  firm  sandstones 
of  the  Shawangcmk  range,  the  rook  crumbles 
down  to  sand,  tmd  this  is  blown  out  of  the  hole 
as  the  process  goes  on,  covering  the  surface 
around.  In  calcareous  rocks,  the  stone  is 
burned  to  qnickUme,  and  a  large  cavity  is 
rapidly  produced.  The  heat  generated  in  this 
operation  is  so  great,  that  wrought-iron  pipes 
have  been  melted  down,  by  coming  into  too 
close  contact  with  the  charcoal.  The  enlarged 
dimensioDa  of  the  hole  at  the  bottom  are  par- 
ticularly &vorabk  for  the  explosive  force  of  the 
powder  to  be  exerted  to  the  best  advantage. 
Huge  masses  of  rock  are  lifted  up,  and  cradu 
of  great  extent  are  opened  to  a  depth  not 
reached  by  the  ordinary  method  of  blasting. 
These  cracks  afford  convenient  opportunities 
for  the  use  of  the  sand-blast,  ana  thus  veir 
large  quantities  of  rock  are  broken  up  with 
comparatively  small  expense  of  drilling. — ^Tir- 
ing a  number  of  chaiges  simultaneously  by  the 
galvanic  battery  is  sometimes  adopted  with 
great  advantage,  where  large  bodies  <^  rode 
are  to  be  moved.  The  effect  produced  by  the 
same  quantity  of  powder  is  much  mater  than 
if  the  ohargea  were  sepaiatdy  exploded.  The 
same  method  of  firing  is  also  conveniently  ap- 
plied to  blasting  under  water.  In  the  '*£ncy- 
doptedia  Britannica"  it  is  stated  that  this  was 
first  put  in  practice  by  General  Padey^in  1889, 
in  removing  the  wreck  of  the  Boyd  George  at 
Spithead,  and  again  the  same  vear  in  subma- 
rine rocJc-blas&g  by  Mr.  Alan  Stevenson. 
But  in  vol.  xxi.  of  the  *' American  Joumd 
of  Sdence,'*  for  1881,  is  a  letter  of  Dr.  Hare, 
describing  the  operations  of  Mr.  Moses  Shaw, 
who  had  already  applied  the  dectricd  machine 


to  this  purpose,  and  then  by  advice  of  Dr.  Hare 
was  making  use  of  the  gdvanio  battery ;  and 
in  vol.  XX vi.  of  the  same  journd  (1884)  the  ap» 
paratus  is  fhUy  described,  with  drawing  which 
show  that  the  arrangement  was  essentidly  the 
same  with  that  now  in  use.  In  the  year  1848 
three  charges  of  18,000  lbs.  of  powder  were 
fired  simultaneously  by  this  means  at  Dover, 
by  Mr.  William  Oubitt.  A  chdk  cliff  400  feet 
high  was  thrown  down  with  little  report,  and 
the  beadi  was  covered  with  400,000  cubic  yards 
of  chalk-rock.  It  is  estimated  that  the  saving 
to  the  South-Eastern  railway  company  in  this 
operation  over  the  ordinary  process  was  not 
less  than  £7,000.  Submarine  blasting  of  rocks 
has  been  suocesBfully  prosecuted  with  the  use 
of  the  diving-bell  for  sinking  the  holes,  and 
charging  them  with  cartridges  contained  in  a 
tin  tube,  as  recommended  by  Dr.  Hare.  IVom 
this  a  smaller  tube  is  extended  to  the  surface, 
which,  when  filled  with  powder,  is  fired. 
The  effect  of  powder  fired  under  the  pressure 
of  the  water  appears  to  be  greater  than  in  ex- 
plosions of  similar  quantities  upon  the  land. 
The  fragments  are  removed  but  a  diort  'dis- 
tance, and  little  disturbance  is  caused  upon  the 
sur&oe  of  the  water.  It  has  been  found  that 
ledges  of  rock  in  this  situation  mav  be  reduced 
in  height  witiiout  boring  holes,  simply  by  ex- 
ploding large  charges  of  powder  up<Mi  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock,  by  the  use  of  tne  gdvanic 
batteiy.  In  tiiis  way  the  surfaces  of  several 
dangerous  ledges  of  rock  in  New  York  harbor 
have  been  taken  off  by  M.  MaiUefwt,  and  the 
depth  of  water  increased  over  them.  A  bat- 
tQTj  has  been  introduced  in  Scotland  of  very 
compact  arrangement,  designed  for  igniting 
charges  at  a  distance.  It  is  constructed  of 
sine  and  cast-iron  plates,  dtemating  with 
each  other,  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  indi 
apart.  The  first  and  second  iron  plates  are  con- 
nected together  as  a  double  termind  plate, 
from  which  proceeds  the  wire  forming  the  posi- 
tive pole.  The  first  zinc  plate  is  united  by  a 
strip  of  metd  with  the  third  iron  plate,  the 
second  dnc  with  the  fourth  iron,  and  so  on  to 
the  end  of  the  series,  which  may  consist  of  20 
plates  of  zinc  and  21  of  iron.  The  last  zinc 
plate  will  be  disconnected  with  the  rest,  and 
fh}m  this  proceeds  the  wire  forming  the  nega* 
tive  pole.  The  plates  are  separated  by  dips 
of  wood  i  of  an  inch  thick,  and  are  kept  in 
place  by  2  pieces  of  board  at  the  ends,  con- 
nected by  cross  strips  at  the  ddes,  and  with  one 
at  the  bottom,  to  prevent  the  plates  from  fdling 
out.  As  2  plates  intervene  between  every  pair 
in  metdlic  connection,  there  is  no  occasion  for 
partitions  in  the  trough.  The  space  required 
for  a  battery  of  20  pairs,  or  of  41  single  plates^ 
will  not  exceed  20  inches  in  length.  Such  a  bat- 
tery is  readily  con8tructed,and  is  found  to  be  effi- 
cient at  a  distance  of  500  feet.  By  adding  a  sec- 
ond of  the  same  kind,  the  charges  may  be  fired 
at  still  greater  distances.  The  conducting  wires 
of  copper  should  be  insulated  by  a  covering  of 
silk  or  cotton  thread,  and  severd  inches  near 


340 


BLASTING 


BLAZONRY 


their  extremities  be  twisted  together.  The  2 
ends  should  diverge  from  the  twist  as  far  as 
the  diameter  of  the  hole  for  the  charge  will  ad- 
mity  and  a  fine  steel  wire,  like  those  nsed  for 
the  hair  springs  of  watdies,  or  a  fine  platinum 
wire,  should  connect  the  two  poles.  Thisi,  and 
as  many  such  connections  as  there  are  blasts  to 
be  fired,  are  arranged  in  their  proper  places 
along  the  conducting  wires,  and  each  is  intro- 
duced with  the  powder  into  the  hole,  care  being 
taken  in  the  charging  and  tamping  not  to  dis- 
turb the  connections. — By  the  Austrian  engi- 
neers electricity  is  preferred  to  voltaism  for  fir- 
ing chai^ges,  the  quality  of  tJie  conductor  not 
bemg  of  so  much  importance  in  the  use  of  the 
former.  With  the  apparatus  they  employ,  ez- 
plonons  haye  been  produced  at  a  distance  of  1^ 
German  leagues,  and  60  mines  exploded  simul- 
taneously, on  a  line  of  100  fathoms.  Under 
water  explosions  were  made  at  a  distance  of 
400  fathoms,  the  conductor  extending  to  the 
length  of  500  fathoms.  The  process  has  been 
in  use  under  water  in  the  Danube,  near  Grein, 
and  the  marble,  quarries  near  Neustadt,  for 
some  years,  with  perfect  succeu.  The  explo- 
siye  substance,  a  mixture  of  sulphur,  antimony, 
and  chlorate  of  potash,  is  easily  made,  and  is 
placed  in  the  form  of  a  cartridge  at  any  part  of 
the  conducting  line.  See  **  Mechanics'  Ma^a- 
xine,*'  No.  1688.  The  subject  of  blasting  under 
water  is  fully  treated  in  Appletons'  "  Dictionary 
of  Mechanics."— >The  quality  of  the  powder 
preferred  for  blasthig  is  not  the  quicK  kind 
that  Lb  used  for  rifles,  and  operates  most  success- 
fully in  the  projection  of  missiles,  but  it  is  the 
most  sluggisn  in  its  action,  affording  time  for 
the  rocks  to  open  and  be  shaken  before  the 
eflbct  is  lost  in  a  sudden  quick  explosion. 
Blasting  powder  should  consist  of  65  parts  of 
saltpetre,  15  of  charcoal,  and  20  of  sulphur; 
while  the  best  gunpowder  is  made  of  T5 
parts  of  saltpetre,  12^  of  charcoal,  and  12i 
of  sulphur.  The  grains  of  the  best  blasting 
powder  are  extremely  coarse ;  they  may  be  as 
large  as  barleycorns*  They  should  be  perfectly 
dry,  hard,  of  even  size,  shining,  free  of  dust,  so 
as  not  to  soil  a  white  handkerchief.  As  the  in- 
itial effect  of  powder  is  to  a  cousiderable  extent 
proportional  to  the  surfiice  orer  which  it  is  dis- 
tributed, it  has  been  found  advantageous  to 
insert  in  the  centre  of  cartridges  a  core  of  wood 
or  iron.  Many  have  suppled  thoy  accom- 
plished the  same  object  by  mixing  with  the  pow- 
der aproportion  of  dry  sawdust  In  some  parts  of 
Europe  this  has  been  extensively  practised.  At 
the  mines  of  Tamowitz,  in  Silesia,  it  has  been 
customary  to  use  i  sawdust  In  other  mines 
in  Germany  and  Sweden  it  is  considered  that 
i^  to  i  of  the  powder  employed  may  be  saved 
by  the  use  of  this  materiaL  About  ^  of  the 
mixture  is  its  most  usual  proportion.  This 
practice  is  condemned  as  nnphUosophical  by 
the  writer  of  the  article  Sroins,  in  Tomlin- 
son's  Oydopffidia.  In  Sweden  small  hollow 
cones  of  wood  are  sometimes  placed  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  holes  to  preserve  an  empty  space 


below  the  powder.  For  some  reason,  perhaps 
the  greater  elasticity  caused  by  the  air  retain- 
ed, it  is  believed  that  the  effect  of  the  powder 
is  oondderably  increased.  Gun-cotton  has 
been  employed  to  some  extent  in  blasting ;  and 
for  use  in  mines  it  possesses  the  important  ad- 
vantage over  powder  of  not  giving  off  smoke ; 
a  much  lees  quantity  also  is  required  to  exert 
the  same  force.  Iti&  however,  more  expensive 
than  powder,  more  dangerous  to  prepare,  and 
operates  too  quickly  to  produce  the  l>Qst  effect 
in  blasting.  For  uiese  reasons  its  use  has  di- 
minished, and  it  is  not  likely  it  will  erer  be 
largely  employed  for  blasting  purposes. — ^Beside 
the  application  of  blasting  to  breaking  rocks, 
the  process  is  often  adopted  with  great  advan- 
tage for  shatteriuff  stumps  which  it  is  desirable 
to  remove,  and  abo  for  splitting  large  logs  of 
wood.  A  hole  is  bored  into  them  with  an 
anger,  and  instead  of  tamping  in  the  usual 
mode,  a  wooden  plug  is  inserted  to  cover  the 
powder.  The  danser  of  explosion  by  com- 
pressed ur  i^^ould  always  be  remembered  in  this 
process. — Some  French  inventors  have  taken 
out  a  patent  in  England  for  splitting  rocks  by 
the  generation  of  heat,  without  causing  an  ex- 
plosion. They  used  a  substance  composed  of 
100  parts  of  sulphur  by  weight,  100  of  saltpetre, 
60  of  sawdust,  60  of  horse  manure,  and  10  of 
common  salt  The  saltpetre  and  common  salt 
are  dissolved  in  hot  water,  to  which  4  parts 
of  molasses  are  added,  and  the  whole  ingredi- 
ents stirred,  until  they  are  thoroughly  incorpo- 
rated together  in  one  mass,  which  is  then  dried 
by  a  gentie  heat  in  a  room  or  by  exposure  to 
the  sun,  and  is  fit  for  use.  It  is  tamped  in  the 
holes  bored  for  blasting  rocks  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  gunpowder,  and  is  ignited  by  a  fusee. 
It  does  not  cause  an  explodon  upward  like  gun- 
powder, but  generates  a  great  heat,  which  i^its 
the  rock. 

BLATE,  a  fortified  seaport  of  France,  pop. 
in  186d^802,  department  of  Gironde,  20  miles 
N.  N.  W.  of  Bordeaux.  The  river  Gironde, 
about  2^  miles  wide  here,  is  defended  by  forts 
PAt6  and  MMoc  All  inward  bound  vessels  are 
obliged  to  anchor  at  Blaye  and  exhibit  their 
papers,  and  outward  bound  vessels  usually  take 
in  stores  here. 

BLAYNET,  Bxzrjiiinr,  an  English  Hebndst, 
died  Sept  20, 1801,  the  author  of  valuable  dis- 
sertations on  biblical  subjects,  and  corrections 
in  the  authorized  version  of  the  Bible.  He  was 
canon  of  Ohrist  church  and  regins  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Oxford,  and  finally  rector  of  Pol- 
shot  WUts. 

BliAZOimT  is  the  scienee  of  describing  a 
coat  of  armorial  bearings  in  appropriate  Lan- 
guagCL  and  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of 
heralary;  or  of  constructing,  drawing,  and 
coloring  such  a  coat  from  a  verbal  or  written 
description ;  or,  lastiy,  of  recognizing  and  read- 
ing coats  armorial,  so  as  to  Imow  and  declare 
the  families,  intermarriages,  and  fects  of  rela- 
tionship which  they  indicate.  The  term  blazon- 
ry is  also  sometimes  used  to  signify  the  sab- 


BLEACHING 


841 


stuioe  and  pomp  of  the  things  emblazoned,  as 
one  sees  it  qnamtlj  written  in  the  old  ohroni- 
des  that  a  host  was  '^glorioos  with  the 
blazonry  of  banners,''  meaning  merely  with 
unmbers  of  emblazoned  banners.  In  blazon- 
ing, the  tinotores  of  shields  are  divided  into 
colors,  metals,  and  fhrs.  The  metals  are,  or, 
gold,  and  argent^  nlver ;  the  latter  simply  rep- 
resented by  white.  The  oolors  are,  guleSy  red ; 
Oftfrtf,  bine;  9abley  black  j  wrtygreea;  purpura^ 
pnrple;  and  terrU^  sangame.  The  fhrs  are,  er- 
miMy  black  oross-sha^  spots  on  white;  0r- 
minetj  white  oross-shi^)ed  spots  on  black; 
tfrmiiuTUL  black  cross-shaped  spots  on  gold;  and 
vaire^  wnich  is  small  alternate  shields  or  escut- 
cheons of  azare  and  argent,  corering  tlie  whole 
field  or  ground  of  the  shield,  or  coat  armorial. 
It  is  false  blazonry,  when  an  object  is  to  be 
represented  on  a  field  or  gronnd,  to  describe 
both  of  metal,  both  of  color,  or  both  of  fur. 
Thns  there  cannot  be  correctly  blazoned  a  cross 
argent  on  a  field  or,  be^nse  both  the  thins 
charged  and  the  field  on  which  it  is  charged 
are  metals ;  nor  a  cross  sable  on  a  field  gnles,  be- 
cause both  are  colors ;  nor  a  cross  erminois  on  a 
field  vaire^  because  both  are  fan,  A  cross  or 
on  a  field  azure  is  correct,  because  metal  can 
be  charged  on  color ;  so  is  a  cross  gules  on  a 
field  ai^gent^  because  color  can  be  charged  on 
metal ;  and  so  agidn  is  a  cross  either  of  argent, 
or,  or  any  color,  on  ermine,  ermines,  erminois, 
or  Taire,  because  metal  and  color  can  both  or 
either  be  oharaed  on  fur. 

BLEACHING  (Fr.  hlanehimenty  whitening), 
the'  process  of  remoying  the  coloring  mat- 
ters from  fabrics  of  cotton,  linen,  wool,  silk, 
&C.,  or  from  the  raw  materials,  and  also  from 
straw,  wax,  and  other  substances,  and  leaving 
them  perfectly  white.  Steeping  cloths  in  lyes 
extra<^  from  the  ashes  of  plants,  appears  to 
have  been  practised  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
for  this  purpose.  In  modern  times  the  Dutch 
have  almost  monopolized  tilie  business,  at  least 
till  within  about  100  years.  Previous  to  this 
time  the  brown  linens  manufactured  in  Scot- 
land were  regularly  sent  to  Holland  to  be 
bleached.  A  whole  summer  was  required  for 
the  operation ;  but  if  the  cloths  were  sent  in  the 
fall  of  the  year,  they  were  not  returned  for  12 
months.  It  was  this  practice  which  caused  the 
name  of  Hollands  to  be  siven  to  these  linens.  The 
Scotch  introduced  the  busmess  of  bleadiine  for 
thonselves  about  the  year  1749;  but  it  was  long 
believed  that  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  water 
about  the  bleaching  grounds  of  Haarlem  gave  to 
this  neighborhood  advantages  which  no  other 
region  could  possess.  Bleaching,  though  wholly 
a  chemical  process,  and  raised  to  its  present 
greatly  improved  state  entirely  by  the  applica- 
tion of  chemical  skill  and  chemical  discoveries, 
is  still  not  well  understood  in  the  rationale  of 
the  changes  effected.  By  long  steeping  in  alka- 
line lyes  it  is  supposed  that  the  coloring  mat- 
ters are  freed  ftY>m  all  the  greasy  and  glutinous 
substances  introduced  in  the  weaving,  and  thus 
are  rendered  more  free  to  be  acted  upon  by  the 


oxygen  of  the  air  or  water,  and  ready  to  form 
with  this  compounds  which  are  soluble  and 
easily  removed  by  boiling.  The  dew  &lling 
upon  the  cloth  appears  to  have  a  peculiar  influ- 
ence upon  the  removal  of  the  color;  and  the 
sun's  rays  increase  the  effect  by  some  chemical 
action  belonging  to  light,  whidi  is  imperfectly 
understood.  The  art  of  bleaching  was  conduct- 
ed by  alternate  steeping  in  alkaline  liquors  called 
buckings,  followed  by  thorough  washiug  and 
boiling  and  long-continued  exposure  upon  grass, 
with  frequent  sprinklings  of  water,  which  pro- 
cess was  caJled  crofting ;  and  this  was  followed 
by  the  souring  process,  or  keeping  the  articles 
soaked  for  weeks  in  sour  mUk,  to  be  afterward 
washed  and  crofted  several  times.  By  substitut- 
ing dilute  sulphuric  add  for  sour  milk  to  dissolve 
out  the  alkaline  matters,  as  suggested  by  Dr. 
Hope,  the  time  required  for  this  part  of  the  pro- 
cess was  reduced  to  a  few  hours  in  place  of  a  few 
months.  But  the  other  operations  still  involved 
long  time,  particularly  the  crofting :  and  fre- 
quent losses  moreover  were  incurred  oy  the  ex- 
posure of  the  goods  in  the  large  establishments 
upon  the  great  extent  of  grass  lands  they  re- 
quired. Of  cotton  goods  fV  to  ^V  o^  ^^^  weight 
is  lost  by  bleaohiuff ;  but  linens  often  lose  as 
much  as  |,  by  which  their  strength  also  is  con- 
siderably impured:  the  finer  linens  lose  only 
from  12  to  25  per  cent.  In  Silesia  and  Bohemia, 
where  the  chlorine  process  is  not  adopted,  the 
linens  are  exposed  to  a  fermenting  process,  then 
washed,  and  steeped  in  alkaline  liauors,  with 
alternate  exposures  upon  grass,  which  processes 
are  repeated  a  great  number  of  times  for  60  to 
70  days ;  but  to  render  them  properly  white, 
they  are  afterward  passed  through  a  bath  acid-  • 
ulated  with  sulphuric  acid,  then  treated  again 
with  the  potash  lye  several  times  and  alternately 
exposed  on  the  grass,  and  finally  thoroughly 
cleansed  by  washing  in  a  revolving  cylinder 
cidled  a  dash-wheel.  Tins  machine  is  also  em- 
ployed in  the  English  and  Scotch  processes  for 
washing  the  goods  without  subjecting  them  to 
unnecessary  wear.  The  frequent  repetition  of 
t^e  different  processes  is  rendered  necessary  by 
the  complete  diflhsion  of  the  coloring  matters 
through  the  fiax  fibres,  and  their  close  union 
with  them;  each  operation  decomposing  and 
removing  in  succession  small  portions  only.  The 
discovery  of  chlorine  gas  in  1774  led  to  the  great 
improvement  in  bleaching  of  applying  this  gas  to 
the  removal  of  the  colors.  This  use  of  it  was 
originally  suggested  by  the  French  chemist  Ber- 
thoUet,  in  the  year  1785,  and  explained  the  next 
year  by  him  to  Watt  of  Ghisgo w,  who  was  then 
m  Pans.  By  Watt  the  process  was  soon  intro- 
duced into  Britain,  the  gas  being  used  in  solu- 
tion in  water.  Its  preparation  was  found  to  be 
highly  injurious  to  the  health  of  the  workmen, 
and  the  fibre  of  the  doth  was  weakened  by  the 
action  of  the  chlorine.  BerthoUet  improved  the 
process  by  diluting  the  aqueous  solution  with 
water,  and  also  by  saturating  with  potash  a  por- 
tion of  the  acid.  This  was  tiie  first  step  toward 
the  preparation  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  which 


842 


BLEAOHING 


waa  originall/  prepared  after  long-oontiiined  ex* 
perimentixigb/  Tennaat  of  Glasgow,  ia  the  jenr 
1798.  Its  first  employment  was  in  the  form  of 
a  saturated  liqqid  solatioa;  but  in  the  year  1799 
he  patented  the  nse  of  the  dry  chloride  of  lime 
or  bleaching  powder,  the  preparation  and  prop- 
erties of  wMdi  will  oe  described  under  its  own 
hi^d.  Bleaching  by  chlorine,  as  now  practised, 
Taries  somewhat  as  applied  to  the  different  fab- 
rics; bat  a  succession  of  different  processes  is 
gtiU  adopted,  as  in  the  old  methods.  Thus  in 
bleaching  cotton,  tiiere  are  the  preparatory 
operations  of  singeing  off  the  loose  fibres  by  pass- 
ing l^e  doth  overheated  cylinders;  then  soak- 
ing some  hoars  in  water,  followed  by  the  dash- 
wheel  ;  then  boiling  in  lime-water,  which  acts 
vpon  the  grease,  and  prepares  it  for  easy  re- 
movtX  by  Uie  next  operation  ofboilingia  water. 
This  is  followed  by  the  soaring  process,  which 
diasoWes  out  the  adhering  lime,  and  a  succeed- 
ing washing  prepares  the  doth  for  bleaching. 
Tms  consists  in  steeping  the  doth  in  a  dilate 
solution  of  the  chloride  of  lime,  which  is  called 
the  diemicking  process.  Th^  liq aor  consists,  for 
•yery  pound  of  doth,  of  about  half  a  pound  of 
ddoride  of  lime  and  8  gallons  of  water.  Soar- 
ing and  washing  succeed  this,  and  these  pro- 
oesses  are  repeated,  it  may  be,  several  times; 
altogether  they  amount,  including  calendering, 
to  about  25  in  number.  Though  still  veiy  com- 
plioated,  the  lime  of  the  operation  is  greatly  re- 
duced from  that  of  the  old  method.  In  3  days 
ia  now  accomplished  what  formerly  required 
ft  whole  summer,  and  the  cost  of  the  process 
amounts  to  only  about  20  cents  per  piece  of  cot- 
ton cloth  of  24  yards.  Bleaching  linens  with 
•chlorine,  though  somewhat  more  expeditious 
tiian  the  process  already  referred  to  in  Bohemia 
and  Silesia,  is  still  a  tedious  operation,  and  prob- 
ably is  susceptible  of  great  improvements.  It 
involves  from  8  to  20  different  processes  of  steep- 
in^^  boiling,  washing,  souring,  dco^  with  ex- 
posure upon  the  grass  for  from  80  to  60  days. 
Without  this  exposure  a  longer  time  ia  reqaired 
ibr  the  bleaching  action  of  the  solution  of  chlo- 
xide  of  lime.  Rags  are  bleached  for  the  pi^>er- 
raakers,  after  being  thoroi^hly  washed  m  tiie 
engine  and  reduced  to  what  is  called  half-stuff^ 
by  soaking  them  for  6  to  12  hours  tn  a  solation 
ei  chloride  of  lime ;  from  2  to  4  pounds  of  the 
dry  chloride  behig  used  for  every  cwt.  of 
rags.  When  the  ran  are  strongly  dyed  it  is 
often  necessary  to  add  some  sulphuric  add  (half 
the  weight  of  the  bleaching  powder),  and  cause 
the  mixture,  with  the  rags  placed  in  it,  to  re- 
volve for  some  time  in  a  tight  cylindrical  vessel, 
tin  the  chlorine  evolved  has  removed  the  colors. 
This  process  is  followed  by  thorough  washing. 
Wool  requires  a  thorough  preparation  oall^ 
scouring,  to  free  it  from  the  soapy  and  waxy 
matters  exhaled  from  the  skin  of  the  sheep. 
Weak  ammoniacal  lye  is  found  effident  for 
this  purpose,  and  this  is  obtained  by  boiling 
putrefied  urine  with  4  to  8  times  its  quantity 
of  soft  water.  The  wool  is  steeped  and  well 
wasned  in  a  warm  bath  of  this  liquor,  until  all  the 


impurities  are  converted  into  eoa^y  mfttters  and 
removed  by  rinsing  in  dean  water.  Caustic  soda 
is  sometimes  used  instead  of  ammoniacal  liquors. 
The  bleaching  is  effected  by  means  of  sulphurous 
add  gas  instead  of  chlorine.  This  gas  has  the 
property,  not,  however,  peculiar  to  1^  of  uniting 
with  the  coloring  substances  and  forming  with 
them  colorless  compounds,  which  remain  in  the 
fibre.  It  is  usually  employed  by  filling  a  dose 
chamber,  in  which  the  woollen  materials  are  sus- 
pended, with  the  vapor  of  burning  sulphur. 
This,  uniting  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air  in  the 
chamber,  forms  sulphurous  acid  gas,  whic^  in 
the  course  of  12  to  24  hours,  destroys  the  colors 
in  the  wool  The  materiais,  instead  of  being 
exposed  to  the  gas,  are  sometimes  steeped  in 
water  addulated  with  it.  This  usually  requires 
twice  as  much  time,  but  the  operation  of  the 
add  is  more  uniform,  and,  if  wdl  managed,  it 
can  probably  be  made  more  economical  in  time 
and  cost  of  material  than  the  use  of  the  gas» 
Wool,  after  the  ^^sulphuriug"  process,  baa  & 
harshness  about  it,  which  is  removed  by  soak- 
ing and  washing  it  in  a  warm  and  weak  bath 
of  soft  soap,  bilks  are  scoured  by  soaking 
them  in  a  solution  of  soap  kept  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  about  90"  F.  From  80  to  40  pounds  of 
very  fine  soap  are  used  for  every  100  pounds  of 
silk ;  but  the  proportions  vary  according  to  th» 
uses  that  are  to  be  made  of  tiie  artides.  This 
removes  the  gdatinous  and  waxy  matters  which, 
give  the  stiffness  to  raw  silk.  After  steeping^ 
tiie  silks  are  well  washed,  put  into  linen  baga» 
and  boiled  for  an  hour  ana  a  half  in  a  weaker 
solution  of  soap.  Different  shades  of  white  are 
giyen  to  the  silk,  without  further  bleaching,  hy 
tiie  use  of  very  weak  dyes  of  litmus  or  indigo.  A. 
pure  white  is  obtained  by  thesulphuring  procesa. 
Steam  has  been  applied  .in  England,  under  a 
patent,  to  bleaching  silks.  Wheat-straw  is 
grown  in  Tuscany  without  reference  to  the 
grain.  The  plants  are  sown  broadcast,  and  the 
straw  is  cut  when  the  grdn  is  in  the  milk.  It 
is  thin  and  short,  but  of  fine  texture.  On  being 
cut,  it  is  dried  for  a  few  days  in  the  sun,  then 
stacked  in  bundles,  and  dried  in  the  mow  fi»r  a 
month.  After  this,  it  is  partially  bleached  by 
exposure,  upon  the  meadows,  to  the  dews  and 
sun;  and  the  process  is  completed  by  steaming 
and  sulphuring.  In  En^andC  a  boiling  solation 
of  caustic  soda  is  employed  to  dissolve  the  hard 
natural  varnish  upon  the  outside  of  the  atraw; 
after  which  the  usual  bleaching  process,  with 
sulphurous  add  or  dblorine,  is  implied.  This 
hard  coating,  it  is  said,  may  also  be  removed 
with  economy,  by  several  steepings  in  dilate  al- 
kaline solationa,  alternating  with  othen  of 
chloride  of  lime,  and  the  vapor  of  sulphurous 
add.  Chlorine  is  the  most  common  agent  em- 
ployed for  bleaching. a  varied  of  other  sub- 
stances beside  those  already  named;  as,  for  ex- 
ample, wax,  and  artides  of  paper,  as  maps, 
printflL  hooka,  Ao,  But  frequently,  colors  im- 
parted to  cloth  by  strong  dyes,  require  for  thdr 
removal  diflforent  chemical  reagents,  as  chromic 
add,  or  the  combination  of  tins  with  potassa. 


BLEACHING 


BMIAOHING  POWDER 


843 


Frotochloride  of  tin  is  also  employed  for  the 
same  purpose.  These  we  oalled  discharges,  and 
are  principally  made  use  of  iji  the  calico  print 
works.  The  whitenbg  of  candles,  paramne, 
BQg^,  4^  will  be  described  in  treating  of  those 
articles.  A  process  has  been  intrcMduced  in 
France  of  bleaching  wax,  -which  is  also  applica- 
ble to  oils,  by  meltmg  it  in  hot  steam,  and  sub- 
jecting it  to  its  action  in  passing  through  a  kind 
of  worm.  It  is  also  washed  with  hot  water  al- 
tematelj  with  the  steaming. — ^Hydrate  of  aln- 
mina,  prepared  by  decomposing  alum  by  car- 
bonate of  soda,  has  recently  been  substituted 
for  animal  charcoal,  for  decoloring  liquids.  Ex- 
periments made  by  M.  Oh.  M^rio,  chembt  of  the 
metallurgical  works  at  Qreuzot^  show  that  15 
grammes  of  alumina  may  replace  250  grammes 
of  animal  charcoal,  in  decoloring  a  quart  of 
water  colored  by  10  grammes  of  litmus;  or  for 
nrup  colored  by  molasgee,  7  grammes  of 
alumina  were  equivalent  to  125  d  animal 
cibarcoaL  The  alumina  is,  moreover,  re- 
stored with  less  expense  than  the  charcoal. — 
We  pass  to  the  eonaderation  of  the  process  for 
bleaching  cotton,  which  has  long  been  exten- 
sively known  as  the  ^'American  bleaching." 
Before  the  year  1886,  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Dana,  act- 
ing as  consulting  chemist  to  the  Merrimack 
xnanu&cturing  company  of  LoweU,  Mass.,  had 
oompleted  an  investigation  on  the  adhering 
and  coloring  matters  of  the  cotton  fibres,  which 
led  him  to  devise  and  cony  into  practice  the 
application  of  chemical  agents  in  such  order  as 
to  insure  uniform  results  in  bleaching.  The 
resino^waxy  envelopes  of  the  fibres^  as  well  as 
the  accidental  starchy,  albuminous,  and  oily 
bodies  present  in  the  manufactured  goods,  are 
by  this  method  resolved  into  soluble  compounds 
and  removed ;  and  when  in  1887  the  process  as 
practised  became  known  to  the  scientific 
bleachera  and  printers  of  Muhlhausen,  it  drew 
forth  their  expressions  of  admiration  foor  its  com- 
pleteness. This  method  is  founded  on  the  2 
following  prinmples :  1.  The  conversion  of  the 
&tty  and  waxy  matters  into  soaps ;  and  for  se- 
curity and  economy,  it  is  preferable  that  these 
soaps  should  have  alkalino-earthy  bases ;  caustic 
lime  becomes,  therefore,  a  most  effectual  agent. 
S.  The  decompontion  of  the  basic  soaps  formed, 
flo  as  to  convert  them  into  soluble  soaps,  which 
IS  eflEected  by  the  action  of  an  alkaline  carbo- 
nate. These  are  the  cardinal  principles  on 
which  this  almost  ^rfect  process  is  founded,  but 
there  are  practical  points  of  interest.  After 
the  principles  were  published,  M.  Auguste 
Scheurer,  c^  Mfthlhausen,  sugsested  the  passing 
of  the  goods  from  the  lime  into  diluted  acid. 
This  step,  by  no  means  essential,  increases  the 
certainty  of  an  easy  decomposition  of  the  lime 
sof^,  as  the  acid  seizing  the  base  enters  into 
combination  with  it,  leaving  the  fotty  add  free 
to  combine  with  the  base  of  tiie  alkaline  carbo- 
nate, and  form  soluble  soap.  In  describing  the 
projMSS  as  almost  perfect,  a  point  was  in  view, 
which  oalled  for  this  qualifying  phrase.  Dr. 
Dana  found  that  after  the  new  process  had  been 


applied,  and  modified  applications  had  been 
made,  there  still  remained  adhering  to  the  fibre 
a  substance  which  has  many  of  the  characterK 
of  wax.  This  substance  he  has  studied  at  great 
length,  separating  it  from  bleached  cotton  by 
means  of  ooiling  alcohol,  which  deposits  it  on 
cooling.  Its  few  affinities  do  not  allow  of  the 
application  of  any  special  agent  for  removing 
it  wholly  ;  while  the  solution  of  rosin  in  alkali, 
combining  with  it,  dissolves  a  portion.  This 
body,  unlike  wax  in  its  relation  to  coloring 
matter,  becomes  tinted  in  ordinary  madder 
printing,  at  the  points  where  it  is  desirable  that 
white  grounds  only  should  appear,  and  no  modi- 
fication of  bleaching  methoos  has  yet  met  or 
overcome  this  difficulty.  It  was  deemed  proper, 
before  leaving  this  subject,  to  present  this  point 
— of  waxy  matter  remaining — ^prominently,  as 
it  is  the  one  from  which  future  improvements 
will  depart ;  and  it  was  due  to  the  distinguished 
discoverer  of  a  process,  creditable  to  the  science 
of  our  common  country,  that  no  misconception 
in  relation  to  the  great  practical  points  reached 
should  exist.  The  steps  of  this  process  divide 
as  usual  under  those  necessary  to  the  solution 
of  extraneous  bodies,  and  those  by  which  bleach- 
ing of  the  fibre  is  effected,  and  as  presented  here 
are  the  experience  of  extensive  manufiicturing, 
at  the  MTerrimack  manufacturing  company^s 
works  in  Lowell  Mass.  Bleaching  prooeu  :  1. 
Steep  the  doth  m  water  at  temp,  about  90°  F. 
for  24  hours.  2.  Pass  through  a  bath  of  milky 
caustic  lime,  containing  60  lbs.  for  2,500  lbs.  of 
cloth.  8.  Boil  the  doth  as  it  passes  from  the  2d 
operation  6  hours^  counting  from  the  moment  eb- 
ullition actually  occurs.  4.  Wash  through  the 
washing  machine.  5.  Pass  through  a  bath  of  sul- 

Shuric  acid,  diluted  tin  it  marks  2°  B.  6.  Wash 
1  machine.  7.  Boil  6  hours  in  a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  soda  (soda  ash),  containing  100  lbs. 
for  2,600  lbs.  of  doth,  and  in  which  40  lbs.  of 
common  rosin  have  been  previously  dissolved. 
6,  Wash  in  machine.  9.  rass  in  washing  ma- 
chine through  a  dear  solution  of  chloride  of  lime, 
marking  1®  B.  10.  Expose  the  doth,  as  it  is 
folded  from  the  machine  into  pits  with  open 
sides,  to  the  action  of  the  air  and  carbonic  acid, 
still  saturatdd  with  the  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime.  11.  Pass  in  washing  machine  through  sul- 
phuric add  and  water  diluted  to  2''B.  12  and  18. 
Wash  twice  in  machine.  All  these  operations 
are  conducted  in  the  ordinary  vessels  called 
kiers,  heated  by  steam,  and  in  the  ususl  ^*  log- 
rolling" washing  machines^  with  their  special 
adaptations. 

BLEACHING  POWDER.  By  the  action 
of  chlorine  gas  upon  hydrate  of  lime,  a  com- 
pound is  produced,  which  is  known  by  the 
common  name  of  chloride  of  lime.  By  the 
calico-printers,  and  others  who  make  use  of  it 
for  its  bleaching  properties,  it  is  called 
bleaching  powders.  It  is  also  known  as 
hypochlcMrite  of  lime,  chlorinated  lime,  ^co. 
The  compound  was  first  prepared  by  Mr. 
Tennant  of  Ghisgow,  in  experimenting  upon 
the  best  applications  of  chlorine  to  bleach- 


844 


BLEACHING  POWDER 


ing  purposes.  He  first  made  it  in  the  form 
of  tne  satarated  liquid  solntion ;  and  the  year 
flaoceediDg  (in  1799)  he  took  out  a  patent 
for  impregnating  dry  quicklime  with  chlorine. 
By  the  suggestion  of  one  of  his  partners, 
slaked  lime,  or  the  hydrate,  was  substituted 
for  the  quicklime,  haying  the  property  of  ab- 
sorbing large  quantities  of  the  gas,  which  the 
quicklime  has  not.  The  firm  of  Messrs.  Ten- 
nant  &  Co.,  of  Glasgow,  have  continued  to 
this  time  the  largest  manufacturers  of  this  val- 
uable bleaching  material  In  preparing  it,  a 
pure  quality  of  lime  is  required,  free  from  iron, 
day,  and  magnesia,  the  presence  of  which 
would  seriously  affect  the  bleaching  process. 
It  should  also  be  well  and  freshly  burned,  and 
freed  from  all  carbonic  acid.  Enough  water  is 
then  to  be  added  to  it  to  cause  it  to  fall  into  a 
fine  white  powder,  which  is  the  hydrate  of  lime. 
Chlorine  is  prepared  by  several  different  pro- 
cesses; but  2  only  are  in  cofnmon  use  in  the 
large  establishments.  One  of  these  consists  in 
decomposing  hydrochloric  acid  by  heating  it 
in  contact  with  coarsely  pulverized  black  oxide 
of  manganese.  This  substance,  which  is  the  ore 
called  pyrolnsite,  and  also  the  similar  ore,  psilo- 
melane,  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  oxygen 
gas,  which  in  the  ihutuid  decomposition  unites 
with  the  hydrogen  of  the  hydrochloric  acid  to 
form  water,  setting  free  the  chlorine,  an  atom 
of  which  takes  the  place  of  the  oxygen,  form- 
ing chloride  of  manganese,  and  another  atom 
escapes.  These  changes  are  represented  by  the 
following  formula : 

MnO,    +   8Ha    =    Miia    +    9HO    +    CI 
r«rozld«  of      HydroeUoiie       Chloride  of       Water       Chloriao 


the  first  part  of  the  equation  being  the  mate- 
rials employed,  and  the  latter  the  products  ob- 
tained. The  other  process  consists  in  mixing 
the  manganese  ore  with  common  salt,  and  adding 
sulphuric  acid.  The  chanffes  which  are  then 
effected  are  represented  as  follows : 

Mn  0,    +  Ka  Cl  +  SHO,  SOr=Mn  O,  BO,+Nft  O,  SO, 


Poroxido  of      Chlorido  of     SnlplrarM      Sulphate  of    Sulphate  of 


+    SHO 
Water 


It  18  important  that  the  manganese  ore  should 
be  of  the  purest  quality,  in  oi^er  to  obtain  from 
it  the  largest  quantity  of  oxygen  gas.  Pyroln- 
site when  pure  gives  up,  at^  white  heat,  88.1 
per  cent  of  its  weight  of  oxygen,  and  passes 
into  the  red  oxide.  Chlorine  gas  is  thus  pre- 
pared in  large  alembics  or  stills,  which  are 
made  of  cast-iron,  where  exposed  to  strong 
heat,  and  in  part  of  strong  sheet  lead ;  or  some- 
times of  stones  closely  fitted  and  cemented  to 
each  other.  The  lower  portion  is  sometimes 
made  double  for  introduQing  hot  steam  for 
heating  the  mixture  in  the  inner  vessel.  The  ma- 
terials introduced  are  in  the  following  propor- 
tions, rated  as  if  pure,  but  varying  with  t^eir 
impurities:  binoxide  of  manganese,  100  parts; 
common  salt,  150  parts ;  and  sulphuric  acid,  of 


specific  gravity  1.6,  about  185  parts.  The  tem- 
perature is  kept  at  about  180^  F.,  and  the  ma- 
terials are  kept  in  agitation  by  a  stirrer,  which 
is  made  to  revolve  in  the  lower  part  of 
the  vessel.  As  the  gas  is  evolved,  it  passes  by 
a  lead  pipe  to  the  purifier,  and  into  the  top  of 
the  chamber  in  which  the  hydrate  of  lime  is 
deposited  in  trays,  which  are  placed  upon 
shelves.  Heat  is  generated  by  the  chemical 
combination ;  but  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
exceed  62°  R,  the  supply  of  chlorine  being 
checked  to  keep  the  temperature  down. 
For  2  days  the  process  goes  on,  when  it  is 
stopped,  that  the  workmen  may  enter  with 
half  a  set  of  trays  of  fresh  hydrate  of  lime 
to  replace  an  equsl  quantity,  whidi  has  be^i 
exposed  4  days  to  the  action  of  the  gas,  and 
to  stir  over  that  which  has  been  in  2  days. 
Half  a  charge  is  thus  taken  out  every  2  day& 
When  well  made,  it  should  be  a  uniform  white 
powder,  without  lumps,  smelling  of  chlorine, 
dissolving  with  little  residue  in  20  parts  of 
water  with  alkaline  reaction,  and  attracting 
moisture  very  slowly  from  the  air.  When  pre- 
pared in  a  li<]^uid  state,  the  gas  is  passed  into 
lime-water,  till  this  is  saturated  with  it.  The 
solution,  for  the  quantity  of  lime  it  contains,  is 
stronger  than  the  dry  powder,  but  it  is  not  so 
permanent  in  character,  the  chlorine  sooner  es- 
caping from  it  It  cannot,  therefore^  be  kept 
long. — ^A  process  of  obtaining  chlorine  from 
salt  by  means  of  nitrate  of  soda  and  sulphnric 
acid  has  been  patented  in  England,  and  is  carried 
on  by  the  Messrs.  Tennant,  of  Glasgow,  upon 
a  large  scale.  They  decompose  about  8  tons  of 
nitrate  of  soda  weekly,  fVom  which  they  ob- 
tain about  12  tons  of  good  bleaching  powder. 
This  process  is  described  by  Dr.  Muspratt  in 
his  recent  work  on  chemistir.  The  expense  for 
labor  and  fuel  is  represented  to  be  no  greater 
than  by  the  sulphate  method.  The  heavy  oost 
of  the  nitrate  of  soda  is  counterbalanced  by 
the  nitrous  acid  produced,  which  supplies  the 
place  of  nitrate  of  soda  in  the  manufJEicture  of 
sulphuric  acid. — ^The  exact  chemical  constitu- 
tion of  chloride  of  lime  has  never  been  defi- 
nitely settled.  By  some  chemists  it  is  regarded 
as  a  hypochlorite  of  lime  combined  with  an 
equivalent  of  chloride  of  calcium.  Dr.  Ure 
considers  it  a  mixture  in  no  definite  prc^rtion 
of  chlorine  and  hydrate  of  lime.  As  formeriy 
prepared,  the  mbcture,  when  chlorine  ceased 
to  be  absorbed,  consisted  <^  1  equivalent  <^ 
chlorine  and  2  of  hydrate  of  lime;  but  by  the 
improved  process  of  preparation,  the  best  sam- 
plesj  according  to  Dr.  Thompson,  now  consist 
of  single  equivalents  of  chlorine  and  lime,  and 
are  almost  entirely  soluble  in  water.  Dr. 
Muspratt  and  some  others  regard  it  as  a  com- 
pound of  the  type  of  binoxide  of  calcium,  in 
which  1  equivalent  of  the  oxygen  is  replaced 
by  chlorine,  as  represented  by  uie  formula : 

M8  MS 

/ *  \  <  * "  '» 

0looxid«  of  Calcium 


OsyoUarido  •<  Cdfliam 


BLEACHING  POWDER 


BLENDE 


845 


Hdwever  expressed,  the  compound  is  generally 
regarded  by  the  best  authorities  as  consisting 
of  1  equivalent  of  chlorine,  1  of  calcium,  and 
1  of  oxygen.  Theoretically  it  should  afford 
48.96  per  cent  of  chlorine ;  but  by  reason  of 
its  liability  to  decompose,  the  chlorine  in  the 
oommeroial  article  averages  only  from  80  to 
88,  and  rarely  exceeds  86  per  cent ;  indeed, 
amr  being  kept  a  few  months,  it  is  oftener 
fbund  to  contain  less  than  10  per  cent,  of 
available  dilorine.  Its  value  depending  upon 
Hhb  quantity  of  chlorine,  that  is  readily 
evdvod,  and  as  by  exposure  x>ortions  of  the 
dilorine  become  fixed  by  new  combinations 
of  chloride  of  calcium  and  chlorate  of  lime, 
the  methods  of  testing  bleaching  powder 
•re  dependent,  not  on  tiie  absolute  quantity 
of  dilorine  present,  but  on  that  easily  dis- 
placed. The  operation  of  thus  testing  its  value 
M-termed  chlorimetry.  One  process,  in  com- 
mon use  by  the  bleachers,  is  in  determining  the 
Suantity  of  indigo  of  which  a  certain  amount  of 
be  powder  will  destroy  the  color.  The  ac- 
curacy of  this  operation,  however,  cannot  be 
relied  upon,  the  indigo  not  being  of  uniform 
quality,  and  its  solution  bein^  subject  to  de- 
oompoeition  by  keeping.  The  simplest  and 
moat  accurate  test  is  the  determination  of  the 
quantity  of  sulphate  of  iron,  which,  when  in 
mntioD,  is  converted,  through  the  influence  of 
the  cblorine  evolved,  into  the  sesquioxide  of 
iron.  The  change  is  known  to  be  completed 
when  a  dingy  green  is  given  to  the  liquid  on 
addition  of  ferricyanide  of  potassium.  This 
test,  as  adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopoeia 
of  1850,  is  thus  applied :  "  When  40  grains  of 
tiie  powder  triturated  with  a  fluid  ounce  of  dis- 
tilled water  are  well  shaken  with  a  solution  of 
78  grains  of  crystallized  sulphate  of  protoxide 
of  iron  and  10  drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  in  2  fluid 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  a  liquid  is  formed, 
whidi  does  not  yield  a  olue  precipitate  with 
ferricyanide  of  potassium  (red  prussiate  of 
potash^.''  If  the  powder  contain  less  chlorine 
than  the  proportion  required  by  the  Pharma- 
copoBiiA  (25  per  cent.),  the  protoxide  will  not 
be  all  converted  into  the  sesquioxide,  and  the 
precipitate  with  the  prussiate  of  potash  wiU  be 
of  blue  color. — ^Beside  its  use  for  bleaching 
pnrposee,  chloride  of  lime,  or  chlorinated  lime, 
aa  it  is  also  colled,  is  employed  in  medicine  as  a 
dmnfectant  and  desiccant.  It  is  applied  as  a 
wash  lor  ulcers,  burns,  cutaneous  eruptions, 
dEO.;  a  gargle  for  putrid  sore  throat ;  and  is 
administered  intemaUy  in  typhoid  fever,  scrof- 
ula, and  other  diseases.  By  the  facility  with 
which  it  ]b  made  to  ^ve  up  its  chlorine,  it  is  a 
veiy  valuable  agent  for  disinfecting  all  places 
e^Kieed  to  noxious  effluvia.  It  is  applied  to 
purify  the  air  of  ho^itals,  ships,  &c.,  and  is 
believed  to  be  influential  in  preventing  the 
spread  of  contagion  by  destroying  the  pesti- 
lential miasma.  Animal  and  vegetable  decom- 
pofl&tlona  are  checked ;  and  it  is  thus  made  useful 
as  an  antiseptic  In  long  voyages  it  is  applied 
to  the  porincation  of  the  water  used  on  board 


ships.  One  or  two  ounces  are  put  in  a  hogs- 
head of  water,  and  after  exposure  to  the  air 
and  settling,  the  quality  of  this  is  found  to  be 
much  im'proved. 

BLEAK,  a  parish  in  the  county  of  Kent, 
England,  and  the  centre  of  a  poor-law  union 
comprising  16  parishes.  The  forest  of  Blean 
was  anciently  of  vast  extent,  and  even  as  late 
as  the  time  of  Henry  YI.  it  was  the  scene 
of  wild  boar  hunts.  It  has  now  lost  its  priv- 
ileges.  Pop.  about  600. 

BLEDSOE,  a  S.  E.  county  of  Tennessee, 
comprising  an  area  of  480  sq.  m.,  and  drained 
by  Sequatchie  river.     It  has  an  uneven  and 

Sartly  mountainous  surface,  and  in  1850  pro- 
uced  407,025  bushels  of  com,  83,670  of  oats, 
and  42,427  pounds  of  butter.  There  were  28 
churches,  and  600  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  Mineral  coal  is  found  in  several  parts  of 
the  county.  Capital,  Pikeville ;  pop.  5,959,  of 
whom  827  were  slaves. 

BLEECEEB,  Ann  Eliza,  an  American  poet- 
ess, was  the  youngest  daughter  of  Mr.  Brandt 
Schuyler,  bom  in  New  York,  in  Oct.,  1752,  died 
at  Tomhanick,  above  Albany,  Kov.  23,  1788. 
She  married,  in  1769,  Mr.  John  J.  Bleecker,  lived 
with  him  one  year  at  Poughkeepsie,  then  re- 
moved to  Tomhanick,  whence  she  was  driven  by 
the  news  of  the  approach  of  Burgoyne's  army. 
Her  husband  had  already  left  to  provide  means 
of  escape,  when  she  was  obliged  to  fly  on  foot, 
in  the  midst  of  her  family,  and  of  a  crowd  of 
other  helpless  persons,  for  refuge  from  the  ad- 
vancing savages.  After  enduring  great  horrors 
and  distresses,  they  mode  their  escape  to  Al- 
bany, and  thence  by  water  to  Red  Hookj  where 
they  remained  untU  the  surrender  of  Burgoyne 
enabled  them  to  return  to  their  home.  In  1781, 
her  husband  was  captured,  with  two  of  his  la- 
borers, while  working  in  a  field,  and  carried  off 
toward  Canada,  but  intercepted  by  a  party 
from  Bennington.  She  visited  New  York  in 
the  spring  of  1783,  but  found  the  changes  of 
time  and  war  oppressive  to  her  sensitive  mind. 
Her  poems  were  written  as  suggested  by  oc- 
casions, without  a  view  to  publication.  She 
possessed  a  sportive  fancy,  with  much  tender- 
ness of  feeling,  but  the  sad  experiences  of  her 
life  produced  upon  her  such  an  effect,  that  she 
destroyed  "  all  the  pieces  that  were  not  as  mel- 
ancholy as  herself."  Her  poems  are  to  be  found 
in  tJie  earlier  numbers  of  the  "  New  York  Mag- 
azine," and  a  collection  of  her  stories  and  "po- 
etics" in  a  volume  published  in  1793,  by  her 
daughter  Margnretta. 

BLEGNO,  or  Blenjo,  also  Bbenno,  a  river  of 
Switzerland,  flowing  into  the  Ticino  (or  Tessin), 
near  Biasoa.  A  fertile  district  of  the  canton  of 
Ticino,  called  the  Val-di-BleffnOy  derives  its  name 
from  tiiis  river. 

BLEMMYES,  a  nomadic  tribe  of  Ethiopia, 
fabled  to  have  been  without  heads,  their  eyes 
and  mouths  being  placed  in  their  breast. 

BLENDE  (Germ,  blenden,  to  dazzle),  a  common 
ore  of  zinc,  the  sulphuret,  composed  of  sulphur  88, 
zinc  67;  often  found  in  shining  crystals,  whence 


346 


BLENHEIM 


BLENNEBHABSET 


its  name.  It  is  of  resinous  or  adamantiDe  lustre ;  of 
yellow,  brown,  black,  and  rarely  red,  green,  and 
white  colors;  of  hardness  8.5  to  4,  and  speci- 
fic gravity  4.063.  It  accompanies  galena,  the 
common  ore  of  lead,  and  is  found  in  numer- 
ous  localities,  in  the  metamorphio  rocks  and 
the  second  ary  limestones  and  sandstones  through- 
out the  country.  Though  so  abundant,  and  so 
rich  in  metal,  it  is  found  difficult  of  reduction, 
and  no  use  is  made  of  it  in  this  country.  The 
English  employ  it  to  some  extent,  and  its  price 
has  been  about  $15  per  ton,  half  the  yalue  of 
calamine,  the  silicate  of  zinc,  which  is  not  quite 
so  rich  an  ore.  The  Chinese'  reduce  the  sul- 
phuret  successfully. 

BLENHEIM,  or  Bundheim,  a  village  about 
28  miles  from  Augsburg,  in  Bavaria,  the 
theatre  of  a  great  battle,  fought  Aug.  13, 
1704,  between  tne  English  and  Austriaos,  under 
Marlborough  and  Prince  Eugene,  and  the  rrench 
and  Bavarians,  under  Marshal  Tallard,  Marsin, 
and  the  elector  of  Bavaria.  The  Austrian  states 
being  menaced  by  a  direct  invasion  on  the  side 
of  Germany,  Marlborough  marched  from  Flan- 
ders to  their  assistance.  The  allies  agreed  to 
act  on  the  defen^ve  in  Italy,  the  Netherlandsi, 
and  the  lower  Rhine,  and  to  concentrate  all 
their  available  forces  on  the  Danube.  Marlbor- 
ough, after  storming  the  Bavarian  intrench- 
ments  on  the  Schellenberg,  passed  the  Danube, 
and  effected  his  junction  with  Eugene,  after 
which  both  at  once  marched  to  attack  the  ene- 
my. They  found  him  behind  the  Nebel  brook, 
with  the  viUages  of  Blenheim  and  Eitzingen 
strongly  occupied  in  front  of  either  flank.  The 
Frendi  had  tne  right  wing,  the  JBft^ftrians  held 
the  left.  Their  line  was  nearly  5  ndles  in  ex- 
tent, each  army  having  its  cavalry  on  its  wings, 
so  that  a  portion  of  the  centre  was  held  by  both 
French  and  Bavarian  cavalry.  The  position 
had  not  vet  been  properly  occupied  according 
to  the  then  prevailing  rules  of  tactics.  The 
mass  of  the  French  infantry.  27  battalions,  was 
crammed  together  in  Blenheim,  consequently 
in  a  position  completely  helpless  for  troops  or- 
ganized as  they  were  then,  and  adapted  for  line 
fighting  in  an  open  country  only.  The  attack 
of  the  Anglo- Austrians,  however,  surprised  them 
in  this  dangerous  condition,  and  Marlborough 
very  soon  drew  all  the  advantages  from  it 
which  the  occasion  offered.  Having  in  vain 
attacked  Blenheim,  he  suddenly  drew  his  main 
strength  toward  his  centre,  and  with  it  broke 
through  the  centre  of  his  opponents.  Eugene 
made  lisht  work  of  the  thus  isolated  Bavarians, 
and  undertook  the  general  pursuit,  while  Marl- 
borough, having  completely  cut  off  tiie  retreat 
of  the  18,000  Frenchmen  blocked  up  in  Blen- 
heim, compelled  them  to  lay  down  &eir  arms. 
Among  them  was  Marshal  Tallard.  The  total 
loss  of  the  Franco-Bavarians  was  80,000  killed, 
wounded,  and  prisoners;  that  of  the  victors, 
about  11,000  men.  The  battle  decided  the  cam- 
paign, Bavaria  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Austrians,  and  the  prestige  of  Louis  XIY.  was 
gone.     This   battle   is   one   of    the    highest 


tactical  interest,  showing  very  conspicuonsly 
the  immense  difference  between  the  tactics  of 
that  time  and  those  of  our  day.  The  very  cir- 
cumstance which  would  now  be  considered 
one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  a  defensive 
position,  viz.,  the  having  2  villages  in  front  of 
the  flanks,  was  witJi  troops  of  the  18th 
century  the  cause  of  defeat.  At  that  time,  in- 
fantry was  totally  unfit  for  that  skirmishing 
and  apparently  irregular  fighting  which  now 
makes  a  village  of  masonry  houses,  occupied  by 
good  troops,  almost  impregnable.  This  battle 
is  called  in  France,  and  on  the  continent  gen- 
erally, the  battle  of  Hodist&dt,  from  a  Uttle 
town  of  thiB  name  in  the  vicuoity,  which  was 
already  known  to  fiime  by  a  battle  fought  there 
on  Sept.  20  of  the  preceding  year. 

BLENNEBHABSET,  Habmak,  the  most  noted 
victim  of  Aaron  Burr's  conspiracy,  bom  in  Hamp- 
shire, England,  about  1769,  died  in  the  island 
of  Guernsey,  in  1881.  He  was  of  Irish  descent 
He  was  called  to  the  Irish  bar,  but  becoming  dis- 
contented with  the  position  of  Ireland,  and  in- 
dulging no  hopes  of  her  emancipation,  he  re- 
solved on  emigrating  to  America.  He  married 
Miss  Adeline  Agnew,  a  lady  of  remarkable  beauty 
and  accomplishments,  sold  his  Irish  estates,  and 
sailed  for  New  York  in  1797.  There  he  re- 
mained for  several  months,  engaged  in  study- 
ing the  topography  of  the  New  World,  and, 
at  length,  attradied  by  what  he  heard  of  the 
region  of  Ohio,  then  almost  a  wilderness,  he 
resolved  on  emigrating  thither.  He  was  a  man 
of  handsome  fortune,  and  of  romantic  tastes; 
and  in  the  spring  of  1798,  having  spent  the 
previous  winter  at  Marietto,  he  purchased  a 
small  island  in  the  Ohio  river,  called  Backus 
Island,  about  2  miles  below  Parkersburg.  This 
spot  of  170  acres  he  proceeded  to  clear,  and  call 
after  his  own  name ;  and  he  then  erected  on  it 
a  noble  mansion,  which  he  filled  with  rich  fur- 
niture, while  the  grounds  were  elaborately  cul- 
tivated and  adorned.  In  the  course  of  a  few 
years,  Blennerhasset  spent  not  less  than  $60,000 
in  embellishments;  and  being  a  man  of  letters, 
of  elegant  manners,  and  geni^  tastes,  his  home 
became  one  of  the  most  attractive  places  in  the 
American  states.  The  stranger  who  was  so 
fortunate  as  to  be  properly  introduced,  found, 
to  his  surprise,  that  amid  the  rugged  wilds  of 
Ohio,  he  was  surrounded  by  comforts  and  ele- 
gance. He  discovered  in  his  hostess  one  whose 
commanding  beauty  of  person  was  enhanced  by 
the  charms  of  elegant  culture.  In  the  hus- 
band he  saw  the  man  of  refined  mind,  surround- 
ed by  books  and  philosophical  apparatus,  who 
had  voluntarily  sought  his  romantic  seclusion. 
In  1805,  during  Blennerhasset's  absence  from 
home,  Burr  came  to  the  island  in  company 
with  a  female  companion,  ostensibly  to  gratify 
his  curiosity.  Mrs.  Blennerhasset  discovering 
who  he  was,  invited  him  into  the  house,  and  an 
acquiuntance  was  thus  commenced.  At  this 
time  Burr  was  fully  resolved  upon  his  Mexioan 
schemes;  and  as  Blennerhasset  was  then 
regarded  as  one  of  the  most  prominent  char- 


BLENNEBHABSET 


BLESSINGTON 


847 


aden  in  the  -western  oonntry,  he  resolved  to 
gain  his  confidenoe,  and  indace  him  to  embark 
in  his  enterprise.  In  December,  1605,  Barr 
addressed  an  insinuating  letter  to  Blennerhasset, 
regretting  not  having  made  his  aoqnuntanoe, 
flattering  hun  with  hints  of  his  talents  and 
adaptation  for  pubho  affidrs,  and  nr^^  Mm 
again  to  take  an  active  part  in  life.  He  held 
cot  indnoements  that^his  time  might  be  advan- 
tageously- oocnpted,  and  his  fortime  Increased, 
to  whioh  Blennerhasset,  who  now  found  his 
property  gradually  diminishing,  gave  too  ready 
a  hearing;  Burr's  letter  was  soon  answered, 
Blennerhasset,  who  imagined  the  oonntry  to  be 
<m  the  eve  of  a  war  with  Spain,  expressing  a 
desire  to  engage  in  any  enterprise  which  prom- 
ised sufficient  reward.  In  Aqgost,  1806,  Burr 
again  visited  the  island.  In  a  short  time,  both 
^nnerhasset  and  his  wife  were  fully  committed. 
iKennerhasset  now  largely  invested  his  means 
in  boats,  provisions,  arms^  and  ammunition.  He 
left  his  home  and  family  and  went  to  Kentucky, 
where  being  warned  of  Burr's  real  designs,  he 
returned  to  the  island  greatly  disheartened. 
However,  through  Burros  repeated  solicitations, 
and  the  persuasions  of  his  wife,  who  had  now 
enlisted  in  the  undertaking  with  her  whole  soul, 
he  persisted.  A  proclamation  against  the  scheme 
having  been  published  b^  President  Jefferson, 
Blennerhasset,  who  was  in  hourly  expectation 
td  being  arrested  by  Col.  Phelps  of  Parkersburg, 
esd^MQ  irom  the  island  Dec  10,  in  company 
with  a  detain  Oomfort  Tyler,  and  managing  to 
dnde  pursuit  joined  Burros  flotilla  at  the  mouth 
dt  the  Cumberland  river.  CoL  Phelps^s  party 
arrived  at  the  island  to  And  it  deserted,  and 
while  their  commander  was  temporarily  absent 
at  Point  Pleasant,  in  an  ineffectual  attempt  to 
arresit  Blennerhasset,  the  men  committed  the 
most  wanton  outrages^  burning  the  fences,  de- 
stroyinff  the  shrubbery,  and  hacking  the  furni- 
ture. Mrs.  Blennerhasset  bore  her  part  during 
an  these  trying  scenes  with  great  composure, 
and  at  length  in  the  dead  of  winter  set  out  in  a 
wretched  boat  to  Join  her  husband.  She  was 
disappointed  in  not  seeing  him  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Oomberland,  but  on  the  Mississippi  at  the 
entrance  of  Bayou  Pierre  she  with  her  children 
was  restored  to  him. — Burros  scheme  resulting 
in  total  failure,  he  surrendered  himself  to  the 
United  States  authorities.  Blennerhasset  hav- 
ing been  arrested  was  discharged,  and  im- 
agming  that  he  had  nothing  more  to  fear  from 
the  ^vernment,  left  Natchez  in  June,  1807,  with 
the  intention  of  revisiting  his  island  and  fully 
examining  into  his  shatt^ed  fortunes.  On  his 
wa/  he  stopped  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  and  while 
there  was  arrested  and  thrown  into  prison. 
Having  secured  the  legal  services  of  Henry 
Clay,  he  endeavored  to  procure  his  discharge 
}3fj  the  coort.  But  this  was  not  granted,  and 
he  was  forced  to  proceed  to  Richmond,  under 
guard,  to  take  his  trial  for  treason.  Burr,  tried 
.upon  %  indictments,  was  declared  not  guilty; 
and  those  against  the  other  conspirators  were 
never  prosecated.     Bankrupt  in  fortune,  and 


broken  down  in  mind,  Blennerhasset  returned 
to  Natchez,  His  island  had  been  seized  bj 
creditors,  every  thing  upon  it  which  could  be 
converted  into  money  had  been  sold  at  ruinous 
sacrifice,  and  the  beautiM  grounds  were  used 
for  the  culture  of  hemp.  Coming  into  possession 
of  a  sum  of  money,  tij  what  means  it  is  not 
certainly  known,  he  now  bought  1,000  acres 
of  land  near  Gibson^s  Port,  A^issippi,  for  a 
cotton  plantation;  but  the  war  of  1812  pros- 
trated all  commercial  enterprises.  While 
settled  at  this  place,  he  heard  of  the  de- 
struction of  his  former  home  at  the  island 
by  fire,  the  house,  used  as  a  store-house  for 
hemp,  having  accidentally  been  fired  by  some 
careless  negroes.  Becoming  continually  poorer, 
in  1819  he  removed  with  his  family  to  Mont- 
real, but  there  again  was  disappointed.  He 
sailed  for  Ireland  in  1822,  to  prosecute  a  rever- 
sionary claim  still  existing  there.  In  this  he 
failed ;  nor  did  he  meet  with  any  success  in  his 
application  for  aid  to  the  marquis  of  Anglesey, 
whom  he  had  formerly  known.  In  1842,  Mrs. 
Blennerhasset  returned  to  America,  and  memo- 
rialized congress  for  a  grant  of  money  for  the 
spoliation  of  her  former  home.  The  petition 
would  doubtless  have  been  successful,  but  be- 
fore it  could  be  acted  upon,  she  died  in  New 
York  in  most  abject  poverty,  and  was  buried  by 
strangers. 

BL£R£,  a  town  in  France,  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire ;  pop.  in  1856, 8,676.  In  the  vi- 
cinity stands  the  castle  of  Chenonceaux,  one  of 
the  most  interesting  objects  in  this  part  of  France. 
Originally  a  simple  manor  house,  it  was  en- 
larged during  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  to  its 
present  dimensions.  Henry  IL  purchased  it  in 
1535,  and  bestowed  it,  together  with  the  duchy 
of  Yalentinois,  on  the  celebrated  Diana  of 
Poitiers,  who,  before  completing  the  magnifi- 
cent embellishments  which  she  had  commenced, 
was  forced  to  yield  it  to  her  rival,  Catharine 
de^  Medici.  The  latter  adorned  the  castle  stiU 
more  richly  than  her  predecessor,  and  sur- 
rounded  it  with  a  beautiful  park.  It  afterward 
came  into  the  possesion  of  the  house  of  Cond6, 
and  after  many  vicissitudes  was  nurchased  in 
1733  by  Gen.  Dupin,  a  gentlenian  aistinguished 
less  perhaps  by  his  own  learning  than  by  the 
wit  and  beauty  of  his  wife.  Graced  with  the 
accomplishments  of  Madame  Dupin,  Chenon- 
ceaux  became  the  resort  of  some  of  the  most 
celebrated  men  of  the  18th  century.  Montes- 
quieu, Buffon,  Yoltaure,  Fontenelle,  Boling- 
broke,  and  others,  were  among  its  frequent 
visitors.  The  castle  is  built  on  a  kind  of  bridge 
across  the  Cher,  and  has  a  long  gallery  reaching 
from  one  side  of  the  river  to  the  other.  The 
architecture,  furniture,  and  decorations  are  all 
of  the  time  of  the  Yalois.  It  is  still  in  excellent 
preservation. 

BLESSING.    See  Bbmxdiotion. 

BLESSINGTON,  MAROiWBBT,  countess  of,  an 
Irish  literary  lady,  chiefly  celebrated  for  her 
popular  social  qualities  and  her  brilliant  recep- 
tions at  Gore  House,  born  Sept.  1, 1789,  at  Car- 


848 


BLIOHEB 


BLIGH 


rabeen,  in  the  county  of  Waterford,  died  June 
4, 1849,  in  Paris.  Her  miuden  name  was  Power. 
Her  first  husband,  Capt.  Farmer,  whom  she 
married  in  1804,  died  in  1817.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  she  married  Oharles  John  Gardner, 
earl  of  Blessington,  with  whom  she  resided 
chiefly  in  Italy  and  France.  Soon  after  his 
death,  which  took  place  at  Paris  in  1829,  Lady 
Bleseington  went  to  reside  in  Gore  House, 
at  Kensington,  a  splendid  mansion,  bequeathed 
to  her  by  her  husband  in  addition  to  other  prop- 
erty, which  enabled  her  to  dbpense  hospital- 
ities on  a  large  and  brilliant  scale.  But  the  Eng- 
lish ladies  kept  aloof,  as  her  intimate  relation 
with  Count  d'Orsay ,  a  celebrated  lion  in  London 
society,  and  the  peculiar  circumstances  under 
which  he  had  been  married  to  and  shortly 
afterward  separated  from  the  daughter  of  Lady 
Blessington,  gave  rise  to  unpleasant  rumors, 
which,  whether  well  founded  or  not,  militated 
against  the  countess  in  the  minds  even  of  many 
persons  who  otherwise  admired  her  fascinating 
character.  For  a  long  time,  however,  her 
house  was  the  rendezvous  of  the  principal  men 
of  Europe,  especially  those  eminent  in  letters. 
Her  Irish  warmheartedness  and  her  ready  sym- 

Eathies  endeared  her  to  a  wide  circle  of  fHends, 
ut  pecuniary  difficulties,  partly  brought  about 
by  her  embarrassed  estate  in  Ireland,  oartly  by 
her  expensive  style  of  living,  put  an  end  to  these 
social  gatherings,  and  Gore  House  was  sold  by 
public  auction.  In  the  spring  of  1849  she  re- 
paired to  Paris  in  order  to  be  near  to  Louis 
ilapoleon,  whom  she  had  befriended  in  Lon- 
don, but  died  shortly  after  her  arrival.  Her 
pen  had  in  her  days  of  trouble  been  frequently 
a  source  of  pecuniary  relief  to  her.  She  made 
her  d^but  as  an  authoress  in  1826,  with  some 
London  sketches  entitled  the  "  Magic  Lantern," 
which  were  followed  by  "  Travelling  Sketches 
in  Belgium."  Her  "  Conversations  with  Lord 
Byron,"  published  first  in  1882  in  the  "  New 
Monthly  Magazine,"  afterward  appeared  in  book 
form,  and  excited  a  certain  de^ee  of  interest 
from  the  relation  in  which  she  had  personally 
stood  to  Byron  in  Italy.  Subsequently  she  pub- 
lished "Desultory  Thoughts  and  Rejections," 
and  several  novels,  among  them  "  Grace  Cassidy, 
or  the  Repealers;"  the  •*Two  Friends;"  "  Mere- 
dith;" "Strathem;"  "Marmaduke  Hubert;" 
the  "Governess;"  the  "Victims  of  Society," 
&c.  The  "  Victims  of  Society  "  is  considered  as 
one  of  her  best  works.  Beside  her  novels, 
which  were  almost  all  translated  into  German, 
and  which  especially  found  a  large  circle  of 
reiiders  among  ladies,  she  wrote  illustrated 
books  of  poetry,  and  books  of  travels,  as  "The 
Idler  in  France,"  and  "The  Idler  in  Italy," 
and  at  the  same  time,  she  was  an  active  con* 
tributor  to  many  English  magazines,  and  the 
editor  of  fashionable  annuals. 

BLICHER,  Steen  Stsbnben,  a  Danish  novel- 
ist and  poet,  bom  in  the  province  of  Viborg, 
Oct.  11, 1782,  died  March  26, 1848.  He  studied 
theology,  officiated  for  many  years  as  pastor  in 
Jutland,  and  published  translations  of  Ossian  in 


1807.  Subsequently,  firom  the  ScandinaTian 
spirit  which  prevailed  in  his  poems  and  novels, 
and  the  qualities  of  his  style,  he  was  called  the 
Walter  Scott  of  the  North.  Of  feeble  health 
and  oppressed  by  domestic  sorrows,  he  with- 
drew to  the  wildernesses  of  Jutland,  but  shortly 
before  his  death  he  came  forth  from  seclusion 
to  deliver  lectures  in  favor  of  a  Scandinavian 
union,  and  German  translations  of  them  ap- 
peared in  1846  and  1849.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  was  published  at  Copenhagen  in 
1847,  in  9  vols. 

BLIDAH,  or  Blida,  a  town  in  Algiers,  on 
the  borders  of  the  Meti^ah  Plain,  captured  by 
the  French  in  1880,  and  occupied  by  them 
since  1 840.  Pop.  in  1846,  9,103,  of  whom  2,290 
were  Europeans. 

BLIGH,  William,  an  Eu^ish  navigator, 
bom  in^l758,  died  in  London,  Dec.  7, 1817.  He 
a^ompanied  Cook  on  his  voyages  in  the  Pacific, 
and  when  he  returned  was  appointed  commander 
of  the  Bounty,  commissioned  by  George  III.  to 
import  the  breadfndt  tree  and  other  edible 
fruits  of  the  South  Sea  islands  into  the  West 
Indies.  He  sailed  from  Spithead  for  Otaheite, 
Dec.  28,  1787.  Oct  26,  1788,  he  reached  his 
destination,  and  remained  there  until  April 
4,  1789.  He  set  sail  for  the  West  Indies 
with  a  cargo  of  774  pots,  89  tubs,  and  24  boxes. 
His  ship's  crew  mutinied,  seized  him  while 
he  was  asleep,  and  put  him  and  his  adher- 
ents, to  the  number  of  18,  on  board  the  launch, 
which,  when  set  adrift  on  the  wide  ocean, 
was  provisioned  with  a  28  gallon  cask  of  water, 
1 50  lbs.  of  bread,  82  lbs.  of  pork,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  rum  and  wine,  with  a  quadrant  and  com- 
pass, but  no  map,  epnemeris,  or  sextant.  They 
were  near  the  island  of  Tofoa,  at  the  time  of 
leaving  the  ship,  in  lat.  19°  S.,  and  long.  184'' 
E.  They  landed,  but  were  attacked  by  the  na- 
tives, and  scarcely  escaped  with  their  lives. 
They  caught,  on  ^eir  voyage,  a  few  sea  birds, 
and  spent  a  few  days  among  the  coral  islands 
off  New  Holland,  where  they  found  some  oys- 
ters, dams,  and  dog  fish,  and  rested  from  the 
fatigue  consequent  upon  their  long  confinement . 
in  a  small  boat,  buried  in  the  water  to  the  gun- 
wale. June  14,  they  reached  Timor,  where 
they  were  well  received  by  the  Dutch  govern- 
or. They  had  in  46  days  after  the  mutiny  nm 
in  an  open  boat,  by  the  log,  a  distance  of  8,618 
nautical  miles  without  the  loss  of  a  single  man. 
After  remaining  2  months  in  Timor  th^  reach- 
ed Batavia  Oct.  1,  and  proceeded  to  England^ 
where  Bligh  arrived  March  14, 1790.  Of  his 
18  companions,  5  died  and  1  was  left  behind  in 
Batavia.  On  the  publication  of  his  ^  Narra- 
tive of  the  Mutiny  on  board  H.  M.  S.  Bounty,'* 
public  sympathy  in  Britain  was  much  excited 
in  his  favor.  He  was  again  (Aug.  1791) 
sent  out  to  Otaheite  with  the  rank  of  com- 
mander, on  the  same  botanical  mission  as  before, 
in  which  he  was  completely  successful,  beade 
discovering  some  small  islands  and  sowing- 
European  kitchen  garden  vegetables  in  Taa* 
mania)  then  called  Van  Diemen's  Land.    In 


BLIGHT 


BUND 


349 


1806  be  was  made  goyernor  of  New  South 
Wales,  and  acted  there  in  saoh  an  arbitrary 
manner  that  his  coUeagaes,  civil  and  military, 
agreed  to  arrest  him,  and  he  was  sent  back  to 
England  in  Jan.  1808*  The  home  government 
justified  the  action  and  condemned  Bligh.  This 
circumstance  has  led  people  to  believe  that 
Blights  conduct  on  the  quarter-deck  was  des- 
potic and  inhuman. 

BLIGHT,  a  popular  name  for  various  distem- 
pers incident  to  cultivated  plants.  It  may  be 
occasioned  by  insects  either  at  the  roots  or  in 
the  branches,  by  cold  winds  and  frosty  nights 
in  the  spring,  or  by  the  ravages  of  parasitical 
fimgi.  It  makes  the  leaves  wither,  curl  up, 
turn  yellow,  or  fall  ofE^  and  if  not  remedied 
causes  the  destruction  of  the  plant. 

BLIND,  Thb,  persons  who  have  either  lost, 
or  never  possessed,  the  power  of  vision.  Blind- 
ness may  be  either  complete  or  incomplete.  It 
Is  complete  when  there  is  no  consciousness  of 
lig^t,  and  no  ability  to  discern  even  the  dim 
form  of  large  objecta  It  occurs  in  amaurosis, 
and  in  all  those  cases  which  are  the  result  of 
destruction  of  the  ball  of  the  eye.  In  incom- 
plete blindness,  there  is  a  consciousness  of 
nght  which  enables  the  person  to  distinguish 
between  day  and  night,  and  to  discern  imper- 
fectly the  outline  of  objects  of  considerable  size. 
There  is  a  class  in  most  of  the  institutions  for  the 
instruction  of  the  blind  called  ^^  seeing  blind," 
who  are  capable  of  distinguishing  objects  by 
some  exertion,  and  who,  in  consequence  of  this 
imperfect  vision,  are  doubly  unfortunate,  lack- 
ing the  high  cultivation  of  the  other  senses  so  com- 
monly attained  b^  the  blind,  and  yet  not  possess- 
ing sufficient  vision  to  be  of  much  service  to 
them.  Tet  despite  this  difficulty,*  some  of  them 
have  attained  to  very  considerable  distinction. 
The  blindness  of  the  celebrated  American  preach- 
er and  lecturer.  Rev.  W.  H.  Milburn,  is  of  this  de- 
scription. Blindness,  though  congenital  in  many 
instances,  is  less  frequently  so  than  deafness. 
When  congenital,  its  causes  are  generally  analo- 
gous to  those  which  induce  idiocy,  deafness,  and 
iosani^.  Intermarriage  of  near  relations,  scrof- 
ula or  other  diseases  of  parents,  and  intemper- 
ance on  the  part  of  parents,  are  very  common 
causes.  There  are  many  cases,  however,  which 
cannot  be  thus  accounted  for.  Blindness  occur- 
ring subsequent  to  birth,  is  usually  the  result  of 
purulent  ophthalmia,  coi^junctivitis,  iritis,  cata- 
ract, amaurosis  orguttaserena,  small-pox,  scarlet 
fever,  measles,  or  accident,  from  powder,  blows 
an  the  eye,  ^  Of  the  diseases  enumerated, 
pnrolent  ophthalmia  and  amaurosis  are  most 
utal  to  sight  The  latter,  which  consists  in 
paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve,  is  very  seldom 
cured.  It  was  the  cause  of  Milton's  blindness. 
Aged  persons  frequently  become  blind  from  the 
inabnitj  of  the  lachrymal  glands  to  secrete 
tesrs  sufficient  to  lubricate  uie  eye,  from  ab- 
sorption of  the  aqueous  humor,  opacity  of  the 
cornea  or  lens,  oc.  Iritis  is  emphatically  a 
disease  of  cities,  being,  except  in  cases  of  acci- 
dent, which  are  rare,  almost  invariably  one  of 


the  results  of  syphilitic  disease.  Persons  af- 
fected with  congenital  blindness,  and  who  con- 
sequentiy  have  no  idea  of  vision,  have  occa- 
sionally been  restored  to  sight  by  surgical 
operations,  but  in  most  cases  the  result  has  been 
such  a  confosion  of  ideas  as  to  make  vision  of 
littie  service  for  a  long  time.  In  a  case  related 
by  Gheselden,  a  young  man  born  blind,  but 
whose  sight  had  been  restored  by  an  operation, 
was  unable  to  determine  the  distance  of  objects 
from  him  by  sight,  and  7  years  after  the  opera- 
tion, was  accustomed  to  close  his  eyes  when  • 
ever  he  wished  to  ascertain  their  proximity. 
The  diseases  of  the  eye  have  of  late  years  rfr 
ceived  much  attention,  and  eminent  men  have 
made  their  treatment  a  speciality.  Most  of  our 
large  cities  have  hospitals  or  infirmaries  devot- 
ed to  the  treatment  of  these  diseases,  and  Jones, 
Lawrence,  Mackenzie,  Hays,  and  others,  have 

Sublished  elaborate  treatises  on  the  subject 
he  operation  for  the  cure  of  strabismus 
or  squinting,  which  some  years  ago  wss  very 
common,  is  much  less  resorted  to  at  the  present 
day  than  formerly.  The  operations  for  cata- 
ract, which  is  an  opacity  of  the  crystalline 
lens  (couching,  or  depressing,  and  dividing  the 
lens  to  remove  it  from  the  held  of  vision)  have 
resulted  in  the  partial  restoration  to  sight  of 
many  blind  persons.~The  statistics  of  blind- 
ness in  different  countries  reveal  some  singular 
£Eicts.  As  we  proceed  toward  the  equator,  the 
proportion  of  the  blind  to  the  entire  population 
increases  with  great  rapidity,  and  the  same&ct 
is  observable  in  the  very  high  latitudes.  M. 
Zeune,  the  late  accomplished  director  of  the 
institute  for  the  blind  at  Berlin,  some  years 
ago  prepared  a  table  on  the  subject,  which  sub- 
sequent observations  on  the  eastern  continent 
have  very  nearlv  verified.  The  following  were 
the  results  at  which  he  arrived: 

Betveon  SO*  uid  80'  N.  lat  tlio  ntio  of  the  bUnd 

tothelnhabltantBis 1  to    100 

•»       80*  Md  40*  ••  "  1  to    800 

«       40*  and  60'  *  ••  1  to    800 

•»       60'  and  60'  •  ••  1  to  1400 

••       00'  uid  70'  ••  •♦  1  to  1000 

*       TO' Mid  80'  ••  ••  Ito    MO 

The  white  glittering  sand,  and  the  intense  heat 
of  the  sun,  shining  always  from  a  clear  sky  in 
Egypt  and  northern  Africa,  cause  diseases  of 
the  eve,  and  especially  ophthalmia,  to  be  very 
prevslent  in  those  regions,  and  similar  causes 
prevail,  though  to  a  less  extent,  in  southern 
Europe.  Among  the  densely  populated  nations 
of  central  Europe  accidents  with  gunpowder, 
small-pox,  and  other  epidemic  diseases,  are  the 
most  fi^uent  causes  of  destruction  of  sight 
In  the  temperate  regions  of  the  north  the  num- 
ber of  the  blind  is  comparatively  small,  but  as 
we  approach  the  arctic  circle,  the  glittering 
snows,  the  smoky  dwellings,  the  alternation 
from  the  brilliant  nights  of  tne  arctic  summer 
to  the  deep  darkness  of  the  arctic  winter,  all 
exert  their  influence  upon  the  visual  organs. 
On  this  side  of  the  Atiantic,  however,  a  differ- 
ent ratio  seems  to  prevail.  We  have  not  the 
means  for  an  accurate  comparison,  except  of 


850 


BLIND 


the  latitndes  between  SO^  and  46^,  bat  the  pro- 
portions are  very  different  from  those  embodied 
in  M.  Zeuie*8  table.  The  ratio  of  the  blind  to 
the  entire  population  of  the  United  States  is 
1  to  2,828.  The  states  lying  between  the  par- 
allels of  SO"*  and  86'',  have  1  to  2,625  inhabi- 
tants; between  86**  and  40°,  1  to  1,760,-  be- 
tween 40°  and  46**,  1  to  2,460.  Comparing  these 
statistics  with  those  of  most  of  the  countries  of 
Europe,  we  find  a  great  predominance  in  favor 
of  the  United  States.    According  to  M.  Dufau, 

Pnusis  has  1  blind  person  to l,40t  inhabitonti. 

Belgium       1  -  "^w         1,816 

OertuMy     1  **  *         1,800 

France         1  -  •*         1,857 

Sweden        1  -  *•         1,091 

Norway       1  "  "         M« 

SwltzerUndl  "  **         1,670          •* 

Egypt          1  "  •*         W 

In  Prussia  ^^  ^^  ^^^  whole  number  are  under 
15  years  of  age ;  in  Sweden  only  ^j. 

The  namber  of  the  blind  in  France  Is  about 88,000 

•«  H  u    Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 25,000 

•»  **    BottU 50,000 

«  I*  a    Germany 80,000 

«•  MM    UnltedBtatea 10,000 

In  southern  and  central  Europe  the  number  of 
blind  males  exceeds  the  females;  in  northern 
Europe,  on  the  contrary,  the  females  exceed  the 
males. — ^iNSTBUonoir  of  ths  Bund.  Although 
individuals  among  the  blmd  have,  in  all  ages,  at- 
tained to  a  ffur  amount  of  education,  yet  it  does 
not  seem  that  the  idea  of  making  provision  for 
their  education,  as  a  class,  entered  into  the 
minds  of  either  Greeks  or  Romans.  They  pro- 
cured a  precarious  subsistence  by  begging  by 
the  wayside,  or  at  the  entrance  of  the  temples; 
but  there  was  no  one  who  would  teach  them 
more  honorable  means  of  obtaining  a  liveli- 
hood, or  rescue  them  from  the  inseparable  evils 
connected  with  a  life  of  mendicancy.  Kor, 
amid  the  noble  and  philanthropic  reforms  intro- 
duced by  Christianity,  was  there  any  provision 
made  for  the  training  and  instruction  of  the 
blind.  They  besged  on  as  before,  though  now 
frequenting  the  doors  of  Christian  churches  in- 
stead of  heathen  temples,  and  asking  alms  in 
the  name  of  Christ  instead  of  .^sculapins. 
There  were  in  each  age,  however,  some  who, 
feeling  themselves  moved  by  the  impulse  of 
genius,  sought  for  more  elevated  society,  and 
more  ennobling  pursuits,  than  the  beggar^s  po^ 
sition  and  employment.  The  first  public  pro- 
vision ever  made  for  the  blind,  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  founding  of  the  Hogpioe  dei 
quime  vingti  at  Paris,  by  Louis  IX.,  better 
known  as  Bt  Louis,  in  1260.  It  was  estab- 
lished by  the  kind-hearted  monarch  for  the 
benefit  of  his  soldiers,  who,  in  the  campugns  in 
Egypt,  had  suffered  from  ophthalmia.  As  its 
name  implies,  it  was  intended  for  16  score,  or 
800  blind  persons;  though  for  many  years  past 
the  number  of  inmates  has  been  about  400,  in- 
cluding the  families  of  the  blind,  who  are  also 
domiciled  within  its  walls.  Its  annual  income 
is  about  $80,000.  The  allowance  to  a  blind 
man  is  $89  per  annum ;  if  he  is  married,  this  is 
increased  to  $110;  if  he  has  1  child,  $120  ;  if 
2,  $180  60,  and  so  on,  adding  $10  60  for  each 


child.  Beside  these,  it  has  abont  600  pension- 
ers, who  do  not  reside  at  the  hospital,  but  who 
receive,  according  to  their  age  and  dream- 
stances,  $20,  $30,  or  $40  per  annnm,  to  aid  in 
their  support.  Some  of  those  entitled  to  a 
residence  m  the  hospice,  prefer  to  remain  with 
their  families  in  other  parts  of  the  city;  to 
these  a  pension  of  $60  per  annnm  is  paid.  No 
instruction  is  attempted,  and  the  temptations 
to  a  life  of  indolence  are  snch  as  to  render  this 
asylum  any  thing  but  a  model  institution. — ^A 
similar,  but  less  extensive  institntion,  was  estab- 
lished at  Chartres  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th 
century,  and  in  1860  was  fbrther  endowed  by 
King  John  so  as  to  accommodate  120  blind  per- 
sons. From  a  variety  of  causes,  the  number 
of  inmates  dwindled^  till,  in  1860,  there  were 
but  10.— During  the  16th  century,  thougfatfol 
and  benevolent  men,  who  had  seen  with  interest 
the  sad  fate  of  the  blind,  sought  to  devise  pro- 
cesses for  their  instruction,  bnt  with  no  great 
success.  Attempts  were  made  to  print  for 
them  in  intaglio,  that  i&  with  letters  nepressed 
below  tiie  surface,  but  nnding  these  illegible  to 
the  tonch,  experiments  were  made  with  raised 
letters,  which  were  made  to  slide  in  grooves; 
these  proving  inconvenient,  an  attempt  was 
made  by  Pierre  Morean  in  1640  to  cast  tibem  in 
lead,  of  more  convenient  form,  but  from  some 
cause  his  plan  was  not  successful.  In  1670,  the 
Padre  Lena  Terzi,  a  Jesuit  of  Brescia,  who  had 
already  published  an  essay  on  the  instmction 
of  deaf  mutes,  appeared  before  the  public  with 
a  treatise  on  the  instruction  of  the  blind. 
Kearly  a  century  later,  the  abb6  Deschamna, 
and  Diderot,  the  associate  of  D^Alembert  in  tne 
I!neyelopidie^.proposed  plans  for  their  instmo- 
tion  in  reading'  and  writing.  In  1 780,  Weissem- 
boui^.  a  blind  man  of  Mannheim,  in  Germany, 
publiwed  geographical  maps  in  relief.  It  was 
not,  however,  till  1784,  that  Valentin  Haftj, 
*'the  apostle  of  the  blind,''  as  the  Fren^ 
people  have  appropriately  named  him,  com- 
menced his  labors  in  their  behalf.  Attracted 
at  first  to  humanitarian  labors  by  the  bril- 
liant example  of  the  abb6  de  TEp^  and 
to  this  particular  department  of  them  by 
seeing  a  burlesque  concert  of  blind  perform- 
ers, he  devoted  himself  to  the  work  of  instruct- 
ing the  blind  with  a  zeal  and  ardor  whidi 
githered  new  strength  from  every  obstacle, 
is  first  pupil  was  a  yonng  blind  beggar,  whom 
he  paid  a  stipend  in  place  of  his  acquisitions  by 
begging,  and  who  soon  proved  an  apt  scholar. 
The  approbation  of  the  academy  of  sciences  and 
arts, .  and  the  patrona|;e  of  tiie  philanthropic 
society,  encouraged  him  to  fhrther  etertion, 
and  in  1786,  his  pupils,  24  in  number,  were 
called  to  exhibit  their  attainments  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  king  and  royal  fiamily  at  Ver^ 
sallies.  The  royal  patronage  was  secured  for 
the  new  enterprise,  and  for  a  while  all  went  on 
prosperously;  the  school  increased  in  numbers  ' 
and  popuhuity,  its  pupils  became  eminent  as 
musicians  or  mathematicians,  and  Hady  and  hia 
school  were  objects  of  interest  to  alL    In  1791 


BLIND 


861 


a  change  oame.  The  revolation  was  &ir1y  in* 
angnrated,  the  philanthropic  societx  was  broken 
up,  and  many  of  its  members  were  wandering 
homeless  in  foreign  lands.  The  school  for  the 
blind  was  taken  nnder  the  patronage  of  the 
state,  and  its  support  decreed ;  bnt  as  one  as- 
sembly sncceeded  another,  and  the  reign  of 
terror  made  the  nation  banJmipt,  the  sams  de- 
creed for  its  support  were  paid  only  in  assig- 
nats,  which  ere  long  became  almost  worthless. 
HaQy  and  his  blind  pnpils  worked  at  the  print- 
ing-press, procored  in  their  more  fortanate 
days,  and  eked  oat  existence  by  the  severest 
toU.  It  is  said  that  Hady  for  more  than  a  year 
oonJBned  himself  to  a  single  meal  a  day,  that 
his  pnpils  might  not  starve.  At  len^  brighter 
days  began  to  dawn,  and  prosperity  seemed 
about  to  revisit  them,  when  they  were  startled 
with  the  intelligence  that  the  directory  had 
united  them  with  the  inmates  of  the  hoipice 
dm  quime  vingU^  and  that  thenceforth  these 
unfortunate  children  were  to  be  ezpoppd  to  the 
infecttoua  example  of  the  indolence  and  vice 
so  rife  at  that  time  in  that  great  asylum. 
Overwhehned  by  this  intelligence,  Hany,  who 
could  not  bear  to  see  the  fruits  of  17  years  of 
arduotis  toil  thus  wasted,  redgned  his  office  as 
superintendent,  and  after  a  brief  but  unsnccess- 
fdl  effort  at  private  teaching,  went,  at  the  invi- 
tati<ni  of  the  czar,  to  St  Petersburg,  where  he 
founded  an  institution  for  ^  blind,  which  still 
exists.  His  place  was  supplied  for  12  years  by 
an  Ignorant  and  incompstent  director,  under 
whom  the  school  had  nearly  lost  all  its  earlier 
reputation,  retaining  only  its  musical  fame,  and 
this  more  from  the  efforts  of  some  of  Hatly^s 
old  pnpik  than  firom  any  new  instruction.  In 
1814,  the  government  became  satisfied  that  a 
great  error  had  been  committed  in  the  union  of 
the  2  institutions,  and  assigned  separate  quar- 
ters and  ampler  fimds  to  the  school  for  the 
blind,  which,  ag<un  under  the  patronage  of 
royalty,  assumed  the  titie  of  the  '^  Royal  Insti- 
tution for  the  Blind."  A  Dr.  Gnilli^  was  ap- 
pointed director,  a  man  of  energy  and  tact,  but 
malieioua,  untruthful,  and  excessively  vain.  He 
expelled  at  once  from  the  school  tiiose  whose 
morals  had  been  oontaminated  by  their  as- 
sociations at  the  hospice,  and  reorganized  it 
with  great  pomp  and  parade.  Every  thing 
was  done  for  show.  j£anufaotured  articles 
were  purchased  at  the  bazaars,  and  exhibit- 
ed as  the  work  of  the  pupils.  Latin,  Greek, 
German,  Italian,  and  Spanish  were  profess- 
edly taught^  and  the  pnpils  made  excellent 
pnblio  recitations  in  them,  by  the  aid  of  inter- 
linear translations;  while,  at  the  same  time, 
not  even  the  most  elementary  instruction  in 
arithmetic  or  history  was  given,  and  although 
a  few  pupils  could  play  some  tunes  brilliantiy, 
the  mat  mass  could  not  even  read  music.  Dr. 
Guilli6  seemed  to  regard  any  reference  to  Hatly 
as  a  personal  insult;  the  very  mention  of  his 
name  was  interdicted,  and  every  thing  he  had 
done  studionsly  attributed  to  some  one  else. 
This  system  of  deception  could  not  last;  the 


government  ordered  an  investigation,  and,  un- 
able to  endure  the  scorn  which  followed  the 
report  of  the  commissioners,  Dr.  Guilli^  resign- 
ed in  1821.  Dr.  Pignier  was  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, and  though  a  man  of  truth  and  honor, 
his  education,  which  had  been  entirely  of  a  soho* 
lastic  character,  rendered  him  utterly  unfit  for 
the  post.  With  the  best  intentions,  the  finui- 
cial  and  educational  condition  of  the  school  was 
constantiy  growing  worse.  At  length,  in  1840, 
the  government  undertook,  in  earnest,  its  re- 
form. Ordering  the  erection  of  new  buildings 
in  a  more  healthful  location,  they  appointed  a 
commission  to  reform  and  reorganize  the  school. 
On  the  report  of  that  commission,  M.  Dufau, 
wiio  had  been  for  25  years  a  teacher  in  the  in- 
stitution, was  appointed  director,  and  has  con- 
tinued in  that  position  up  to  the  present  time. 
M.  Dufau  is  eminentiy  qualified  for  the  place, 
and  has  filled  it  with  signal  ability.  Under  his 
administration,  the  finances  have  greatiy  im- 

1>roved,  the  course  of  instruction  has  been 
engthened  and  systematized,  and  a  judidoug 
course  of  elementary  works  having  been  pre- 
pared, printed  in  relief^  the  progress  of  his  pu- 
pils has  been  rapid  in  aJl  the  studies  they  have 
undertaken.  The  work  department  has  also 
been  thoroughly  reorganized,  a  society  estab- 
lished for  the  assistance  of  blind  workmen,  and 
the  wants  of  the  blind  very  thoroughly  cared 
for.  Indeed,  this  school,  while  the  oldest,  is 
also  in  every  respect  the  best,  in  Europe. — ^In 
order  to  present  a  just  idea  of  the  course  of  in- 
struction adopted  in  the  training  of  the  blind,  we 
give  the  following  statement  of  the  division  of 
time,  and  the  course  of  study  pursued  in  the 
Paris  institution,  from  M.  Dufau's  work,  Dea 
aveugles.  The  pupil  rises  at  6  o*clock  in  the 
morning;  from  this  time  till  8,  he  studies  or 
works;  at  8,  breakfast;  from  8^  till  10^, 
classes;  from  10)-  to  noon,  study  or  work;  at 
noon  dinner;  at  1  o'dock  reading  by  divisions^ 
according  to  age ;  from  1^  to  7,  musical  classes^ 
or  other  studies  and  work,  this  interval  being 
only  broken  by  a  collation,  at  3|;  at  7,  supper; 
after  which,  study  and  reading,  till  9 ;  at  9  ail  go 
to  bed.  Each  repast  is  followed  by  a  half  hour's 
recreation.  The  studies  are  thus  arranged: 
Primary  Cowne,  First  year,  reading,  writing 
in  points,  sacred  history,  elements  of  music; 
second  year,  French  grammar,  ancient  history, 
geography,  arithmetic,  elements  of  music,  wind 
or  string  instruments;  third  year,  French  gram- 
mar, Roman  history,  geojpraphy,  arithmetic,  vo- 
calization and  sin^ng,  piano  and  other  instru- 
ments; fourth  year,  grammar,  arithmetic,  nat- 
ural history,  history  of  Franco,  vocalization 
and  singing,  instrumental  instruction.  Higher 
Course,  First  and  second  year,  rhetoric,  litera* 
tnre,  philosophy,  political  geography,  general 
history,  geometry,  physics  and  cosmography, 
harmony,  and  the  nse  of  musical  instruments; 
third  and  fourth  years,  moral  sciences,  political 
economy,  &c.,  musical  composition,  instruction 
on  the  organ  or  other  instruments.  The  tuning 
of  pianos  is  added  to  musical  studiesi  in  the 


852 


BLIND 


last  2  years,  by  those  who  are  destined  to  follow 
that  bosinefls.  Those  who  intend  to  pursue  a 
trade  confine  themselves  to  the  workshops  dur- 
ing the  second  period  of  4  years,  studying  2 
hours  a  day  only. — ^Among  the  schools  for  the 
blind  on  the  continent,  after  that  at  Paris,  those 
at  Vienna,  Berlin,  Anisterdam,  and  Lausanne, 
have  attained  the  highest  reputation.  The  British 
schools  for  the  blind  have  never  taken  a  high 
stand  in  their  literary  tnuning.  Those  of  £din« 
burgh,  Glasgow,  Bristol,  Norwich,  and  York,  de- 
vote  more  attention  to  intellectual  culture  than 
the  others,  but  the  utmost  limit  attained,  even  in 
these,  is  narrow.  In  the  United  StatesJlarger  and 
more  liberal  views  have  prevailed.  The  ^*  Per- 
kins Institution  and  Massachusetts  Asylum  for 
the  Blind,  ^'  founded  at  Boston  in  1882,  through 
the  influence  and  eneivetic  efforts  of  Dr.  Howe, 
and  the  munificence  of  Ool.  Thomas  Handasyd 
Perkins,  has,  from  the  first,  aimed  to  give  &e 
blind  an  education  which  should  fit  them  for  any 


position  in  life,  which  their  infirmity  might  allow 
them  to  fill ;  and  the  same  spirit  has  pervaded  the 
teachine  of  the  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Colum- 
bus, ana  Jacksonville  schools,  and  to  a  consider- 
able extent  the  smaller  institutions  in  other  por- 
tions of  the  country.  The  term  of  instruction  em- 
braces from  6  to  8  years,  and  includes  a  course  in 
mathematics  and  oelles-lettres,  as  extensive  as 
that  in  most  of  the  colleges  of  the  country,  and  fall 
and  thorough  musical  tndning.  The  languages 
are  not  usually  taught  Under  the  tiUe  Fbisd- 
LANDBB,  will  be  found  a  sketch  of  the  rise  and 
progress  of  the  Pennsylvania  institution  for  the 
blind,  and  under  that  of  Buss,  Dr.  John  D.,  of 
the  New  York  institution. — ^We  give  below,  in 
tabular  form,  the  statistics  of  institutions  for  the 
bUnd  in  Europe  and  America,  as  &r  as  we  have 
been  able  to  procure  them.  The  following  table 
comnrises  all  or  nearly  all  the  institutions  for  the 
blina  existing  in  Europe  in  1853,  with  such  statis- 
tics as  we  have  been  able  to  obtain  regarding  eadi* 


TABLE  OP  INSTITUTIONB  FOB  THE  B^g^D  IN  EUBOPK 


ItLMM  OF  UHTITUTAOH. 


if- 

hi 


Institnt  National  des  Ayeaglea 

AB/lam  de  St  Hlloire  (Day  School). 
Inatituto  for  Blind  Boys 


Paris,  France 

u  u 

Lille,       -     V.V. 


"  Blind  Girls 

»  Deaf;  Dainl>,dis  Blind. 


Bohool  for  BUnd  Girls 

Imperial  Institate  for  BUnd. 
Institute  for  the  Blind 


Bojal  Institute  for  the  Blind. 
InsUtnte  for  the  BUnd 


Roder, 

St  M6d.  les  Soissons,  Fr., 

Pays  de  D6me,  France 

Vienna,  Anstria 

Prague,       "      

Bninn,        "      

Pesth,  Hungary 

Berlin,  Prussia 

Breslau, 


Stettin-       " 
KdnlgsDorg,  Prussia . 


Boyal  Institute  for  the  BUnd. , 

•i*  tt  MM 

U  tt  U  »  «       * 

Institute  for  Blind 


Posen, 
Wolstein, 
Magdebniv 
Dresden,  Saxoi 


«y., 


Institute  for  Deaf  dis  Dumb  A  Blind. . 


Institute  for  Blind 

Institute  for  Deaf  A  Dumb  A  Blind. . 
Jnstitnte  for  Blind 


Frevslng,  Bavaria 

Frelbourg,  Baden 

Grand,  w  flrtomberg  — 

Hanover,  Hanover 

Weimar,  Weimar 

Branswick,  Brunswick. . 

Hambunr 

Zurich,  Switzeriand. 

Lausanne,       **        

Bern,  *♦        

Schaffhausen,  **        

Froyburg,       " 
Amsterdam,  Holland .... 


The  Hague,       ** 
Brabant,  " 

Brussels,  Belgium 

Bruges,  »•        

LlAge,  "        

Copenhagen,  Denmark. 

Miuinheim,  Baden 

St  Petersburg,  Bussia. 
Warsaw,  "     . 

Gatschina,  ** 

Madrid,  Spain , 

Barcelona,**    

Lisbon,  Portugal. 


Constantinople,  Turkey. 
Bologna,  Italy 


Padua, 
Turin, 
Naples, 


190 
40 
19 


$88,000 


^m 


P.  A-Doiha. 
Dr.  F.  Rader. 
The  brothers  of  tiM 


I  ^^     10 


;853 
IS58 


lrii>s 


ihfm 

1^15 


-5D 
1800 

1B53 


16 
IS 
10 
60 
small 


10 


87 


1S58 


lti4l  1^08 


1S30 

J6a& 


IfiSS 


66 


95 
small 


6,200 

"^ioo 


18 


1806 
1809 


1864 
1888 


1818 


1S58 
1860 


S6 

86 

40 

small 


1850 


1860 
1850 

1854 
1864 
1864 

ISMl 


85 
small 


The  dsters  of  fhs 

ooQgregatioB. 
M.Bivl6re. 


J.W.KldiL 


M.  Dolozalek. 
M.  Hientach. 
M.K]ii«. 


OaiL  Aug.  GaotgL 

Freda  FlemiiiiB^ 

M>  Lachmam. 

M.  HInel. 
M.HeniiHinaL 


J.  W.  Yaa  Dsp- 
peren. 


AbbAC^itan. 
O.E.B(K9. 
G.  Banestaro^ 


aOandotfl. 
&8ci«fa«ktL 


BLiin> 

TABLE  OF  INSTITUTIONS  FOB  THE  BUND  IN  EnBOPE.-(aMi«iMM({.) 


858 


n 


k 


Nmm  of  DirMtor. 


Instltate  Ibr  Blind 

MUM 
M  M  «« 

School  ibr  the  Blind 

Asylum  tor  Indlarent  Blind 

London  And  BUckheaih  Institntion 
Jewbh  Asylum  for  Indigent  Blind. 
Asrinm  for  Blind 

M  U  •• 

M  M  4t  *|l*ii'*]ll]]i]* 

«  M  M  I. **]]*"["]]][. ii 

«  M  M  "["[[  I  *[]].'[  i  !  i  ! 

U  M  M  *][]*. "].'*|i[|].'     ' 

M  M  M  [  ]  ]  1  *  ]  .  *  '  I  ]  .  "  !  "  1 

M  M  44  *]][i|i*]|i][]][i] 

U  M  44 

U  U  44  I  [  "  *  ]  ]  [  I  ]  "  "  .  "  ] 

Richmond  Kationid  Ynstttnto '.'.,..'.. 

Ulster  Institute  for  Blind 

Cork  Blind  Aaylum 


Palenno,  Italy., 
Borne,        **    . 


ISSO 


1SS8  smaU 
ltJ54      " 


afUan,        •*    

Liverpool,  England. 
London,  ^ 


Bristol,  •• 
Yoric, 

Norwich,  ** 

Manchester,  ** 

Bath,  •* 

Exeter,  ** 

Newcastle,  ** 
Edinburgh,  Scotland. 
Glasgow,  »* 

Aberdeen,         ** 
Dundee,  *♦ 

Dublin,  Ireland , 

Ulster,       "      

Cork,       •"      


1731 

'ISi^E 
l^:i.'. 
l^^l 


1^4 

17  J;  I 

I 
* " '  ■  I 


1864 

1 
J-50 

]  W 


1^54 
v-46 


L-38 

lb58 

,1858 


79 
154 


95 
188 


24,000 
85,000 


14 


16,500 


Dr.  Benzi,  assisted 
by  a  religious  fra- 
ternity. 

S.  BarouL 

Hen.  Addenbrook^ 


Mr.  Elwood. 


There  are,  beside  the  above,  the  following,  and 
perhaps  some  other  asylams,  indastrial  estab- 
lishments, and  hospitals  for  the  blind  in  Europe, 
in  which  instruction  in  reading  or  the  other 
branches  of  education  is  not  required;  the 
ha&piee  de  quinee  idngta^  Paris,  has  400  in- 
mates, 600  pensioners,  income  $80,000;  society 
for  aid  of  blind  workmen,  Paris,  20  inmates, 
income  in  1850  $2,860,  expenses  $1,820 ;  blind 
sisters  of  St.  Paul,  at  Vaugirard,  100  inmates ; 
little  blind  brothers  of  8t.  Paul,  near  Paris; 
house  of  labor  for  the  adult  blind,  Vienna, 
60  inmates,  income  $8,900,  expenses  $7,800;- 


hospital  for  the  blind,  Vienna,  on  the  model  of 
the  hospice  de  quinee  vingta  ;  industrial  asylum 
for  admt  blind,  BerUn,  20  inmates ;  the  cr^e, 
or  hospital  for  young  blind  children,  Berlin; 
workshop  for  blind  laborers,  Berlin;  hospital 
for  the  blind,  8t.  Petersburg  (the  last  2  are 
asylums  rather  than  hospitals);  8impson  bos', 
pital  for  blind  and  gouty  persons,  Dublin ;  Mo^ 
lyneux  asylum  for  blind  females,  Dublin; 
Limerick  asylum  for  blind  females.  Limerick ; 
London  asylum*  for  the  blind,  London ;  Jewish 
asylum  for  the  indigent  blind,  London;  asylum 
for  indigent  blind,  Amsterdam,  80  inmates. 


INSTITUTIONS  FOR  THE  BLIND  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

1 

J 

1 

A 

11 

^ 

1 

1 

KAMB  or  niTITUTXOll. 

LoefltioQ. 

1 

II 

1 

•5 

1 

-1 

^1 

U 

? 

I 

i 

nr 

3 

"8 

1 

•3 

J 

1 

i 

1? 

< 

! 

1 

i 

1 

Perkins  Institution  and 

New  England  Asylum, 
New  Torklnst  for  Blind, 

Boston,  Mass. 
New  York. 

$160,000 

1682 

1868 

114 

02 

112,000 

|21,e00;i200'8.  G.  Howe,  M.  D. 

6 

8 

811 

160,000 

1882 

1866 

186 

160 

80,000 

88,728 

200  T.  Colden  Cooper. 

16 

11 

661 

Pennsylvania     ** 

Philadelphia. 

126,000 

1888 

1867 

186 

100 

28,600 

26,688 

200  William  Chapln. 

17 

11" 

840 

Ohio                    "       " 

Columbus. 

40,000 

1887 

1867 

98 

• 

18,000 

18,000 

100  Asa  D.  Lord,  M.D. 

8 

2 

215 

Yirginia  Inatitntion  for 

DW  A  Dumb  4i  Blind, 

Staunton. 

75^000 

1880 

1866 

86 

26 

10,000 

11,000 

160!  J.  0.  MeriUat,  M.  D. 

9 

98 

Kentucky  Inst  for  Blind, 

Louisville. 

70,000 

1842 

1867 

60 

60 

11,000 

11,000 

140.R  M.  Patton. 

6 

2 

45 

Tennessee     •*     «       " 

Nashville. 

l^OO0 

1844 

1866 

26 

26 

4,000 

4,600 

200 

J.  M.  Sturtevant 

6 

8 

Indiana         mum 

100,000 

1847 

1867 

78 

• 

1^000 

16,000 

J.M'Workman,M.D 
Jo6h.£hoads.  M.D., 
W.  H.  Churchman. 

6 

Hllnola          M     «       « 

JacksonvUle. 

80,000 

1849 

1867 

60 

• 

14,000 

14,000 

100 

6 

8 

Wisconsin    ••     «       •* 

Jones  villc. 

46,000 

1860 

1867 

20 

* 

7,000 

7,000 

4 

2 

Missoari        -     «       « 

8t  Louis. 

46,000 

1861 

1864 

21 

6,000 

E.  W.  Whelan. 

MiS8iS8lppi     "      «         « 

Georgia  Academy       ** 
lowalnsUtation 

Jackson. 

11,000 

1648 

1867 

20 

20 

7,000 

7,000 

P.Lane. 

Macon. 

87,800 

1862 

1867 

20 

17 

4,000 

4,000 

200 

W.  N.  Caudoin. 

4 

1 

6 

Iowa  City. 

6,000 

1868 

1866 

28 

* 

4,889 

4,889 

Samnel  Bacon. 

Lonisiana  InsUtution  for 

Deaf  &  Dumb  &  Blind, 

Baton  Bouge. 

128,000 

1862 

1866 

6,000 

6,000 

160 

J.  8.  Brown. 

Maryland  Inst  for  Blind, 

Mlehigui  InsUtnUon  for 

DeaHsDumbABUnd, 

Baltimore. 

1864 

1867 

17 

17 

200 

LA.M*Kenney,D.D. 

8 

1 

Flint 

160,000 

1864 

1867 

24 

* 

8,000 

8,000 

B.  M.  Pay. 
William  D.  Cooke. 

2 

1 

North  Carolina       *« 

Boleigh. 

8,000 

1848 

1866 

8,000 

Bouth  Carolina        - 

Cedar  Spring. 

w«sh.,fcc: 

12,681 

1849 

1866 

18 

18 

7,000 

150 

N.  P.  Walker. 

8 

2 

Colnmbia                ** 

1867 

1867 

£.  W.  Gallaudet 

2 

12 

VOL.  in. — 23 


•  Fr»«  to  an  th«  bUad  of  th«  8Uto,  ndw  10  jwn  otaf. 


854 


BUKD 


PrinHnff  far  ihs  SUnd. — It  was  not  long  after 
HatLy  commenced  the  inBtractioD  of  his  blind 
pupils,  that  he  became  convinced  of  the  neces- 
sity of  deviring  some  mode  of  printing  by 
which  tonch  might  supply  the  place  of  sight  to 
the  reader ;  an^  after  revolying  several  plana 
in  his  mind,  accident  finally  suggested  the  best 
method.  Bending  his  pupil,  Lesneor,  to  his 
desk  one  day,  for  some  ar tide,  the  young  man 
found  there  a  printed  card  of  invitation,  which 
had  received  an  unusually  strong  impression ; 
passing  his  fingers  over  the  back  c^  the  paper, 
he  distinffuished  the  letter  O,  and  brought  the 
paper  to  UatLy  to  show  him  that  he  could  do  so. 
The  philanthropist  saw,  at  a  glance,  that  the 
principle  of  printing  for  the  bUnd  was  discov- 
ered, and  that  it  was  only  necessary  to  perfect 
the  process.  He  experimented  for  a  long  time 
on  the  form  of  letter  best  adapted  to  be  read 
by  touch,  and  finally  adopted  the  Blyrian,  which, 
from  the  square  form  of  the  letters,  seemed  to 
offer  more  distinct  points  of  recognition  than 
any  other.  But,  unfortunately,  his  letters  were 
too  large,  and  the  embossing  so  imperfect  as 
to  make  it  difficult  for  those  whose  tactile  sen- 
nbiUty  was  too  defective  to  read  them.  His  sno- 
oesBor,  Dr.  Quilli^  adopted  a  difierent  form  of 
letter  in  the  place  of  the  Blyrian,  and  boasted 
greatly  of  the  perfection  of  his  type ;  but  the 
22  volumes  published  by  him  were  found  illeg- 
ible by  the  blind,  and  were  mostly  sold  to  the 
shops  for  refuse  paper.  Dr.  Pi^nier,  who  suc- 
ceeded him,  probably  introduced  the  script  let- 
ter, which,  with  some  modifications  to  promote 
greater  sharpness  of  embossing,  is  still  used  on 
the  continent,  at  Paris,  Berlin,  Vienna,  Pesth, 
Amsterdam,  and  St  Petersburg,  in  all  of 
which  cities  printing  for  the  blind  has  been 
executed.  In  England,  Mr.  James  Gall,  prin- 
cipal of  the  Edinburgh  institution  for  the  blind, 
commenced,  in  1826,  a  series  of  experiments 
with  a  great  variety  of  alphabets,  with  a  view 
of  ascertaining  which  was  best  adapted  to  ttie 
purposes  of  the  blind.  The  alphabet  upon  which 
he  finally  fixed  is  known  as  Gall's  triangular 
alphabet  He  published  several  small  books  in 
it^  but  repeatedly  modified  its  form,  till  at  last 
it  approximated  to  the  Roman  alphabet  These 
books  have  never  come  into  general  use  among 
the  blind,  although  quite  legible.  They  were 
printed  in  1882,  and  tiie  5  following  years.  A 
more  popular  and  attractive  form  of  letter  was 
adopted,  nearly  simultaneously,  in  Great  Britain 
and  in  the  United  States.  It  is  known  in  the 
former  country  as  Alston's,  and  in  the  latter  as 
the  Philadelnhia  letter.  It  is  the  Roman  oapi- 
talsi  with  a  light  sharp  face,  and  deprived  or 
the  serifi  or  hair  lines,  forming  a  type  analogous 
to  that  known  among  ^rpe-founders  and  print- 
ers as  sans-serif.  Dr.  fry  is  said  to  have  been 
the  first  to  suggest  its  use  in  England,  and  Wr. 
Friedlander.  the  founder  of  the  Philadelphia 
school  for  tne  blind,  had,  at  a  period  somewhat 
earlier,  adopted  it  here.  Dr.  Buss,  the  founder 
of  the  iTew  York  institution,  devised  a  phonetic 
alphabet  in  1888,  which  possessed  considerable 


merit,  hot  ^  not  come  into  use  to  any  great 
extent  The  alphabet  for  the  blind,  which  is 
most  generally  used  in  Great  Britain  and  Amer- 
ica, is  the  Boston  letter,  invented  and  perfected 
by  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  the  founder  of  the  Perkins 
inatitntion  for  the  blind.  Its  peculiarities,  which 
it  would  be  easier  to  distinguish  than  to  de- 
scribe, are,  the  angular  form  of  the  letters ;  the 
rigid  adherence  to  what  printers  call  the  lower 
case  letters;  the  marked  distinction  between 
those  which  are  ordinarily  most  nearly  alike  in 
form ;  its  compactness,  and  the  sharpness  and 
perfection  of  the  embossing.  On  account  of 
these  qualities,  which  rendered  it  more  easily 
legible  by  the  blind  than  any  other,  and  reduced 
the  cost  of  printing,  the  Jury  on  printing,  at  the 
London  crystal  paJace  exhibition,  gave  it  the 

E reference  over  the  other  stvles  of  type  for  the 
lind.  The  number  of  books  in  this  letter  is 
much  greater  than  in  any  other. — We  have  al- 
ready adverted  to  Dr.  Buss's  invention  of  a 
plionetic  alphabet ;  the  introduction  of  arbitrary 
characteris  has  been  repeatedly  attempted  in 
printing  for  the  blind,  and  with  all  the  advan- 
tages of  large  ftinds  to  prosecute  tiie  work,  bat 
it  has  proved  practicaUy  a  failure,  because  the 
blind  have  found  it  more  difficult  to  acquire 
these  arbitrary  alphabets  than  the  ordinary 
English  letters ;  and  because  their  use  in  writing 
or  reading  would  only  put  them  in  communica- 
tion with  the  few  who  had  acquired  these  sys- 
tems, and  thus  would  lead  to  the  greater  isola- 
tion of  the  blind  as  a  class.  Three  of  these 
alphabets  have  been  put  forth  in  England,  and 
in  each  there  have  been  several  books  (the 
Scriptures  among  the  number)  published,  and 
each  has  been  proclaimed  as  a  great  advance 
on  every  previous  method  of  teaching  the  blind. 
They  are  known  as  Lucas's^  Frere^s,  and  Moon^s, 
the  inventors  being  pnncipals  respectively 
of  the  Bristol,  London  and  Blackhcath,  and 
Brighton  asylums  for  the  blind.  We  ought  not 
to  omit  here  a  reference  to  an  ingenious  ap- 
paratus used  as  a  substitute  for  books  and  manu- 
scripts, which  was  the  Joint  invention  of  2 
blind  men,  Messrs.  Macbeath  and  Milne  of  the 
Edinburgh  institution,  in  1880.  We  allude  to 
the  string  alphabet— a  mode  of  designating  by 
the  form  and  distance  of  knots,  on  a  cord,  the 
different  letters  of  the  alphabet  This  invention, 
though  cumbrous  and  capable  of  material  im- 
provement, was  for  many  years  in  use  in  the 
Edinburgh  institution,  though  never  generally 
adopted  elsewhere. — ^The  great  cost  of  printing 
books  for  the  blind,  in  consequence  of  their  bulk 
and  the  small  editions  required,  has  rendered 
the  Bupplv  very  scanty.  Aside  from  the  Smp- 
tures,  and  the  text  books  in  use  in  the  different 
institutions,  tiiere  were,  in  1866,  but  46  miscel- 
laneous books  in  English,  printed  in  relief  unless 
we  include  those  printed  in  the  arbitrary  char- 
acters,  which  aside  from  theScriptures  amounted 
to  9  volumes  more.  Many  of  these  are  qnito 
small,  some  comprising  only  a  very  few  pages ; 
yet  these  66  volumes,  if  sold  at  actual  cost,  would 
amount  to  about  $70.    Provision  should   be 


BLOO) 


865 


made  hj  fhe  govemmeBte  of  Gfeiit  Britain  and 
the  United  States  for  a  ftnd  to  be  deyoted  to 
the  prodaction  of  books  for  the  bHnd.  The 
variety  of  books  published  for  the  blind  on  the 
continent  of  £orope,  is  still  smaller.  The 
French  cataloffne,  which  is  by  far  the  largest^ 
contains,  beside  the  necessary  text-books,  only 
a  very  fear  religions  books,  liyes  of  the  saints, 
dw.  The  Dntoh  catalogne  has  but  12  yolumes 
in  all,  scTeral  of  which  are  single  books  of  the 
Scriptnres,  nor  are  the  others  more  extensive. — 
The  printing  of  mnsio  for  the  blind,  which 
seems  a  neoMsity,  from  the  resource  which  it 
furnishes  for  a  comfortable  livelihood  to  many 
of  them,  has  been  a  very  expensive  and  difficult 
matter— so  much  so,  that  music  is  to  a  very  great 
extent  committed  to  memory  by  the  pupUs  of 
blind  institutions.  This  difficulty  has  been  ob- 
viated by  an  ingenious  system  invented  by  a 
French  teacher  in  the  institution  at  Paris,  himself 
blind,  M.  Louis  Braille. — It  has  always  been  a 
problem  extremely  difficult  of  solution,  to  teach 
the  blind  to  communicate  their  ideas  by  writing, 
in  such  a  way  that  thev  themselves  should  he 
able  to  read  what  they  had  written.  By  a  very 
simple  apparatns  they  could  be  taught  to  write 
with  considerable  rapidity,  but  the  words  once 
committed  to  paper  were  lost  to  them ;  tangi- 
ble inks,  intaguo-type,  pin-type,  a  small  print- 
ing apparatos,  all  were  tried,  and  each  found  in 
some  respects  otjectionable.  H.  Ch.  Barbier, 
in  1825,  had  invented  a  system  of  writing  with 
points,  in  which  he  represented,  by  certain  ar- 
rangements of  points,  about  40  sounds.  His 
plan  was  faulty^  both  as  a  phonetic  e^vstem  and 
a  system  of  writing,  requiring  as  it  did  the  use 
of  10  or  12  points  for  almost  every  sound. 
M.  Louis  Briull6  modified  Barbier^s  qrstem 
completely,  rendering  it  far  more  simple,  and 
representing  by  each  character  some  letter  or 
combination  of  letters.  His  plan  is  based  upon 
a  series  of  itindamental  signs,  comprising  the 
first  10  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  none  of  these  con- 
sists of  less  than  2  nor  more  than  4  dots.  The 
perforations  are  made  from  right  to  left,  in  order 
that  the  writing,  when  reversed,  may  be  read 
from  left  to  right.  This  system  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  French,  Prussian,  Austrian,  Bel- 
gian, Swedish,  and  Dutch  schools  in  Europe,  the 
Kew  York,  Maryland,  and  Illinois  institutions  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  imperial  institute  for 
the  blind  at  Rio  Janeiro.  (See  Bbaillb.)— From 
the  first  commencement  of  instruction  for  the 
Mnd,  music  has  been  a  favorite  pursuit  with 
them.  To  many  it  famishes  the  means  of  snp- 
pHort ;  for  the  bund  have  often,  from  their  sen- 
sitiveness to  sound  and  the  delicacy  of  their 
touch,  as  well  as  from  theh:  careful  modulation 
of  their  voices,  extraordinary  qualifications  for 
acquirin^great  skill  in  instrumental  and  vocal 
mnsia  To  some  it  is  an  agreeable  recreation, 
and  to  others  a  source  of  pure  and  intense  en- 
•  joyment.  All,  however,  cannot  practise  it, 
and  while  some  find  employment  in  the  tuning 
of  pianos,  for  which  a  well-trained  ear  and 
akilfril  touch  are  requiate,  others  are  occupied 


in  tiie  manuftctare  of  mattrassos,  mats,  baa> 
kets,  paper  boxes,  brooms,  brushes,  the  simpler 
departments  of  cabinet-work,  or  in  trade.  The 
capacity  of  the  blind  as  a  class  to  sustain  then^ 
selves  by  their  own  labor,  has  been  one  of 
those  practical  questions  which  hardly  admit 
of  a  complete  or  satisfactory  solution.  AH,  or 
nearly  all,  tiie  schods  for  the  blind  have  work- 
shops, in  which  the  pupils  labor  some  hours 
every  day,  in  order  to  acquire  some  handicraft 
which  may  aid  in  their  support  Most  of  the 
larger  institutions  of  the  united  8tat«0  have 
also  connected  with  them  workshops  for  the 
adult  blind,  either  their  own  graduates  or 
others,  where  certain  advantages  of  shop-rent^ 
machinery,  material  at  wholesale  pricea,  or 
sale  of  goods  at  retail  prices,  and  in  some  in- 
stances board  at  a  reduced  rate,  or  a  moderate 
pension  to  aid  in  paying  theur  way,  is  allowed. 
Objections  have  been  made  to  these  measures 
of  assistance,  but  in  the  fierce  competition  for 
subsistence  among  the  poorer  classes,  we  see 
not  how  the  poor  blind  man.  who  has  the  loss 
of  fflght  added  to  the  other  oisabilities  of  pov- 
erty, is  to  exist  without  it.  In  one  instance  (ai 
Philadelphia),  an  asylum  has  been  provided  for 
the  aged  and  infirm  blind,  where,  beguiling  the 
weariness  of  the  passing  hours  by  such  light 
toil  as  they  can  readily  accomplish,  they  may 
pass  the  evening  of  life  in  comfort  and  happi- 
ness.— ^The  British  institutions  for  the  blind  are 
mostly  asylums  rather  than  schools.  In  the 
greater  part  the  blind  are  received  for  life; 
their  educational  training  consists  merely  in 
reading,  musical  instruction,  and  perhaps  the 
most  Sementary  knowledge  of  fiffures;  bat 
they  are  taught  trades,  and  required  to  work  a 
certain  number  of  hours  every  day.  These  in- 
stitutions are,  for  the  most  part,  well  endowed^ 
and  any  deficiency  in  the  reeiflts  of  the  labor 
are  made  up  from  other  fands.  On  the  conti<- 
nent  there  are,  in  the  larger  cities,  asylums  of  a 
character  nearly  corresponding  to  the  hoipiee 
de»  quints  iDingU^  already  described,  for  the 
infirm,  and  even  the  healthy  blind.  Berlin  has 
especially  distinguished  itsdf  for  the  complete- 
ness of  its  provisions  for  eveir  class  of  the 
blind.  Beside  the  institute  for  the  young 
blind,  it  has  a  cr^he  or  hospital  for  blind  in- 
fants ;  a  workshop  for  blind  laborers,  famish- 
ing material  and  paying  a  pension  to  the  blind 
laborer ;  an  industrial  asylum  for  the  blind  of 
both  sexes,  who  have  graduated  at  tiie  insti- 
tute, and  are  unable  to  obtain  a  complete  sup- 
port elsewhere;  and  a  hospital  for  blind  for- 
eignersL  and  for  the  sick,  aged,  and  infirm  blind. 
— ^The  olind,  as  a  result  of  their  infirmity,  have 
some  peculiarities,  thouffh  fewer  than  mere 
theorists  have  attributed  to  them.  In  youth 
they  are  generally  very  happy,  and  even  gay. 
As  they  arrive  at  adult  age,  they  are  more  dis- 
posed to  be  restiess,  uneasy,  desirous  of  change, 
and  discontented  with  their  condition.  It  is 
under  these  circumstances  tiiat  some  writers 
have  been  disposed  to  charge  them,  as  a  class, 
with  ingratitude.    The  charge  is  ux^ost.    V 


866 


BUND. 


diyidnals  among  ihem,  as  among  the  seeing,  nn- 
donbtedljr  often  manifest  an  nngratefdl  diiEqpoa- 
tion,  bat  this  is  rather  the  result  of  the  restless 
temperament  already  noticed,  than  of  nnnsaal 
deprayity.  Thejr  are  generally  endowed  with 
Tery  keen  perceptions,  and  are  nsoally  better 
\  of  character  than  persons  who  can  see. 


Jnqsest 
Diderot 


Mderot  charges  Uiem  with  bdng  devoid  of  the 
idea  of  modesty  or  shame;  but  if  this  charge 
was  the  resnlt  of  observation,  he  most  hare 
mingled  with  a  different  class  of  blind  persons 
frcfot  those  found  in  other  countries.  That 
modesty  of  deportment,  which  is  one  of  the 
highest  graces  of  womanhood,  is  nowhere 
found  in  greater  perfection  than  among  the 
blind.    The  consdousneas  of  physioal  weakness 


has  probaUy  bad  its  eflEbct  in  rendering  them 
genmlly  leas  vain  than  deaf  mutes;  while  at 
the  same  time  their  intellectual  faculties  are 
usually  of  a  higher  order,  and  the  facility  in  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge  is  much  greater.— The 
number  of  blind  persons  who  have  attained  dis- 
tinction, either  in  science  or  art,  is  very  large. 
We  give  a  list  of  the  most  eminent^  omitting 
many  whose  abilities  perhi^  entitie  them  to  a 
place.  A  part  of  the  materials  for  this  list  is 
derived  from  one  compiled  by  Mr.  Charles 
Baker,  of  the  .Yorkshire  institution  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb,  for  the  ^*  Penny  Cydopodia,**  but 
we  haveaoded  a  number  of  names  which  he  had 
omitted,  or  which  have  more  reoentiy  become 
oelebratod. 


EHdsirr  BLDn>  fsbboks. 


▲tv 


F«r  wbat  odrtntod. 


Wofki  wriMM  4mlir  h 


BoMbiof  the  AiUUo. 
Didjmna  of  AlezandrU 

Oom.  Anfld.  Baanifl. . . 
Aehmttt  ben  SoUmioi. . 
Henrj the  Minstrel... 

Sir  John  Gower. 

HiOKlaeofMaUnes..... 

Peter  Pontenns 

HizgMet  of  SATenna . . 

James  SehegUus,  of 

ThomdorC 
JohnFernand 

THdarie  Bohomberg.. . . 
Herman  Tomntlas. . . 
John  Paul  Lomazso . . . 
Franolsco  Salinas 

Count  de  Pagan 

Prosper  Fagnani 

OlaadeGomiers 

Bourehenv  de  Yslbon- 

naia. 
Hloholas  Sanderson. . . 

Henrj  tfoyes 

Thos.  Blaeklock,  D.  D. 

Theophilns  Ooniad 
Pfeffel, 

M.  Welaeembonrg. 

Frangols  Haber 

John€k>nelli 

John  Oambasins 

Mile,  de  Pandls 

M.Otoiilhl 

Anna  Williams 

JohnMnton 

Ber.  John  Trooghton. . 

I«eonard  Eoler 

John  atanlej 

Parnr  (the  Welsh 

Harperl 

Edward  Koahton 

John  Metoalf  (BUnd 

John  QoQgh 

Arlase 

—  Bnret 

JohnKajr 

air  John  Fielding.... 


Asia  Minor, 


Egypt. 

Bome, 
Arabia, 
Seottand, 
London, 
Belgium, 
Bniges,BeL, 
Bossy,  near 
Barenna, 
Wdrtemberg, 

Belgium, 

Germanr, 
Switzerland, 
Milan,  Italy, 
Spain, 

MaiseiUsa, 

Bom^ 
Daophlny, 

France, 
Grenoble, 

Franoe, 
Torkshire, 


Seot, 
Annan,  Soot, 

Golmar,   Ger., 

Mannheim, 
Genera, 
CambaasI,  It'y 
Volterra.     ** 
Germany: 
Nantes,  Fr*ce, 
Wales, 
London, 
CoTenti^, 

Eng., 
Bs8el,Swits., 

London, 

Wales, 

Urerpo^l, 
Knaresbor'gh, 

Eng- 
KenoSu,  Eng, 

Franoe, 


Glasgow, 
Westminster, 
Eng., 


B.a60 


A.D.815 

818 


978 
1881 


15- 


1*- 
1460 
1688 
1618 

18M 

1681 


1861 
1088 

1780 

1781 

1788 

ab.l740L 
1780    ' 

ah.  1788 

1708 
1808 
1887 

170T 

1T18 

1788 
1717 

17W 

ins 

177T 


.D.840 
896 


1069 

1408 
1488 

1806 

1687 


1680 
1689 
1690 

1866 


1789 
1807 
1791 
1808 

1881 


1789 
1788 
1674 
1681 

1T88 

1788 


1814 
1808 


1886 

1801 


1809 
1780 


Atadoltsge, 
At  6  rears, 

Injonth, 

At  8  years, 

Bom  blind, 

At  8  rears, 

u  « 

At8  months, 

Inyoath, 

Bom  blind. 

At  8  yean, 

At  17  rears, 
In  ehildh^d. 

At  88  years. 


Ininflm^, 

At  1  year. 

At  8  years, 

At  8  months, 

Ininflmey, 

At  7  rears. 
At  17  yean. 
At  80  yean, 

H  tt 

AtSyears, 
From  birth, 
At  84  yean, 
At  44  years. 
At  4  years. 

At  69  yean, 

At  8  years, 
Ininmnoy, 

At  19  years. 
At  6  years, 

AtSyears, 

Inyoath, 

At  86  years. 
At  10  years, 
From  youth. 


Philosophy,    Ge- 
ometry, A  Moale. 

Philos.i^  Divinity, 

Bhetorio,  Mnslo  A 
Theology, 

Philos.  dTGeom., 

Poetry. 

Poetry, 

Poetry  A  History, 

Law  and  Divinity, 

Philos.  and  Liter., 

Theology  and  Mor- 
als. 

Philosophy  and 
Medidnei 

Poetrr,    Philos^ 
Logic,  A  Music. 

Languages. 

Literature, 

Painting  ds  Liter., 

Greek,  Mathemat- 
los  and  Mnslo, 

Mathematio^  Me- 
chanics ds  Astron. 

Law, 

Medidne.    Mathe- 
matics, is  Physios, 

History, 


Serenl  theoleglcsl  worica. 
Treatise  on  the  Holy  Spirit 

A  Greek  History. 

UfeofWaUaoe. 
Confessio  Amantls,  Aeu 
Canon  and  Civil  Law. 
On  Bhetorie,  Ac 


Sereial  Medical  IVeatfMa. 


Mathematics,   As-Traatise 


tronom; 


my, 

Mat 


Hist  and  Poet 

Idea  del  Temple  della 
DeMuslca. 

Geom.  Theorems:  on  ForttfletK 

tions;  Theory  of  Planets,  4be. 
Gommentaiy  on  the  Iaw& 
Art  of  Prolonging  liftu 

History  of  Danphlny,  4o. 

OB  Algebra. 


Music, 
AKatPhilesL 

Poetry,  Divinity  A 
Music, 

Poetry  — an  emi- 
nent teacher, 

SenlDtor. 


Music, 

u 

Poetry, 

Theology, 

Mathematies  and 

Astronomy, 
Music 


Poetry,  Polit,fta 

Bead  BnrvoyorA 
Contractor. 

Botany  and  Natu- 
ral Philosophy, 

Grammar,  Logic, 
and  the  Drama. 

Senlptnre. 

Polioe  Magistrate, 


Poems,  Sermoos,  Sn, 

Fables.    8ro]fl.8rQ. 

Maps  In  relief  fta 

On  Bees  and  Ants;  onEdoMtfoa. 

Mnslcsl  Oomposltlonfl. 

Gnitsr  Inetmetor. 

Miscellaniea  in  Prose  and  Tone. 

Paradise  Lost,  Ae. 

Sereral  Konoonflonnist  Worin. 

Algebra  de  other  ScientiAo  WToAa. 

Oratorioa:  Jephtha,  Zbnri,  Ac. 

Poems;  Lett  to  WasUngton,  dw. 


Communications  to  BclentiJIo  Pe- 
liodicals. 


UniverBsl  Mentor. 


BLIND 


867 


EMINENT  BLIND  FE^O^S.-HOonHniud.) 


CSoutiy* 


Bon  «r 
flouriahcd. 


For  whst  esUbnUd. 


Wock*  writtoa  dwiaf  bUadMii. 


D»yidMaebMth 

Penton 

QaiUiod 

M.  Foneault 

Wlmbreeht..«.. 

Joseph  Klrinhnnnii... 

ILKnle 

Alexander  Sodenbeoh 

OIlTerSbAW 

M.  Monooalteni 

W.  H.  ChnroihinMi... 
ILHoaUl 

Aagofltiii  Thierry. . . . 

Oftbilel  Qttaihier 

LooisBnllM 

ReT.W.H.lCUbiiTtt. 

W.  H.  Praeott 

Frances  Brown 

Timothy  Woodbrldge. 

Somael  WUkrd.... 


Dalkeith, 

Scot, 
Paris,  France, 


Paris.       •♦ 
AuMbnrg, 

Mrmanr, 
Tyrol, 

Prosflia, 

Belgium, 

Proyideneei, 

B.L, 
Paris, 

Now  of  Janes- 

villo,  Wiscon. 

Paris,  France, 


Saoneet  Loire, 

France, 
Lagny.     " 

Now  of  New 
York, 

Boston, 


Ireland, 
Stockbridge, 


Deerfleld, 


17M 
1788 

im 

1797 


1788 

i78e 

ab.l800 

1800 

1800 
1808 
1808 
1888 

17M 


1818 
1784 


1775 


1884 
ab.l860 

18S0 


1858 


At  an  early 
Bom  blind, 

u  u 

At  6  years, 

At  4i  yean, 
Bom  blind, 
At  11  years. 

Bom  blind, 

M  « 

At  51  yean, 

At  87  years, 
At  11  mos^ 
At  6  years, 

Sight  almost 
destroyed  in 
early  child- 
hood, 

ImpeiT*tTi8- 
ion  since  80 
Vnofage, 
(t  18  mos., 

At  16  years. 

At  48  years, 


Mosio  and  Mathe- 

matics, 
Mathemat  Prot, 
Music,  Ao^ 
Mechanics, 
Bookseller  A  Book 

Collector. 
Carver  ana  Scnlp' 

tor  on  Wood. 
Director  of  a  Blind 

Institation, 
Member  of  Belgian 

Congress, 
Musical  Composer, 

Mnsic  A  Compoei- 
Uon, 

Superintendent  of 
lllnd  Institute, 

Mechanics  A  Ma- 
de, 


The  String  Alphabet. 

Mathematical  Treatises. 
History  of  Institute  for  Blind. 
Writing  Apparatus  for  Blind. 
Catalogue  of  Library  (8,000  TolSi) 


Treatise  on  Education  of  the 

Blind. 
Several  works  on  the  Blind  and 

Deaf  Mute,  Ae. 
Many  pieces  of  music 


Improvements  on  the 
Treatise  on  Harmony 
of  Musical  Transposition, 


History, 

Musical  Composi- 

Uon. 
Musician  &  Oigan- 

ist,  Inventor, 
Preaching  and  Lee- 

taring^ 

History, 

Poetry, 

Clergyman  A  Au- 
thor, 

Cleigyman  de  Au- 
thor, 


Oigan: 
Manual 


Architectural  Plans,  Beports,  Ao. 

Inventor  of  Improvements  on  the 
Pianoforte. 

HIstoiT  of  Norman  Conquest  In 

England,  Ae. 
Bepertoire  du  Maitre  de  Cha- 


pelle,  Ac 
lethod  of  1 


Method  of  Writing  with  Points, 

forthcBUnd. 
Blile,  Axe,  and  Saddle  Bags. 


Ferdinand  and  Issbella;  Mevieo; 
Pem;  Philip  Second,  dsa 

Star  of  Atteghei,  and  other  Poems. 
Autobiography;  Disconrsess 

Educational  Works,  Hymns,  Ac. 


Among  the  instances  of  remarkable  blind  men, 
few  are  more  worthy  ef  record  than  the  case  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Willard,  of  Deerfleld,  Mass. 
Dr.  W.  is  now  (1858)  ia  his  83d  year,  and  lost 
his  sights  at  least  so  far  as  abilit/-  to  read  was 
concerned,  at  the  age  of  48.  He  was  already 
known  favorably  to  the  public  by  his  writings 
on  controyerstal,  musical,  and  scientific  subjects ; 
bat  the  commencement  of  his  blindness  seemed 
the  beginning  of  a  new  era  in  his  intellectufd 
career.  WiU&in  the  40  years  that  have  since 
intervened  he  has  prepared  and  published :  1, 
a  volume  of  hymns,  composed  by  himself,  each 
oonstmcted  with  the  purpose  of  making  the 
rhetorical  correspond  with  the  musical  rhythm, 
a  work  of  great  iEibor ;  2,  a  collection  of  hymns 
from  various  authors ;  8,  a  series  of  4  primary 
school  books,  which  have  enjoyed  a  large  popu- 
larity; 4;  "Principles  of  Rhetoric  and  Elo- 
cution;^ 5,  "Memorials  of  Daniel  B.. Park- 
burst,"  one  of  his  successors  in  the  pastorate 
of  the  Congregational  church  at  Deerfield; 
6,  "The  Grand  Issue,"  an  ethico-political 
pamphlet  upon  the  relations  of  slavery ;  7, "  An 
Affectionate  Remonstrance"  with  certain  ortho- 
dox ministers  and  periodicals  concerning  the 
temper  and  style  of  religious  controversy ;  8, 
several  angle  sermons.  Beside  these,  he  has  in 
manuscript  an  elaborate  essay  on  phonography, 
to  which  subject  he  has  devoted  speciiu  atten- 


tion for  many  years,  and  a  work  on  the  "  Har- 
mony of  Musical  and  Poetical  Expression." 
During  a  considerable  portion  of  the  period  in 
which  he  has  been  engaged  upon  these  works 
he  has  had  the  care  of  a  liurge  parish.  Dr. 
Willard  is  a  man  of  very  active  habits,  and  per- 
forms with  ease  and  readiness  many  of  those 
acts  for  which  we  are  accustomed  to  regard 
sight  as  indispensable.  He  gathers  his  own 
fruit,  climbing  the  trees  readily,  notwithstanding 
his  age ;  prunes  them  carefully  and  judiciously ; 
digs,  lays  out,  and  plants  his  garden,  selecting 
and  sowing  the  seeds  without  mistake;  saws 
and  carries  in  his  own  wood,  and  seems  almost 
unconscious  of  his  privation.  He  has  fo»  the 
last  26  years  been  completely  blind,  and  for  12 
vears  previous  had  only  been  able  to  distinguish 
large  objects  indistinctly ;  but  even  now,  when 
closeted  in  his  room,  visions  of  the  green  fields 
and  sunny  slopes  of  the  Oonnecticut  valley  ap- 
pear to  him  as  really  as  when  he  gazed  upon  them 
with  the  eyes  which  for  so  long  a  period  have 
admitted  no  light  He  denies  that  this  is  imagi- 
nation, but  regards  it  as  an  exhibition  of  one 
of  the  mysterious  modes  in  which  the  mind 
may  hold  communication  with  the  outer  world 
wiuiout  the  aid  of  the  senses.  Notwithstand- 
ins  his  great  age,  there  are  no  symptoms  of 
faiiure  in  his  intellectual  powers.  He  has  al- 
ways contended  that  the  loss  of  memory  and 


858 


BLIND 


the  yitiation  of  the  other  mental  faculties  in 
the  aged  were  the  result  of  mental  inactivity ; 
and  as  his  own  years  rolled  on,  resolved  to  test 
bis  theory  on  his  own  case.  In  April,  1867,  at 
his  own  reqaest,  his  memory  was  severely 
tested  by  a  mencL  Of  110  passages  of  8crii> 
tore  selected  at  random  from  both  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  read  to  him,  he  gave,  in 
nearly  every  instance,  the  book,  chapter,  and 
verse  correctly  at  once.  Of  40  lines  taken  at 
random  from  his  "Hymns."  he  gave  the 
hymn,  verse,  and  line  in  nearly  every  instance. 
His  memory  was  tested  in  regard  to  the  gradn- 
ates  of  7  colleges,  whose  names  were  called 
from  the  triennial  oatalogaea,  and  he  gave 
readily  the  college  and  year  of  gradoation  of 
all  persons  with  whom  he  was  acquainted,  of 
all  distinffnished  public  and  professional  men, 
of  all  judges,  presidents,  and  professors  of  col- 
leges, members  of  the  American  academy,  &c 
— ^A  reicent  instance  of  a  blmd  man  pursuing  his 
mental  cultivation  and  practising  the  duties  of 
a  profession  with  eminent  success,  i3  that  of 
the  bHnd  minister,  the  Rev.  Dr.  Timothy  Wood- 
bridge,  now  living  at  Spencertown,  N.  Y.  He 
was  born  at  Stockbridge,  Mass.,  in  1784 ;  his 
mother  having  been  a  daughter  of  the  elder  Pres- 
ident Edwards,  and  one  of  his  cousins  the  re- 
nowned Aaron  Burr.  During  his  2d  year  in 
college  he  lost  the  sight  of  one  eye  by  weak- 
ness and  inflammation,  caused  by  hard  study 
and  Jieightened  by  a  severe  cold.  His  remain- 
ing eye  seemed  at  first  strengthened  in  keen- 
ness and  power  by  the  loss  of  the  first,  but  be- 
fore his  college  period  was  finished  it  became 
in  like  manner  inflamed,  and  its  sight  was 
ffradually  extinguished.  Mr.  Woodbridge  bore 
his  misfortune  with  a  philosophic  and  buoyant 
temper,  received  the  conmiiseration  of  his  as- 
sociates with  indifference  or  contempt,  and  at 
once  accommodated  his  plans  to  the  new  chrcum- 
stances  in  which  he  was  placed.  Selecting  the 
profession  of  law,  he  formed  large  schemes  of 
study,  and  with  the  aid  of  numerous  young 
gentlemen  who  read  to  him,  he  not  only  mas- 
tered legal  works,  but  studied  thoroughly  an- 
cient and  modem  history,  and  went  over  the 
whole  range  of  English  classics  from  the  age  of 
Elizabeth.  He  was  cherishing  political  aspira- 
tions, and  had  gained  some  distinction  as  a 
political  orator,  when  in  1809,  his  attention 
being  strongly  drawn  to  the  subject  of  religion, 
he  experienced  a  religious  change,  and  deter- 
mined to  devote  himself  to  preaching  the  gos- 
pel He  pursued  theological  studies  at  Andover, 
became  acquainted  with  the  most  eminent 
ministers  of  the  time,  was  admired  as  a  preacher 
when  he  began  the  practice  of  his  profession, 
and  was  for  24  years  pastor  at  Green  River  in 
the  state  of  New  York.  It  was  his  cnstom  to 
have  a  young  man  with  him  who  was  skilful  in 
reading  and  writing,  and  to  whom  he  often 
dictated  the  heads  of  his  sermons  in  order  to 
stamp  them  the  more  deeply  on  his  own  memory. 
Yet  he  had  so  well  trained  himself  that  on  Satur- 
day evening  he  always  had  distinctly  in  mind  not 


only  the  sabstanoe  but  generally  the  fonn  and 
language  of  the  2  or  8  sermons  which  he  was 
to  deliver  the  next  day.  He  was  uniformly 
cheerful,  and  loved  society ;  and  his  recently 
published  autobiography  is  interesting  not  only 
from  its  genial  and  nappy  tone,  but  for  its 
ludicious  reflections  upon  many  notable  men  and 
books.— The  Rev.  William  H.  Milbum,  another 
remarkable  example  of  genius  ttjnmpbing  over 
apparently  insuperable  diflSculties,  was  bom  in 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  26,  1828.  He  lost  the  sight 
of  one  eye  irretrievably  and  of  the  otiier  par- 
tially in  early  childhood.  His  own  account  of 
the  amount  of  vision  which  remained  to  him, 
in  an  address  at  the  publishers*  festival  in  1865, 
is  as  follows :  "  Time  was  when,  after  a  fashion, 
I  could  read,  but  never  with  that  flashing 
glance  which  instantly  transfers  a  word,  a  line, 
a  sentence,  from  the  page  to  the  mind.  It  was 
the  perpetuation  of  tne  child^s  process,  a  letter 
at  a  time,  always  spelling,  never  reading  truly. 
Thus  for  more  than  20  years,  with  the  shade 
upon  the  brow,  the  hand  upon  the  cheek,  the 
finger  beneath  the  eye  to  make  an  artificial  pu- 
pil, with  beaded  sweat.  Joining  with  the  hot 
tears  trickling  from  the  weak  and  paining  or- 
gan to  blister  upon  the  page,  was  my  reading 
done."  Notwithstanding  this  serious  disability 
in  the  way  of  obtaining  an  education,  he  was 
determine  to  accomplUh  it,  and  we  find  him, 
accordmgly,  at  the  age  of  14,  a  derk  in  a  store 
in  Illinois,  endeavoring  in  his  leisure  moments 
to  fit  for  college.  He  attained  his  purpose, 
passed  through  his  collegiate  course  with  honor, 
though  at  the  cost  of  his  health,  which  fisdlea 
under  the  intense  application  which  his  imper- 
fect vision  rendered  necessary.  At  the  age  of 
20  he  entered  the  ministry  in  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  church  as  an  itinerant.  In  the  oonrse 
of  12  years*  itinerancy  he  occupied  fields  in  al- 
most every  part  of  the  union,  and  travelled 
over  200,000  miles  in  the  performance  of  cleri- 
cal duties,  everywhere  cordially  received,  and 
welcomed  not  less  for  the  amiability  and  mod- 
esty of  his  manners  than  for  his  extraordinaj^ 
eloquence  as  a  preacher  and  lecturer.  He  oflS- 
dated  as  chaplain  to  congress  during  2  sessions, 
and  with  great  acceptance.  In  1858  he  remored 
his  flimily  to  New  York  city,  where  he  has 
since  resided,  having  left  the  circuit  from  the 
special  inconveniences  it  entailed  upon  him, 
and  since  that  time  has  preached  as  a  snpply  to 
vacant  chnrches,  and  followed  the  profesnon  of 
a  public  lecturer,  in  which  he  has  met  with  ex- 
traordinary success.  In  1867  he  published  a 
volume  of  his  lectures,  under  the  title  of 
^  Rifle,  Axe,  and  Saddle-bags,"  which  has  had 
quite  a  large  sale;  the  lectures,  though  based 
on  a  solid  substratum  of  fiact,  revealing  high 
descriptive  power,  and  a  brilliant  imagina- 
tion.— ^Benjamin  B.  Bowen,  of  Massachusetts, 
was  blind  from  infancy,  and  passed  seve- 
ral years  of  his  childhood  as  a  fi^er-boy. 
He  graduated  in  1889  from  the  Perkins  institu- 
tion for  the  blind  in  Boston,  and  has  since  then 
been  busily  employed  as  a  musician,  lecturer. 


BLINDAGE 


6LINDW0RM 


869 


aiid  aaihor,  and  pablished  in  1847  a  duodeci- 
mo Tolnme  eDtitled  the  "Blind  Man's  Offer- 
ing.^-*-The  foDowing  are  the  best  works  on 
the  instmotion  of  the  blind:  ^'An  Acoount 
of  the  Sohool  for  the  Indigent  Blind,''  Lon- 
don, 1844 ;  *^  Oontribntions  to  Publications  of 
the  Sodet^r  for  the  Diffbsion  of  Usefal  Knowl- 
edge," by  Charles  Baker,  1843,  privatelj  re- 
printed. Three  of  these  oontribntions  are  on 
the  education  of  the  blind.  "  Reports  of  Juries 
at  Crystal  Palace  Exhibition,  London,  1851,  on 
Printiaff  for  the  Blind."  ''  National  Magazine, 
K  T.,  Januaiy  to  July,  1857:  Sketches  of  Hu- 
mane Institntiona— The  Blind;"  " Reports  of 
the  Perkins  Institution  and  Massachusetts  Asy- 
faun  for  the  Blind,"  1888-1858 ;  De»  aioeugUB, 
eanHdMuHong  aur  leur  itat  phyHguA,  moral  et 
inteUeotudy  par  P.  A.  Dn&u,  Paris,  2d  edition, 
enlarged ;  ZUnstitut  desjeunea  cneuglet  de  Par- 
M,  $on  huMre  et  sesproeidei  d^enMeignemmt^  par 
I.  Guadet,  Paris^  1850 ;  De  la  Inenfintawie  wiJh 
UfuSy  par  Baron  de  Gerando,  Paris,  1850 ;  2fau^ 
veauproMipour  reprkenUr  par  de$  paints  la 
yarme  mime  dee  lettree^  par  Louis  BraiUd,  Paris^ 
1881) ;  Ifotiee  Mstorique  et  etatutiaue  eur  Vhoe- 
piee  reyal  dee  Quinte  Vingtej  par  Battelle,  Par- 
is^ 1885^  K  Morel;  AnnaUe  de  Pidueati&n  dee 
eourdrmuete  et  dee  OMugleSy  Paris,  1844-1852 ; 
Ze  Uet^fiuteur  dee  eourdrmuete  et  dee  aoeuglee^ 
par  rabb6  Daraa,  1858-1856 ;  £apporte  eur  lee 
etabUeeemette  pour  lee  aeeuglee  en  Angleterre^  par 
l'abb6  Carton,  Brussels,  1845 ;  Baoparte  pre- 
eentee  ace  eaneeU  ghiSral  de  Vaiile  dk  ofoeuglee 
de  Laueanne,  Lausanne  1853 ;  Geaehichte  dee 
BUndenuntsrriehte  una  der  BlindenanetaUeny 
Yon  I.  W.  Klein,  Vienna,  1887 ;  Aneiehten  Hiber 
die  Eniehung,  Atuinldung  und  Vereorgung  der 
BUnden^  yon  H.  Dolezalek,  Pesth,  Hungary, 
1841 ;  IJeber  die  Hothieendigheit  einer  etoeeh- 
fndeeiaen  Einriehtung  und  Verwaltung  va» 
BUndenuinterriehU,  Bradehungeinetituten^  et<^ 
▼on  M.  Lachmann,  Brunswick,  1848. 

BLINDAGE,  in  fortification,  any  fixture 
for  preyenting  the  enemy  from  seeing  what  is 
going  on  in  a  particular  spot.  Such  are,  for  in- 
stance^ the  fascines  placed  on  the  inner  crest  of 
a  battery,  and  continued  over  the  top  of  the 
embrasures;  they  make  it  more  difiScmt^  from 
a  distance,  to  peroeiye  any  thinff  through  the 
embrasures.  More  complete  bUndiBges  are  some- 
times fixed  to  the  embrasures,  consisting  of  2 
Btont  boards,  moying  in  slides  firom  either  side, 
■o  that  the  embrasure  can  be  completely  closed 
by  them.  If  the  line  of  fire  is  always  directed 
to  the  same  spot,  they  need  not  be  opened  out 
when  the  gun  is  run  out,  a  hole  being  cut 
tiirough  them  for  the  muzzle  to  pass.  A  moy- 
able  lid  doses  the  hole,  when  necessary.  Other 
blindages  are  used  to  coyer  the  gunners  in  a 
battery  from  yertical  fire;  they  consist  of  plain 
strong  timbers,  one  end  of  which  is  laid  on  the 
inner  crest  of  the  parapet,  the  other  on  the 
ground.  Unless  the  shells  are  yery  heavy,  and 
oome  down  nearly  in  a  vertical  direction,  they 
do  not  pass  through  such  a  blindage,  but  merely 
geace  i^  and  go  oif  at  an  angle.    In  trenching, 


some  kinds  of  blindages  are  used  to  protect  the 
sappers  from  fire ;  they  are  movable  on  trucks, 
andf  pushed  forward  as  the  work  advances. 
Against  musket  fire,  a  wall  of  strong  boards, 
lined  on  the  outside  with  sheet  iron,  supported 
by  strong  timbers,  is  sufficient.  Against  can- 
non fire,  large  square  boxes,  or  frames,  filled 
with  earth,  sandbags,  or  fascines,  are  necessary. 
The  most  common  kind  of  sappers^  blindage 
consists  of  a  very  large  ffabion,  or  cylinder  of 
wicker  work,  filled  with  nsdnes,  whidi  is  rolled 
before  them  by  the  workmen.  Wherever  the 
sap  has  to  be  covered  in  from  above,  the  blind- 
age- is  constructed  by  laying  square  balks 
across  the  top,  and  covering  them  with  fascines, 
and  fijially  with  earth,  which  renders  them  suf- 
ficiently bomb  and  shot  proof 

BLINDWOBM  (an^tiM^o^iZw,  lann.).  The 
name  of  this  animal  is  very  badly  chosen,  as 
it  is  neither  a  worm,  nor  is  it  blind.  It  be- 
longs to  the  class  of  reptiles,  to  tibe  order  of 
saurians,  and  to  the  famuy  of  scincoids,  or  lepi- 
dosauri;  this  family  is  extremely  interesting, 
as  it  seems  to  establish  a  gradation  between  tiie 
true  saurians  and  the  serpents,  by  means  of  the 
genus  anguie  and  others  nearly  allied  to  it,  in 
which  the  body  becomes  elongated  and  ser- 
pentiform,  the  ribs  increi^  in  number,  and  the 
limbs  cease  to  appear  externally,  being  quite 
rudimentary.  We  see  a  sinular  approach  to  the 
ophidians  in  some  of  the  oyclosaurians,  as  in 
the  amphisboana,  which  is  most  properly  a  sau- 
rian. These  intermediate  forms  were  placed  by 
Gray  in  his  order  of  saurophidians ;  while  Mer* 
rem,  unable  to  draw  the  line  between  ophidians 
and  saurians,  united  them  into  the  single  order 
eqtiamata.  The  body  and  tail  of  the  blind- 
worm  (or  slowworm,  as  it  is  often  called)  are 
cylindrical  and  snake-like,  the  latter  being  as 
long  as  the  former,  and  even  longer ;  the  head, 
triangular  and  rounded  in  front,  is  covered 
by  11  large  and  several  smaller  plates;  the 
nostrils  are  lateral,  each  opening  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  nasal  plates;  the  ton^e  is  free,  flat, 
not  retractile  into  a  sheath,  divided  slightly  at 
the  end,  but  not  forked  like  that  of  the  serpent, 
its  sur&ce  partiy  granular  and  partiy  velvety ; 
the  palate  is  not  toothed ;  the  jaw  teeth  are 
smalt,  shara  and  inclined  bikckward.  Thebonea 
of  the  head  are  not  movable,  as  in  serpents, 
and  the  Jaws  are  flJiort  and  united  firmly  at  the 
svmphyna,  so  that  the  opening  of  the  mouth  is 
always  the  same,  contrasting  strongly  witli  the 
great  mobility  and  extensibility  of  those  parts 
in  ophi^ans.  The  genus  anguis,  and  its  allied 
genera,  also  approi^  the  saurians,  and  differ 
from  the  serpents,  in  having  two  eyelids,  moving 
vertically,  and  capable  of  entirely  covering  the 
eye,  the  lower  one  provided  with  scales.  The 
external  anditory  foramen  is  distinct,  though 
small  and  linear ;  there  are  no  legs,  but  the  ru- 
diments of  the  shoulder,  sternum,  and  pelvis, 
are  found  in  the  substance  of  the  muscles,  while 
in  the  snakes  they  are  reduced  to  a  mere  ves- 
tige of  a  posterior  extremity.  The  scales  are 
6-flided,  exoei^t  on  the  sides  where  they  are 


360 


BLISTER 


BLOCK 


rhomboid ;  smooih,  imbricated,  or  fisb-like,  and 
nearly  of  the  same  aize  above  and  beneath. 
One  long  is  much  more  developed  than  the 
other,  as  in  serpents ;  the  opening  of  the  cloa- 
ca is  transverse.  The  blindworm  is  found  in 
Enrope,  from  Rnssia  and  Sweden  to  the  Medi- 
terranean, and  also  in  northern  Africa ;  it  forma 
now  the  only  species  of  the  ^nns  anguis^  which 
formerly  included  all  the  scaled  reptiles  with 
very  short  or  no  feet,  and  with  the  scales  nearly 
alike  above  and  below.  It  is  gentle  and  inof- 
fensive in  its  habits,  and  quite  narmless;  even 
if  provoked  to  bite,  its  teeth  are  so  small  and 
weak  as  hardly  to  make  an  impressicm  upon  the 
human  skin.  It  is  very  timid,  and  when  taken 
hold  of  is  in  the  habit  of  forcibly  and  stifiQy 
contracting  the  body,  in  which  state  it  becomes 
so  fragile  as  to  be  broken  by  a  slight  blow,  or 
an  attempt  to  bend  it;  hence  the  specific  name 
given  to  it  by  Linnsous.  The  glass-snake,  so 
called,  an  American  q>ecies  of  saurian,  cphtMU- 
rusy  possesses  the  same  property,  as  do  many 
other  scincoids.  There  is  no  rupture  of  muscu- 
lar fibre,  but  a  separation  of  one  layer  from  the 
a^oinii^^  one ;  in  such  cases,  the  detached  por- 
tion is  said  to  be  reproduced  the  next  year. 
From  its  smoothness  it  is  able  to  penetrate  into 
very  small  openings,  and  it  delights  to  burrow 
in  soft  dry  soil,  and  under  decaying  wood  and 
leaves;  it  moves  by  lateral  contractions,  and 
sheds  its  skin,  according  to  Bell,  like  the  true 
snakes ;  it  is  ovo-viviparous,  the  young  being 
brought  forth  alive  in  June  or  July,  to  the  num- 
ber of  from  7  to  14.  The  general  color  is  a 
brownish  gray,  with  a  silvery  glance,  with  sev- 
eral parallel  longitudinal  rows  of  dark  spots  on 
the  sides,  and  one  along  the  middle  of  the  back ; 
the  lengtii  is  from  10  to  14  inches,  of  which  the 
head  is  about  half  an  inch.  Its  food  consists  of 
worms,  insects,  and  small  terrestrial  mollusks; 
it  is  not  fond  of  the  water.  In  France  it  is 
caISM  rorvet.  The  blindworm  approaches  the 
ophidians,  then,  in  its  form,  manner  of  progres- 
sion, absence  of  feet  number  of  ribs,  and  ine- 
quality of  lung  development;  but  it  evidently 
belongs  to  the  scincoid  saurians  by  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tongue,  head,  and  jaws,  by  the  oc- 
currence of  movable  eyelids,  and  by  &e  pecu- 
liarities of  the  vertebral  column. 

BLISTER,  a  topical  application,  which,  ap- 
plied to  the  skin,  produces  an  irritation,  and 
raises  the  cuticle  in  the  form  of  a  vesicle  filled 
with  serous  fluid.  The  powder  of  the  dried 
oantharis,  or  Spanish  fly,  operates  rapidly, 
with  certainty,  and  is  now  invariably  used  for 
this  purpose.  Oantharides  or  Spani^  flies  are 
a  species  of  beetle  common  in  Spain,  Italy,  Sioi- 
fy,  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe.  They  are 
round  adhering  to  the  leaves  of  the  ash,  the  li- 
lac, the  willow,  and  other  trees  or  shrubs. 
They  are  usually  collected  before  sunrise,  in  the 
months  of  June  and  July,  and  are  killed  by  be- 
ing exposed  to  the  vapors  of  vinegar,  after 
which  they  are  dried  in  a  stove.  These  insects 
are  employed  for  medicinal  uses,  both  internal- 
ly and  externally,  but  chiefly  to  make  the  com- 


mon blistering  plaster.  Morbid  ftdaon  in  <nie 
part  of  the  organism  may  often  be  relieved  or 
removed  by  counter-irritation  in  another  and  a 
neighboring  part,  and  on  thi&  principle  tha  blis- 
ter is  applied.  When  the  immediate  effect  of  a 
blister  is  requured,  the  vinegar  of  oantharides  is 
the  most  nrompt  and  effectual  application.  A 
piece  of  blotting-paper  moistened  wif^  this  fluid 
raises  a  blister  almost  immediately.  It  is  some- 
times thus  applied  behind  the  ears  in  toothache, 
or  over  the  stomach  in  cases  of  sudden  cramp. 
The  raw  surface  produced  in  this  manner  af- 
fords a  ready  means  of  introducing  certain 
medicinal  substances  into  the  system  by  ab- 
sorption ;  morphine,  for  instance,  sprinkled  on 
this  raw  surface,  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  pa- 
tients may  be  thus  relieved  where  remedies 
could  not  be  otherwise  employed,  as  in  colic, 
cholera,  &c. 

BLIZARD,  Sir  Whuah,  an  English  anato- 
mist^ born  near  London,  1748,  died  in  London, 
Aug.  28, 1885.  In  1780  he  was  elected  Burgeon 
of  London  hospital,  and,  a  few  years  after,  com- 
menced lecturmg  on  anatomy.  The  old  cor- 
poration of  surgeons  elected  him  professor  of 
anatomy  in  1787,  and  when  it  obtained  a  new 
charter  as  the  college  of  surgeons,  he  and  Sir 
Everard  Home  jointiv  filled  that  chair.  Twice 
he  was  president  of  the  college,  thrice  he  deliv- 
ered the  Hunterian  oration,  and  when  John 
Hunter's  great  collection  was  presented  to  the 
college  by  the  government  Mr.  Blizard  present- 
ed his  own,  consisting  of  900  preserved  speci- 
mens in  anatomy  and  pathology.  In  1819  he 
founded  the  Hunterian  society.  His  health  was 
so  good  that  he  never  had  a  day's  illness.  In 
his  92d  year  his  sight  failed  from  a  cataract, 
which  being  removed,  he  regained  the  use  of  his 
eyes.  He  was  an  excellent  anatomist,  but  nev- 
er was  distinguished  as  a  surgeon.  He  contrib- 
uted littie  to  medical  literature. 

BLOGH.  Mabkub  Elibsbr,  a  German  nat- 
uralist of  Jewish  descent,  born  at  Anspach  in 
1728,  died  Aug.  6, 1799.  On  arriving  at  man- 
hood, almost  illiterate,  he  thoroughly  learned  . 
German  and  Latin,  studied  the  natural  sciences 
in  general,  and  then  devoted  himself  exclusive- 
ly to  natural  history.  His  most  important  work 
is  his  ^^  Natural  History  of  Fishes.''  He  made 
important  additions  to  ichthyology. 

BLOOE,  the  term  used  on  board  vessela  to 
designate  the  case  including  a  sheave,  called  by 
landsmen  apulley.  Two  or  more  blocks^  with  the 
necessary  ropes  to  use  them  in  combination,  are 
called  a  ta<£le.  Blocks  or  ships'  poJleys  are 
generally  made  of  wood.  The  case  extends  be- 
yond the  sheave,  and  is  rounded  on  all  sides,  so 
that  ropes  may.  not  be  caught  between,  the  case 
and  the  sheave,  or  cut  by  inction  against  sharp 
edges.  The  strap  around  a  block  is  usually  a 
piece  of  rope,  the  shaft  being  of  iron.  The  wood 
used  to  make  the  sheave  must  be  very  tough ; 
that  used  for  the  case  must  be  softer,  to 
be  leas  injurious  to  the  ropes  with  which 
it  incidentally  comes  in  contact — Block  Man- 
UFAOTUBB.      The   automatic    machinery  now 


BlJOOK 


BLOCKADE 


861 


in  use  for  numnfactnrmg  blocks  was  inTdnt- 
ed  in  1801  by  Mr.  Brunei,  who  bnilt  the  first 
let  of  machines  for  the  Portsmouth  navy  yard, 
Enghmd,  in  1806.  The  English  government 
rewarded  the  inventor  with  $100,000.  The 
sevend  machines,  in  the  order  in  which  they  are 
used  to  finish  blocks,  are:  1.  A  straight  cross- 
cntting  saw,  which  divides  the  logs  in  pieces  of 
eqnal  length.  This  saw  is  elevated  by  means 
of  a  rope  passing  over  a  return  pulley,  to  let  the 
log  advance ;  when  let  down  it  cuts  through 
the  wood,  while  a  stop,  properly  placed,  pre- 
vents its  cutting  the  bench.  2.  A  circular  cross- 
cutting  saw,  suspended  on  a  parallel  frame,  so 
that  the  axis  maj  be  raised  or  lowered,  pulled 
back  or  pudied  forward,  still  remaining  parallel 
to  its  on^nal  position.  This  axis  is  also  free  to 
slide  lengthwise,  so  that  the  several  positions  of 
the  saw  are  in  the  same  plane  or  in  parallel 
planes.  This  saw  is  used  to  cut  the  short  logs 
from  tiie  first  machine  in  pieces  of  the  lengUi 
of  tiie  blocks  to  be  made.  The  saw  is  small  in 
diameter,  and  made  movable,  for  the  purpose  of 
oatting  the  wood  half  way  from  the  top  and 
from  tiie  bottom.  8.  A  circular  ripping  saw  of 
oidinary  construction  divides  the  portions  of 
logs  into  as  many  parallelopipeds  as  there  are 
blocks  to  be  made.  4.  A  boring  machine,  in 
which  a  block  is  firmly  held  by  a  screw  press- 
ing on  the  centre  of  a  face  against  8  points  act- 
ing on  the  opposite  face.  There  is  a  borer  to 
Ixm  the  hole  for  the  centre  pin,  and  several 
other  boring  tools,  set  at  right  angles  with  the 
first,  for  preparing  the  sheave  hole  or  holes.  6. 
A  mortising  machine,  somewhat  like  the  pre- 
ceding, in  which  chisels  with  an  up  and  down 
motion  are  substituted  for  the  borers ;  this  per- 
fects the  sheave  holes.  6.  A  corner  saw.  This 
is  &n  ordinary  circular  saw,  with  an  a^ustable 
gutter  as  a  guide  for  the  blocks,  for  cutting  the 
4  comers  and  transforming  the  original  parallel- 
opiped  into  an  octagonal  prism.  7.  A  shaping 
machine,  in  which  a  circular  row  of  blocks  is 
made  to  revolve  with  great  rapidity,  each  block 
haviog*,  at  the  same  time,  a  slow  rotary  motion 
on  its  own  axis,  and  the  position  of  the  tools 
being  regulated  by  a  metal  block  similar  to 
tliose  that  are  to  be  made.  This  machine  is  en- 
doBed  in  an  iron  cage  to  protect  the  men  at 
work  from  being  maimed  or  killed  should  the 
blooka  be  accidentally  detached  and  sent 
throoi^  the  room  by  centrifugal  force.  8.  A 
scoring  engine,  an  ordinary  rotary  cutter  of 
bnaa,  with  round  edges,  from  which  prqiect  2 
rounded  chisels  for  outtinff  around  the  blocks, 
in  the  direction  of  the  longest  diameter,  a 
groove  for  the  reception  of  a  metal,  or  rope 
strap.  The  shells  of  the  blocks  are  thus  form- 
ed, and  all  that  remains  to  be  done  is  to  polish 
them  by  hand  labor.  The  sheaves,  made  of 
lignum-vitsB,  are  cut  from  the  logs  crosswise  to 
tlM  fibres,  of  a  littie  more  than  the  thickness 
desired.  They  are  finished  by  the  machines 
which  we  will  now  describe :  1.  A  crown  saw, 
the  diameter  of  which  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
sheaves.     The  flat  pieces  of  lignum-vitad  are 


held  between  2  mandrels,  and  the  crown  saw,  slid- 
ing on  a  hollow  shaft,  is  pressed  against  the 
wood  by  moving  a  lever  which  <dso  pushes  for- 
ward a  centre-bit  2.  The  coaking  engine,  to 
cut  around  the  centre  hole  of  the  sheave  8 
half  holes,  in  which  a  properly  shaped  piece  of 
brass  is  inserted  to  form  the  bearing.  8.  A  face 
turning  lathe,  in  which  the  sheaves  are  placed 
between  flat  chucks,  on  a  mandrel  which  cen- 
tres them  perfectly.  The  putting  together  is 
necessarily  done  by  handwork. 

BLOCK,  Albbeoht,  a  German  agriculturist, 
born  March  6,  1774,  at  Sagan,  died  in  Silesia, 
Nov.  21,  1847.  He  left  various  writings  upon 
agricultural  economy,  and  exerted  a  good  influ- 
ence upon  the  improvement  of  manure,  the  cul- 
ture of  potatoes,  sheep  breeding,  and  the  econ- 
omy and  trans^antation  of  fruits. 

BLOCK  HOUSE,  a  redoubt  of  wood,  usually 
of  2  stories,  the  lower  sunk  a  few  feet  into  the 
ground,  and  the  upper  projecting  a  few  feet  be- 
yond the  lower  on  all  sides.  It  should  be  built 
of  logs  18  inches  square  on  the  ground  floor, 
and  12  inches  square  in  the  npper  story.  It  is 
loopholed,  and  grated  hatches  should  be  made  in 
the  roof  for  the  escape  of  smoke.  Its  place  is 
at  2  diagonal  angles  of  a  picket-work,  and 
it  often  enables  a  feeble  garrison  which  is  ex- 
pecting relief  to  hold  an  important  place  longer 
than  it  otherwise  could.  It  has  been  much  em- 
ployed as  a  defence  against  Indians  in  America, 
and  by  the  French  in  Algeria. 

BLOCK  ISLAND  is  situated  in  the  AUantio 
ocean,  midway  between  Montauk  point,  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Long  Island,  and  Point  Ju- 
dith, 8  miles  long,  and  from  2  to  6  miles  wide. 
It  belongs  to  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  and 
constitutes  the  township  of  New  Shoreham. 
On  the  N.  W.  side  is  a  light-house  with  2  fixed 
lights,  68  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  lat. 
41°  18'  N.,  long.  71°  85'  W. 

BLOCKAD]^  in  international  law,  is  the 
closing  a  port  of  an  enem  v  by  a  besieging  force. 
The  effect  of  it  is  that  all  communication  with 
the  place  thus  blockaded  becomes  unlawful,  and 
the  vessels  of  neutral  nations  attempting  to  sail 
into  or  out  of  the  port,  become  liable  to  confis- 
cation. This  rule,  which  is  universally  admitted 
by  civilized  nations,  is  subject  to  several  lim- 
itations, which  are  also  aidmitted  in  theory, 
though  in  the  application  of  them  diflScnlt  ques- 
tions often  arise.  1.  The  blockade  must  be 
the  act  of  a  belligerent,  and  this  imports  the 
existence  of  war.  The  actual  declaration  of 
war  mav  not  be  necessary ;  a  blockade  is  some- 
times the  commencement  of  war,  but  it  is  es- 
sential that  it  should  be  by  the  direction  of  a 
sovereign  power  with  hostile  intent.  2.  The 
blockading  force  must  be  such  as  to  make  it 
hazardous  to  attempt  to  enter  the  port,  and 
any  port  npon  which  the  force  is  not  brought 
to  bear,  is  not  to  be  deemed  subject  to  blockade. 
A  declaration  by  a  belligerent  that  a  port. or 
district  of  an  enemy  is  in  a  state  of  blockade, 
when  there  is  not  an  adequate  naval  force  to 
support  it,  is  wholly  inoperative  against  neu- 


862 


BLOOKLEY 


BLOIB 


trals.  The  "armed  neutrality"  of  1780,  can- 
nstiog  of  the  northern  powers  of  Earope,  and 
of  Holland  and  France,  prescribed  as  a  condi- 
tion of  blockade  that  there  must  be  a  eoffioient 
nnmber  of  vessels  near  the  port  to  make  an 
entry  apparently  dangerons.  It  was  also  de* 
dared  that  the  interooarse  of  neutral  ships  with 
the  ports  of  either  of  the  belligerent  parties  not 
in  a  state  of  blockade,  could  not  be  interrupted 
except  so  far  as  respected  warlike  stores  and 
ammunition,  and  that  neither  the  vessel  nor 
residue  of  the  goods  should  be  liable  to  seizure. 
To  this  declaration  England  refused  assent.  In 
1801,  the  same  question  came  up  again,  and  the 
rights  of  neutral  powers  were  insisted  upon  as 
b^ore  by  the  same  governments*  The  rule  as 
to  what  constituted  blockade  was  at  the  time 
much  more  broadly  maintained  by  Englilnd, 
but  the  result  of  the  discusuon  then  and  sinoe, 
and  of  the  various  treaties  and  acts  of  the  par- 
ties to  the  controversy,  has  been  the  establish- 
ment, as  a  principle  of  the  law  of  nations,  that 
a  state  of  blockade  exists  only  where  there  is 
a  present  force  sufficient  to  maint4iin  it.  The 
United  States  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
controversy,  and  uniformly  resisted  the  sdznre 
and  confiscation  of  ship  or  cargo  founded  upon 
an  ineffectual  blockade.  A  more  difficult  ques- 
tion, which  has  never  been  entirely  settled,  is 
as  to  the  riffht  of  search  claimed  by  England  to 
ascertain  whether  the  destination  of  a  vessel  is 
to  a  blockaded  port,  or  if  to  an  enemy^s  port 
not  blockaded,  whether  it  has  munitions  of  war 
on  board.  It  is  a  violation  of  a  blockade,  and 
subjects  a  vessel  to  confiscation,  although  it 
shotild  be  able  actually  to  get  into  port  or  sail 
out  of  it,  provided  the  blodcading  force  is,  as 
above  mentioned,  such  as  to  make  such  an  at- 
tempt unsafe.  8.  To  make  a  blockade  effectual 
against  neutral  vessels,  notice  is  required.  A 
vessel  actually  laden  before  the  blockade,  with 
a  cargo  purchased  in  good  fiaith,  is  not  liable  to 
seizure  for  sailing  after  the  commencement  of 
the  blockade.  Notice  may  be  implied,  as  where 
a  neutral  government  is  notified,  all  the  subjects 
of  such  government  are  bound  thereby.  The 
hot  of  notice  is  a  question  of  evidence  in  every 
case  of  seizure.  As  to  vessels  in  the  blockaded 
port,  the  notoriety  of  the  act  is  sufficient  notice. 
After  knowledge  of  a  blockade,  it  is  not  per- 
mitted to  a  neutral  vessel  to  go  to  the  very 
station  of  the  blockading  force  under  pretence 
of  inquiring  whether  the  blockade  continues, 
as  this  would  inevitably  lead  to  evamon  of 
it. 

BLOCELET,  on  the  Schuylkill  river,  state 
of  Pennsylvania,  was  formerly  a  township  of 
Philadelphia  county,  but  now  forms  part  of  the 
city  of  Philadelphia.  The  Columbia  raihroad 
passes  through  it  Its  principal  ejects  of  in- 
terest are  Blockley  almshouse  and  £ilockley  in* 
sane  asylum.    Pop.  5,010. 

BL0D6ET,  Samuel,  a  remarkable  American, 
bom  in  1720  at  Wobum,  Mass.,  died  at  Haver- 
hill, K  H.,  in  1807.  Before  the  revolution  he 
was  judge  of  common  pleas  in  New  Hampshire, 


and  was  at  the  siege  of  Louisburg,  in  1745.  In 
1788,  having  riused  a  valuable  cargo  from  a 
vessel  sunk  near  Plymouth,  he  became  poasessed 
with  the  idea  of  recovering  the  buried  treasures 
of  the  ocean,  and  went  to  Spain  and  to  England, 
where  he  proposed  to  raise  the  Royal  Qeorge. 
But  he  met  with  little  favor  in  either  country. 
After  his  return,  he  commenced  the  manufac- 
ture of  duck,  in  1791.  In  1798  be  removed 
to  Haverhill,  N.  H.,  and  began  the  construetaon 
of  the  canal  which  bears  his  name,  around  the 
Amoskeag  fiedls.  Before  it  was  completed,  after 
expending  large  sums  upon  it,  he  fell  into  em- 
barrassments, and  was  thrown  into  prison  for 
debt  He  was  rigidly  temperate^  exposed  him- 
self freely,  and  intended  bv  his  mode  of  life 
to  prolong  it  to  the  age  of  100  years,  but  be 
died  in  consequence  of  exposure  in  a  joomej 
fh>m  Boston  to  HaverhilL 

BLOIS  (ano.  BletoSy  EUmm\  a  town  of 
France,  pop.  17,749,  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Loir  et  Cher,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Loire,  105  miles  S.  W.  of  Paris.  It 
is  built  on  the  declivity  of  a  bill  which  over- 
looks the  river.  Its  streets  are  narrow  and 
crooked,  some  of  them  being  of  so  rapid  descent 
as  to  be  inaccessible  to  csrriages,  and  to  hav« 
rendered  the  cutting  of  stairs  in  sev^al  plaoea 
necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  pedestriana. 
Taken  as  a  whole,  Blois  is  not  devoid  of  a  cer- 
tain picturesque  beauty,  still  enhanced  bv  sev- 
eral monuments,  such  as  the  cathedral,  the 
episcopal  palace,  the  town-house,  and  above 
all,  the  castle.  The  houses  which  are  utuated 
along  the  bank  of  the  river  are  generally  hand- 
some, while  the  view  from  those  placed  on  the 
hill  is  magnificent.  Blois,  which  is  now  but  a 
third  or  fourth  rate  city,  was  early  a  place  of  im- 
portance, and  during  tne  middle  ages  was  gov- 
erned by  a  fomily  of  counts,  who  possessed  also 
thedty  of  Chartres.  Thelast  of  them,Guy  II., 
sold  his  feudal  estate  to  Duke  Louis  of  Orieans, 
brother  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  YL  The 
casUe,  which  existed  <»i  the  N.  £.  side  of  the 
city,  was  then  greatly  unproved,  and  sabee- 
quently  became  a  favorite  resort  for  the  princes 
of  the  house  of  Yalois.  Here  Louis  XII.  was 
bom,  and  Francis  I.,  Charles  IX.,  Henry  11^ 
frequently  resided.  The  eastern  wing  of  the 
castle  was  entirely  rebuilt  under  the  first  named 
of  these  kings ;  the  northern  wing,  which  is  a 
gem  of  elegant  architecture,  was  added  by  the 
second ;  in  &ct,  the  whole  building,  by  sooces- 
sive  additions,  became  one  of  the  handsomest 
palaces  of  the  time.  The  states^neral  of  France 
were  twice  convened  here  during  the  reign 
of  Henry  HI. :  in  1576,  when  they  repealed  the 
edict  of  pacification,  and  the  king,  unable  to 
oppose  the  league,  declared  himself  its  chief; 
and  in  1588,  when  the  same  prince,  fearing  he 
might  be  deprived  of  his  crown  and  perhi^»  his 
lifia,  through  the  intrigues  of  the  Lorraine 
princes,  hM  the  popular  duke  of  Guise  mur- 
dered by  his  body*gnards  in  the  ante-chamber 
of  his  own  apartments,  and  the  cardinal  of  Lor- 
raine secretly  desnatohed,  a  few  hours  later.  In 


BLOMFIELD 


BLOOD 


868 


a  more  secluded  room.  When  Maria  de'  Medici 
was,  in  1617,  exiled  from  the  conrt,  she  resided, 
probably  as  a  pHsoner,  in  this  casde,  whence, 
18  months  later,  she  escaped  through  a  high 
window,  which  is  also  an  object  of  cariosity. 
In  1814^  on  the  approach  of  the  Enropean  ar- 
mies to  Paris,  the  empress  Maria  Lonisa  and 
the  oonnoil  gk  regency  repaired  for  a  while  to 
this  place.  Afterward  the  castle  was  entirely 
neglected,  and  even  need  as  barracks  for  caval- 
ry. Daring  the  later  years  of  Louis  Philippe's 
reign,  this  oarioas  specimen  of  architectare  was 
oarefallv  and  tastefully  restored.  Blois  has 
several  literary  and  scientific  societies,  a  botan- 
ical garden  founded  by  Henry  IV.,  a  public 
library  with  19,000  volumes,  a  dgiartmental 
college,  and  a  diocesan  seminary.  It  trades  in 
wines,  spirits,  vinegsr,  staves,  and  liqaorice, 
while  it  produces  serges,  hosiery  and  gloves, 
catlery  and  hardware.  A  handsome  bridge 
of  11  arches,  built  in  1717,  connects  the 
town  with  the  suburb  of  8t  Gervais,  the 
ceUars  of  which  possess  the  siujplar  property 
of  turning  millc  into  a  kind  of  Koihed  cream, 
a  delicacy  which  is  highly  appreciated  by 
inhabitants  and  travellers.  The  city  is  furnish- 
ed with  spring  water  through  an  old  Roman 
aqaeduct,  in  excellent  preservation.  Thierry, 
the  historian,  was  bom  here. 

BLOMFIELD,  Ohables  Jahbs,  D.  D.,  bishop 
of  London,  born  at  Bury  St.  Edmunds,  Suffolk, 
May  29, 1786,  died  in  London,  Aug.  5, 1857.  Ed- 
ucated by  his  fSftther,  who  was  a  schoolmaster, 
he  was  entered  at  Trinity  college,  Cambridge, 
and  graduated,  in  1808,  as  third  wrangler  and 
first  chancellor's  medallist.  In  1810-'12,  he  ed- 
ited the  ^  Prometheus,^'  and  other  plays  of  i£9- 
chylns.  His  edition  of  Callimachus  appeared  in 
1824.  His  character  as  a  philologist  and  critio 
rests  mainly,  but  not  entirely,  on  these 
works.  He  contributed  largely  to  the  Muieum 
Oritiffwn^  and  in  a  review  (Oct  1818)  of  Bland's 
**  Anthology,**  on  which  he  was  very  severe, 
he  gave  rather  indifferent  poetical  transla- 
tions from  Anaoreon,  Meleager,  and  others. 
He  edited  the  Iiv$a  Cantabrifiienses,  in  con- 
junction with  Bennel,  and  the  *^  Posthumous 
Tracts''  of  Porson,  in  coi^junction  with  Monk, 
afterward  bishop  of  Gloucester.  He  also  edited 
ihe  Adwnairia  Fonanij -wrote  several  articles 
on  dassieal  suljects  in  reviews  and  other  peri- 
odicals, and  in  1828  compiled  a  Greek  gram- 
xnar  for  sehoola.  While  thus  occupied  as  a 
scholar,  his  progress  in  the  church  was  rapid. 
In  1810  he  was  appointed  to  the  rectories  of 
Warrington  and  Dunton;  in  1819  Dr.  Howley, 
then  bishop  of  London,  appointed  him  one  of 
his  chaplains,  giving  him  a  valuable  metro- 
politan rectory,  and  the  archdeaconry  of  Col- 
chester ;  in  1824  he  was  made  bishop  of  Ches- 
ter ;  and,  in  1^28,  he  succeeded  his  patron,  Dr. 
Howley,  in  the  see  of  London.  He  occupied  that 
position  for  28  years,  and  retired  in  Sept.  1866, 
on  aoooont  of  ill  heakh,with  a  pension  of  £5,000 
a  year,  and  the  use  of  the  palace  at  Fulham  for 
In   parliament  Bishop  Blomfield  took 


the  lead,  for  many  years,  in  the  discusuon  of 
ecclesiastical  subjects.  He  firmly  maintained 
what  are  called  high  church  principles,  and  in- 
culcated them  not  only  as  a  legislator  but  in 
his  charges  to  the  dergv.  He  supported  the 
new  poor  law ;  he  manifested  great  zeal  in  im- 
proving the  social  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes ;  he  advocated  the  spread  of  education; 
and  he  strenuously  applied  himself  to  increas- 
ing the  number  of  churches  in  lus  diocese.  He 
protested,  with  some  other  bishops^  against  the  el- 
evation of  Dr.  Hampden  to  the  see  of  Hereford, 
on  the  ground  of  his  presumed  heterodos^. 
In  church  politics,  however,  he  was  generally 
strong  rather  than  violent  His  speeches  and 
sermons  have  few  claims  to  the  character  of 
eloquence,  but  are  forcible  and  cleariy  ex- 
pressed. Beside  the  income  of  his  diocese,  he 
ei\}oyed  emoluments  as  provincial  dean  of  Can- 
terbury, dean  of  the  chapels  royal,  and  rector 
of  8ion  college.  In  the  norUi-west  of  the 
metropolis  there  was  a  large  piece  of  land, 
thinly  inhabited,  when  he  became  bishop  of 
London.  A  few  years  later,  this  was  occupied 
as  building  ground,  and  it  now  contains  the  ex- 
tensive sti^on  and  works  of  the  great  western 
railway,  with  miles  upon  mUes  of  first-class 
streets,  inhabited  by  the  wealthier  classes. 
The  ground  thus  covered  belonged  to  the  see 
of  London,  and  the  ground-rents  and  fines  are 
estimated  to  have  raised  the  bishop's  income  to 
£70,000  a  year.  Parliament  has  since  fixed  the 
income  at  £10,000  per  annum.  Beside  his 
classical  publications,  Dr.  Blomfield  is  author 
of  a  ^^ Manual  of  Family  Prayers^"  "Lectures 
on  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,"  and  g£  numerous 
sermons  and  charges  to  his  clergy. 

BLOMMAERT,  Philip,  a  Flemish  phUolo- 
gist,  noted  for  his  advocacy  of  tibe  use  of  the 
Flemish  language,  bom  at  Ghent  about  1809.  He 
has  done  much  for  the  literature  of  his  conn- 
try  by  an  edition  of  the  old  Flemish  poets  of 
the  11th,  12th,  18th,  and  14th  centuries,  with 
glossaries,  notes,  and  emendations.  He  has 
also  republished  the  Iftbelungenliedy  translated 
into  Dutch  iambics.  His  best  work,  however, 
is  the  Alouds  geachiedenis  der  Belgen  of  Ne- 
derduiUeheri^  in  which  he  vindicates  the  claims 
of  his  country  to  an  independent  national  ex- 
istence and  national  Hterature.  Blommaert 
also  writes  French  well,  and  is  a  contributor  to 
tiie  Msuager  de$  9cienee$  hiitoriquet, 

BLOND,  Jacquxs  Obbistophb  lb,  a  printer 
of  engravings  in  colors,  bom  at  Frankfort-on- 
the-Main,  in  1670,  died  in  a  hospital  in  Paris, 
in  1741.  He  was  bred  a  painter,  and,  in  1711, 
went  to  Amsterdam,  and  some  years  after  to 
England.  He  conceived  the  idea  of  an  estab- 
lishment to  print  engravings  in  colors,  and, 
obtaining  means,  produced  many  copies  of 
engravings  and  pictures,  which  of  coarse  had 
defects,  and  the  experiment  failed.  He  now 
devoted  himself  to  producing  the  cartoons  of 
Raphael  in  tapestry,  hut  this  failed  also,  and  he 
soon  after  died. 

BLOOD,  in  man  and  the  higher  animals,  the 


864 


BLOOD 


red  liquid  which  drcnlates  in  the  cavities  of  the 
heart,  the  arteries,  the  veins,  and  the  capillary 
vessels. — ^I.  Physical  qualities  of  the  blood. 
In  the  living  bodj  the  blood  is  a  somewhat 
tenadons  liquid,  containing  an  innumerable 
quantity  of  solid  particles  (the  blood  globules), 
whicli  are  seen  on|y  with  the  microscope.  The 
color  of  the  blood  varies  extremely  according  to 
the  part  of  the  circulatory  system  where  it  is 
observed.  In  the  arteries  the  blood  is  more  or 
less  of  a  light  vermilion  tint  in  children,  and  of 
a  purplish  or  bright  cherry  red  in  adults,  and 
somewhat  darker  in  old  people  and  in  pregnant 
women.  In  the  veins  it  is  of  a  dark  red,  and 
even  of  a  somewhat  black  hue.  In  disease,  and 
also  in  various  physiological  states,  the  blood 
may  be  very  dark  in  the  arteries,  and,  in  other 
cases,  very  bright  in  the  veins.  The  odor  of 
the  blood,  which  is  quite  peculiar,  usually 
resembles  that  of  the  perspiration  of  the  in- 
dividual from  whom  the  blood  has  been  taken. 
The  blood  is  transparent  when  seen  in  thin 
layers;  opaque  otherwise.  The  specific  gravity 
of  normal  numan  blood  averages  1.055,  its 
physiological  limits  being  1 .045  and  1.075.  The 
minimum  of  density  is  in  pregnant  women  and 
children,  and  the  maximum  in  adult  men.  The 
capacity  of  the  blood  for  heat  is,  according  to 
Nasse,  in  an  exact  ratio  to  its  density. — ^11.  Quan- 

TITT  OF  blood  IN  THE  HITMAN  BODY.  Of  the  Vari- 

ous  means  employed  to  find  out  the  relative 
amount  of  blood  in  the  body,  that  which  consists 
in  first  weighing  an  animal,  then  taking  out 
as  much  of  its  blood  as  possible,  and  weigh- 
ing the  latter,  is  not  to  be  relied  on,  as  the 
blood  never  flows  out  entirely  from  the  blood- 
vessels. However,  as  it  is  interesting  to  know 
how  much  blood  may  escape  from  divided 
bloodvessels,  we  wiU  give  a  list  of  the  results 
obtained  by  various  experimenters.  In  the 
ewe  the  weight  of  the  blood  is  to  the  weight  of 
the  body  as  1  to  22  or  28 ;  in  the  ox,  as  1  to  12 
(Herbst),  or  1  to  23  or  24  (Wanner) ;  in  the 
cow,  as  1  to  21.77;  in  the  sheep,  as  1  to  20  or 
27.72;  in  the  dog,  as  1  to  10  or  12,  or  21 ;  in 
the  horse,  as  1  to  18 ;  in  the  lamb,  as  1  to  20 
or  22 ;  in  the  cat,  as  1  to  22 ;  in  the  rabbit,  as 
1  to  24  or  29 ;  in  the  ass,  as  1  to  28 ;  in  the 
fox,  as  1  to  21 ;  in  the  mouse,  as  1  to  22.5. 
From  these  results,  it  has  been  concluded  that 
in  man  the  proportion  of  blood  is  from  ^  to  ^, 
and,  therefore,  for  a  man  weighing  160  lbs., 
the  quantity  of  blood  is  from  8  to  16  lbs. 
But  tnis  mode  of  calculation,  we  repeat,  gives 
only  the  minimum  of  the  quantity  of  blood.  By 
another  mode  of  calculation,  in  some  respects 
similar  to  the  preceding,  with  this  capital  dif- 
ference, ^  however,  that  the  observations  have 
been  made  on  man,  we  find  that  there  is  much 
more  blood  in  our  species  than  was  concluded 
from  the  preceding  researdies.  Haller  relates 
many  cases  of  hemorrhage  in  which  men  and 
women  have  lost  9,  10,  11,  16,  18,  or  22  lbs., 
or  even  80  lbs.  of  blood  from  the  nose,  and 
12  lbs.  in  one  night,  or  8  pints,  by  vomiting 
(ffoitrorhagia),     Buidach  says  that  Wrisberg 


has  seen  a  woman  who  died  from  a  loss  of 
26  lbs.  of  blood  from  the  uterus,  and  that  an- 
other woman,  after  decapitation,  yielded  24  lbs. 
of  blood.  Frona  fiicts  of  this  kind  Haller,  Qnes- 
nay,  and  Hoffmann  inferred  that  there  is  about 
28  lbs.  of  blood  in  the  body  of  a  man  of  aver- 
age eize.  The  best  mode  of  estimating  the 
amount  of  blood  in  man  has  been  employed  by 
Lehmann  and  £d.  Weber.  They  determined 
the  weights  of  2  criminals  both  before  and  after 
decapitation.  The  quantity  of  the  blood  whidh 
escaped  from  the  body  was  ascertained  in  the 
following  manner :  water  was  injected  into  the 
vessels  of  the  trunk  and  head,  until  the  fluid 
escaping  from  the  veins  had  only  a  pale  red  or 
yellow  color ;  the  quantity  of  the  blood  remain- 
ing in  the  body  was  then  calculated,  by  instituting 
a  comparison  between  the  solid  residue  of  this 
pale  red  aqueous  flnid,  and  that  of  the  blood 
which  first  escaped.  By  way  of  illustratioa, 
we  subjoin  the  results  yielded  by  one  of  the  ex- 
periments. The  living  body  of  one  of  the  crim- 
mals  weighed  60,140  grammes,  and  the  same 
body,  after  decapitation,  54,600  grammes ;  ooa- 
sequently,  5,540  grammes  of  blood  had  escaped  ; 
28.56  grammes  of  this  blood  yielded  5.86  grammes 
of  solid  residue;  60.5  grammes  of  sanguine- 
ous water,  collected  after  the  injection,  contained 
8.724  grammes  of  solid  substances;  6,050 
grammes  of  the  sanguineous  water  that  returned 
from  the  veins  were  collected,  and  these  coq- 
tained  87.24  grammes  of  solid  residue,  which 
corresponds  to  1,980  grammes  of  blood ;  conse- 
quently, the  body  contained  7,520  grammes  of 
blood  (5,540  escaping  in  the  act  of  deci4)itation, 
and  1,980  remaining  in  the  body) ;  hence,  the 
weight  of  the  whole  of  the  blood  was  to  that  of 
the  body  nearly  in  the  ratio  of  1  to  8.  The 
other  e]roeriment  yielded  a  precisely  similar 
result  ]By  tiiis  mode  of  calculation,  which 
gives  a  nearer  approximation  than  any  other 
to  the  proportion  of  blood,  we  have  not, 
however,  the  exact  proportion,  because  blood 
remains  in  some  of  the  capillaries.  The  only 
positive  condnsion  we  can  draw  from  these  ex- 
periments is  that  there  is  at  least  20  lbs.  of 
blood  in  the  body  of  a  healthy  man  weighing 
160  lbs.  Yalentin  has  employed  another 
mode  of  calculation,  which^  unlike  the  preced- 
ing, has  given,  by  calculation,  a  proportion  of 
blood  greater  than  that  which  reially  exists. 
He  bleeds  an  animal,  and  determines  the  pro- 
portion of  solid  parts  in  the  blood;  then  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  water  is  iqjected  into  the  v^ns, 
and  immediately  aft;er,  blood  is  drawn  agun, 
and  its  proportion  of  solid  parts  determined; 
and  after  a  compjarison  of  the  two  results,  a  cal- 
culation is  maae  which  gives  the  quantity  of 
blood.  In  dogs,  it  was  found  that  tiie  amount 
of  blood,  compared  to  the  weight  of  the  body, 
is  as  1  to  4i,  and  in  sheep,  as  1  to  5.  If  this 
result  be  applied  to  man,  we  find,  for  a 
man  weighing  160  lbs.,  fh>m  82  to  86  lbs.  of 
blood,  which  is  most  probably  an  over-esti- 
mate. Dr.  Blake,  by  another  method,  has  ob- 
tained more  important  results.    He  iiyects  into 


BLOOD 


865 


tiie  veins  of  an  animal  a  certain  qnantiiy  of  the 
sulphate  of  alumina,  a  salt  which  is  not  quickly 
destrojed  in  the  hlood,  or  expelled  from  it; 
then  he  analyzes  the  hlood,  and  hj  the  propor- 
tion of  this  salt  found  in  it,  he  asoertaios 
werj  nearly  the  quantity  of  hlood  in  the 
hodjr  of  the  animal.  The  conclusion  is  that 
there  is  1  lb.  of  blood  for  8  or  9  of  the  ani- 
mal, and,  therefore,  from  18  to  20  lbs.  of 
blood  in  a  man  weighing  160  lbs.  From 
all  these  facts,  it  results  that  the  Quantity  of 
blood  in  an  adult  man  is  very  likely  a  little 
above  20  lbs.  There  is  more  blood  in  men 
than  in  women*  It  is  not  positively  determined 
whether  a  fat  or  a  lean  person  has  most  blood ; 
but  Sohultz  says  that  there  is  more  blood  in  lesn 
oxen  than  in  fat  ones.  Bdrard  justly  remarks 
that  it  is  a  mistake  to  believe  that  there  is  pro- 
portionally more  blood  in  newly  bom  children 
than  in  adults.— -III.  OoMPosrrionr  of  thb  blood. 
There  is  no  fluid  in  the  body  having  so  complex  a 
composition  as  the  blood.  This  fact  may  be  easily 
understood,  as  we  know  that  through  the  blood 
passes  eveiy  thing  that  is  going  to  or  coming 
from  all  the  parts  of  the  body,  either  solid  or 
liquid.  The  chemical  analysis  of  the  blood  is 
extremely  difficult,  and  much  is  still  to  be  learned 
as  regards  the  composition  of  this  mysterious 
fluids  as  John  Davy  calls  it.  On  compar- 
ing the  results  obtained  by  various  experi- 
menters who  have  analyzed  Uie  blood,  we  find 
a  great  difference  between  them.  Gorup- 
Bemnez  has  proved  that  these  differences  de- 
pend mostiy  on  the  method  of  analysis;  for 
he  found  that  when  4  samples  of  the  same  blood 
were  analyzed  by  himself  according  to  the  4 
principal  methods,  the  results  were  strikingly 
different^  as  the  following  table  will  show : 


1.  Water 796.45 


AUTHOBS  or  TOM  YABIOim  XBTHODB. 

8«lMm. 

BMqiMNi 

■BdRodkr. 

Ho«fl«. 

6onip-B«- 

Water 

796.98 

aoswor 

1.95 

iia.16 

58.8S 
27.14 

796.98 
908.07 

195 

117.88 
58.87 

19.48 

79«l98 
908.07 

1.95 
108.28 
6a84 

47.05 

790.98 

SoUd  matters 

Flbrla 

2oao7 

1.95 

OorpnscMS  ........ 

AUnunen 

aadaalts 

10a28 
70.75 

27.14 

Hence  it  is  of  no  value  to  compare  researches 
on  the  composition  of  blood  in  disease  in  men 
at  different  ages,  or  in  different  animals,  made 
by  experimenters  who  have  employed  different 
methods.  The  following  table  represents  the 
composition  of  normal  human  blood,  according 
to  the  researches  of  Lehmann.  If  compared  with 
the  fij!St,  it  will  be  found  that  the  proportion  of 
corpuscles  is  notably  larger  in  the  last  than  in  the 
first.  This  is  another  proof  of  the  differences 
due  to  methods  of  analysis :  in  the  last  case,  the 
coipusdes  of  the  blood  have  not  been  deprived 
of  their  salts,  and,  therefore,  their  weight  is  more 
considerable  than  in  cases  where  they  lose  a 
part  of  their  constituents  before  being  weighed. 


2.8oUdre- 

sldae 

904.65.. 


LFlbrln 8.025 

(  Uieuiatin &875 

2.  Coipucles-i  Globulin  A;  cell 

(    membrane  . .  141.110 

8.  Albamen 89.420 

4.  Fatty  matters 2.015 

5.  Extracttvo  matters &270  , 

Chlorine 2.666' 

BulpharicacicL.  .090 

Phoephorioacld  .668 

6.  Mineral       Potaasiam 1.825 

substances,  J  Sodium 2.197 


excliisiroof    Oxygen 


Iron  . 


.586 


Phosphate  of 

Ilmo 

Phosphate  of 

magnesia 148 


.212 


196.215 


8.885 


1000.000 

Many  other  substances  are  found  in  the 
blood  beside  those  above  enumerated.  For 
instance,  among  the  fatty  matters  we  find  the 
saponifiable  fats,  which  chiefly  consist  of  oleate 
and  margarate  of  soda;  a  phosphorized  fatty 
matter,  cholesterin  and  serolin.  Beside  these 
substances,  there  is  probably  also  one  or  many 
volatile  fatty  acids,  to  which  the  blood  owes  its 
odor.  The  so-called  extractive  substances  of 
the  blood  are  very  different  from  each  other, 
some  of  them  being  nitrogenized  matters,  while 
others  are  not.  We  will  merely  say  that  among 
these  substances  are  found  what  Mulder  calls 
binoxide  and  tritoxide  of  protein  and  sugar, 
urea,  uric  and  hippnric  ados,  creatine,  creati- 
nine, &c.  In  the  bloodvessels,  and  during  life, 
blood  consists  essentially  of  2  parts,  which  differ 
extremely :  one  is  solid,  the  corpuscles  or  glo- 
bules, the  other  is  liquid,  the  liquor  sanguinis. 
According  to  Lehmann,  the  corpuscles  form  fully 
one-half  of  the  volume  of  the  blood.  Their 
analysis  compared  to  that  of  the  liquor  sangui- 
nis show  that  they  differ  much  from  it : 

1 JOQO  parts  of  Uood  ooipotelM  ooatm   1,000  parts  of  Uqoor  nacaiaU  ooaiaiii 

Water 688.00  Water 909.90 

SoUd  realdae 812.00  BoUd  residue 97.10 

Hfomatla  (Including  Fibrin 4.05 

Iron) 16.75  Albumen 7&84 

Globulin  and  cell  mem-  Fat 1.72 

brane. 282.2S  Extractive  matters....  a94 

Fat 2.81  Mineral  subfttanees....  8.55 

Extractive  matters 2.60 

Minend  substances 8.12  

1.  Chlorine 1.68*1.  Chlorine a644 

5.  Sulphuric  add 0.066  2.  Sulphuric  acid 0.115 

a  Phosphoric  acid 1.184  &  Phosphoric  add 0.191 

4.  Potassium. 8.828  4.  Potassium a828 

6.  Sodium 1.062  0.  Sodium &841 

6.  Oxygen 0.667  6.  Oxygen a408 

7.  Phosphate  of  Ume...  0.114  7.  Phosphate  of  lime..  0.811 
a  Phosphate  of  magna-  &  Phosphate  of  magne- 

•ia 0.078         sla a222 

Many  metals  are  found  in  the  blood ;  among 
them  some  deserve  a  short  notice.  The  most 
important  seems  to  be  iron,  which  is  found  not 
only  in  the  blood,  bnt,  according  to  M.  Yerdeil, 
in  all  the  coloring  matters  of  Uie  body.  Iron 
in  the  blood  is  round  only  in  the  corpuscles, 
combined  with  the  coloring  matter,  the  hadma' 
tin.  According  to  Lecauu,  there  is  7  per  cent, 
of  iron  in  hssmatio.  If  in  a  strong  man  we 
admit  that  there  is  15  kilogrammes  of  blood 
(80  lbs.),  the  proportion  of  hssmatin  is  about  84 
grammes  (1  oz.),  and  therefore,  the  quantity  of 


BLOOD 


Iron  is  nearly  2.42  grammes  (nearly  60  gnuns). 
M.  B^rard  says  that  out  of  the  blood  of  the 
28,000,000  of  Frenchmen,  67,592  kilogrammes 
of  iron  might  be  extracted,  and  he  adds  that 
this  justifies  the  words  of  Menghini :  Ejs  hu- 
mono  sanffuins  et  elaicct,  et  ensei,  et  initrumenta 
omni  genere  eudi  posse.  Sarzean  has  found 
copper,  and  Denis  has  discovered  mangane- 
sium  in  the  blood.  Millon  has  ascertained  the 
constant  existence  of  these  two  metals,  and  also 
of  lead,  in  the  blood.  These  metals  exist  in 
greater  quantity  in  the  globules  than  in  the 
liquor  sanguinis.  It  is  very  important  to  know 
that  these  metals,  and  particularly  copper,  exist 
normally  in  the  blood,  to  avoid  mistakes  that 
might  be  made  in  cases  of  suspected  poisoning 
by  these  metals.  It  has  been  said  that  arsenic 
exists  normally  in  blood,  but  this  assertion  has 
been  disproved.  Nickles  has  recently  pointed 
out  the  existence  of  an  interesting  element  in 
blood,  fluorine.  The  blood  of  man  differs  from 
that  of  woman,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  follow- 
ing comparative  analyses  made  by  Becquerel  and 
Rodier : 

ICaa.         Woman. 

Densltj  of  defibrinated  blood ioeo.9  IWIA 

Water 77»  T91 

CorpuiclM ULl  187.9 

Albumen 09.4  70J^ 

Fibrin 2.S  8.9 

ExtraeUyo  matters  and  free  salts A.8  7.4 

FattvmatterB l.SOO  1.090 

Serolln 0.020  0.090 

Pbospborizedfttty  matter 0.488  0.464 

Chnloflterin 0.088  0.090 

Anlmalsoap 1.004  1.046 

Beside,  the  same  chemists  have  found  that  there 
is  less  iron  in  the  blood  of  women  than  in  that  of 
man.  The  blood  of  children  is  richer  in  solid 
constituents,  and  especially  blood  corpuscles, 
than  that  of  adults.  It  is  just  the  reverse  with  the 
blood  of  old  people  compared  to  that  of  adults. 
During  pregnancy  the  blood  contains  more 
water  than  in  other  circumstances ;  the  quantity 
of  albumen  and  of  blood  corpuscles  is  dimin- 
ished. Gazeaux  has  justly  pointed  out  that  ^e 
so-called  plethora  of  pregnant  women  is  not  a 
plethora  of  blood,  but  of  water,  and  that  it  is 
usually  very  wrong  to  bleed  women  during 
pregnancy  only  because  they  seem  to  have  too 
much  blood.  Among  animals,  the  blood  of 
omnivora  and  carnivora  is  richer  in  organic 
solid  constituents  than  that  of  the  herbivora. 
So  also  is  that  of  the  warm-blooded  vertebrata, 
compared  to  the  cold-blooded.  The  blood  of 
the  arteries  differs  from  that  of  the  veins  in 
many^  points.  Its  corpuscles  have  a  smaller 
quantity  of  solid  constituents,  especially  fats, 
but  they  contain  relatively  more  hssmatin  and 
salts.  It  has  more  fibrin^  and  more  water,  and 
therefore  relatively  less  albumen.  It  has  also 
a  much  smaller  quantity  of  fats,  and  a  much 
greater  amount  of  extractive  matters,  while  its 
salts  are  diminished.  For  the  composition  of 
the  blood  of  the  portal  and  hepatic  veins,  we 
will  refer  the  reader  to  the  article  on  the  LmoB. 
Changes  in  the  composition  of  the  blood  are 
effected  very  quickly;  during  digestion,  for  in- 
stance, the  solid  constituents  of  the  blood  man- 


ifestly ineroaso,  while  the  rewne  takes  plaoe 
during  fiisting.  In  idl  the  circumstances  whidi 
modify  the  blood,  it  is  chiefly  the  number  and 
the  composition  of  the  blood  corpuscles  which 
change.  The  differences  between  diffdrent  ani- 
mals as  to  the  quantity  of  blood  corpuscles  are 
very  great;  for  instance,  the  pig  has  145.5  of 
dry  blood  corpuscles,  while  the  goat  has  only 
86.0,  out  of  1,000  parts  of  blood.  Of  course  this 
relates  only  to  dried  corpuscles,  as  Lehmann  has 
found  that  the  normal  corpuscles  in  man  form 
more  than  one-half  the  quantity  of  the  blood. 
When  it  is  said  that  the  proportion  of  corpus- 
cles is  only  ^^^  of  the  blood,  this  reUtes  to 
dry  corpuscles.  The  proportion  of  this  most  im- 
portant element  in  the  blood  of  man  is  put  down 
at  a  higher  or  lower  amount  according  to  the 
means  employed  to  separate  or  to  £j  them. 
In  this  way  we  may  explain  how  Lehmann 
gives  the  proportion  of  149.485  for  the  dry 
corpuscles  in  1,000  parts  of  blood,  while  Beo- 
querel  and  Bodier  give  the  proportion  of  141.1, 
Bickardson  184.8,  Lecanu  182.6,  Prevost  and 
Dumas  129.0,  Andral  and  Gavarret  127.0,  Popp 
120.0,  Nasse  116.5,  and  Scherer  only  112.0.  for 
the  blood  of  man.  We  shall  not  examine  here 
the  influence  of  diseases  on  the  composition  of 
the  blood ;  we  will  merely  say  that  one  of  the 
most  interesting  facts,  and  the  most  constant  in 
this  respect,  consists  in  the  increase  of  fibrin  in 
the  blood  in  all  the  cases  of  inflammation,  ac- 
companied with  fever.  It  is  ver^  remarkable 
that,  even  in  very  weak  persons,  m  aniemio  or 
hydnemic  people,  the  proportion  of  fibrin  in- 
creases in  inflammation. — ^lY.  Micbosoopioal 
BTUDT  OF  THB  BLOOD.  When  the  blood  is  ex- 
amined with  a  microscope,  many  things  may  be 
found:  1,  red  corpuscles  or  discs;  2,  white, 
or  rather  colorless,  corpuscles;  8,  molecnlar 
elements;  4,  pigment;  5,  crystals;  6,  coagu- 
lated fibrin.  We  will  study  successivdy  these 
different  elements.  1.  Red  eorptudes  or  ditki. 
Their  discovery  is  due  to  Malpiffhi  (in  1666), 
although  it  seems  that  Swammerdam  had  seen 
them  a  few  years  before.  They  are  found  in 
the  blood  of  all  the  vertebrata.  Their  form 
varies  much  in  animals  of  different  classes. 
In  man  they  are  thick,  circular,  slightly  bicon- 
cave discs,  consisting  of  a  colorless  investing 
membrane,  and  of  red  or,  in  refracted  ligh^ 
yellow,  viscid,  fluid  contents.  They  have  no 
nucleus,  at  least  in  adult  men.  In  the  other 
mammalia  the  red  corpuscles  are  more  or  leas 
similu:  to  those  of  man,-~except,  however,  a 
few  tribes  (camel,  dromedary,  llama),  in  which 
the  red  corpuscles  are  not  circular  and  concave, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  elliptic  and  biconvex.  In 
birds  they  are  also  eUiptic  or  oval,  and  elevated 
in  the  centre.  In  amphibia  they  are  oval  also, 
and  strongly  oonvex.  We  owe  to  the  laborious 
researches  of  Gulliver  the  indication  of  the  size 
of  the  red  corpuscles  in  an  immense  number  of 
animals.  We  will  take  from  the  table  he  has 
published  only  what  rektes  to  man  and  to  the 
most  common  animals,  or  to  those  which  have 
corpuscles  of  the  most  remarkable  size.    The 


BLOOD 


867 


measarements  are  all  made  in  viilgar  fractions 
of  an  English  inch ;  bot  for  the  sake  of  conven- 
ienoe,  the  namerator,  being  invariably  1,  is 
oinittod  thronghont,  and  the  denominators  only 
are  printed : 

ICBASUBSlCBIfTS  OF  THB  BSD  OOBPUSOLBB  OF 
THB  BIX)OD. 


L  Mammalia. 

LonKdianMl^r. 

LMatL 8200 

S.  Monkeye,  tcom  8.084 

to 8883 

8.  Bats,  from  4^465  to  4175 

4.1folo. 4T47 

A.  Bmt  (Unus  Ameri- 

canus). 8698 

6uDofc 854« 

T.WoUl 8600 

aCat 4404 

•.Lion. 4829 

la  Tiger 4206 

IL  Whale. SOW 

12.  Pig. 4280 

l&ElephanL 2745 

14.  Hone. 46iO 

l&An. 4000 

16.  Ox. 4267 

17.  Bed-deer. 4824 

l^BlMep. 5800 

19.  Goat. 6866 

SaHare. 8560 

21.  Babbit. 8607 

SilHoiue 8614 


Mammalia  (oontlnned). 

Luog  diuiMttr. 

28.  Beaver. 8825 

24.  Gnlnea-plg. 8588 

IL  BiBDS. 

l.Baveii 1961 

2.Bwaliow. 2170 

8.  Cock 2102 

4.Bwan- 1806 


IIL 

LTortolao  (land) 12B2 

2.  Alligator. 1824 

aiiizard. 15S5 

lY.  Amphibia. 

1.  GommoQ  frog. 1106 

2.  Common  toad. 1048 

8.  Siren 420 

V.  Fisim. 

l.Pereb 9099 

2.  Carp 2149 

8.  Eel - 1745 


These  measores  show  that  the  size  of  the  blood 
corpnscles  is  not  at  all  in  proportion  with  the 
size  of  the  animal.  For  instance,  the  corpnscles 
of  man  are  larger  than  those  of  the  ass,  the  horse, 
the  bear,  the  lion,  the  tiger,  &o.,  which  are 
larger  animals  than  man.  It  is  nevertheless  re- 
markable that  the  elephant  and  the  whale  are 
among  the  animals  whose  blood  corpuscles  are 
the  largest.  In  the  same  individoal  the  blood 
disks  are  not  aH  of  the  same  size;  in  man  their 
diameter  varies  between  l-4800th  and  l-2800th 
of  an  inch,  the  average  being  I-8200th.  The  red 
corpuscles  of  man,  although  larger  than  those  of 
most  of  the  mammalia,  are  so  small  (the  8200th 
part  of  an  inch)  that  according  to  Home, 
19,880  of  these  corpuscles,  placed  side  by  side, 
would  cover  only  a  surface  of  a  square  inch. 
Young  says  that  to  cover  such  a  surface  255,000 
corpuscles  would  be  necessary.  Most  of  the 
micrographers  now  agree  in  admitting  that  the 
red  corpusdes  are  composed  of  a  thin  cell  or 
bladder,  which  contains  a  viscid  liquid.  The 
dark  spot  on  the  2  almost  flat  surfaces  of  the 
corpuscles,  which  had  given  to  eome  anatomists 
the  idea  that  there  was  a  nucleus  in  the  centre 
of  the  disk,  is  now  well  known  to  be  the  result 
of  a  mere  depression.  The  coloring  matter  of  the 
blood,  which  exists  only  in  the  rod  corpuscles, 
is  found  there  in  the  viscid  liatdd,  inside  of  the 
cells  or  vesicles.  The  walls  of  the  cells  are  en- 
tirely transparent  and  colorless.  The  number 
of  red  corpuscles  in  the  body  of  a  man  is  im- 
mense. To  convey  an  idea  of  this  number,  we 
will  merely  state  that,  according  to  Stoeltang, 
there  are  orom  8  to  4  or  5  millions  of  corpuscles 
in  1  cubic  millimetre  (tlie  linear  millimetre  beinf 
about  the  26th  part  of  an  inch).  Vierordt  and 
Yoelcker  had  already  obtained  anal<^;ous  re- 
sults.   The  red  corpuscles  are  very  elastic  and 


pliant,  6<y  much  so  that  they  may  pass  through 
bloodvessels  the  diameter  of  which  is  some- 
what smaller  than  theirs.  They  exist  in  all  tiie 
vertebrata  except  one,  the  lanoelet  {amphio^- 
w  laneeolatus)^  a  very  singular  and  little  de- 
veloped flsh.  2.  White  nr  eolorlm  carpui* 
elea.  These  globules  seem  to  have  been  seen 
for  the  first  time  by  the  celebrated  Hewson,  in 
the  last  century.  However,  it  is  only  in  our 
days  that  they  have  been  well  studied.  They 
are  found  in  all  the  vertebrata,  including  the 
amphibia,  whose  blood  has  no  other  corpus- 
cle. They  are  much  more  globular  than  the 
red  corpuscles,  but  not  perfectly  spherical ;  they 
have  a  granular  capsule  and  a  nudieus  of  several 
small  ones.  They  are  quite  pale  or  colorless; 
they  do  not  contain  iron,  and  have  much  more 
fat  than  the  red  corpuscles.  Theh*  size  hardly 
varies  in  the  different  olassee  of  animals,  so  that 
they  are  in  some  smaller  and  in  others  larger 
than  the  red  corpuscles,  which  vary  much  in 
size.  In  warm-blooded  animals  (man  included) 
they  average  l-8000th  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
An  interesting  fact  concerning  the  pale  corpus- 
cles of  the  blood  is,  that  they  seem  to  be  endow- 
ed with  the  faculty  of  altering  their  form.  Ac- 
cording to  the  discovery  of  Mr.  Wharton  Jones^ 
and  to  the  more  recent  researches  of  M.  Dar 
vaine,  they  often  show  a  slow  protrusion  from 
their  membranous  wall;  after  which  another 
one  forms  itself  in  another  part,  while  the  first 
slowly  disappears;  sometimes  a  depression  is 
formed  instead  of  a  protrusion.  These  changes 
have  been  seen  even  in  circulating  blood  in 
living  animals.  These  spontaneous  alterations 
of  form  have  been  considered  by  some  phy- 
siologists as  a  proof  that  these  cells  or  cor* 
puscles  are  microscopical  animals.  But  ap- 
parently spontaneous  movements  are  not 
sufficient  signs  of  independent  life,  for,  admit- 
ting that  these  corpuscles  are  animalcules^ 
Brown-S^uard  has  shown  that  all  the  muscles 
of  man  or  of  animals,  separated  from  the  body, 
may  have  apparently  spontaneous  movements, 
so  that  we  should  have  to  admit  that  each  ele- 
mentaiy^  muscular  fibre  is  a  distinct  animal 
being,  if  apparently  spontaneous  motions  were 
a  proof  of  the  existence  of  an  independent  living 
organism.  The  number  of  colorless  cells  is 
very  much  smaller  than  that  of  the  red  disks. 
There  is  1  colorless  corpuscle  to  800  or  400 
red,  according  to  Donders  and  Molesohott  The 
number  of  colorless  cells  increases  more  than 
that  of  the  red  disks  after  eating,  and  par« 
ticularly  after  taking  albuminous  food.  8.  Mo- 
leeular  slemenU,  There  is  in  the  blood  a 
number  of  exceedingly  small  solid  particles 
Vhich  the  French  (Donn4,  Bobin)  call  globuUn$ 
(small  globules).  Their  nature  is  unknown,  and 
their  form  has  no  definite  character;  it  may 
be  that  they  are  particles  of  coagulated  fibrin. 
4.  Figment.  There  is  frequently,  and  perhaps 
always,  in  the  blood  of  man  and  of  the  higher 
animals,  a  small  quantity  of  black  pigment  un- 
der various  forms.  Sometimes  there  are  only 
exceedingly  fine  granules,  like  those  of  the 


BLOOD 


skin  (which  are  the  oanse  of  its  oolor);  in 
other  cases  there  are  plates  of  pigment,  which 
seem  chiefly  to  result  from  an  aggregation  of 
grauules.  The  presence  of  cells  containing  hlack 
pigment  is  very  rare  in  the  blood.  From  the 
researches  of  Brown-S^quard,  it  seems  that 
the  quantity  of  pigment  increases  in  the  blood 
of  animals  when  the  sapra-renal  capsales  haye 
been  extirpated.  The  accumulation  of  pigment 
in  the  blood  of  man,  according  to  Phiner,  and 
in  that  of  animals^  according  to  Brown- 
S^quard,  is  a  cause  of  rapid  death.  5.  Oryi- 
taU.  It  happens,  though  very  i^irely,  that 
without  any  preparation  the  blood  corpuscles 
become  decomposed,  and  their  coloring  matter, 
slightly  changed  in  its  chemical  composition, 
forms  rhomboidal  or  simple  needle-shaped  crys- 
tals. By  the  addition  of  water,  of  ammonia^  or 
some  other  reagents,  it  is  easy  to  produce  many 
crystals  in  a  drop  of  almost  any  blood,  as  has 
been  ascertained  oy  Virchow,  Kunde,  O.  Funke, 
Beichmann,  and  others.  iL  Oh.  Robin  has 
once  found,  in  the  liver,  a  mass  of  altered  blood 
as  Uu-ge  as  a  hazel  nut^  entirely  transformed 
into  crystals,  or,  rather,  containing  nothing  but 
httmatin  crystallized,  the  other  elements  of  the 
blood  having  been  absorbed.  Dr.  Brown-S6- 
quard  has  pointed  out  the  fact  that,  in  dogs 
especially,  after  the  extirpation  of  the  supra- 
renal capsules,  the  formation  of  crystals  in  the 
blood  is  very  considerable  and  rapid.  6.  Co- 
agulated fibrin.  Some  micrographers,  espe- 
cially Nasse  and  Virchow,  call  certain  solid 
particles  floating  in  the  blood,  fibrinous  flakes. 
Henle,  at  first,  considered  ^ese  particles  as 
shreds  of  epithelium,  from  the  lining  membrane 
of  the  bloodvessels.  He  now  thin£  l^at  they 
are  aggregations  of  cell  membranes  of  destroyed 
blood  disks.  Lehmann  admits  that  experiments 
of  Doederlein  have  proved  that  these  flakes  are 
not  composed  of  coagulated  fibrin.  Bruch  has 
tried  to  i^ow  that  the  pretended  fibrinous  fiakee 
are  nothing  more  than  epithelial  cells  from  the 
akin  of  the  observer  himself  whidi  have  fallen 
from  his  face  or  his  hands  on  the  preparation. 
It  is  very  probable  that  these  fiakes  are,  in  a 
great  measure,  but  not  entirely,  composed  of 
epithelial  cells,  and  that  truly  coagulated  fibrin, 
in  more  or  less  small  particles,  exists  in  blood  out 
of  the  bloodvessels,  at  least.  Beside  the  mor- 
phological elements  above  described,  we  find  in 
the  blood  of  certain  inferior  animals  wbrione^ 
or  other  infusoria,  and  microscopical  drops  of  fat^ 
The  assumed  presence  in  the  blood  of  another 
distinct  element^  i.  e.  the  lymph  or  chyle  cor- 
puscle, has  received  a  different  interpretation 
than  that  previously  admitted :  the  colorless  or 
pale  corpuscles  of  the  blood  have  been  proved 
similar  to  the  chyle  or  lymph  corpuscles. — ^V. 
OoAGxiLATiON  ov  THB  BLOOD.  When  drawu 
from  a  vein  or  an  artery  of  man,  blood  nsu<Uly 
begins  to  coagulate  in  a  few  minutea  IVom 
the  liquid  state  it  passes  at  first  to  the  condition 
of  a  soft  jelly,  which  gradually  becomes  more 
and  more  consistent  The  whole  mass  of  the 
blood  seems  in  the  beginning  to  become  solid, 


but  by  the  contraction  of  the  coagulated  snb- 
Btanoe  the  liquid  is  expelled  from  the  kind  of 
network  formed  by  this  substance,  and  the 
coagulum  or  clot  gradually  becomes  smaller. 
The  part  of  the  blood  which  remains  liquid  is 
called  serum.  It  had  been  imagined  that  the 
coagulation  of  the  blood  depended  upon  the  ad- 
hesion of  the  blood  corpuscles  one  to  the  other. 
But  it  is  now  well  known  that  this  coagulation 
is  only  the  result  of  the  solidification  of  the 
fibrin,  which,  taking  place  in  the  whole  mass  of 
the  blood,  contains  the  blood  corpuscles  impris- 
oned in  the- network  it  forms.  The  following 
table  shows  what  changes  take  place  in  the 
blood  during  coagulation : 


Llq.  blood 


Liquor  eM«ulnto{|5™« 


Blood  eonnueles.. 


'Oo«g.  Uood. 


aotJ 


The  serum  is  the  liquor  sanguinis  deprived  of 
its  fibrin,  and  no  longer  holding  the  corpuscles ; 
the  dot  is  the  fibrin  solidified,  and  holding  the 
blood  corpuscles.  It  is  well  proved  that  the  co- 
agulation of  the  blood,  removed  from  the  body, 
depends  upon  the  coagulation  of  its  fibrin.  If 
blood  drawn  from  the  vessels  of  a  living  man 
or  animal  be  whipped  with  glass  rods,  its  fibrin 
becomes  solidified  on  these  rods,  and  the  whole 
of  it  may  in  this  manner,  be  taken  away,  and 
then  the  defibrinated  blood  remains  li<|uid. 
Nevertheless,  many  blood  corpuscles  sometmios 
adhere  one  with  another,  and  in  so  doing  offer 
a  half  solid  mass  at  the  bottom  of  the  vase,  bat 
the  least  motion  shows  that  there  is  no  coaga- 
lation.  When  they  are  induded  in  a  fibrinous 
dot,  the  blood  corpusdes  contribute  to  its  solid- 
ification  by  some  slight  adhesion  with  the  fibrin, 
and  by  their  being  induded  in  its  network. 
The  circumstances  which  infiuence  the  coagula- 
tion of  the  blood  have  been  the  subject  of  a 
great  many  investigations,  among  which  the 
most  important  are  those  of  Hewson,  John 
Davy,  T.  Thackrah,  0.  Scudamore,  Gulliver, 
and,  more  recentiy,  Zimmermann,  £.  BrQcke, 
and  B.  W.  Richardson.  We  will  examine  here 
only  what  relates  to  the  principal  circumstances 
and  assumed  causes  of  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood.  1.  If^uence  of  temperature.  The  co- 
agulation of  the  blood  drawn  from  the  blood- 
vessels does  not  depend  upon  the  loss  of  its  tem- 
perature. It  is  true  that  the  blood  flowing 
m>m  the  vein  of  a  man  in  a  room,  even  at  a 
summer  temperature,  soon  loses  several  degrees 
of  heat,  and  Ms  from  102®  to  98°,  or  to  a  low- 
er degree.*  But  this  loss  of  a  few  degrees  of 
heat  cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  coagulation  <^ 
the  blood,  because  every  day,  during  the  win- 
ter, our  blood,  in  the  nose,  in  the  earti,  and  the 
extremities  of  the  limbs,  loses  many  more  de- 

*The  temperature  of  the  blood  Is  erroneooBly  marked  at 
08"  on  the  thermometers.  Experiments  made  bj  Joha 
Dary  and  by  Dr.  Brown-S^oard  hare  shown  that,  at  least 
in  the  abdomen  and  in  the  chest,  the  blood,  in  man.  Is  at  a 
higher  degree.  Aocordlng  to  the  last-named  ezpoilmenter, 
it  Is  between  Wf*  and  W. 


BLOOD 


grees  -withoat  ooi^platiiig.  Beside^  the  blood 
of  cold-blooded  animals  ooaffnlates  as  well  as 
that  of  the  warm-blooded.  Hewson  has  dem- 
onstrated that  it  is  possible  to  freeze  the  blood 
while  yet  fluid,  and  that  after  being  rendered 
fiaid  again  by  thawing,  it  will  coagulate  in  the 
ordinary  way.  Hunter  succeeded  in  freezing 
the  blood  in  the  ear  of  a  living  rabbit,  and  after 
some  time,  being  thawed,  it  did  not  coagulate. 
A  low  temperature  retards  coagulation,  wit  the 
physiolo^ts  who  maintain  that  coagulation  is 
prevented  by  a  temperature  near  the  freezing 
point  are  mistaken.  Br&oke  says  that  he  has 
seen  blood  coagulated  at  every  temperature 
above  82°  F.,  and  even  below  that  point,  pro- 
vided the  blood  itself  was  fiot  frozen.  But  he  has 
seen  the  blood  of  frogs  sometimes  remain  fluid 
for  8  days,  while  kept  in  the  snow.  Dr.  Brown- 
S^quard  has  seen  the  blood  of  frx>gs  coagulated 
so  quickly  at  a  temperature  of  88°  or  84°  F., 
or  a  little  above,  that  hemorrhage  from  the  sec- 
tion of -^  of  the  ventricular  mass  of  the  heart 
was  stopped  by  a  dot,  and  life  was  maintained. 
As  a  general  rule,  however,  the  hif^her  the  tem- 
perature is,  within  certain  limits,  the  sooner  co- 
agulation takes  plaoe ;  but  it  seems,  according 
to  Gulliver,  that  the  coagulating  power  is  lost 
by  a  temperature  of  150  F.,  as  blood  heated 
to  that  point  remains  permanently  fluid*  The 
experiments  of  Polli,  Trousseau,  Leblanc,  and 
others^  seem  to  show  that  the  temperature 
most  favorable  to  coagulation  is  very  nearly 
that  of  the  blood  itself.  2.  Influence  of  air. 
Many  physiologists  have  thought  that  the  cause 
of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood,  when  drawn 
from  the  bloodvessels  of  a  living  man  or  ani- 
mal, was  a  peculiar  action  of  air.  Hewson  be- 
lieved that  air  had  a  considerable  coagulating 
influence.  In  proof  of  this  he  relates  the  fol- 
lowing experiments :  Having  laid  bare  the  Ju- 
gular vein  in  a  living  rabbit,  he  tied  it  up  in  8 
places,  and  then  opened  it  between  2  of  the  lig- 
atures and  emptied  that  part  of  its  blood.  He 
next  blew  warm  air  into  the  empty  vein  and 
put  another  ligature  upon  it,  and,  letting  it  rest 
till  he  thought  the  air  had  acquired  the  same 
degree  of  heat  as  the  blood,  he  then  removed 
the  intermediate  ligature,  and  mixed  the  air 
with  the  blood.  The  air  immediately  made  the 
blood  florid  where  it  was  in  contact  with  it,  as 
could  be  seen  through  the  coats  of  the  vein.  In 
a  quarter  of  an  hour  he  opened  the  vein  and 
found  the  blood  entirely  coagulated;  and  ''as 
the  blood,^^  says  Hewson,  ^'  could  not  in  this 
time  have  been  completely  congealed  by  rest 
alone,  the  air  was  probably  the  cause  of  its  co- 
agulation." BrCicke  says  that  air  blown  in  the 
manner  mentioned  by  Hewson  usually  hastens 
coagulation,  but  that  it  is  not  always  so.  Dr. 
Brown-S6quard  has  ascertained  that  blood  mix- 
ed with  air  blown  into  the  Jugular  veins  of  dogs 
did  not  always  coagulate.  In  some  cases,  4 
months  after  the  operation  the  blood  was  found 
liquid  in  the  vein  bstween  2  ligatures.  It  has 
b^n  remarked  that  when  blood  is  placed  in  a 
cup,  coagulation  begins  sooner  in  the  part  in 
VOL.  in. — 24 


contact  with  air  than  in  the  interior  of  the 
liquid,  but  Brtlcke  states  that  he  has  seen  co- 
agulation be^  as  quickly  in  the  surface  in 
contact  with  the  walls  of  the  vase.  K  coagula- 
tion depended  upon  a  peculiar  influence  c?  at- 
mospheric air,  it  should  not  take  place  when 
blood  is  not  exposed  to  air.  John  Davy  and 
H.  Nasse  have  seen  coagulation  occur  as  quick- 
ly in  unexposed  as  in  exposed  blood.  Scuda- 
more  says  even  that  coagulation  is  more  rapid 
in  a  pneumatic  receiver,  where  blood  is  not 
submitted  to  the  action  of  air.  From  many 
experiments  Braoke  has  drawn  the  following 
conclusions:  1.  Air  usually  hastens  the  coagu- 
lation of  the  blood.  2.  Air,  when  introduced 
into  the  heart  and  vessels  of  living  turtles,  does 
not  induce  coagulation.  8.  The  Uood  of  frogs, 
when  deteriorated  by  the  action  of  the  heart  or 
of  the  other  tissues  of  the  animal,  and  so  de- 
prived of  its  fr-ee  oxygen,  sometimes  requires 
atmospheric  air  for  its  coagulation.  4.  Normal 
blood  needs  not  the  presence  of  air  for  its  co- 
agulation. Therefore,  and  chiefly  from  the  last 
conclusion,  it  follows  that  air  is  not  the  gener- 
al cause  of  coagulation  of  the  blood.  8.  J^flu- 
enee  of  carbonic  add,  Sondamore  admits  that 
blood  coagulates  out  of  the  body  chiefly  because 
it  loses  its  carbonic  acid,  which,  in  this  theoij, 
is  the  substance  which  in  the  blood  maintains 
fibrin  in  a  liquid  state.  Sir  Humphi7  Davy 
and  his  brother  John  have  made  decisive  exper- 
iments against  this  view.  They  have  found  that 
blood  exposed  only  to  carbonic  acid  coagulates, 
though  more  slowly  than  when  exposed  to  ox- 
ygen. Experiments  of  Brtkcke  show  also  that 
the  loss  of  carbonic  acid  by  the  blood  is  not 
necessary  for  its  coaffulation.  4.  Influence  of 
motion  and  rat.  It  has  been  said  that  blood 
coagulates  out  of  the  body  because  it  is  not  in 
motion.  If  blood  received  in  a  bottle  is  agitat- 
ed as  soon  as  it  flows  fit>m  the  vdn,  it  uraally 
seems  to  remain  liquid,  but  if  carefully  examined, 
a  great  many  particles  of  coagulated  fibrin  are 
found  in  it.  When  fibrin  coaguhites  in  this  case, 
it  cannot  form  long  fibres,  disposed  in  a  kind  of 
complicated  network  in  the  whole  mass  of  the 
blood;  in  consequence  of  the  agitation,  it  forms 
only  small  solid  particles.  The  blood  effused  in 
the  body,  or  kept  in  a  bloodvessel,  between  2  lig- 
atures, in  a  livinff  animal,  frequently  does  not 
coagulate,  although  it  is  not  in  motion.  It  seems, 
therafore,  that  rest  is  not  the  cause  of  coagula- 
tion of  blood,  either  in  the  body  after  death  or 
out  of  the  living  body.  5.  John  Hunter  has  pro- 
posed an  absurd  theory  of  the  coagulation  of  the 
blood,  but  as  he  grounds  his  view  on  interest- 
ing &ots,  althouffh  most  of  them  are  only  par- 
tidUy  true,  we  shall  examine  his  theory.  He 
observes:  ^^My  opinion  is  that  it  (the  blood) 
coagulates  from  an  impression ;  that  is,  its  fluid- 
ity under  such  circumstances  being  improper, 
or  no  longer  necessary,  it  coagulates  to  answer 
now  the  necessarv  purpose  of  solidity."  Try- 
ing to  prove  this  untenable  theory,  he  says 
that  when  the  vital  principle  of  the  blood  is 
lost,  it  does  not   coagulate,  which  fiMt,  he 


870 


BLOOD 


thinks,  showB  that  ooagoMon  is  a  vital  actioiL 
Animals  Icilled  by  lightning  or  bj  eleotrioity, 
or  those  which  are  ran  very  hard  and  killed  in 
snch  a  state,  or,  what  produces  a  still  greater 
effect,  are  ran  to  death,  have  not  their  blood 
ooagalated,  according  to  Hunter.  Blows  on 
the  stomach  killing  immediately,  and  deaths 
from  sudden  gusts  of  passion,  act  also  in  the 
same  way,  and  by  the  same  cause,  i  e.  the  loss 
of  the  vital  principle,  according  to  Hunter. 
As  regards  death  by  electricity,  Scudamore 
and  Dr.  Brown-S^uiurd  have  ascertained  that 
blood  coagulates  after  it,  but  the  clot  is  not  so 
hard  as  in  other  cases.  Gulliver  has  collected 
many  fiftcts  to  prove  that  blood  may  coagulate 
in  all  the  circumstances  mentioned  by  Honter ; 
but  in  most  of  these  cases  coagulation  was  very 
imperfect  It  is  extremely  probable  that  blood 
is  then  altered  in  its  composition,  and  chiefly, 
in  consequence  of  alterations  in  the  nervous 
centres  and  in  the  muscles.  6.  A  view  recent- 
ly proposed  by  Zimmermann  is  quite  in  opposi- 
tion with  that  of  Hunter.  According  to  the 
German  chemist,  blood  coagulates  because  it 
putrefies  when  it  is  not  submittted  to  the  chem- 
ical influence  of  living  tissues.  This  view  is 
grounded  chiefly  on  the  fact  that  blood  kept 
Sqoid  by  certain  salts  or  other  substances,  be- 
comes at  once  or  very  quickly  coagulated 
when  a  small  quantity  of  putrefied  matter  is 
placed  in  it.  This  is  certainly  an  interesting 
experiment,  but  it  does  not  prove  that  coagula- 
tion depends  upon  putrefaction,  and  it  seems 
strange  that  such  a  theory  has  been  proposed 
by  a  man  who  knows  that,  sometimes,  blood 
coagalates  in  2  or  8  minutes  after  having  been 
drawn  from  a  bloodvessel.  7.  Dr.  B.  "W. 
Richardson,  of  London,  has  recently  obtained 
the  great  Astley  Oooper  prize  for  a  paper  on 
the  cause  of  the  coagulation  of  the  blood, 
which  he  attributes  to  the  separation  from  the 
blood  of  a  principle  which  ne  thinks  always 
exists  in  circulating  blood.  This  principle  is 
the  carbonate  of  ammonia.  The  proofii  of  this 
theory  are  that  the  author  has  always  found 
this  substance  given  out  by  the  blood  at  the 
time  it  coagulates,  and  that  when  this  substance 
is  kept  by  the  blood  it  remains  liquid.  Zim- 
mermann has  just  published  a  paper  to  show : 
1,  that  the  discovery  of  the  constant  presence 
of  ammonia  in  the  blood  belongs  to  nimself ; 
S,  that  there  are  many  fietcts  which  are  in  op- 
position to  the  view  of  Dr.  Richardson.  As 
the  prize  essay  of  this  able  physiologist  \b  not 
vet  published,  we  cannot  criticize  his  views ; 
but  we  ought  to  say  that  they  seem  not  only 
immx>bable,  but  in  opposition  to  many  fiu^tsL 
8.  We  come  now  to  the  most  probable  cause  oif 
the  coag^ation  of  the  blood,  and  the  only  one 
which,  in  the  present  state  of  science,  has  no  fiict 
.^gainst  it,  and  seems,  on  the  contrary,  to  agree 
with  all  the  facts.  This  cause  is  a  negative 
one;  it  is  the  absence  of  a  peculiar  influence 
on  the  blood  that,  according  to  the  theory, 
produces,  or  rather  allows,  coagulation.  It  is 
supposed  that  fibrin  naturally  tends  to  coagu- 


late, and  that  some  peealiar  infloenoe  of  the 
living  tissues  prevents  its  doing  so.    Sir  Astley 
Oooper,  Tliackrah,  and  others,  have  been  lea 
to  consider  this  view  as  probable.    They  found 
that  blood  kept  an  hour  in  a  vein,  between  2 
ligatures,  was  still  fluid,  while  it  coagulated  in 
from  2  to  4  minutes  when  abstracted  from  the 
vessel.     Gulliver  has  seen  also  that  blood  is 
very  slow  to  coagulate  when  confined  in  a 
vein  of  a  living  doff.     Dr.  Brown-S^uard  has 
found  blood  still  liquid,  after  many  months, 
in  the  veins  of  dogs,  where  it  had  been  con- 
fined after  the  application  of  2  ligatures,  and 
he  has  ascertained  that  this  blood  cosgulated 
in  a  few  minutes  after  having  been  abstracted 
from  the  veins.    It  is  well  known  that  blood 
effused  everywhere  in  the  bodv  frequently  re- 
mains liquid,  and  also  that  in  leeches  it  some- 
times does  not  coagulate,  while  in  all  t^ese 
cases  as  soon  as  the  liquid  blood  is  separated 
from  the  living  tissues  it  becomes  solid.    Co- 
agulation is  slow  even  in  the  bloodvessels  and 
heart  of  a  dead  animal  or  man.    But  all  these 
facts  lead  only  to  the  conclusion  that  a  peculiar 
influence  of  tissues  and  organs  daring  life,  or  a 
little  after  death,  has  the  power  of  preventing 
coagulation ;  they  do  not  show  what  is  this  pe* 
culiar  influence.    Thackrah  thought  it  was  the 
vital  or  nervous  power  of  the  tissues.    Brtlcke 
has  shown  that  even  when  the  heart  has  lost  its 
vital  properties,  it  keeps  the  blood  fluid,  and  he 
has  arrived  at  a  theory,  which  we  do  not 
think  yet  fully  proved.     He  maintains  that 
there  is  no  such  thing  as  liquid  fibrin  in  liquid 
normal  blood,  and  that  coagulated  fibrin  is  the 
result  of  an  atomic  change  in  some  part  of  the 
albumen    of  the  liquor  sanguinis.    We  will 
conclude  our  examination  of  the  &cts  and  the- 
ories concerning  the  cause  of  the  coagulation 
of  the  blood,  by  saying  that  there  is  in  the 
bloodvessels,  and  in  the  heart,  and  also  In 
other  tissues,  some  physical  or  chemical  infln* 
ence  which  maintains  the  blood  fluid,  and  that 
when  this  influence  is  removed  the  blood  co- 
agulates.   Schroeder  van  der  Eolk  had  ima^ 
ined  that  coagulation  of  the  blood  was  pre- 
vented by  an  influence  of  the  cerebro-spinal 
nervous   centres   on  the  blood  through  the 
bloodvessels,  and  he  thought  he  had  proved 
the  correctness  of  this  view  in  finding  that 
when  he  destroyed  the  br^n  and  the  spinal 
marrow,  coagulation  quickly  took  place  in  the 
blobd.     But   Dr.  Brown-S6quard   has  found 
that  the  destruction  of  the  spinal  marrow  in 
the  whole  length  of  its  lumbar  enlargement  in 
birds  and  cats,  not  only  did  not  produce  ooaga- 
lation  of  the  blood,  but  did  not  immediately 
kill  the  animals,  nmny  of  which  have  lived 
many  months  after  the  operation.    When  the 
arteries  or  veins  are  changed  in  their  structure, 
by  an  inflammation  or  otner  disease,  they  lose 
their  power  of  preventing  coagulation.    9.  Co- 
agulation is  hastened  or  immediately  deter- 
mined by  certain  substances.    J.  Simon  has 
seen  coagulation  take  place  on  threads  kept 
in  the  current  of  blood  in  veins  and  arteries  in 


BLOOD 


871 


living  animalB.  Dopny  and  De  BlainviDe  haye 
seen  coagulation  quioUy  prodaoed  in  blood 
after  the  injection  of  cerebral  matter.  H.  Lee 
baa  seen  the  same  thing  after  injection  of  pus, 
and  Yirchow  and  others,  after  ii\)eotion  of  mer- 
cnry  and  other  sabstanoea.  Iodine  and  iodides 
and  galvanic  currents  hasten  coagulation,  and 
have  been  employed,  on  account  of  their  influ- 
ence on  blooo,  for  the  cure  of  aneurisms.  10. 
Ooagnlation  is  retarded  or  entirely  prevented 
by  certain  substances.  Neutral  salts  act  in 
this  way,  as  well  as  manv  medicines  and  poi- 
sons, sndi  as  opium,  belladonna,  aconite,  hy- 
oscyamus,  digttalia,  strong  infusions  of  tea  and 
coffee,  ^  Gulliver  has  kept  horses'  blood 
liquid  for  67  weeks  by  the  influence  of 
nitre,  and  this  blood  rapidly  coagulated  when 
it  was  diluted  with  water.  This  £Mst  explains 
how,  in  some  cases,  blood  does  not  coagulate  in 
the  body  after  death.  So  it  is  particularly 
after  drowning,  or  death  by  irresplrable  gases^ 
or  pcnsoning  by  oyanhydrio  acid,  &c.  But  if 
the  following  fi&ct,  mentioned  by  PoUi,  be 
true,  it  is  possible  that,  in  some  of  those  cases 
where  blood  has  been  found  fluid  in  the  veins 
long  after  death,  the  coagulation  would  have 
been  observed  taking  place  at  a  later  period  if 
the  blood  had  been  kept  long  enough.  Polli 
says  he  has  seen  blood  remain  liquid  a  fort- 
night and  then  coagulate  spontaneously,  and 
be  thinks  that  blood  will  always  be  found 
to  coagulate  if  kept  long  enough.  11.  The  sur- 
&ce  of  a  dot  of  blood  very  often  presents  a 
more  or  less  considerable  layer  of  coagulated 
fibrin  nearly  i^  from  red  corpuscles,  and  oon- 
sequentiy  without  color :  this  layer  is  what  is 
called  the  buffy  coat.  We  owe  to  Gulliver  the 
explanation  of  the  production  of  this  coat  The 
red  oorpnsdes  have  a  density  superior  to  that 
of  the  liquor  sanguinis^  and  when  the  blood  is 
at  rest  they  naturally  sink  until  an  obstacle  pre- 
vents their  doing  so.  As  long  as  coagulation 
has  not  begun,  the  globules  move  toward  the 
bottom  of  the  vase ;  and  when  fibrin  forms  the 
solid  shreds  which  constitute  the  coagulum, 
the  rxpper  layer  of  the  mass  of  the  blood  no 
more  contains  red  corpuscles,  and  therefore 
is  colorless.  Now,  in  inflammation  the  sinking 
power  of  the  red  globules  is  increased,  so  that 
the  colorless  layer  of  coagulated  nbrin  is 
thicker  than  in  other  cases,  and  thus  it  is  that 
the  bafify  coat  and  its  thickness  are  sometimes 
a  good  indication  of  the  existence  and  even  of 
the  degree  of  an  inflammation.  But  there  are 
many  oiroumstances  beside  inflammation  and 
without  it,  which  lead  to  the  production  of 
the  bnfl^  coat.  Andral  has  shown  that  when 
the  proportion  of  red  corpuscles  is  ^Qminished 
in  Uie  blood,  the  buff  exists  frequently  on 
the  top  of  a  small  dot  This  is  the  case 
in  chlorosis,  in  anssmia,  Ao.  Another  cir- 
cumstance which  favors  the  formation  of  a 
colorless  layer  of  coagulated  fibrin,  is  the 
aggregation  of  the  rSd.  oorpusdes  in  col- 
wnns  or  piles  Qike  piles  of  coins),  which  ren- 
ders ihem  heavier  and  increases  the  speed  of 


their  sinking.  In  inflammation^  as  shown  by 
H.  Nasse,  Wharton  Jones,  &o.,  tne  red  corpus- 
cles have  an  increased  tendency  to  aggregate, 
and  this  explains  why  the  buffy  coat  is  so 
frequently  thick  in  inflammation.  Lehmann 
has  shown,  however,  that  all  the  circumstances 
which  have  been  considered  as  Ikvorable  to  the 
sinking  of  the  red  corpuscles,  and  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  buffy  coat,  are  insuflftcient  to  ex- 
plain the  facts  in  all  cases,  and  that  there  are 
some  unknown  causes  of  production  of  the  buff. 
12.  The  coagulation  of  blood  does  not  generate 
heat,  as  had  been  imagined.  The  experiments 
of  J.  Davy,  and  especially  those  of  Denis,  afford 
convincing  proofe  in  this  respect. — ^VI.  Fobma- 
TioN  OF  THE  BLOOD.  Wc  shall  uot  examiuc  here 
the  first  formation  of  this  liquid,  that  is,  its 
production  in  embryos;  this  subject  belong  to 
the  article  Embbtologt.  We  shall  only  in- 
quire into  the  sources  of  the  blood,  and  the 
mode  of  production  of  its  principal  materials,  in 
completely  developed  animals.  Three  sources 
exist  for  the  formation  of  the  various  mate- 
rials composing  the  blood:  1,  the  body;  2,  the 
food;  8,  the  respuiUiion.  That  the  body  itsdf 
is  a  source  of  blood  we  cannot  doubt  If,  as 
Piorry  has  shown,  we  take  blood  from  a  dog, 
in  such  quantity  that  we  cannot  abstract  1  or 
2  ounces  more  without  killing  the  animal,  we 
find  tiie  next  day,  although  the  dog  has  not 
been  fed,  that  we  may  take  out  again  10  or  12 
ounces  of  blood  without  causing  death.  It  fol- 
lows from  this  fact  that  a  formation  of  blood 
has  occurred,  and,  as  there  has  been  no  food 
taken,  the  blood  formed  must  come  from  the 
body.  As  regards  the  share  of  respiration  in 
the  formation  of  blood,  we  shall  only  remark 
here  that  it  gives  certain  gases,  especially  oxy- 
gen. For  more  details  on  the  influence  of  oxy- 
gen and  other  gases  on  the  blood,  see  Rbspiba- 
TioN.  The  formation  of  blood  is  very  rapid 
when  abundant  and  very  nutritive  food  is  tak- 
en, as  is  proved  by  the  following  &cts,  most  of 
which  are  related  by  Haller.  For  several  years 
a  young  girl  was  bled  sometimes  every  day,  at 
other  times  every  other  day ;  a  hysterical  wo- 
man was  bled  1,020  times  in  19  years;  another 
individual  had  a  loss  of  1,000  lbs.  of  blood  in  a 
year ;  in  another,  5  lbs.  of  blood  were  lost  every 
day  for  62  days ;  a  young  man  had  a  loss  of  75 
lbs.  of  blood  in  10  days;  an  Italian  physician. 
Dr.  Oavalli,  relates  that  a  woman  was  bled 
8,500  times  in  28  years  I  It  seems  from  these 
facts,  and  firom  many  others,  that  the  power  of 
formation  of  blood  increases  with  the  freqnen<^ 
of  the  losses  of  this  liquid,  and  with  the  habit 
of  repairing  these  losses.  The  food,  before 
being  able  to  repair  the  losses  of  blood  or  to 
give  to  this  liquid  the  materials  which  it  fur- 
nishes to  the  tissues,  must  be  modified  by  diges- 
tion, and  brought  to  the  blood  by  absorption, 
either  directiy  or  by  the  lymphatic  vessels. 
The  part  of  the  food  which  is  absorbed  by  these 
last  vessels,  is  called  chyle.  The  transformation 
of  lymph  and  chyle  into  blood  is  an  act  of  much 
greater  magnitude  than  had  been  supposed  till 


872 


BLOOD 


afewjearsago.  Aooordiog  to  recent  reeearoh- 
60  of  Bidder  and  Schmidt,  there  is  a  quantity 
of  about  28.6  lbs.  of  lymph  and  chyle  ponred 
into  the  blood  of  a  man  erery  dav,  «.  0.  from 
}  to  4  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  Of  this 
amonnt  6.6  lbs.  are  tme  chyle,  and  22  lbs. 
are  true  lymph.  In  these  two  liquids  elements 
similar  to  those  of  the  blood  are  found:  t.  e. 
water,  salts,  fats,  albumen,  fibrin,  and  corpus- 
cles. This  shows  that  the  work  of  formation 
of  blood  from  chyle,  as  well  as  lymph,  is  not 
Yery  considerable;  in  other  words,  the  trans- 
formation of  food  into  blood  is  already  much 
adranced  in  the  bowels  and  in  the  lymphatic 
vessels.  One  of  the  most  interestinff  questions 
n^ative  to  the  formation  of  the  blood  is  that  of 
the  origin  of  the  blood  corpuscles.  In  the  first 
place,  as  regards  the  col(M:less  corpuscles  of  the 
blood,  there  is  now  no  doubt  that  they  are  en- 
tirely similar  to  the  lymph  corpuscles,  and  that 
they  have  been  brought  into  the  blood  with 
the  lymph  and  chyle.  As  regards  their  forma- 
tion we  win  refer  to  the  article  Ltmph.  The 
next  question  is,  how  and  where  are  the  red 
corpuscles  formed?  Most  of  the  physiologists 
now  seem  to  agree  on  this  point,  that  the  red 
corpuscles  are  a  mere  transformation  of  the 
smaller  lymph  or  chyle  corpuscles.  According 
to  Edlliker,  the  most  probable  view  ia^  that 
these  small  colorless  corpuscles  are  converted 
into  true  red  disks  by  the  disappearance  of  thehr 
nudei,  by  the  absorption  of  the  red  coloring 
matter,  and  by  the  fiattening  of  the  cell-walls, 
which  take  the  discoid  biconcave  form.  Ac- 
cording to  Gerlach,  the  blood  disks  are  formed 
in  the  interior  of  the  large  colorless  cells<  As 
to  the  place  where  the  blood  disks  are  formed, 
most  of  the  physiologists  think  it  is  in  the  liver, 
and  some  tnat  It  is  in  the  spleen.  The  source 
ci  the  albumen  of  the  blood  is  chiefly  the  food, 
and  it  is  brought  into  the  circulation  by  di- 
rect absorption  by  the  veins  in  the  stomach 
and  bowels,  and  only  partly  by  the  chyle.  The 
origin  of  the  fibrin  of  the  blood  is  not  exclusive- 
ly the  food,  as  some  physioli^^ista  maintain. 
It  must  come  from  the  tissues  or  f^om  the  albu- 
minous matters  of  the  blood,  for  Dr.  Brown- 
S6auard  has  proved  that  when  blood,  deprived 
of  fibrin,  is  iigected  into  die  arteries  of  a  limb, 
the  veins  give  out  blood  containing  fibrin,  and 
in  ^eater  quantity  if  the  limb  is  galvanized. 
Beside,  it  is  known  that  in  animals  deprived  of 
food,  or  bled  many  times,  the  quantity  of  fibrin 
increases  in  the  blood.  There  must  be  a  veiv 
considerable  formation  of  fibrin  in  the  blood, 
as,  according  to  the  remarks  of  Dr.  Brown- 
S6quard,  there  are  many  pounds  of  this  sub- 
stance transformed  into  other  substances,  in  the 
course  of  a  day,  in  the  liver  and  the  kidneys. 
The  origin  of  the  fats  of  the  blood,  as  Persoz, 
liebig.  Bidder,  and  Schmidt,  Ac,  have  well 
proved,  is  not  exclusively  from  the  fats  of  the 
lood.  But  it  remains  to  be  shown  from  what 
principles  of  the  food  or  of  the  blood,  and 
in  which  organ,  the  formation  of  fat  takes 
place.    Many  of  the  extractive  substances  of 


the  blood  are  Mther  fomied  in  it  or  in  the  Hs- 
sues.  As  to  the  salts  and  the  metals  of  the 
blood,  they  come  fh>m  the  food.  The  sugar  of 
the  blood  comes  in  a  great  measure  from  the 
food,  and  from  a  transformation  of  certain 
substances  by  the  liver.— YII.  Uses  ot  thb 
BLOOD.  Nutrition— that  is,  the  act  by  which 
the  various  tissues  grow  or  are  maintained 
alive,  and  by  which  they  excrete  materials 
whicn  are  no  longer  nsefiu  to  tlieir  organiza* 
tion  and  vital  properties— 4s  the  result  of  the 
interchange  between  the  blood  and  the  tis- 
sues. We  will  now  examine  how  &r  some 
elements  of  the  blood  may  influenoe  the  vital 
properties  of  the  tissues,  to  show  that  these 
properties  depend  upon  some  materials  fur- 
nished by  the  blood.  Dr.  Brown-S6quard  has 
discovered  that  all  the  nervous  and  contractile 
tissues  in  the  brain,  the  spinal  cord,  the  motor 
and  sensitive  nerves,  the  muscles  of  animal  or 
organic  life,  the  iris,  the  skin,  &c.,  may,  after 
having  lost  their  vital  properties,  theur  life,  re- 
cover these  properties  again,  and  in  some  re* 
fipects  be  resuscitated,  when  blood  containing 
a  great  quantity  of  oxygen  is  imected  into  the 
arteries  of  all  these  parts.  Still  more,  he  has 
found  that,  when  cadaveric  or  poiUnwrtem 
rigidity  exists  in  limbs  of  animals  or  men,  oxy- 
genated blood  had  the  power  of  restoring  lo<»l 
Ufe  in  these  parts.  These  experiments  he  has 
made  on  many  animals,  and  on  the  arms  of  2 
deci^>itated  men,  in  one  18,  in  the  other  14 
hours  after  decapitation.  He  has  ascertained 
that  black  blood  (which  contains  but  a  small 
amonnt  of  oxygen)  has  no  power  of  regenerat- 
ing the  vital  properties  of  the  various  tissues^ 
and  that  the  more  blood  corpuscles  and  oxygen 
there  were  in  the  blood  employed,  the  quidcer 
and  the  more  powerful  was  its  regenerating  in- 
fluenoe. Blood  deprived  of  fibrin  acted  as  well 
as  blood  containing  fibrin,  showing  that  fibrin 
is  not  a  necessary  material  for  the  production 
of  the  vital  properties  of  the  various  tissues.  In 
one  case  he  has  maintained  local  life  for  41  hours 
in  a  limb  separated  from  the  body  of  an  animal. 
For  other  facts  relating  to  the  uses  of  the  blood, 
see  NuTBrnoN,  Sbobbtion,  and  Tbahsfusioit. 

BLOOD,  OoLomcL  Thomas,  a  noted  bravo  and 
desperado  of  the  reign  of  Charles  11.,  bom  in  Ire- 
land, about  1628,  died  in  London,  Aug.  24^  1680. 
He  was  a  hanger-on  and  dependant  of  the  profli- 
gate Yilliers,  duke  of  Buckmgham.  was  used  by 
him  to  punish  political  and  social  adversaries, 
whom  his  own  rank  did  not  permit  him  to  meet 
in  the  field,  and  by  his  means  was  enabled  to 
avoid  punishment  for  crimes  which  would  have 
sent  any  man  less  powerfully  befriended  to  tiie 
gallows.  His  most  daring  attempts  were  his 
kidnapping,  with  the  intent  to  murder,  the  ven- 
erable duke  of  Ormond,  in  which  he  would  in- 
evitably have  succeeded,  had  he  been  content 
to  take  the  life  of  that  nobleman  with  either 
poniard  or  pistol.  Nothing,  however,  would 
suit  him  but  ne  must  haDg  him  on  the  comm<m 
gibbet  at  Tyburn,  whither,  having  got  him  on 
horseback  behind  one  of  his  companions,  he 


BLOOD 


BLOOD  STAINS 


878 


was  carrying  him  across  the  fields,  when  he 
was  rescaed  bj  some  of  his  servants,  who  came 
up  at  speed,  barely  in  time  to  save  their  mas- 
ter. A  few  days  after  the  perpetration  of  this 
outrage,  Ossory,  the  son  of  tne  doke  of  Or- 
mond,  seeing  Buckingham  standing  by  the  side 
of  the  king,  could  not  refnun  in  his  anger  from 
thus  addressing  him:  ''My  lord,"  he  said,  ''I 
know  well  that  you  are  at  tl\e  bottom  of  this 
late  attempt  upon  my  father;  but  I  give  you 
warning,  if  by  any  means  he  come  to  a  violent 
end,  I  dhall  not  be  at  a  loss  to  know  the  author. 
I  shall  consider  you  as  the  assassin.  I  shall 
treat  you  as  such,  and  wherever  I  meet  you  I 
shall  pistol  you,  tnouffh  you  stood  behind  the 
king's  chair ;  and  I  teU  you  this  in  his  mi^esty 's 
presence,  that  you  may  be  sure  I  shall  keep  my 
word.**  His  next  attempt,  of  yet  more  eztr*- 
ordinary  audacity,  was  to  steal  the  regalia,  or 
crown  Jewels,  from  the  tower  of  London,  in 
which  he  was  all  but  sucoessfhl,  only  fiEuling  to 
accomplish  his  end  owing  to  the  desperate  re- 
sistance of  Mr.  Edwards,  the  custodian  of  the 
jewels,  an  old  gentleman  of  courage  superior  to 
his  years^  who,  although  bound  and  wounded, 
struggled  so  hard,  and  made  such  an  outcry, 
that  the  rescue  came  in  time,  uid  Blood  was 
seized  with  the  crown  under  his  cloak,  which, 
prisoner  as  he  was,  he  would  not  yield  without 
a  struggle.  Obarles  not  only  pardoned  this  in- 
famous malefactor,  and,  in  adoition  to  his  own, 
procured  for  him  the  duke  of  Ormondes  pardon, 
but  actually  gave  him  an  estate  of  £500  a  year 
in  Lrehmd,  and  encouraged  his  attendance  as  a 
sort  of  fiivorite  at  court,  where  he  was  con- 
stantly employed  in  advocating  the  chums  of 
suitors  by  his  personal  influence  with  the  king. 
At  the  same  time  old  Edwards^  who  had  rid:^ 
his  Kfe  in  the  defence  of  the  regalia,  was  neg- 
lected and  forgotten. 

BLOOD,  FouKTAEf  07,  the  name  given  to  a 
stream  of  fluid  resembling  blood,  issuing  from 
the  roof  of  a  cave  in  the  town  of  Virtud,  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  department  of  Oholuteoa, 
Honduras.  It  drops  steadily  on  the  floor  of  the 
cav^  forming  pools  of  coagulated  matter,  and 
tinginjr  with  a  red  color  a  brook  which  flows 
by.  fias  fluid  has  not  only  the  color,  but  also 
the  taste  and  smell  of  blood,  and  when  exposed 
to  the  air  for  a  short  time,  it  corrupts  and  emits 
an  o&nsive  odor.  No  good  analysis  of  it  has 
ever  been  made,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  owes 
its  peculiar  properties  to  the  presence  of  im- 
mense numbers  of  minute  infusoria. 

BLOOD  MONEY,  money  paid  to  the  next  of 
kin  of  a  man  who  met  with  his  death  at  the 
hands  of  another,  accidentalh^  or  with  premedi- 
tation. The  Greeks  called  it  irou^,  the  Latins 
pcBnOf  the  Franks,  Allemanni,  and  Scandinavians 
manboUf  wehrgM,  or  wyrffilt^  the  British  Oelts 
named  it  $aarhard,  and  the  Irish  Celts  eria. 
The  institution  still  flourishes  in  many  com- 
munities of  Asia  and  Africa.  In  English  crimi- 
nal hiw  the  term  blood  money  was  also  iq)plied 
to  rewards  -pM  to  informers  against  highway 
robbers,  thieves,  burglars,  and  utterers  of  false 


coin  or  forged  bank  notes.  Laws  of  this  char- 
acter were  passed  between  1692  and  1742.  In 
1818  the  total  amount  paid  in  this  way  was 
£18,000.  By  this  time  a  number  of  persons 
made  a  living  out  of  these  laws  by  entrapping 
unwary  and  foolish  people  into  the  commission 
of  the  crime  of  forgmg  or  uttering  false  coin, 
and  then  informing  against  them.  As  early  as 
1756,  one  McDaniel  had  brought  to  the  soanold 
and  earned  the  blood  money  of  no  less  than  70 
victims.  Parliament,  recognizing  the  abuses 
this  system  had  engendered,  repealed  all  the 
laws  relating  thereto,  except  in  relation  to  the 
forgers  of  bank  bills^  in  which  case  the  informer 
can  still  oet  his  pecuniary  reward. 

BLOOD  ST  AINa  Various  medico-legal  gues* 
tions  are  often  to  be  solved  concerning  the  na- 
ture of  stains  resembling  blood  stains^  found 
on  dothes,  on  pieces  of  fomiture,  on  weap- 
ons, See.  We  wUl  examiae  here  only  the 
principal  of  these  questions,  which  are  induded 
in  the  following :  1.  Is  it  possible,  and  by  what 
means,  to  decide  that  a  stain  is  produced  by 
blood  or  not?  2.  Is  it  possible,  and  by  what 
means,  to  ascertain  that  the  blood  of  a  stain 
comes  from  a  man  or  from  an  animal?  8.  Is  it 
possible  to  flnd  out  whether  the  blood  of  a 
stain  comes  from  one  man  or  another  f«-I.  It  is 
usually  easy  to  ascertain  whether  a  stain  is 
due  to  blood  or  not  But  such  an  examination 
must  be  made  by  men  who  are  thoroughly  ac- 
quainted with  diemistry  and  microscopy.  Un^ 
fortunately,  in  England,  and  perhaps  also  in  this 
country,  policemen  are  sometimes  charged  by 
coroners  to  decide  as  to  the  nature  of  a  stain. 
Ignorant  men  may  easily  be  deceived  by  taking 
notice  only  of  the  color, which  phymcal  character 
cannot  be  sufficient  for  the  detection  of  blood, 
as  there  are  many  dyes  which  resemble  that 
fluid  in  this  respect.  When  the  life,  the  liber- 
ty, and  the  honor  of  men  are  at  stake^  much 
more  care  should  be  taken.  Twoseries  oi  means 
may  be  employed  for  the  detection  of  blood  in  a 
stain.  One  of  them  consists  in  testing  the  stain 
by  some  reagents — ^this  is  the  chemical  test ;  the 
other  consists  in  theexamination  of  the  stain  with 
the  microscope — ^this  is  the  physical  test  This 
last  means  is  more  decisive  than  the  first,  but  a 
complete  medico-legal  examination  must  com- 

griae  both  of  them.  It  would  be  out  of  phioe 
ere  to  give  long  details  on  the  chemical  tests 
of  blood ;  we  wSl  merely  mention  some  of  the 
principal  facts.  If  there  is  a  stain  of  suspected 
blood  on  a  piece  of  cloth,  or  any  other  stuff, 
the  stained  part  must  be  cut  of^  and  dipped  into 
a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water.  In  the 
course  of  a  few  hours  the  coloring  matter,  if  it 
is  that  of  blood,  will  detach  itself  and  reach 
the  bottom  of  the  vase,  the  supernatant  fluid 
remaining  tolerably  dear  or  slightiy  rose-color- 
ed. The  flbrin  will  remain  attached  to  the 
stuff  as  a  grayish  or  rosy-white  substance.  If 
the  liauid  be  boOed,  tiie  color  will  be  d^troyed 
and  tne  albumen  coagulated;  in  its  inferior 
parts,  where  the  coloring  matter  has  aocumo- 
lated,  the  liquid  will  become  grayish  or  green- 


874 


BLOOD  STAINS 


lah,  while  the  upper  portion  will  acquire  a 
dightlj  ydloyr  tint.  The  red  soluhle  dyes, 
or  stains  from  the  juices  of  firuits,  are  verj 
rarely  coagulated,  and  they  do  not  lose  their 
color,  when,  after  having  been  dissolved  in 
water,  the  solution  is  boiled.  Beside,  they  are 
rendered  crimson  or  green,  passing  sometimes 
to  violet,  when  treated  with  ammonia,  while 
this  reagent,  unless  it  be  used  in  great  quan- 
tity and  concentrated,  does  not  change  the  col- 
or of  blood  or  of  a  watery  solution  of  a  blood- 
stain. When  ammonia  is  powerful  enough  to 
alter  the  color  of  blood,  it  gives  it  a  brownish 
tint,  instead  of  the  crimson,  green,  or  violet 
colors  that  it  gives  to  dyes.  If  the  solution 
of  a  blood  stain  has  coagulated  by  boiling, 
we  find  that  i>ota8h  dissolves  the  coagulum, 
renders  it  limpid  and  green  by  reflection,  and 
pink  by  refraction.  If  chlorohydric  acid  is  then 
added,  the  transparency  disappears,  but  it  re- 
turns if  another  quantity  of  l>otash  is  added. 
These  reactions  belong  only  to  blood.  The  na- 
ture of  the  smallest  stun,  able  only  to  furnish 
one  drop  of  a  solution,  may  be  found  out  by 
the  above-mentioned  chemical  means.  In  such 
circumstances,  according  to  M .  Boutigny,  the 
drop  should  be  thrown  into  a  silver  rooon  at  a 
Tery  high  degree  of  temperature.  The  liquid 
in  thia,  as  in  any  other  case,  «.  €.  with  any 
kind  of  liquid  whatever,  being  suddenly  ex- 
posed to  an  extreme  heat,  instead  of  evaporating 
takes  the  shape  of  a  sphere,  and  then  experi- 
ments may  easily  be  tried,  and  the  action  of 
ammonia,  of  potash,  of  chlon^hydric  acid,  etc., 
may  rapidly  be  ascertained. — ^xhe  microscope 
usually  shows  quicker  and  more  positively  than 
chemical  reagents  if  a  stain  is  due  to  blood. 
With  the  help  of  this  instrument  the  red  and 
the  colorless  corpuscles  may  be  seen  easily. 
(See  the  article  Blood.)  There  is  nothing  to 
be  found  with  the  microscope  in  the  stains  of 
the  various  dyes  which  can  in  any  way  be  mis- 
taken for  the  blood  corpuscles.  The  presence 
of  these  well-characterized  particles  in  a  stain 
is,  therefore,  an  incontestable  proof  that  it  con- 
tuns  blood.  But  the  blood  corpuscles  may 
have  become  so  much  altered  that  it  is  very 
difficult  to  ascertain  their  presence,  at  least 
without  the  help  of  chemical  reagents.  The 
microscope,  unaided  by  chemistry,  therefore, 
may  fail  to  detect  blood  in  old  stains.  How- 
ever, it  is  usually  easy  to  find  the  red  corpu»- 
des,  and  they  have  been  detected  in  stains  of 
many  years'  duration.  Dr.  Taylor  says  that 
be  has  obtained  clear  evidence  of  their  exist- 
ence in  a  small  quantity  of  blood,  which  had  been 
kept  in  a  dry  state  for  8  years.  Dr.  Oh.  Bobin 
has  discovered  the  presence  of  red  corpuscles 
on  clothes  in  stains  of  8  or  10  years'  duration. 
Prof.  J.  Wyman  says  that  in  blood  which  had 
been  allowed  to  dry  in  masses  he  has  fdled  to 
find  the  red  corpuscles,  while,  on  the  contrary, 
the  white  or  colorless  corpuscles  may  be  soften- 
ed out  alter  they  have  been  dried  for  months, 
and  their  characteristic  marks  readily  obtained. 
He  found  it  easy  to  detect  them  in  blood  which 


had  been  dried  for  8  montha.  Dr.  Oh.  Bobin 
has  ^ven  a  drawing  representing  what  the 
microscope  showed  in  a  solution  of  a  stain 
found  on  the  blade  of  a  knife.  No  red  corpuscle 
is  figured,  while,  on  the  contrary,  many  color- 
leas  are.  But  we  think  that  the  mere  fiict  of 
the  presence  of  colorless  corpuscles,  with  near- 
ly the  same  appearance  that  they  have  in  fh»h 
blood,  is  not  sufficient  to  prove  that  a  stain  is 
due  to  blood,  be<&uae  the  chyle  and  lymph  cor- 
puscles, those  of  pus  and  even  some  of  those  of 
mucus,  are  either  very  or  entirely  similar  to 
the  white  corpuscles  of  the  blood.  When 
clothes  have  been  washed  after  having  been 
stained  with  blood,  almost  all,  if  not  all,  the 
corpuscles  are  removed,  or  so  much  altered 
that  their  presence  cannot  be  ascertained  posi- 
tively. But  chemistry  may  then  render  it  very 
prolmble  that  there  has  been  blood  on  such 
clothes,  by  detecting  in  them  iron  and  a  coagu- 
lable  organic  matter.  If  blood  stiuns  are  on 
the  blade  of  a  knife,  the  microscope  and  chemi- 
cal reagents  may  enable  us  to  distinguish  them 
from  rust.  Usually,  when  the  knife  is  heated, 
a  blood  stun  may  be  peeled  off,  leaving  a  neat 
metallic  surface  where  it  was;  it  b  not  so 
with  rust,  which  remiuns  almost  nnalter^ 
Beside,  when  the  stain  is  washed,  it  leaves  a 
much  smoother  surface  if  it  is  due  to  blood 
than  if  it  comes  fiK>m  rust  Usually  in  this  last 
case  tiiere  is  a  peculiarly  dentated  sur&oe,  the 
presence  of  which  leaves  no  posubility  of  a 
mistake.  In  a  case  where  M.  Daubrawa  was 
rec^uested  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  blood 
stams  on  a  knife  which  was  suspected  to  have 
been  used  in  the  commisdon  of  a  murder,  tlus 
instrument,  having  lain  a  long  time  in  a  damp 
place,  was  rusted,  but  there  were  certain  bright 
spots  free  firom  rust,  and  surrounded  by  it.  On 
heating  tiie  point  of  &e  blade  these  spots  scaled 
of^  while  the  rust  remained  adherent,  and  on 
immersing  theknife  in  diluted  hydrochloric  acid, 
the  bright  spots  reniained  unaltered  while  the 
rust  rc^ily  dissolved.  Some  of  the  reagents 
which  serve  to  detect  blood  were  then  employ- 
ed, and  it  was  found  that  the  bright  spots  were 
reaUy  covered  with  blood,  which  had  prevent- 
ed the  formation  of  rust  In  another  case  in 
n^hich  a  man  had  been  accused  of  murder,  an 
exanunation  of  a  knife  covered  with  red  spots, 
and  found  concealed  bdiind  a  piece  of  fhmltnre, 

S roved  that  the  stiuns  were  due  to  rust  pro- 
uced  by  lemon  Juice.  Blood  may  be  detected 
even  on  a  stone.  Prof.  Lassaigne  has  asoer- 
tiuned  its  presence  a  ftdl  month  after  it  had 
been  shed  on  a  pavement  of  soft  freestone^ 
which  had  been  exposed  to  the  action  of  air, 
of  rain,  and  of  the  sun.  The  color  of  the  stain 
had  passed  to  a  dirty  green,  with  a  reddish 
tint  hardly  discernible,  in  a  place  where  stains 
of  blood  are  suspected  to  exist,  and  where 
none  are  found  by  daylight,  the  search  for  the 
red  spots  must  be  made  by  artificial  light  In 
a  case  where  Ollivier  d* Angers  had  vainly  tried 
by  daylight  to  find  stains  of  blood  on  the 
flow  and  <m  the  paper  hangings  of  a  room, 


BLOOD  STAINS 


875 


he  detected  many  hj  eandle-liglit.  It  is 
BoiDdtiines  necessary  to  throw  a  great  deal  of 
light  on  the  sarface  examined,  and  to  employ  a 
magnifying  lens  to  find  ont  the  very  minute 
stauu  of  blood  on  clothes  as  well  as  on  fumi- 
tare,  ^cc;  bat  a  careful  examination  cannot 
fail  to  be  successful.— IL  When  it  is  decided 
that  a  red  stain  is  due  to  blood,  it  remains  to 
be  ascertahied  if  the  blood  is  that  of  a  man  or 
of  an  animal.  Chemistry  in  such  an  examination 
ifi  of  almost  no  avail.  The  physical  character 
of  the  red  corpuscles  of  the  blood  is  almost 
the  only  guide.  It  has  been  said,  however, 
that  some  reagents  may  develop  in  the  blood 
Buch  a  smell  that  it  is  easy  to  determine  not 
only  from  what  animal  the  blood  comes, 
but  also  whether  it  is  that  of  a  man  or  of  a 
woman.  When  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to  the 
blood  of  an  animal  or  of  a  man,  it  gives  rise 
to  a  smell  which  has  been  said  to  be  just  the 
same  as  that  of  the  individual  that  has  fhrnished 
the  blood.  The  chemist  (Barruel)  who  dis- 
covered  this  fact,  was  almost  always  able  to 
make  out  by  this  means  what  was  the  source  of 
blood  sent  to  him ;  so  were  M.  Oolombat  and 
8c»ne  other  physicians,  but  a  great  many  others 
have  vainly  tried  to  detect  the  source  of  the 
blood  they  examined.  Decisive  experiments 
have  been  performed  by  the  nephew  of  the  dis- 
coverer, by  Dr.  A.  Tardieu  and  M.  OhevaUier ; 
their  conclusions  are  that  the  same  blood  may 
be  considered  as  belonging  to  different  animals, 
while  the  blood  of  different  animals  may  be 
admitted  to  come  fix>m  the  same  one.  Beside, 
the  blood  of  man  may  be  mistaken  for  that  of 
animals,  and  vice  vena.  It  seems,  therefore, 
that  only  a  few  men  have  the  organ  of  smell 
sensitive  enough  to  detect  differences  in  the 
odor  of  the  blood  of  different  animals.  In  man 
and  all  the  mammalia  (except  the  camel  tribe), 
the  red  corpuscles  are  circular,  flat  disks, 
while  in  fishes,  reptiles,  birds,  and  camels, 
th^  are  oval.  This  difference  is  at  once 
sufficient  to  distinguish  the  blood  of  all  these 
animals  from  that  of  man.  In  a  case  mentioned 
by  Taylor,  it  was  suggested  in  the  defence  Ihat 
the  blood  stains  on  tiie  clothes  of  the  prisoner 
were  due  to  his  having  killed  some  chickens. 
The  shape  of  the  globules  negatived  this  part  of 
the  defence.  In  another  case  the  blood  was 
alleged  to  be  that  of  a  fish ;  this  was  also  dis- 
proved by  the  shape  of  the  corpuscles.  Dr.  H. 
bennett,  of  Edinburgh,  states,  that  a  patient 
having  bronchitis  had  put  bird's  blood  in  her 
aputa,  and  that,  after  the  microscope  had 
showed  this  fact,  she  was  greatly  surprised  that 
it  had  beeu  discovered,  and  confessed  that  she 
had  done  it  for  the  purpose  of  imposition. 
On  looking  at  the  table  of  the  dimensions  of  the 
blood  corpuscles  (which  we  have  taken  from 
Gulliver  in  the  article  on  Blood),  it  will  be 
found  that  the  blood  disks  of  man  are  larger 
than  those  of  all  the  domestic  animals.  To 
cover  the  extent  of  a  linear  inch  with  the  red 
corpoacles  of  a  man,  8,200  would  be  necessary, 
whfle  it  would  require  4^404  of  the  red  cor- 


puscles of  a  cat,  and  6,866  of  those  of  a  goat  to 
cover  the  same  extent  0.  Schmidt  thinks  he 
has  shown  that  by  accurate  measurements  of 
the  red  corpuscles,  the  blood  of  all  the  common 
mammalia  can  be  individually  detected  and 
also  distinguished  from  that  of  man.  He  pro- 
poses to  avoid  the  errors  arismg  from  a  greater 
or  a  slighter  evaporation,  by  drying  the  blood 
corpusdes  before  measuring  them.  He  gives 
the  following  table,  which  may  prove  very  i 
ful  to  the  medical  jurist : 


DIAMnSB   or    BLOOD    COBPVBOUB    IK  ] 

llMo,  Minimnin.  Usi. 

1.  Man coon 0.0074 0.0080 

«.  Doc 0.0070 0.0066 a0074 

&  Babbit aOO60 a0060 0.0070 

4.  Rat 0.0064 a0060 0.0068 

6.  Pig a0069 a0060 aoo65 

6.  MouBe 0.0061 0.0063 a0066 

7.  Ox 0.00&8 0.0054 0.00flS 

a  Cat 0.0056 0.0058 0.0060 

9.  Horse 0.0057 0.0058 a0060 

10.  Sheep a0044 a0040 aoott 

Dr.  Taylor  says  he  has  tried  the  method  of 
Schmidt  and  has  not  found  it  practically  avail- 
able^ and  he  declares  that  the  question  of  the 
distinction  between  the  blood  of  man  and  that 
of  certain  animals  is  unsolved.  He  adds  that 
when  blood  has  been  dried  on  clothing,  we 
cannot  with  certainty  and  accuracy  distinguish 
that  of  an  ordinary  domestic  animal  from  that 
of  man.  Usually,  however,  in  fresh  blood,  the 
measurement  of  the  red  corpuscles  will  decide 
the  question ;  and,  in  old  stains,  when  the  blood 
corpuscles  have  changed  their  form  and  become 
jagffed  or  stellate,  it  will  often  occur  that  sev- 
eral substances  will  ^ve  them  their  normal 
shape  and  render  possible  the  determination  of 
their  source.  But  we  must  say,  with  Dr.  Taylor, 
that  the  evidence  here  is  baaed  on  conjecture 
only,  and  should  therefore  be  received  with  the 
greatest  caution.  Not  only  can  the  red  corpus- 
cles be  altered  in  their  size  and  shape,  but  they 
may  be  decomposed  and  sive  origin  to  crystals 
which  are  so  similar,  whether  coming  from 
the  blood  of  certain  animals  or  that  of  man,  that 
no  distinction  is  posuble.  Fortunately  there  are 
almost  always  at  least  a  few  nndecoinposed  red 
corpuscles  among  the  crystals. — ^lU.  It  is  abso- 
lutely impossible  to  distinguish  the  blood  of  one 
man  from  that  of  another  by  means  of  the 
comparison  of  the  red  corpuscles.  There  may 
be  more  difference  between  the  corpuscles  of  2 
samples  of  blood  fr^m  the  same  man  than  be- 
tween those  of  2  men.  A  great  many  external 
causea  may  produce  variations  in  the  size  of  the 
red  globmes;  and,  beside  the  proportion  of 
water,  of  certain  gases,  or  salts  in  the  blood  has 
a  great  influence  on  the  shape  and  also  on  the 
dimensions  of  the  red  corpuscles.  All  who 
know  the  facts  advanced  in  flEivor  of  or 
against  the  theory  of  Henle,  concerning  the 
causes  of  the  difference  of  color  of  the  arterial 
and  venous  blood  (see  BBSPmiiTioN),  are  aware 
of  the  changes  of  the  blood  corpuscles  due  to 
oxygen,  carbonic  acid,  &c.  The  smeU  of  the 
blo<^  of  women  might  by  some  persons  be  dia< 
tinguished  from  that  of  the  blood  of  men,  but  we 
cannot  place  any  positive  reliance  on  the  i 


876 


BLOODHOUND 


of  anybody  fbr  raoh  a  dlBtinotioiif  and  we  know 
that  even  the  chemist  who  disoovered  the  infla- 
enoe  of  snlphario  acid  in  increasing  the  odor  of 
bIood,Barrael,  once  fieuled  to  distinguish  the  blood 
of  a  man  from  that  of  a  woman ;  he  mistook  one 
for  the  other.  .  Ohemistry  also  is  of  no  avail  for 
the  discrimination  of  the  blood  of  one  man  from 
that  of  another. — ^From  the  facts  related  in  this 
article  we  conclnde:  1.  That  it  is  nsoally  very 
easy  and  perhaps  always  poflsible  to  detect  even 
the  smallest  quantity  of  blood  in  suspected 
stains.  2.  That  stiuns  of  the  blSod  of  fishes, 
reptiles,  or  birds,  may  easily  be  distingmshed 
from  stains  of  human  blood.  8.  That  stuns  of 
the  blood  of  the  animals  nearest  to  man,  when 
fresh,  may  easily  be  distinguished  from  those  of 
human  blood.  4.  That  it  is  very  difficult  and 
sometimes  almost  impossible^  to  distinguish  the 
blood  of  certain  animals  from  that  of  man  in 
old  stains.  5.  That  it  is  impoeaible,  either  by 
chemical  means  or  by  the  microscope,  to  dis- 
tinguish the  blood  of  one  man  from  that  of 
another. 

BLOODHOUND  (emu  famUiarii  tagaa, 
Linn.),  a  hound  trained  and  kept  for  the  pursuit 
of  men,  whether  thieves,  enemies,  or  frt^tives.  A 
very  erroneous  idea  usnidly  prevails  concerning 
the  bloodhound,  partly  originating fromhisname, 
as  if  he  were  called  bloodhound  from  being  cruel 
and  bloody  in  his  nature,  ^and  partly  fit>m  a  mis- 
conception of  his  powers,  as  if  he  were  either  a 
hound  that  will  hunt  only  man,  or  the  only  hound 
that  will  hunt  man.  Whereas  the  bloodhound, 
like  all  pure  hounds,  is  a  particularly  bland,  mild, 
and  loving  dog,  and  will  hunt  any  other  game,  to 
which  he  is  trained  or  entered,  as  readily  or 
more  readily  than  he  will  man ;  while  all  other 
dogs  may  be  trained  more  or  less  perfectly  to 
follow  imd  acknowledge  the  scent  of  a  man,  as 
must  be  evident  to  every  one  who  has  ever 
seen  a  lost  dog,  when  he  comes  upon  the  scent 
of  his  master's  foot,  which  he  at  once  follows 
inch  by  inch,  until  he  has  found  him.  Any 
hound  naturally  pursues,  in  the  banning,  what- 
ever is  his  natural  or  accustomed  prey ;  and 
the  distinction  of  foxhound,  staghound,  harrier, 
boarhound,  or  the  like,  is  a  mere  matter  of  edu- 
cation and  training,  not  of  natural  instinct 
Tiie  staghound  would  hunt  the  fox,  the  fox- 
hound the  stag  or  the  hare,  and  the  harrier 
either  stag  or  fox,  even  more  eagerly  than  its 
own  peculiar  game,  since  both  stag  and  fox 
have  a  stronger  scent  than  the  hare.  The  per- 
fection of  the  hounds,  of  any  kind,  is  when  tney 
are  so  thoroughly  broken  that,  in  direct  diso- 
bedience to  their  natural  instincts,  they  wlQ 
hunl^  if  harriers,  a  hare,  through  a  warren  of 
rabbits — ^the  scent  and  mibits  of  the  2  Animiilff 
being  almost  identical ;  if  foxhounds,  a  fox, 
tlirough  a  preserve  fhll  of  hares,  or  a  park  full 
of  fallow  deer,  without  for  an  instant  losing  the 
scent  of  the  animal  of  which  they  are  in  pur- 
suit, or  casting  a  single  look  at  the  other  game^ 
which  are  in  motion  all  around  them.  The 
bloodhound,  originally,  was  the  choicest  hound 
in  existence,  of  the  old  Talbot  or  southern  breed. 


He  was  a  large,  taD,  equare-headed,  slow  hound, 
with  long  pendulous  ears,  heavy  drooping  lips 
and  jowl,  and  a  dewlap  like  that  of  a  bull.  He 
was  broad-chested,  crook-leased,  with  his  el- 
bows turned  out,  deep-tongned^  and,  in  pursuit, 
extremely  slow;  so  much  so  that  the  slowest 
horse  could  always  keep  him  in  sight,  and 
in  a  long  chase  an  active  pedestrian  could  keep 
him  in  hearing.  His  powers  of  scenting,  how- 
ever, were  so  extraordinary,  that  not  only  would 
he  follow  the  deer  or  other  animal  of  which  he 
was  in  pursuit,  throudi  herd  after  herd  <d  the 
same  animals>  but  be  would  recognize  its 
trail  on  the  ground  as  long  as  12  or  14  hours 
after  the  creature  had  passed  by ;  and  that  if  it 
were  lost  on  one  day,  and  he  were  put  on  its 
fresh  track  again  on  tlie  following  morning,  he 
would  at  once  own  it  as  the  same,  and  follow 
it  so  long  as  it  ran  on  solid  soil.  For  2  reasons 
this  animal  was  called  the  bloodhound.  First,  if 
the  ammal  he  pursues  be  wounded  and  its  blood 
ffl>illed  on  tibe  earth,  he  will  follow  the  track  of 
we  blood,  as  he  will  that  of  the  foot  Secondly, 
if  fresh  blood  of  some  other  animal  be  spilled 
across  the  track  of  the  animal  pursued,  the 
hound  will  stop  confused  on  the  fresh  blood, 
and  will  acknowledge  the  old  scent  no  longer. 
On  the  frontiers  of  England  and  Scotland,  prob- 
ably first  and  certainly  longest  and  most  bjb- 
tematically,  were  k^t  and  trained  bloodhouiMiB, 
called  in  the  northern  patois  of  the  borders, 
sleuth-hounds ;  they  being  nothing  more  than 
the  large  Talbot,  trained  exclusively  to  follow 
men.  The  cattle-stealing  outlaws  and  maraud- 
ers of  Oumberland  and  liddeedale,  who  consM- 
ered  their  pursuit  the  only  manly  ocoupatioii  in 
time  of  peace^  were  the  especial  game  of  the 
sleuth-hound;  and  there  were  particular  aa- 
thorized  sdemnities,  before  the  union  of  the  2 
kingdoms,  which,  being  performed,  it  was  law- 
ful to  cross  the  border  from  England  to  Soot- 
land,  or  ifice  wnOj  without  interruption  to  the 
peace  of  the  realms,  and  rescue  the  booty  with 
nigh  hand,  provided  the  bloodhounds  were 
hunting  "  on  the  hot  foot"  when  the  frontier  line 
was  paised.  Within  the  memory  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  men  were  alive  in  Iskdale  and  Liddes- 
dale,  who  remembered  bloodhounds  being  kept 
for  tilie  detection  of  sheep-stealen.  The  breed 
IS  still  maintained  in  a  zew  large  deer  parks  in 
the  north  of  Eng^d,  for  following  up  outlying 
bucka^  which  they  will  single  out  of  the  herd, 
and  never  leave  until  they  are  taken.  Th^ 
are,  in  color,  usually  tawny,  not  brindled,  witib 
black  muzzles;  or  black  and  tan,  the  latter 
being  called  St.  Hubert's  breed,  and  esteemed 
the  hardiest  The  animal  known  as  the  Cuba 
bloodhound,  is  not  a  bloodhound,  or  a  hound  at 
aJL  but  is  a  descendant  of  the  old  Bisoayan  mas* 
ti£^  which  was  trained,  not  so  much  to  hunt, 
as  to  fight ;  and  which  struck  more  terror  into 
the  soft  southern  Indians  than  the  war-horses 
and  miul-dad  riders  of  the  Spanish  cavaliers. 
It  has  some  scenting  powers,  as  all  dogs,  even 
the  bulldog,  have,  but  it  is  as  inferior  in  these  to 
the  true  bloodhound,  as  it  is  superior  to  him  ia 


BLOODLETTING 


877 


Uood-ihifBtindM  and  oniel,  iitdisoriimQate  png* 
naoity.  It  haa  no  utility  except  aa  a  mau- 
hunter. 

BLOODLETTING  is  technically  termed 
phlebotomy,  from  the  Greek  ^c^,  a  vein,  and 
rtfumy  to  cut,  to  denote  the  act  of  opening  a 
vein  for  letting  blood,  as  a  means  of  relief  in 
certain  oaaes  of  diseased  action  in  the  organism, 
llie  surgical  operation  of  bloodletting  is  very 
simple  in  itself  but  requires  some  knowledge 
to  do  it  properly  witnout  risk  or  danger. 
Bloodlettii^  is  usually  performed  at  the  bend 
of  the  arm,  because  the  superficial  veios  are 
laige  in  that  locality,  and  more  distinctly  seen 
th^  anywhere  else.  Before  udng  the  lancet 
the  auigeon  ascertains  the  position  of  the  artery 
at  Um  bend  of  the  arm;  it  is  commonly  felt 
pulsating  nearly  under  the  largest  vein.  This 
Tain  must  be  avoided,  because  the  danger  of 
wounding  the  artery,  br  passing  the  lancet  too 
deeply,  is  thereby  avoided.  The  vein  next  in 
size,  'But  not  so  near  the  artery,  is  therefore 
selected.  A  bandage  about  2  fingers  in  breadth 
aod  a  yard  in  lengUi  is  then  tied  firmly  round 
tiie  arm,  about  an  inch  above  the  place  where 
the  opening  is  to  be  made.  This  will  cause  the 
veins  to  rise ;  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  tie 
the  bandage  so  tightiy  that  the  pulse  cannot  be 
lelt  at  the  wrist  The  surgeon  then  grasps  the 
elbow  with  his  left  hand,  placing  his  tiiumb 
finnly  upon  the  vein,  a  littie  below  the  nlaoe 
where  he  intends  making  the  puncture,  to  Keep 
it  in  its  place,  and  prevent  it  from  rolling  under 
theakin  dnrizig  the  operation.  The  lancet  is  then 
passed  obliquely  into  the  vein.  The  flow  of 
blood  is  fiidlitated  bv  keeping  the  hand  and 
wrist  in  motion.  When  a  simcient  quantity 
has  been  discharged,  the  bandage  is  removed 
from  the  aim  above  the  puncture ;  the  surgeon 
puts  his  thumb  upon  the  wound  to  stop  the 
bleeding,  and  with  the  other  hand  washes  the 
blood  from  the  arm.  The  lips  of  the  wound 
are  then  placed  in  contact;  a  small  compress  of 
old  linen  is  placed  over  it,  and  secured  by  a 
bandage  passed  round  the  elbow  in  the  form 
of  tiie  figure  8.  The  crossing  of  the  bandage 
should  be  immediately  over  the  compress.  If 
blood  should  make  its  way  tiirough  the  linen 
some  time  after  the  arm  has  been  bound  up. 
the  bandage  must  be  made  more  tight,  ana 
alackened  somewhat  after  the  bleeding  has 
ceased.  The  bandage  is  retained  2  or  8  days, 
and  the  arm  is  kept  in  a  alin^  for  rest,  at  least 
24  hooTB.  In  fat  peoplie  it  is  sometimes  very 
difllcult,  or  perhaps  impossible,  to  render  the 
superficial  veins  of  the  arm  visible;  in  such 
cases  blood  may  be  drawn  from  the  ankle.  A 
bandage  is  applied  round  the  leg  about  2  inches 
above  the  ttokle;  the  foot  is  immersed  some 
time  in  warm  water,  to  make  the  veins  rise ; 
the  lai^^t  vein  either  on  the  inside  or  the  out- 
ffide  of  the  ankle  is  then  opened,  and  the  foot  is 
again  plunged  into  warm  water,  or  the  blood 
would  not  run  freely.  Bleeding  at  the  wrist 
Ls  aiso  resorted  to,  when  the  veins  at  the  bend 
o{  the  arm  are  too  small  or  otherwise  difilcult 


to  operate  upon;  the  cephalio  vein  of  the 
thumb  or  the  back  and  outer  side  of  the  wrist 
is  selected  in  that  case.  Bleeding  at  the  neck  is 
also  practised  at  times.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed on  the  external  jugular  vein,  at  either 
side  of  the  neck.  The  vein  runs  in  an  oblique 
direction,  and  the  operation  is  performed  at  the 
lower  part  of  the  neck,  because  the  vein  is 
there  more  prominent;  and,  higher  up,  it  is 
surrounded  by  a  network  of  nerves,  which  it 
would  be  dangerous  to  wound.  In  addition  to 
the  usual  materials,  a  card  is  required  in  this 
operation  to  form  a  channel  for  the  blood.  Two 
or  8  pledgets  are  placed,  one  upon  the  other,  on 
the  jugular  vein,  at  its  lowest  part,  just  above 
the  collar-bone.  These  are  maintained  in  place 
by  a  ligature,  the  centre  of  which  is  placed 
directly  upon  them,  while  the  2  ends  are  car- 
ried down,  the  one  forward,  the  other  bade- 
ward,  to  the  opposite  armpit,  where  they  are 
tied  in  a  single  bow.  The  vein  then  swells, 
and  should  be  fixed  by  2  fingers  of  the  left 
hand.  Beneath  the  skin  of  the  neck,  and  lying 
upon  the  jugular  vein,  there  is  a  muscle  as  thin 
aa  paper,  the  platyuna  myoideiy  the  fibres  of 
whidb  run  in  an  oblique  direction,  from  the 
collar-bone  to  the  border  of  the  lower  jaw, 
which  is  the  direction  of  the  vein  itself;  the 
incision  is  made  at  aright  angle  with  respect  to 
the  direction  of  these  fibres,  tiiat  they  may  con- 
tract and  form  no  obstacle  to  the  issue  of  the 
blood.  The  incision  is  also  made  rather  wide, 
to  insure  a  free  issue  from  the  vein.  The  blood 
trickles  down,  and  a  card  is  used  to  direct  it 
into  the  vessel  of  reception.  To  encourage  the 
flow  of  blood  the  patient  moves  the  lower  jaw, 
as  in  mastication,  now  and  then  taking  a  deep 
breath.  When  the  bleeding  is  ended,  a  bit  of 
adhesive  plaster  is  applied  over  the  orifice,  and  a 
pledget  placed  upon  it,  which  is  maintained  in 
place  by  a  ligature  wound  closely,  not  tightiy, 
round  tiie  neck,  and  fixed  with  a  pin.  Blood- 
letting at  the  neck  is  neither  difficult  nor  dan- 
gerous, and  is  performed,  at  times^  in  cases  of 
congestion  of  blood  in  the  head,  as  in  apoplexy, 
asphyxia  from  hanging,  &c. — ^Bloodletting  is 
much  less  frequentiy  practised  now  than  for- 
merly. Some  sects  pf  medical  practitioners  re- 
Sudiate  the  practice  altogether,  on  what  tiiey 
eem  sufficient  physiological  and  medical  au- 
thority; but  the  most  eminent  physicians,  who 
combine  a  scientific  education  with  many  years 
of  practical  experience  in  the  best  hospitals  of 
Europe  and  America,  still  recognize  the  neces- 
sity of  bloodletting  in  some  cases,  as  a  means 
of  producing  immediate  results  of  a  salutary 
nature,  where  the  life  of  the  patient  would  be 
endangered  by  delay,  and  the  adoption  of  a  less 
heroic  mode  of  treatment.  Physiolo^  forbids 
the  loss  of  blood  on  all  ocoanons  of  trifling  in- 
disposition, especially  in  feeble  constitutions 
ana  in  city  populations,  as  was  formerly  of  fre- 
quent occurrence  in  medical  practice ;  and  in  &ct, 
bloodletting  is  deemed  by  many  not  a  branch 
of  purely  medical  treatment  at  all,  but  rather  a 
branch  of  surgical  treatment,  where  accidents 


878 


BLOOMARY 


and  findden  necesnties  call  for  ezoeptional  and 
rapid  means  of  action.  Both  leeching  and  gen- 
eral bleeding  are  practised  now  more  cantiously 
than  formerlj ;  and  capping,  as  a  snbstltnte  for 
leeching,  is  practised  with  the  same  discretion 
hj  well-educated  physicians.  Some  eminent 
medical  writers  who  have  been  at  the  head  of 
military  hospitals  for  many  years,  and  had  the 
care,  cdmost  exclusively,  of  young,  plethoric, 
active,  and  imprudent  men,  liave  found  bleed- 
ing frequently  necessary  in  their  special  line  of 
experience,  and  are.  therefore,  apt  to  dwell  too 
much  upon  its  usefulness ;  while  others  not  less 
eminent  in  the  profession,  who  have  had  the 
care  of  aged  and  infirm  patients  almost  ex- 
dusively  for  many  years,  in  pauper  hospitals 
and  lunatic  asylums,  have  found  the  practice 
of  bleeding  injurious  in  their  peculiar  line  of 
personal  experience,  and,  theremre,  dwell  with 
emphasis  on  the  abuses  of  the  lancet.  Both  are 
right  in  their  respective  experience ;  but  neither 
line  of  special  practice  and  experience  covers 
the  whole  ground  of  physiology  and  medicine. 

BLOOMARY,  BLOOMS.  Iron  ores  of  pure 
quality  and  high  percentage,  like  the  mag- 
netic and  specular  oxides,  are  frequently 
converted  directly  into  malleable  iron,  with- 
out passing  through  the  intermediate  stage 
of  cast  or  pig  iron,  which  is  the  result  of  the 
blast-furnace  process.  This  operation  of  mak- 
ing bar  iron  direct  is  accomplished  in  various 
sorts  of  furnaces,  all  of  which  have  the  same 
object  in  view,  which  is  the  separation  of  the 
matters  combined  and  mixed  with  the  iron,  so 
that  this  shall  be  left  in  its  simple  metallic  state. 
The  ore  is  deoxidized  by  its  oxygen  combining 
with  the  carbon  of  the  fuel ;  and  the  process 
must  not  be  carried  so  &r  as  to  melt  the  ore,  which 
could  occur  only  by  the  iron  combining  with  the 
carbon  and  assuming  the  state  of  cast-iron,  and 
possibly  of  steel  The  stony  matters  mixed  with 
the  ore,  instead  of  flowing  out,  as  from  the  blast 
furnace,  in  a  liquid  glass  or  cinder,  which  it  is  the 
first  object  of  the  blast-furnace  process  to  produce, 
remain  attached  to  the  ball  or  hupe  (Fr.  loupe^ 
a  lump)  of  iron,  and  are  separated  from  it  by 
the  mechanical  work  of  rolling  and  stirring  it  in 
the  fire,  and  of  hammering  or  squeezing  it  after 
it  is  taken  out  The  most  simple  and  ^nerally 
adopted  of  the  direct  methods  of  makmg  mal- 
leable iron  from  the  ore  is  by  the  bloomary  or 
forge  fire.  The  establishments  themselves  are 
called  bloomaries,  and  the  lump  of  iron  when 
finished  under  the  hammer  is  called  a  bloorn, 
from  the  Grerman  hlums,  flower,  the  metallic 
product  being  thus  designated  as  the  flower  of 
the  ore.  By  some  the  name  is  said  to  be  given 
from  the  resemblance  in  the  form  of  the  bloom 
to  the  unopened  corol  of  a  campanulate  flower. 
The  term  is  applied  to  lumps  of  iron  thus  pro- 
duced, whether  in  the  bloomary  fire  proper,  or 
in  any  of  the  other  similar  contrivances  for  ef- 
fecting the  same  object,  as,  for  example,  the  old 
aUich-ofen,  or  touif-ofen,  of  the  Germans,  tlie 
/aumeaux^mcMe  of  the  French,  the  Catalan 
forge  of  the  Pyr6n6esy  and  numeroos  inventions 


of  the  Americans,  as  Benton's,  Harvey^  te. — 
The  manu&cture  of  iron  by  the  bloomary  pro- 
cess is  the  oldest  method  of  producing  this  met- 
al Some  form  of  the  process  is  Eluded  to  by 
Aristotle,  and  it  was  no  doubt  in  operation  long 
before  his  time,  as  the  use  of  iron  is  several  tiroes 
alluded  to  by  Homer  in  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
and  also  by  the  earliest  sacred  writers.  Its  in- 
vention is,  in  the  book  of  Grenesis,  attributed  to 
Tubal-Cain,  who  was  of  the  7th  generation 
from  Adam.  It  being  a  simple  process,  and 
easily  practised  by  people  possessed  of  little 
mechanical  skill,  we  nnd  it  has  long  been  in  use 
by  some  even  of  the  ruder  nations  of  esfitem 
Asia  and  of  Africa.  The  inhabitants  of  Mada- 
gascar produce  iron  in  this  way,  blowing  their 
rudely  constructed  furnaces  by  means  of  an  ap- 
paratus of  hollow  logs  with  loosely  fitted  pis- 
tons ;  and  in  central  Africa  the  natives  were 
seen  by  Mungo  Park  at  the  same  work,  forging 
small  articles  durect  from  the  ore  in  open  fires, 
which  were  kept  in  action  by  rude  bellows 
worked  by  the  hand.  The  Persians  and  some 
other  of  the  AMatio  nations  still  retain  a  very 
ancient,  possibly  the  primitive,  mode  of  mana* 
faoture.  A  mere  cavity  in  the  earth,  6  inches 
or  a  foot  deep,  and  double  the  depth  in  diame- 
ter, is  liued  with  pulverized  charcoal.  Char- 
coal in  fragments  is  thrown  in  and  covered  with 
ore,  which  may  be  fine  and  caked  together  with 
water,  or  in  coarse  pieces.  Several  alternate 
layers  of  charcoal  and  ore  succeed,  when  the 
whole  he^  is  covered  with  coal.  It  is  then 
fired  at  the  bottom,  and  the  blast  applied  by 
large  hand  bellows,  which  blow  through  a  pipe 
introduced  in  the  lower  part  In  a  few  hours  a 
small  loupe  is  obtuned,  which  is  taken  out  and 
hammered  by  the  hand.  By  reheating  and 
hammering  it  is  finally  brought  into  shape  and 
purified  of  cinder.  The  process  is  such  as  may 
be  practised  on  a  smaller  scale  in  a  blacksmith^s 
forge ;  and  it  is  a  common  experiment  to  thus 
convert  ridi  pieces  of  ore  into  metallic  iron  for 
the  purpose  of  exhibiting  their  richness  and  the 
ease  of  their  reduction.  It  is  not,  however,  a 
fair  test  of  the  quality  <^  the  metal  the  ore  will 
produce,  when  worked  in  the  large  way ;  for  in 
all  these  small  operations,  including  even  the 
most  improved  bloomary  processes,  it  is  an  ob- 
ject to  avoid  so  high  a  heat  as  to  melt  the  ore, 
the  effect  of  which  would  be  the  partial  reduc- 
tion of  the  metaUic  bases  containeid  in  the  im- 
purities, and  their  combination  with  the  iron, 
to  the  iqjury  of  its  qualities.  A  better  qual- 
ity of  iron  is  thus  obtained,  than  the  same 
ores  would  produce,  when  reduced  at  the 
high  heat  of  blast  furnaces.  The  yield,  bow- 
ever,  is  not  so  great,  neither  is  the  econo- 
mv  of  friel  Much  iron  is  lost  in  the  cinder, 
wnich  has  escaped  deoxidation,  or  has  been  re- 
oxidized  by  contact  with  the  blast,  and  a  large 
amount  of  coal  is  burned  to  waste  npon  these 
open  fires.  Still,  as  littie  outiay  is  required  in 
commendng  a  small  establishment  of  this  kind, 
they  are  frequentiy  to  be  met  with  in  mountainous 
regionsi  where  magnetic  ores  abound,  and  wa- 


BLOOMARY 


BL00MIN6T0N 


870 


ter-power  maj  be  had  upon  every  stream,  and 
charcoal  is  worth  little  more  than  the  labor  of 
preparing  and  hanling  it  to  the  works.  The 
product,  easily  obtained,  is  the  most  valnable 
quality  of  iron,  which  is  readily  converted  at 
uie  forges  into  any  desired  forms,  and  which,  if 
not  required  for  Uie  immediate  neighborhood, 
is  better  able  to  bear  the  cost  of  transportation 
to  a  distant  market  than  the  cheaper  pig-iron. 
Bloomaries  were  for  these  reasons  early  estab- 
lished in  the  magnetic  ore  districts  on  both  sides 
of  Lake  Ohamplain,  in  the  highlands  on  both 
sides  of  the  Hudson  river,  and  dong  the  contin- 
uation of  these  hills  with  their  metalliferous 
products  through  northern  New  Jersey  and  a 
part  of  Pennsylvania.  As  the  cutting  of  the 
wood  of  these  regions  gradually  made  the  sup- 

ees  of  charcoal  more  expensive,  these  works 
ve,  in  the  more  accessible  districts,  been 
abandoned,  while  the  others,  profiting  by  their 
situation  and  the  skill  that  has  been  applied  to 
them,  have  reached  in  some  instances  an  extent 
and  degree  of  perfection,  which  has  probably 
never  before  been  attained  in  this  manufacture. 
Clinton  and  Essex  counties  of  northern  New 
York  have  long  been  distinguished  for  their 
production  of  blooms.  In  1860  there  were  no 
less  than  200  bloomary  fires  in  these  8  coun- 
ties— as  many  as  21  in  a  single  establishment, 
under  1  roof.  The  capacity  of  eacli  fire  is  1 
ton  of  iron  everv  24  hours ;  but  with  ores  of 
rich  quality,  and  of  coarse  granular  particles, 
each  fire  may  be  made  to  yield  100  lbs.  of  iron 
per  hour.  Poor  ores  are  crushed  and  dressed 
and  brought  to  the  percentage  of  iron  of  about 
65.  The  waste,  however,  is  so  great  in  this 
process  that  2^  tons  of  ore  is  usually  estimated 
as  the  amount  required  for  a  ton  of  iron. 
The  value  of  the  ore  is  about  $9.  The  quantitv 
of  charcoal  consumed  is  about  250  bushels,  which 
is  worth  from  $15  to  $17.  The  other  item  of 
expense  is  the  bloomer^s  wages,  which  are  usu- 
ally paid  by  contract  at  the  rate  of  $11  per  ton 
of  iron,  making  the  whole  cost  from  $85  to  $37 
per  ton.  The  process  has  been  much  improved 
oy  tlie  use  of  the  hot  blast  for  blowing  the  fires. 
The  temperature  is  raised  to  about  600°  by  ex- 
posing the  blast-pipes  to  the  escape  heat  in  the 
chimney-stack.  By  this  arrangement  a  consid- 
erable saving  is  effected  in  the  consumption  of 
charcoal.  For  reheating  the  blooms,  in  order 
to  work  them  down  under  the  hammer,  it  was 
formerly  the  custom  to  make  use  of  separate 
fires,  at  an  additional  cost  of  fuel.  To  econo- 
mize this  extra  consumption  of  charcoal,  a  re- 
beating  fire  has  been  contrived  back  of  the 
bloomary  fire,  in  which  the  blooms  are  heated 
by  the  flame  and  gases,  as  these  pass  from  the 
bloomary  into  the  chimney.  The  combustion 
is  here  rendered  very  intense  by  hot  air  being 
driven  in,  through  several  blowpipes,  from  the 
same  apparatus,  which  supplies  the  blast  to  the 
bloomary  fire  itself.  Each  reheating  or  gas  fur- 
nace, as  it  is  called,  requires  for  its  most  efScient 
work  the  gases  from  2  bloomary  fires.  It  is 
found   most   advantageous  to  divide  the  lur 


among  a  number  of  blowpipes  of  small  diam- 
eter, and  to  blow  at  a  pressure  of  2  to  8  lbs.  to 
the  square  inch.  Being  thus  introduced  in  small 
jets,  a  sheet  of  infiamed  air  is  spread  throughout 
the  furnace,  and  the  most  intense  heat  is  pro- 
duced. These  improved  bloomaries  have  been 
found  well  adapted  for  the  reduction  of  the  rich 
specular  and  magnetic  iron  ores  found  on  the 
southern  shore  of  Lake  Superior.  They  are 
much  more  readily  constructed  than  the  mas- 
sive blast  furnaces,  are  less  dependent  upon  the 
proximity  of  extensive  machine  shops  for  being 
kept  in  repair,  and  may  be  stopped  at  any  time 
and  again  started  without  involving  the  serious 
losses  occasioned  in  the  interruption  of  the  bUkst 
of  a  high  furnace.  Perhaps  the  greatest  diffi- 
culty attending  them  is  the  dependence  of  each 
fire  upon  2  experienced  hands  (if  run  day  and 
night),  which  is  equivalent  to  the  employment 
of  2  skilful  men  for  every  ton  of  iron  made  per 
day — a  dependence,  which,  in  districts  remote 
from  supplies  of  such  labor,  may  prove  to  a 
large  establishment  of  serious  consequence. 

BLOOMFIELD,  Robert,  an  English  pastoral 
poet,  born  at  Uonington,  in  Suffolk.  Dec.  8, 1766, 
died  at  Shefbrd,  in  Bedfordshire,  Aug.  19, 1823. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  father,  a  poor  tailor, 
and  was  tauffht  to  read  by  his  mother,  who  kept  a 
dame-school.  Not  being  sufficiently  robust  for 
a  farmer^s  boy,  he  was  taught  the  business  of  a 
shoemaker,  and,  in  his  brief  leisure,  read  a  few 
books  of  poetry,  including  Thomson's  *^  Sea- 
sons,^' which  he  so  greatly  admired,  that  it  sug- 
gested a  rural  poem,  **  The  Farmer's  Boy,"  in 
which  he  described  the  country  scenes  ho  had 
been  familiar  with  in  childhood.  Several  London 
publishers  declined  this  poem,  but  it  was  seen  by 
Mr.  Oapel  Loffl,  and  under  his  patronage  it  was 
published,  in  1800,  at  which  time  the  author  was 
84  years  old.  Within  8  years  over  26,000  copies 
were  sold,  and  it  was  translated  into  (German, 
French,  Italian,  and  Latin.  The  duke  of  Graf- 
ton appointed  Bloomfield  to  a  government  fdtu- 
ation,  which  placed  him  in  easy  circumstances, 
but  ill  health  caused  him  to  retire  from  it,  and 
return  to  his  trade  of  ladies'  shoemaker,  the  duke 
settling  a  shilling  a  day  on  him  for  the  rest  of 
his  life.  Finally,  he  retired  to  Sheffield,  where 
he  died  poor,  and  £200  in  debt,  leaving  a  widow 
and  four  children.  A  subscription  was  raised 
to  defray  his  debts,  and  affora  a  maintenance 
for  his  family.  Mr.  Bloomfield's  "Farmer's 
Boy,"  which  has  often  been  reprinted,  is  by  far 
his  best  production.  His  other  principal  works 
are,  "Rural  Tales  and  BaUads;"  "Good  Tid- 
ings;" "Wild  Flowers;"  tiie  "Blinks  of  the 
Wye ;"  "  May-Day  with  the  Muses." 

BLOOMINGTON,  a  village  and  township  in 
Indiana,  and  the  capital  of  Monroe  co.  It  was 
first  settled  in  1819,  and  is  situated  on  a  ridge 
between  the  east  and  west  forks  of  White  river. 
A  railroad,  from  New  Albany  to  Michigan 
City,  passes  through  the  village.  About  half  of 
tiie  houses  in  Bloomington  are  of  brick,  the 
remainder  being  built  of  wood.  It  is  the  seat 
of  the  state  universi^,  a  fiourishing  institution. 


380 


BLORA 


BLOUNT 


organized  in  1829,  and  possessing  in  1852  abont 
175  BtndeatB  and  a  library  of  4,200  volumes. 
Bloomington  also  contains  a  female  academy, 
several  ^nrcbes,  and  8  printing  officea  Pop. 
in  1856,  8,000. 

BLORA^  a  district  of  tbe  residency  of 
Surabaya,  m  the  island  of  Java,  which  is  noted 
for  its  valuable  forests  of  teak.  This  celebrated 
tree,  which  yields  the  strongest  and  most 
durable  timber  for  ship-building,  or  other  eco- 
nomind  purposes,  is  nowhere  else  found  in 
the  archiftolago,  except  in  a  small  portion  of 
Mindano,  and  in  the  district  of  Bima  in  Bum- 
bawa.  The  depot  of  the  teak  cuttings  of  Blora 
is  on  the  Solo  river,  lat  T  10'  S.,  long.  111° 
80' E. 

BLOSSBUBG,  a  village  and  township  on 
the  Tioga  river,  Tioga  co.,  Pennsylvania.  Situ- 
ated at  the  southern  terminus  of  the  Ooming 
and  Blossbnrg  railroad,  and  surrounded  by  val- 
uable mines  of  bituminous  coal  and  iron,  it  is  a 
place  of  some  importance,  and  of  rapid  ^owth. 
There  is  a  furnace  in  operation  in  its  vicinity. 
Pop.  in  1850,  850. 

BLOUNT.  I.  A  northern  county  of  Alabama, 
drained  by  the  sources  of  Locust  and  Mulberry 
forks  of  Black  Warrior  river,  and  compris- 
ing an  area  of  955  sq.  m.  Portions  of  tlie 
surface  are  mountainous,  and  covered  with 
forests  of  excellent  timber.  The  uplands  also 
furnish  good  pasturage,  and  the  valleys  produce 
abundant  crops  of  corn  and  cotton.  Blount^s 
Springs  are  in  this  county.  The  agricultural  pro- 
ducts in  1850  amounted  to  267,025  bashels  of 
corn,  28,420  of  sweet  potatoes,  21,204  of  oats, 
and  248  bales  of  cotton.  There  were  18  churches, 
and  the  public  schoob  numbered  485  pupils. 
Capital,  Blountsville.  Pop.  7,867,  of  whom 
426  were  slaves.  U.  A  south-eastern  county  of 
Tennessee,  bordering  on  North  Carolina,  and 
having  an  area  of  450  sq.  m.  Holston 
river,  on  its  N.  W.  boundary,  is  navigable  by 
steamboats;  the  Tennessee  touches  it  on  the 
west,  and  Little  river  and  numerous  small 
creeks  intersect  it.  The  surface  is  traversed  by 
several  mountain  ridges,  the  principal  of  which 
are  Iron  or  Smoky  mountain,  and  Ohilhowee 
mountain.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  carefully 
tilled.  The  products  in  1850  were  621,981 
bushels  of  com,  86,107  of  wheat,  175,814  of 
oats,  and  71,651  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  15 
churches,  and  1,288  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  Marble,  limestone,  and  iron  ore,  are 
the  principal  minerals.  Oapital,  MarysviUe. 
This  county  is  one  of  the  oldest  in  the  state, 
and  was  named  in  honor  of  Willie  Blount,  the  first 
governor  of  Tennessee.  Pop.  12,882,  of  whom 
1,084  are  slaves. 

BLOUNT,  Ohasles,  an  English  deistical  wri- 
ter, bom  in  Upper  Hollo  way,  April  27, 1 654,  died 
in  Au^.  1698.  In  1679  he  published  Anima 
Mund%  a  work  giving  a  historical  account  of  the 
opinions  of  the  ancients  conceming  the  human 
soul  beyond  this  life.  This  work  was  deemed  so 
unchristian  in  its  tendencies  that  it  gave  great 
offence  to  pious  readers.    He  also  published  a 


work  entitled  ^' Great  is  Biana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians,"and  a  translation  of  the  life  of  Apol- 
lonias  of  Tyana,  by  Philostratus,  both  con- 
sidered to  be  of  the  same  irreligious  tendency, 
and  the  latter  of  which  was  suppressed  on  that 
account.  His  zeal  for  the  revolution  of  1688 
was  so  great  that  he  wrote  a  pamphlet,  in  which 
he  claimed  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary 
as  a  conquest.  This  tract  was  ordered  to  be 
burnt  by  both  houses  of  parliament.  He  wished 
to  marry  the  sister  of  his  deceased  wife,  who  was 
inclined  to  the  union,  but  both  the  law  and  the 
scraples  of  the  lady  herself  interposed,  some 
tracts  he  had  written  in  favor  of  such  marriages 
having  failed  to  convince  her.  In  grief  at  this 
disappointment  he  committed  suicide. 

BLOUNT,  Sib  Henbt,  an  English  traveller, 
father  of  the  preceding,  born  at  Tittenhanger, 
in  Hertfordshire,  Dec.  15, 1602,  died  there  Oot. 
9, 1682.  He  published  an  account  of  his  travels 
in  Turkey  and  Egypt ;  fought  for  Charles  I.  in 
the  battle  of  Edgehill ;  but  after  the  execution 
of  Charles,  espoused  the  cause  of  the  parliament, 
and  kept  himself  in  favor  by  a  strong  hostility 
to  tithes.  At  the  restoration  he  succeeded  in 
reinstating  himself  in  the  royal  favor,  and  was 
appointed  high  sheriff  of  Hertford. 

BLOUNT,  Sir  Thomas  Pope,  eldest  son  <rf 
the  preceding,  an  English  author,  bom  in  Upper 
Holloway,  Sept.  12,  1649,  died  in  June,  1697. 
He  served  in  5  parliaments,  in  2  of  which  he 
was  returned  for  St  Albans,  and  in  the  remain- 
ing 8  for  Hertfordshire.  His  literary  reputation 
rests  particularly  on  a  work  entitled  Oensura 
Cdehriorum  Authorum^  which  Hallam  mentions 
with  commendation.  Blount  also  wrote  a  work 
on  natural  history. 

BLOUNT,  Thomas,  an  English  writer,  bom  in 
Bardesley,  Worcestershire,  in  1618,  died  at  Orie- 
ton.  Dec.  26,  1679.  His  first  production  was 
entitled  the  "Academy  of  Eloquence"  (1654), 
which  has  been  often  reprinted.  He  next  pub- 
lished a  "Dictionary  of  Hard  Words"  (1656); 
"  Lamps  of  the  Law,  and  Lights  of  the  GkMpel'* 
(1658);  "Boscober  (1660);  "Boscobel,  part 
2d"  (1681),  and  a  "Law  Dictionary"  (1671), 
beside  some  works  of  less  importance.  He  was 
a  zealous  Roman  Catholic,  the  author  of  a 
Catholic  almanac,  and  of  a  catalogue  of  the 
Catholics  who  lost  their  lives  in  the  king's 
cause.  The  outbreak  of  the  plot  of  1678  cre- 
ated so  much  ill-feeling  against  his  oo-religion- 
ists  that  he  led  thenceforward  an  unsteady 
and  restless  life,  and  the  anxiety  i>reying  upon 
a  constitution  already  weakened  by  excessive 
study  impaired  his  health  and  resulted  in  his 
death. 

BLOUNT,  WiLLmc,  an  American  politidan, 
bom  in  North  Carolina,  in  1744,  died  in  Enoz- 
ville,  Tenn.,  March  26, 1800.  He  was  twice  a 
member  of  the  continental  congress,  a  signer  of 
the  new  constitution  in  1787,  and  governor  of 
the  territory  south  of  the  Ohio,  coincident  with 
the  present  state  of  Tennessee,  in  1790.  After 
the  formation  of  this  territory  into  a  state  in 
1796,  he  was  elected  one  of  its  first  senators  in 


BLOW 


BLOWING  MACHINES 


881 


tlie  national  congrees.  In  1Y97  he  was  im- 
peached by  the  nouse  qf  representatives  for 
having  intrigued,  when  governor  of  the  terri- 
tory, to  transfer  New  Orleans  and  the  neigh- 
boring diBtricts  to  Great  Britain,  bv  means  of  a 
joint  expedition  of  English  and  ladians.  He 
was  expelled  from  the  senate,  and  the  process 
was,  therefore,  after  a  protracted  discossion, 
dropped  in  the  house.  The  proceedings  against 
him  increased  his  popularity  among  his  con- 
stitnents,  by  whom  he  was  presently  elected  to 
the  state  senate,  of  which  he  was  chosen 
president. 

BLOW,  John,  an  English  composer,  bom  in 
Nottinghamshire  in  1648,  died  in  1708.  On  the 
accession  of  Charles  IL,  he  became  a  chorister 
in  the  chapel  royal,  and  though  only  a  child, 
composed  several  anthems.  He  afterward  be- 
came organist  of  Westminster  abbey,  and  on 
his  monument  there  is  engraved  the  Gloria 
Fatri^  one  of  his  first  canons.' 

BLOWING  MACHINES.  Beside  the  com- 
mon bellows,  which  has  been  already  described, 
a  variety  of  other  machines  have  been  devised 
for  the  puipose  of  propelling  air  in  large  vol- 
ume, or  with  great  pressure  and  volume  to- 
gether. The  most  efficient  of  these  machines 
are  the  blowing  cylinders,  which  are  used  to 
supply  air  to  blast  furnaces,  and  by  their  great 
size  and  strength,  are  made  to  furnish  immense 
bodies  of  air  under  great  pressures.  Fan-blow- 
ers are  used  for  supplying  large  volumes  of  air, 
but  for  purposes  in  which  a  high  pressure  is 
unimportant.  The  water  blowing  machine,  for 
which  we  have  neither  name  nor  use  in  this 
country,  but  which  is  well  known  in  the  mining 
regions  of  central  and  southern  Europe  by  the 
name  of  trompe^  is  too  ingenious,  and  may,  in 
some  situations,  prove  too  valuable  a  contriv- 
ance to  allow  of  its  being  passed  over  without 
notice.  And  there  is  also,  in  the  same  coun- 
tries, a  very  simple  blowing  apparatus,  used  for 
ventilating  mines,  also  too  little  known  in  this 
country,  called  the  ventilateur  du  Marte,  which 
is  well  worthy  of  notice. — ^The  blowing  cylin- 
ders of  best  construction  are  made  of  cast-iron, 
the  inner  surface  turned  perfectly  true,  fitted 
with  air-tight  iron  heads,  each  of  which  is  fur- 
nished with  a  large  valve,  corresponding  to  the 
clapper  of  the  bellows,  opening  inward.  Through 
the  centre  of  the  heads  the  smooth  iron  piston 
rod  moves  in  close  packing,  carrying  a  piston 
which  is  fitted  accurately  to  the  cylinder.  As 
the  piston  moves  in  one  direction,  the  air  enters 
through  the  valve  in  the  head  behind  it,  while 
that  in  front  is  forced  through  an  aperture  on 
one  side,  which  is  furnished  with  a  valve  open- 
ing outward,  and  connects  with  a  pipe  leading 
to  any  desired  point  By  reversing  the  motion 
the  end  exhausted  of  fur  is  refilled,  while 
the  other,  by  the  shutting  of  the  valve 
through  which  the  air  entered,  is  made  to  fdr- 
nish  its  contents  through  the  side  opening  to  the 
same  msun  pipe,  which  connects  with  the  other 
end.  The  principle  of  the  machine  is  thus  the 
same  as  that  of  the  double  acting  force  pump 


for  propelling  water.  By  the  alternate  motion  of 
the  piston,  a  current  of  air  is  maintained  of  con- 
siderable steadiness,  and  of  Quantity  and  pres- 
sure according  to  the  size  of  the  cylinder  and 
its  valves,  the  rapidity  of  the  movement,  and 
the  power  applied.  The  pressure  is  equalized 
by  the  use  of  an  air  receiver  of  great  capacity, 
into  which  the  air  is  forced  through  a  ]BTger 
aperture  than  that  for  its  exit;  its  elasticity  is 
thus  made  to  act  as  a  perfect  spring.  For  pro- 
pelling the  air  into  furnaces  for  making  iron 
from  the  ore,  called  blast  furnaces,  the  blowing 
cylinders  are  made  of  great  size  and  strength. 
They  are  often  set  in  pairs,  upon  horizontal 
frames  of  cast-iron,  the  piston  rods  being  con- 
nected with  cranks  geared  to  the  main  shaft  of 
the  steam-engine.  Two  such  cylinders,  of  5  ft. 
diameter  and  6  ft.  stroke,  afiEbrd,  at  a  common 
rate  of  running  (as  8  .full  strokes  per  minute), 
sufficient  air  for  a  first-dass  furnace.  No  al- 
lowance being  made  for  escape  of  air,  and  room 
occupied  by  the  piston  and  rod,  each  movement 
of  the  piston  should  discharge  the  contents  of 
the  cylinder,  which  are  117.81  cubic  ft  A  fhll 
rovolution  of  the  crank  discharges  it  twice,  and 
this  bemg  repeated  8  times  in  a  minute,  the  ef- 
fect of  the  2  cylinders  is  to  drive  forward  8,870 
cubic  ft.  every  minute.  Instead  of  being  placed 
horizontally,  a  single  blowing  cylinder  is  some- 
times used  of  great  dimensions,  placed  upright, 
and  tlie  piston  rod  attached  to  one  end  of  the 
lever-beam  of  the  steam-engine,  the  steam 
cylinder  connecting  with  the  other  end.  Bome 
are  also  connected  by  the  same  piston  rod  pass- 
ing through  the  steam  cylinder  and  blowing 
cylinder,  without  the  intervention  of  either 
beam  or  gearing.  At  the  large  and  thoroughly 
built  iron  works  of  the  Thomas  iron  company, 
upon  the  Lehigh  river,  in  Pennsylvania,  2  large 
steam-engines  are  employed  to  blow  the  2  fur- 
naces. The  lever  beam  of  each  engine  connects 
with  a  blowing  cylinder  of  7i  ft  diameter  and 
9  ft  stroke.  The  rate  of  running  is  9  foil 
strokes  per  minute.  Thus  about  7,166  cubic  ft 
of  air  should  be  driven  everv  minute  into  each 
furnace.  The  pressuro  of  the  blast  in  this  in- 
stance is  often  8  lbs.  upon  the  square  inch,  but  4 
or  5  lbs.  is  a  more  ordinary  rate.  From  the  cyl- 
inders the  air  is  conveyed  to  a  large  air  receiver 
of  boiler-plate  iron,  108  feet  long  and  6}  feet  di- 
ameter. By  this  very  efficient  arrangement  the 
blast  b  delivered  into  the  furnaces  at  an  almost 
uniform  pressure.  The  air  receivers  aro  some- 
times made  of  still  greater  capacity.  There 
was  at  the  Hudson  iron  company's  furnaces  a 
globe  of  boiler-plate  iron  made  for  this  purpose, 
40  feet  in  diameter,  which  gave  a  very  steady 
pressure  to  the  blast,  until  it  exploded  by  the 
coUection  of  explosive  gases  passing  back  ftom 
the  furnace  to  the  receiver,  and  being  there  in- 
flamed* Blowing  cylinders  have  often  been 
constructed  of  wood  for  the  sake  of  economy. 
The  woodj  thoroughly  seasoned,  is  put  together 
in  thin  pieces,  their  width  making  the  thick- 
ness of  the  tube;  the  pieces  aro  laid  one  upon 
another,  breaking  joints,  and  secured  by  glue 


BLOWING  llACHINES 


and  nails. — Fan-blowere  are  short  cylinders  of 
cast  iron,  through  the  axis  of  which  {Misses  a 
shaft,  made  to  revolve,  by  a  pulley  attached  to  it 
outside  of  the  cylinder.  Upon  the  shaft  within 
the  box  are  phioed  4  or  5  wings,  which  when 
rotating  pass  near  to  the  inner  surface  of  the 
cylinder.  The  apparatus,  drawn  in  section,  is 
like  an  undershot  water-wheel  enclosed  in  a 
box.  Around  the  axle,  openings  are  left  in  the 
sides  of  the  box  for  the  admission  of  the  air. 
This  may  for  purposes  of  ventilation  be  drawn 
from  a  distance  tnrough  air-pipes  disdiargtng 
into  the  box.  The  motion  of  the  wings  carries 
the  air  around,  and  a  new  supply  enters  to  be 
taken  on  by  the  next  wing.  The  discharge  is 
through  a  box  or  pipe  placed  at  a  tangent  to 
the  cylinder  and  opening  into  it.  The  bottom 
of  this  box  forms  the  base  upon  which  the  ap- 
paratus rests ;  and  in  some  machines,  as  this 
lower  plate  curves  around  to  form  the  case  of  the 
blower,  it  is  made  to  take  a  spiral  form  instead 
of  that  of  a  true  cylinder,  the  radius  of  the  cir- 
cle lessening  as  the  arc  is  produced.  This  is 
called  the  eccentric  fian;  the  other,  in  which  the 
revolving  axis  is  in  the  centre  of  the  cylinder,  is 
the  concentric  Hbh.  The  latter  is  supposed  to 
work  to  disadvantage  by  carrying  around  a  por- 
tion of  the  compressed  air  a  second  time,  while 
the  wings  of  the  other,  revolving  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  discharged  box,  am>rd  more  room 
for  the  escape  of  the  air,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
cut  off^  as  they  pass  into  the  upper  portion  of 
the  box,  and  close  to  its  inner  surface,  the  en- 
trance for  any  air  from  without.  By  giving 
the  high  speed  at  which  the  fans  are  made  to 
revolve,  a  large  body  of  air  is  discharged 
through  the  aperture,  but  with  little  pressure. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  run  them  at  the  rate  of 
1,200  revolutions  per  minute,  and  for  the  air 
at  its  discharge  to  have  a  velocity  of  8,280  feet 
in  the  same  time.  According  to  the  statements 
of  Dr.  Ure,  published  in  the  ^^Philosophical 
Transactions,"  the  velocity  of  the  discharge  is 
actually  about  f  of  that  of  the  extremities  of 
the  fan-bUides.  If  the  effective  velocity  of 
these  be  70  feet  per  second,  and  the  area  of  the 
dischaige-pipe  be  8  feet,  the  quantity  of  air  dis- 
charged is  210  feet,  or  12,600  feet  per  minute. 
The  weight  of  this  amount  of  air  is  about  969 
lbs.  For  a  heavy  body  falling  to  acquire  a 
velocity  of  70  feet  per  second,  the  height  of  the 
fall  must  be  76.5  feet.  This,  multiplied  by  the 
number  of  lbs.  moved,  and  divided  by  88,000, 
will  give  the  horse-power,  which  in  this  case 
is  2.24,  required  to  produce  this  result  The 
pressure  of  the  blast  is  rarely  more  than  from  i 
to  i  lb.  upon  the  square  inch ;  hence  the  fan 
can  only  be  used,  where  no  great  resistance  is 
offered  to  the  blast  It  is  admirably  adapted 
for  blowing  a  large  number  of  open  fires,  or  for 
cupola  furnaces.  A  recent  improvement  to 
the  fan  has  been  introduced  in  En^and,  called 
Ohaplin^s  duplex  pressure  £ui.  Two  fans  are 
set  upon  one  axis,  the  driving  pulley  being  be- 
tween them ;  one,  a  little  smaller  than  the  other, 
receives  the  air  through  its  central  aperture. 


The  discharge-pipe  conveys  it,  eompreaaod  in 
bulk,  to  the  corresponding  opening  in  the 
other.  Here  it  is  further  compressed.  By- 
adding  to  the  number  of  fans,  on  the  same 
principle,  the  pressure  of  tiie  bhut  may  be  still 
more  increased. — ^In  Hoe^s  fonndery,  Kew  Toric, 
a  blower  of  novel  construction,  called  Mac- 
kenzie's, is  in  use,  which,  working  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  fan,  is  stated  to  give  a  pressure  of 
more  than  1  lb.,  while  it  revolves  only  75  times 
per  minute.  A  cylinder  80  inches  in  diameter 
is  made  to  revolve  in  a  fixed  cylinder  of  40 
inches  diameter,  and  3  feet  length.  The  2  cyl- 
inders are  eccentric,  the  centres  being  6  inches 
apart;  their  surfaces  consequently  meet  on  one 
side,  and  are  10  inches  apart  on  the  other. 
The  ends  are  close ;  the  air  is  admitted  into  the 
outer  cylinder  on  one  side  near  the  touching 
surface,  and  is  discharged  near  the  some  point 
through  an  opening  on  the  other  side.  Wings 
or  blades  are  attached  to  a  shaft  connected  with 
the  inner  cylinder,  and  carried  round  with  it^ 
but  on  the  oentre  of  the  larger  one ;  the  inner 
cylinder  thus  slides  in  its  revolution  in  and  out 
upon  the  wings,  producing  the  effisot  of  these 
being  thrust  out  and  withdrawn.  The  blast  is 
said  to  be  nearly  steady  and  continuous,  a  alight 
fluctuation  of  pressure  occurring  when  each 
wing  commences  crossing  the  delivay  open- 
ing.— The  trompe  is  a  machine  dependent 
upon  a  current  of  water  falling  from  a  consid- 
erable height  It  consists  of  a  large  pipe,  S 
feet  square  or  thereabout,  leading  from  an  up- 
per reservoir  of  water  to  a  cistern  or  box,  that 
may  be  from  25  to  80  feet  or  more  below  it 
A  few  feet  under  the  cistern,  the  pipe  is  con- 
tracted in  the  shape  of  a  funnel  in  order  to 
divide  the  water  into  many  streamlets  in  its 
fall.  Below  this  narrow  place  are  a  number  of 
holes  through  the  pipe  for  the  admission  of  air. 
This  is  taken  down  by  the  water  as  it  descends, 
and  passes  into  the  middle  of  the  dstem  at  the 
bottom,  where  a  block  is  placed,  upon  which 
the  water  dashes,  cauaing  the  air  to  separate 
from  it  The  water  passes  through  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  the  cistern  into  a  side-box,  in 
which  is  placed  a  valve  for  checking  the  exit  of 
the  water,  that  the  air  which  collects  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  cistern  may  be  kept  at  any 
desured  pressure.  From  the  top  of  the  cistern 
a  small  air-pipe  conveys  the  blast  to  any  re- 
quired point.  This  apparatus  is  used  for  for- 
nishing  air  to  cupelling  and  melting  fiimaoes. — 
The  ventilateur  du  Eariz  is  an  apparatus  of 
great  simplicity,  designed  to  be  connected  with 
any  part  of  the  machinery  about  mines,  that 
will  give  a  alow  alternating  motion,  and  which 
is  usually  kept  in  action,  the  object  being  to 
furnish  a  continual  supply  of  air  to  mines.  Two 
cylindricaJ-shaped  voxels,  such  as  long  casks, 
are  selected,  of  such  sizes,  that  one,  when  in- 
verted, may  easily  move  up  and  down  within 
the  other.  The  outer  one  is  neariy  filled  with 
water,  and  is  fumished  with  an  air-pipe,  which 
leads  from  its  upper  part  through  the  water, 
and  through  its  bottom,  down  into  the  mine. 


BLOWPIPE 


388 


Upon  the  upper  end  of  this  pipe  is  a  valTO 
opening  downward.  The  inner  inverted  cask 
Borronnds  this  pipe.  It  has  npon  its  upper  end 
a  larger^alve  opening  within.  Being  now  sus- 
pended by  a  chain  to  the  end  of  a  lever-beam, 
or  to  the  arm  of  a  bob,  air  passes  within,  as  it 
is  lifted  up,  and  is  propelled,  as  it  descends, 
through  the  pipe.  By  this  alternating  motion 
a  continual  carrent  of  air  is  supplied  with  little 
cost  of  power  or  attention.  A  more  perfect 
arrangement  of  this  machine  is  in  making  it 
double,  by  attaching  one  to  each  end  of  the 
lever-beam.  For  blowing  furnaces  these  ma- 
chines have  the  common  objection  of  all  water- 
blasts,  of  causing  the  air  to  take  up  more  or 
less  moisture,  which  is  discharged  into  the  fur- 
nace, and  must,  to  some  extent,  diminish  the 
effect  of  the  blast. 

BLOWPIPE.  In  its  amplest  form  this  is  a 
small  metallic  tube  of  tapering  shape,  its  small- 
er end  curved  around  to  form  a  right  angle,  and 
the  larger  end  of  convenient  size  for  applying 
to  the  mouth.  It  is  8  or  10  inches  in  length, 
with  a  bore  varying  from  ^^^  to  ^  of  an 
inch,  but  drawn  out  at  the  small  extremity  to 
a  very  minute  aperture.  Through  this  air  is 
blown  npon  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  causing  a 
portion  of  the  flune  to  be  diverted  in  a  jet  of 
intense  heat.  It  is  an  instrument  of  great 
use  with  jewellers  for  soldering  small  pieces 
of  work,  and  with  glassblowers  and  enamel- 
lera,  for  softening  and  working  small  articles. 
By  these  it  is  often  used  upon  a  larger 
scale  with  %  bellows  for  supplying  it  with 
air,  instead  of  furnishing  this  by  the  mouth. 
But  the  most  important  use  of  the  blowpipe 
is  to  the  mineralogist  and  analytical  chemist, 
in  whose  hands  it  is  made  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  a  small  furnace,  with  the  advantage 
that  the  operations  takins  place  are  directly 
under  the  eye.  When  used,  the  point  is  placed 
in  the  flame  of  a  lamp,  and  the  current  of 
air  is  directed  across  tnis,  by  a  steady  blast 
from  tlie  mouth.  A  lateral  oone  of  flame 
is  thus  produced,  which  is  yellow  without 
and  blue  within.  At  the  point  of  the  inner 
blue  cone  la  the  greatest  intensity  of  heaL 
A  small  particle  of  metallic  ore  placed  upon 
charcoal,  and  kept  at  this  point  may  be  reduc- 
ed to  a  metallic  state ;  the  charcoal  itself  aiding 
the  process  by  its  chemical  action  in  abstract- 
ing the  oxygen  of  the  ore.  If  of  difficult  reduc- 
tion, the  experiment  may  be  aided  by  the  intro- 
duction of  proper  fluxes,  as  in  crucible  opera- 
tions. The  outer  yellow  flame  in  contact  with 
the  air  possesses  oxidating  properties;  and  in 
this  the  preparatory  operation  of  calcining  and 
desulphurizing  is  effected  upon  the  particle  of 
ore,  before  it  is  submitted  to  the  reducing 
flame.  Control  is  thus  had  over  any  desired 
amount  of  heat,  and  with  a  facility  of  employ- 
ing it  for  different  purposes  in  a  small  way, 
whidi  renders  the  blowpipe  far  preferable  for 
experimental  purposes  to  the  cumbersome  fur- 
naces and  other  expensive  apparatus  which 
were  required  before  its  application  for  deter- 


mining the  properties  of  mineral  substances. 
The  process  of  cnpeliation  is  very  readily 
eflfected  upon  small  pieces  of  metallio  loEid 
containing  silver  or  gold.  The  button  of  metal 
is  placed  in  a  small  cupel  of  bone  ash,  and  this 
is  laid  upon  a  piece  of  charcoal  for  a  support 
It  is  thoroughly  heated  and  the  button  melted 
in  the  reducing  flame,  and  then  exposed  to  the 
action  of  the  oxidizing  flame.  In  this  the  lead 
is  kept  in  fusion,  and  a  pellicle  of  oxide  of  lead 
is  continually  formed  upon  the  surface,  and  as 
constantly  absorbed  in  the  cupel,  till  the  lead  is 
all  thus  removed,  and  the  little  globule  of  the 
more  precious  metal,  so  small  perhaps  as  to  be 
scarcely  visible,  is  kept  as  a  bright  point  in  the 
centre  of  the  cupel.  By  working  upon  a  weigh- 
ed quantity  in  repeated  operations,  and  adding 
the  products  to  each  other,  the  analysis  may 
be  made  quantitative,  by  the  use  of  the  inge- 
niously contrived  apparatus  applied  by  Plattner 
to  the  estimation  of  the  weight  of  minute  bofUes. 
Another  important  use  of  the  instrument  is 
melting  small  particles  of  undetermined  sub- 
stances with  different  fluxes,  as  borax,  carbon- 
ate of  soda,  &c.,  upon  a  fine  piece  of  platinum 
wire,  hooked  at  the  end  to  sustain  the  little 
bead.  By  the  reaction  of  the  ingredients  of 
the  substance  with  the  flux,  as  seen  in  the  mode 
of  melting,  color  of  the  bead  in  one  flame,  and 
its  change  to  another  color  in  the  other  flame, 
these  ingredients  are  detected  and  the  com- 
pound determined.  The  qualitative  analysis 
IS  rendered  more  complete  by  subjecting  the 
substance  to  the  action  of  the  blowpipe  in 
glass  tubes,  for  the  purpose  of  detecting  the 
volatile  ingredients,  as  water  by  the  steam,  am- 
monia by  its  vapor  and  odor,  sulphur  by  its 
odor  and  yellow  sublimate,  arsenic  by  the  me- 
tallic ring  it  forms  around  the  inside  of  the  tube, 
where  its  vapor  condenses.  This  may  be  satis- 
factorily effected,  as  already  stated  under  the 
article  Absbnio,  where  the  particle  under  ex- 
amination is  too  small  to  be  visible  without  the 
aid  of  the  microscope.  The  substance  may 
also  be  dissolved  in  acids  in  glass  tubes,  and  the 
precipitates  obtained,  freed  from  some  of  thehr  as- 
sociated matters,  be  subjected  to  the  test  by  the 
blowpipe.  Thus  the  blowpipe,  with  a  few  simple 
instruments  and  some  tests,  all  of  which  may  be 
easily  transported,  serves  the  purpose  of  a 
portable  laboratory.  In  skilful  hands  all  min- 
eral substances  may  be  determined,  and  a  com- 
plete qualitative  analysis  made  by  it:  and  by 
the  improvements  introduced  by  Prof.  Plattner, 
many  quantitative  analyses  may  be  effected  for 
practical  purposes. — The  blowpipe  was  first  ap- 
plied to  the  examination  of  minerals  by  Swab, 
counsellor  of  the  college  of  mines  in  Sweden  in 
1738.  Gronstedt,  of  the  same  country,  next 
took  up  the  subject,  and  made  great  use  of  the 
blowpipe  for  distinguishing  minerals  by  their 
chemical  properties.  This  was  for  his  work  on 
mineralogy,  in  which  he  introduced  the  classi- 
fication of  minerals  according  to  their  chemical 
composition.  This  book  was  first  published  in 
1758,  and  was  translated  into  English  by  Von 


884 


BLOWPIPE 


EngestrOm  in  1766,  who  added  to  it  a  treatise 
upoQ  tho  blowpipe,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  ased  bj  Cronstedt  The  attention  of  sci- 
entific men  was  thos  directed  to  its  great  use 
as  an  analytical  instrument,  bat  the  difficulty 
of  learning  to  apply  it,  without  practical  in- 
struction, prevented  its  being  so  generally 
received  as  it  deserved  to  be,  and  unless  the 
Swedish  chemists  had  continueld  to  employ  and 
improve  it,  it  might,  after  all,  have  faUen  into 
disuse.  Bergman  found  it  very  serviceable  in 
his  chemical  researches,  and  Galui)  who  as- 
sisted him,  carried  its  use  to  a  higher  state  of 
perfection,  than  had  before  been  attained.  Ber< 
zelius  enjoyed  the  most  friendly  intercourse 
with  this  remarkable  man,  and  preserved  in  his 
**  Elements  of  Ohemistry^'  the  most  important 
results  of  the  experiments,  which  Gahn  never 
took  upon  himself  to  publish.  Speaking  of 
Gahn  in  a  later  work  (^'Treatise  upon  the 
use  of  the  Blowpipe"))  he  remarks  that  when 
travelling,  he  always  carried  this  instrument, 
and  all  new  substances  which  he  met  with  he 
subjected  to  its  test;  and  it  was  an  interesting 
thing  to  see  the  readiness  and  certainty  with 
which  he  ascertained  the  nature  of  substances 
not  recognizable  by  their  external  properties. 
Long  before  the  subject  of  vegetable  sub- 
stances oontainine  copper  was  brought  to  pub- 
lic notice,  Berzelius  says  he  has  often  seen 
Gahn  extract  from  the  ashes  of  a  quarter  of  a 
sheet  of  paper  particles  of  met^c  copper 
visible  to  the  eye.  The  most  perfect  form  of 
the  instrument  now  in  use  is  that  adopted  by 
Gahn.  The  long,  straight  tube  which  serves 
as  the  handle,  passes  into  one  end  of  a  cylinder 
f  of  an  inch  loog,  and  i  an  inch  in  diameter, 
from  the  side  of  which  the  jet-tube  projects 
about  H  inch  to  its  capillary  extremity.  The 
object  of  the  cylinder  is  to  intercept  the  moist- 
ure of  the  breath,  which,  without  such  an  ar- 
rangement, passes  through  the  tube,  and  is  pro- 
jected in  drops  into  the  flame.  Berzelius 
added  a  littie  iet  of  platinum,  which  slips  over 
the  end  of  the  brass  jet,  and  which  may  be 
taken  off  and  cleaned,  whenever  it  becomes  ob- 
structed, by  burning  ont  the  impurities  with 
the  blowpipe  itself.  Several  <tf  them,  with 
holes  of  different  diameters,  accompany  the  in- 
strument, and  are  changed  as  we  flame  is 
desired  more  pointed  and  intense,  or  of  less 
intensity,  and  to  cover  a  larger  surface.  Con- 
siderable practice  is  requured  to  blow  continu- 
ously without  exhausting  the  lungs.  This  is 
done  by  breathing  only  through  tiie  nostrils, 
and  using  the  cheeks  for  propelling  the  air. 
By  this  means  a  steady  current  may  be  kept  up 
for  a  long  time  without  fatigue.  The  process 
is  with  some  persons  very  difficult  of  attain- 
ment^ but  is  at  last  caught,  one  knows  not  how, 
and  is  never  afterward  lost.  The  treatise  on 
the  blowpipe,  by  Berzelius,  has  long  occupied 
the  first  rank  among  the  works  upon  this  sub- 
ject. It  has  been  translated  in  this  country 
by  Mr.  J.  D.  Whitney.  Prof.  Plattner,  of  the 
royal  smelting  works  at  Freyberg,  has  incorpo- 


« 


rated  the  results  of  his  operations  with  the 
blowpipe  in  a  work  of  great  interest,  which 
has  been  translated  into  English  by  Dr.  Mus- 
pratt.   This  forms  a  very  valuable  manual,  con- 
taining the  descriptions  of  the  various  pro- 
cesses for  estimating  the  quantities  in  which 
many  of  the  metals  are  found  in  their  natural 
and  artificial  compounds,  as  also  for  detecting 
the  qualities  of  metallic  combinations  in  gen- 
eral.   The  methods  adopted  by  Prof.  Plattner 
for  separating  the  minute  particles,  and  ascer- 
taining their  weights,  are  of  great  ingenuity 
and  simplicity,  and  valuable  for  the  promptitude 
with  which  they  may  be  used;  but  to  be  suo- 
oessfully  practised,  they  require  long  and  patient 
use  of  the  instruments,  and  an  e^ecial  talent 
for  the  work.    The  little  globules  of  gold  and 
silver  extracted  from  their  combinations  by 
the  blowpipe,  are  too  small  to  be  weighed,  but 
their  quantity  is  determined  by  a  method  intro- 
duced by  H^kort  of  measuring  their  diameter. 
This  is  done  by  running  the  globules  along  be- 
tween two  lines  upon  an  ivory  scale,  whi(^ 
diverge  at  a  very  small  angle,  and  are  crossed 
by  many  other  lines  at  equal  distances  from 
each  other,  which  serve  as  the  divisions  of  die 
scale.    Wherever  the  globule  is  found  to  be 
contained  between  the  3  diverging  lines,  its 
diameter  is  at  once  obtained,  and  the  weight 
corresponding  to  this,  whether  of  gold  or  of 
silver — these  having  been  previously  determined 
with  care  for  the  scale.    To  insure  exactness  in 
the  measurement,  a  good  magnifying  glass  is  re- 
quired, and  core  to  view  the  scale  in  a  position 
perpendicular  to  the  line  of  sight.  Although  the 
globules  are  not  often  perfectiy  spherical,  it  has 
been  found,  in  practice,  that  within  certain  lim- 
its, this  method  may  be  relied  on  for  the  approxi- 
mate analysis  of  many  metallic  compounds. — 
The  compound  or  oxyhydrogen  blowpipe  is  an 
apparatus  invented   by  Dr.  Robert  Hare  of 
Philadelphia,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present 
century.     By  this  a  mixture  of  oxygen  and 
hydrogen  is  made  to  produce  the  jet,  which  be- 
ing inflamed  just  beyond  their  point  of  mixing, 
an  amount  of  intense  heat  is  evolved  far  exceed- 
ing what  had  ever  been  before  obtained.    Sub- 
stances hitherto   regarded  as   infusible  were 
melted  down  with  great  fiacility.    Pure  lime, 
magnesia,  and  platinum  were  thus  fused,  and 
the  first  named  was  observed  to  give  an  inten- 
sity of  light  greater  than  had  ever  before  been 
seen.    This  caused  its  use  to  be  recommended 
by  Lieutenant  Drummond  of  the  British  navy 
for  light-houses,  and  his  name  has  since  been 
applied  to  the  light,  which  was  first  obtained 
and  noticed  by  Dr.  Hare.    The  first  arrange- 
ment adopted  by  Dr.  Hare  was  to  collect  each 
gas  in  a  separate  reservoir,  and  cause  them  to 
be  discharged  by  separate  jets  at  the  point  of 
combustion.    But  fmding  a  more  intense  heat 
is  generated  by  first  mixing  them  nnder  some 
pressure,  he  brought  them  into  a  single  tube, 
and  caused  this  to  terminate  in  15  jet  pipes  of 
platinum.    These  were  a^usted  so  as  to  pass 
through  a  vessel,  in  which  ice  or  snow  could 


BLOWPIPE 


885 


be  pkoed  to  keep  the  gases  from  becoming 
heated,  and  thus  obviate  the  danger  of  explo- 
non  by  a  retrocession  of  the  flame  into  the  sin- 
de  pipe.  With  an  apparatus  of  this  kind  Dr. 
Hare  succeeded  in  fusing  krge  quantities  of 
platinum,  .and  at  the  meeting  of  the  American 
philosophical  society  in  January,  1889,  he  ex- 
hibited a  specimen  of  the  metal,  weighing  be- 
tween 22  iad  28  ounces  troy  weight,  which  was 
part  of  a  mass  of  25  ounces  fused  in  May,  1888. 
about  2  ounces  of  the  metal  having  flowed 
over  in  consequence  of  the  cavity  not  being 
sufficiently  capacious  to  contain  it  alL  He  also 
obtained  platinum  directly  from  the  crude  pro- 
duct of  the  mines.  Dr.  Hare  observed  that  the 
most  intense  heat  was  generated  when  the  pro- 
portion of  the  gases  was  the  same  as  in  water, 
viz.,  2  volumes  of  hydrogen  and  1  of  oxygen, 
and  that  by  the  use  of  a  condensing  syringe  for 
forcing  the  mixture  with  considerable  pressure, 
the  effect  was  still  further  increased.  With 
this  modification.  Prof.  Clarke,  of  the  university 
of  Cambridge,  England,  repeated  the  experi- 
ments made  years  previously  by  Dr.  Hare.  He 
also  enclosed  in  the  pipe  leading  from  a  vessel 
containing  the  two  gases  a  great  number  of 
layers  of  fine  wire  gauze.  Though  his  experi- 
ments were  successful,  and  were  a  subject  of 
great  scientific  interest,  the  apparatus  proved 
too  dangerous  for  use,  the  wire  gauze  not  pre- 
venting the  explonon  of  the  gases.  On  these 
experiments  the  whole  merit  of  the  discovery 
has  been  claimed  in  England  for  Dr.  Clarke ; 
and  in  tiie  article  Blowpipe  m  the  last  edition 
of  the  '*  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,"  no  mention 
whatever  is  made  of  Dr.  Hare's,  but  a  fnH  de- 
scription is  given  of  Dr.  Churke's  experiments, 
when  even  the  apparatus  he  used  was  the  con- 
trivance of  Mr.  Newman,  according  to  Dr. 
Turner,  who  Justiy  gives  the  whole  credit  of 
the  discovery  to  Dr.  Hare.  Neither  does  the 
article  in  the  ^^Britannica"  make  any  mention 
of  the  improvements  afterward  made  in  the 
apparatus  by  Mr,  Goldsworthy  Gumey,  by 
which  the  gases  were  nuxed  in  a  reservoir,  and 
passed  throng^  a  vessel  nearly  filled  with  water, 
and  from  this  throueh  a  safety  chamber  of 
cylindrical  form,  whidi  was  filled  with  numer- 
ous disks  of  fine  wire  gauze  closely  packed. 
Further  improvements  have  still  been  intro- 
duced by  filling  the  safety  chamber  with  alter- 
nate layers  of  wire  gauze  and  of  the  finest 
fibres  of  asbestus.  Brass  wires  are  also  used, 
packed  closely  together  in  a  bundle  and  pressed 
into  the  cylindrical  portion  of  the  chamber.  The 
quali^  of  the  oxygen  is  found  to  have  a  sensi- 
ble effect  upon  the  intensity  of  the  heat,  that 
obtained  from  chlorate  of  potash  being  much 
preferable  to  that  from  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese. No  substances  are  found  capable  of 
ressting  the  hieh  temperatures  obt^ned  by 
this  blowpipe.  The  most  difficult  to  melt  is 
the  carbonate  of  magnesia;  but  even  this  is 
e(mverted  into  granules  of  enamel,  which  are 
so  hard  as  to  scratch  glass.  Platinum  melts  in- 
stantiy,  and  gold  in  contact  with  borax  is  en- 
VOL.  ra. — 25 


tirdy  volatilized.  Pure  lime  and  its  compounds 
give  an  amethystine  tinge  to  the  flame  as  they 
melt.  Quartz  crystal  melts  with  a  beautiful 
light ;  pieces  of  china  ware  are  fused  and  form 
crystals,  and  flints  produce  a  transparent  glass. — 
An  apparatus  of  ^eat  efficiency  and  simplicity 
of  construction  has  recentiy  been  constructed  in 
New  York  city  by  the  Drs.  Roberts,  dentists,  for 
remelting  platinum  scraps,  and  converting  them 
into  merchantable  plate.  They  employ  2  cop 
per  gasometers  of  cylindrical  form,  1  for  each 
gas,  that  for  hydrogen  of  the  capacity  of  220 
gallons,  and  that  for  oxygen  of  80  gallons.  The 
pressure  of  the  Croton  water,  which  is  about  60 
lbs.  to  the  square  inch,  forces  the  gases  through 
metallic  pipes  to  the  apparatus  connected 
with  the  burner.  Each  pipe  connects  with  a 
short  brass  tube,  which  is  closely  packed  with 
wire,  and  these  unite  in  another  brass  tube, 
which  is  also  closely  packed  in  the  same  way. 
From  this,  by  a  pipe  of  only  about  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  diameter,  the  mixed  gases  are  then 
conveyed  to  the  burner.  This  is  a  small  plati- 
num box  inserted  in  a  lump  of  plaster  of  Paris 
and  asbestus,  the  apertures  in  the  disk  making 
its  extremity  being  21  littie  holes  in  8  rows, 
such  as  might  be  made  by  the  point  of  a  pin. 
The  platinum  disk  in  which  these  holes  are 

rrforated  is  only  about  i  by  i  inch  in  size.  It 
found  that  copper  answers  the  purpose  quite 
as  well  as  platinum.  The  lump  of  plaster  is 
constructed  like  the  water-twere  of  a  forge  or 
famace,  and  is  kept  cool  by  a  current  of  cold 
water  constantiy  flowing  through  it.  The 
supplv  of  the  gases  is  regulated  by  stop-cocks, 
one  for  each  gas,  placed  near  tiie  point  of 
their  coming  together.  The  jet  points  down- 
ward. The  platinum  scraps  are  first  com- 
pressed in  an  iron  mould  into  cylindrical 
cakes  of  tiie  weight  of  8  or  4  ounces  each. 
Two  or  three  of  these  are  set  upon  a  thin  fiat 
fire-brick,  and  heated  in  a  frimace  to  a  white 
heat.  Being  then  transferred  with  the  fire- 
brick to  a  large  tin  pan  like  a  milk  pan,  which 
is  well  coated  within  with  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
brought  under  the  jet,  this  is  instantiy  ignited, 
and  tiie  platinum  at  once  begins  to  melt.  Its 
surfiEu^e  assumes  a  brilliant  appearance  of  the 
purest  white,  like  that  of  silver,  and  soon  the 
whole  is  melted  into  one  mass ;  but  so  great  is 
its  infusibility,  that  it  chills  before  it  can  fiow 
off  the  fiat  surface  of  the  fire-brick.  It  cannot, 
therefore,  be  cast  in  a  mould.  For  the  uses  to 
which  platinum  is  applied,  this,  however,  is  of 
no  consequence,  as  the  cake  of  metal  is  easily 
hammered  into  any  desired  shape,  or  may  be 
rolled  at  once  into  plates,  or  cut  and  drawn 
into  wire.  With  the  apparatus  of  the  Drs. 
Boberts  68  ounces  of  platinum  were  melted 
into  one  cake  at  one  operation,  lasting  only  18 
minutes,  in  April,  1858.  This  was  hammered 
down  without  waste,  and  drawn  out  into  a 
plate  over  40  inches  long,  and  about  8  Inches  in 
width. — ^A  compound  blowpipe  is  convenientiy 
obtained  by  blowing  with  a  bellows,  under 
some  pressure,  a  current  of  atmospheric  air 


886 


BLUBBER 


BLt^OHER 


ihrongh  a  burner  of  gaitable  form  attoohed  to 
the  coroznoa  gaa-pipea,  so  that  the  gas  is  fur- 
nished with  the  oxygen  required  for  its  com- 
bustion in  a  state  of  intimate  mixture.  By  this 
method  the  efifeot  of  a  furnace  is  obtained  by 
chemists  for  melting  the  contents  of  small  era* 
eibles  in  analytical  operations.  If  either  or 
both  gases  be  passed  through  heated  pipes,  a 
still  higher  degree  of  heat  may  be  obtained. 
By  substituting  oxygen  for  the  atmospheric  air, 
globules  of  platinum  may  be  instantiy  melted 
upon  charcoaL  This  mixture  may  be  conven- 
ientiy  and  economically  used  instead  of  hydro- 

Sm  and  oxygen  for  the  production  of  the 
rammond  light. 

BLUBBER,  the  layer  of  fat  which  lies  jnst 
beneath  the  skin  of  the  whale  and  of  other 
large  sea  animals.  In  the  Greenland  whale  its 
thickness  is  8  to  10  inches.  About  the  under 
lip  it  is  sometimes  2  or  8  fleet  thick.  The  blub- 
ber, when  tried  out,  yields  the  oil  that  is  ob- 
tained from  these  animals.  A  single  whale 
frequentiy  furnishes  80  tons  of  blubber,  from 
which  are  extracted  over  20  of  oil.  The  use*  to 
the  whale  of  this  accumulation  of  fat  is  to  pre- 
serve in  the  cold  climate  he  frequents  sufficient 
vital  heat,  also  to  protect  him  against  the  great 
pressure  of  the  deep  waters,  and  to  render  his 
body  q>ecifically  lighter  than  the  surrounding 
water.  American  whale  ships  carry  large 
boilers  for  converting  on  board  the  blubber 
into  oil.  The  English  cut  it  up  and  pack  it  into 
casks,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  become  rancid, 
and  on  the  return  home  the  blubber  is  tried 
out.  Among  the  Esquimaux  blubber  is  a  highly 
esteemed  article  of  diet,  and  in  exceedingly 
cold  climates  is  better  adapted  for  supporting 
life  than  any  other  class  of  food.  Even  with 
whalemen  and  arctic  navigators  it  is  some- 
times found  palatable  in  the  extreme  northern 
latitudes. 

BLtTOHER,  Gebhabd  Libbbbcht  voir, 
prince  of  Wahlstadt,  Prussian  field-marshal, 
bom  Dec.  16,  1742,  at  Rostock,  in  Meok- 
lenburg-Sohwerin,  died  at  Krieblowitz,  in  Sile- 
sia, Sept  12, 1819.  He  was  sent  in  1764,  while 
a  boy,  to  the  island  of  Rngen,  and  there  secretiy 
enlisted  in  a  regiment  of  Swedish  hussars  as  en- 
sign, to  serve  against  Frederic  II.  ofPrussia.  Hade 
prisoner  in  the  campaign  of  1758,  he  was,  after 
a  year's  captivity,  and  after  he  had  obtidned  his 
dismissal  from  the  Swedish  service,  prevailed 
upon  to  enter  the  Prussian  army.  March  8, 
1771,  he  was  appointed  senior  captain  of 
cavalry.  In  1778,  Oapt.  von  Jagersfeld,  a 
naturtd  son  of  the  margrave  of  Schwedt, 
being  appointed  in  his  stead  to  the  vacant  post 
of  mtjor.  he  wrote  to  Frederic  IL:  "Sire, 
Jagersfeld,  who  possesses  no  merit  but  that  of 
being  the  son  of  the  margrave  of  Schwedt,  has 
been  preferred  to  me.  I  beg  your  msjestj  to 
grant  my  dismissal."  In  reply  Frederic  II.  ordered 
him  to  be  shut  up  in  prison,  bat  when,  notwith- 
standing a  somewhat  protracted  confinement^ 
he  refhsed  to  retract  his  letter,  the  king  com- 
plied with  his  petition  in  a  note  to  this  effect : 


^'  Oapt  Ton  Blflcher  may  go  to  the  devil."  He 
now  retired  to  Polish  Silesia,  married  soon  after, 
became  a  farmer,  acquired  a  smaU  estate  in  Pom- 
erania,  and,  after  the  death  of  Frederic  U.,  re- 
entered his  former  regiment  as  miyor,  on  tiie 
express  condition  of  his  i^pointment  being  dated 
back  to  1779.  Some  monuis  later  his  wife  died. 
Having  participated  in  the  bloodless  invasion  of 
Holland,  he  was  f^ipointed  lieutenant-odonel, 
June  8, 1788.  Aug.  20, 1790,  he  became  colonel 
and  commander  of  the  1st  battalion  of  the  regi- 
ment of  hussars  he  had  entered  in  1760.  In  1794 
he  distingnislied  himself  during  the  campaign  in 
the  paUdnate  against  republican  France  as  a 
leader  of  the  light  cavalry.  Being  promoted. 
May  28,  1794^  after  the  victorious  affiur  of 
Kirrweiler,  to  the  rank  of  mt^for-general,  the 
actions  of  Luxemburg,  KaiserBlautern,  Morsoh- 
heim,  Weidenthal,  Edesheim,.  Edenkoben,  se- 
cured him  a  rising  reputation.  While  inoee- 
santiy  alarming  the  French  by  bold  6oup$  ds 
main  and  snccessfhl  enterprises,  he  never  ne;g- 
lected  keeping  the  head-quarters  supplied  with 
the  best  information  as  to  the  hostile  move- 
ments. Hb  diary,  written  during  this  cam- 
paign, and  published  in  1796,  by  Oount  Goltss, 
his  adjutant,  is  considered,  despite  its  illiterate 
style,  as  a  classical  work  on  vanguard  service. 
After  the  peace  of  Basel  he  married  again. 
Frederic  William  UL,  on  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  appointed  him  lieutenant-general,  in 
which  quality  he  occupied,  and  administered  as 
governor,  Erfurt,  Mohlhausen,  and  Mtinster. 
In  1806  a  small  corps  was  ^collected  nnder 
him  at  Bayreuth  to  watch  the  iuunediate 
consequences  for  Prussia  of  the  battie  of  Aus- 
terlitz,  viz.,  the  occupation  of  the  principality  of 
Anspach  by  Bemadotte^s  corps.  In  1806  he  led 
the  Prussian  vanguard  at  the  batUe  of  Auer- 
sti&dt  His  charge  was,  however,  broken  by 
the  terrible  fire  of  Davonst's  artillery,  and  his 
proposal  to  renew  it  with  fresh  forces  and  the 
whole  of  the  cavalry,  was  rejected  by  the  king 
of  Prussia.  After  the  double  defeat  at  Aueiv 
stadt  and  Jena,  he  retired  down  the  Elbe,  while 
Napoleon  drove  the  main  body  of  the  Pmssian 
armv  in  one  wild  chase  from  Jena  to  Stettin. 
On  his  retrograde  movement,  Blflcher  took  up 
the  remnants  of  different  corps,  which  swelled 
his  army  to  about  25,000  men.  His  retreat  to 
Lflbeck,  before  the  united  forces  of  Soult,  Ber- 
nadotte,  and  Mflrat,  forms  one  of  the  few  honor- 
able episodes  in  that  epoch  of  German  degrada- 
tion. Since  Lflbeck  was  a  neutral  territory,  his 
making  the  streets  of  tiiat  open  town  the 
theatre  of  a  desperate  fight,  which  exposed  it 
to  a  8  days^  sack  on  the  part  of  the  French 
soldiery,  afforded  the  subject  of  passionate 
censure ;  but  under  existing  circumstances  the 
important  thing  was  to  give  the  German  people 
one  example,  at  least,  of  stanch  resistance. 
Thrown  out  of  Lflbeck,  he  had  to  capitulate  in 
tiie  phun  of  Radkow,  Nov.  6,  1806,  on  the  ex- 
press condition  that  the  cause  of  his  surrender 
should  be  stated  in  writing  to  be  "  want  of  am> 
munition  and  provisions."    Liberated  on  his 


blVoheb 


88T 


word  of  honor,  he  repaired  to  Hamhnrg,  there, 
in  company  with  hia  bodis  to  kill  time  by  oard- 
playing,  smoking,  and  drinking.  Being  ex- 
ehimged  for  Gen.  Victor,  he  was  appointed 
govemor-^eral  bf  Pomerania;  hot  one  of  the 
secret  articles  of  the  alliaDce  condnded,  Feb. 
21, 1812,  by  Praasia  with  Napoleon,  stipulated 
for  Bldcher^  discharge  from  service,  like  that 
of  Scharnhorst,  and  other  distingnisned  Pms- 
sian  patriotsi  To  soothe  this  ofacial  disgrace, 
the  king  secretly  bestowed  upon  him  the  hand« 
some  estate  of  Kunzendor^  in  Silesia.  Daring 
the  years  that  marked  the  period  of  tran^tion 
between  the  peace  of  Tilsit  and  the  German 
war  of  independence,  Scharnhorst  and  Gneise- 
nan,  the  chiefs  of  the  Tngendbund,  desiring  to 
extemporize  a  popular  hero,  chose  Bldcher.  In 
propagating  his  fame  among  the  masses,  they 
eaooeeded  so  well,  that  when  fVederio  William 
III.  called  the  Prussians  to  arms  by  the  proda* 
mation  of  March  17,  1818,  they  were  strong 
enough  to  impose  him  upon  the  king  as  the 
general-in-chief  of  the  Prussian  army.  In  the 
well-contested,  bat  for  the  allies  unfortunate, 
battles  of  Lfttsen  and  Baatzen,  he  acted  under 
the  command  of  Wittgenstein.  Pnring  the  re- 
treat of  the  allied  armies  from  Bautzen  to 
Sdiweidnitz,  he  lay  in  ambu^  at  Haynau.  from 
which  he  fell,  with  his  cavalry,  on  the  French 
advanced  guard  under  Maison,  who,  in  this 
affidr,  lost  1,600  men  and  11  guns.  Through 
this  surprise  Blacher  raised  the  spirit  of  the 
Prussian  army,  and  made  Napoleon  very  cau- 
tions in  pursuit.  BlAcher^s  command  of  an  in- 
dependent army  dates  from  tbe  expiration  of  the 
ta|oe  of  Traohenberg,  Aug.  10,  1818.  The 
alued  sovereigns  had  then  divided  their  forces 
into  8  armies:  the  army  of  the  north  under 
Bernadotte,  stationed  along  the  lower  Elbe ;  the 
grand  army  advancing  through  Bohemia,  and 
the  Sileaian  army,  with  Blacher  as  its  com- 
mander-in-chief, supported  by  Gneisenau  as  the 
diief  of  his  staf^  and  Mdffling  as  his  quarter- 
master-general. These  2  men,  attached  to  him 
in  the  same  quality  until  the  poace  of  1815,  sup- 
plied all  his  strategetical  plans.  BltLcher  himseli^ 
as  MOfBing  says,  ^'understood  nothing  of  tbe 
strategetical  conduct  of  a  war ;  so  little  indeed, 
that  when  a  plan  was  laid  before  him  for  ap- 
proval, even  relating  to  some  unimportant 
operation,  he  eould  not  form  any  dear  idea  of 
it,  or  jttd^  whether  it  was  good  or  bad."  Like 
many  of  Ifapoleon^s  marshals,  he  was  unable  to 
read  the  maps.  The  Silesian  army  was  com- 
posed of  8  eorpt  cTamUe :  40,000  Russians^  under 
Oount  Lan^peron ;  16,000  men  nnder  Baron  von 
Sacken ;  and  aPrussian  corps  of  40,000  men  under 
Gen.  York.  Bltlcher's  position  was  extremely 
difficult  at  the  head  of  this  heterogeneous  army. 
Langeron,  who  had  already  held  independent 
commands,  and  demurred  to  serving  under  a 
foreign  general,  was,  moreover,  aware  that  Bla- 
cher had  received  secret  orders  to  limit  himself  to 
the  defensive,  but  was  altogether  ignorant  that 
tbe  latter,  in  an  interview,  on  Aug.  11,  with  Bar- 
clay de  Tolly,  at  Beichenbach,  had  extorted  the 


S^rmfsedon  to  act  according  to  circumstances, 
ence  Langeron  thought  himself  justified  in 
disobeying  orders,  whenever  the  general-in- 
chief  seemed  to  him  to  swerve  from  the  pre- 
concerted plan,  and  in  this  mutinous  conduct 
he  was  strongly  supported  by  Gen.  York.  The 
danger  arising  from  thia  state  of  things  became 
more  and  more  threatening,  when  the  battle  on 
the  Eatzbach  secured  Bltidier  that  hold  on  his 
army  which  guided  it  to  the  gates  of  Paris. 
Marshal  Macdonald,  charged  by  Napoleon  to 
drive  the  Silesian  army  back  into  the  interior 
of  Silesia,  began  the  battle  by  attacking, 
Aug.  26,  Blacher^s  outposts,  stationed  from 
Prausnitz  to  Enutsoh,  where  the  Neisse  flows  in- 
to the  Katzbacb.  The  so-called  battle  on  the 
Eatzbach  consisted,  in  £act.  of  4  different  actions, 
the  first  of  which,  tbe  dislodging  by  a  bayonet 
attack  from  a  plateau  behind  a  ridge  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Neisse  of  about  8  French 
battalions,  which  constituted  hardly  one-tenth 
of  t^e  hostile  force,  led  to  results  quite  out  of 
proportion  to  its  original  importance,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fugitives  from  the  plateau  not 
being  collected  at  Niedererayn,  and  left  behind 
the  Eatzbach  at  Eraitsch,  in  which  case  theur 
flight  would  have  had  no  influence  whatever  on 
the  rest  of  the  French  array ;  in  consequence  of 
difiTerent  defeats  inflicted  at  nightfall  upon  the 
enemy  by  Sacken's  and  Langeron's  corps 
stationed  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Neiss;  in  con- 
sequence of  Marshal  Macdonald,  who  com- 
manded in  person  on  the  left  bank,  and  had 
defended  himself  weakly  till  7  o'clock  in  the 
evening  against  Langeron's  attack,  marching  his 
troops  at  once  after  sunset  to  Goldberg,  in  such 
a  state  of  exhaustion  that  they  could  no  longer 
fight,  and  must  CelU  into  the  enemy's  hand  ;  and, 
lastly,  in  consequence  of  the  state  of  the  season, 
violent  rains  swelling  the  otherwise  insignificant 
streams  the  fugitive  fVench  had  to  traverse — ^the 
Keisse,  the  Sjitzbach,  the  Deichsel,  and  the  Bober 
— ^to  rf4>id  torrents,  and  making  the  roads  almost 
impracticable.  Thus  it  occurred,  that  with  the 
aid  of  the  country  militia  in  the  mountains  on 
the  left  flank  of  the  Silesian  army,  the  battle  on 
tlie  Eatzbach,  insignificant  In  itself,  resulted  in 
the  capture  or  18,000  to  20,000  prisoners,  above 
200  pieces  of  artillery,  and  more  than  800  ammu- 
nition, hoflpital,  and  baggage  wagons,  with  bag* 
gage,  dec.  After  the  battle  BlQcher  did  every 
thing  to  instigate  his  forces  to  exert  their  utmost 
strength  in  the  pursuit  of  the  enemy.  Justly  rep- 
resenting to  them  that  *^with  some  Ixxlily 
exertion  they  miriit  spare  a  new  battle.** 
Sept.  8,  he  crossed  the  {jTeisse,  with  his  armv, 
and  on  the  4th  proceeded  by  Bischofrwerda 
to  concentrate  at  Bautzen.  By  this  move 
he  saved  the  grand  army,  which,  routed  at 
Dresden,  Aug.  27,  and  forced  to  retreat  be- 
hind the  Erzgebirge,  was  now  disengaged; 
Napoleon  being  compelled  to  advance  with  re- 
enforcements  toward  Bautzen,  there  to  take  up 
the  army  defeated  on  the  Eatzbach,  and  to  offer 
battle  to  tbe  Silesian  army.  During  his  stay 
in  the  S.  £.  corner  of  Sazony„  on  the  right 


388 


BLtl^CHEB 


bank  of  the  Elbe,  Blflcher,  by  a  series  of  re- 
treats and  advances,  always  shunned  battle 
when  offered  by  Napoleon,  bat  always  engaged 
when  encountering  sin^^e  detachments  of  the 
French  army.  Bept.  22,  28,  and  24^  he  ex- 
ecuted a  fiaiik  march  on  the  right  of  the  en- 
emy, adyancing  by  forced  marches  to  the 
lower  Elbe,  in  the  yieinity  of  the  army  of  the 
north.  Oct.  2,  he  bridged  the  Elbe  at  Elster 
with  pontoons,  and  on  the  morning  of  the 
8d  his  army  defiled.  This  movement,  not  only 
bold,  but  even  hazardous,  inasmuch  as  he 
completely  abandoned  hu  lines  of  communica- 
tion, was  necessitated  by  supreme  political 
reasons,  and  led  finally  to  the  battle  of  Leipsic, 
which,  but  for  Bldcher,  the  slow  and  over- 
cautious grand  army  would  never  have  risked. 
The  army  of  the  noHh,  of  which  Bemadotte 
was  the  commander-in-chie1^  was  about  90,000 
strong,  and  it  was,  consequently,  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  it  should  advance  on  Saxony. 
By  means  of  the  close  connection  which  he 
maintained  with  Btllow  and  Wintzingerode, 
the  commanders  of  the  Prussian  and  Rusnan 
corps'  forming  part  of  the  army  of  the  north, 
Blacher  obtained  the  most  convincing  proofs 
of  Bemadotte's  coquetry  with  the  French,  and 
of  the  impossibility  of  incitine  him  to  any  ac- 
tivity, so  lonff  as  he  remained  alone  on  a  sepa- 
rate tneatre  of  war.  Btllow  and  Wintidngerode 
declared  themselves  ready  to  act  in  spite  of 
Bemadotte,  but  to  do  so  they  wanted  the  sup- 
port of  100,000  men.  Hence  BlCkcher's  resolu- 
tion to  yenture  upon  his  flank  march,  in  which 
he  persisted  despite  the  orders  he  had  received 
from  the  sovereigns  to  draw  near  to  them  on 
the  left,  toward  Bohemia.  He  was  not  to  be 
diverted  from  his  purpose  through  the  obsta- 
cles which  Bemadotte  systematically  threw  in 
his  way,  even  alter  the  crossing  of  the  Elbe  by 
the  Silesian  army.  Before  leaving  Bautzen^  he 
bad  despatched  a  confidential  officer  to  Bema- 
dotte, to  inform  him  that,  since  the  army  of 
the  north  was  too  weak  to  operate  alone  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  he  would  come  with  the 
Silesian  army,  and  cross  at  Elster  on  Oct.  8 ;  he 
therefore  invited  him  to  cross  the  Elbe  at  the 
same  time,  and  to  advance  with  him  toward 
Leipsic.  Bemadotte  not  heeding  this  message, 
and  the  enemy  occupyinff  Wartenburg  opposite 
Elster,  Blacher  first  dislodged  the  latter,  and 
then,  to  protect  himself  in  case  Napoleon 
ahouid  fall  upon  him  with  his  whole  strength, 
began  establishing  an  intrenched  encampment 
from  Wartenburg  to  Bleddin.  Thence  he 
pushed  forward  toward  the  Mulde.  Oct. 
7,  in  an  interview  with  Bemadotte,  it  was  ar- 
ranged that  both  armies  should  march  upon 
Leipsic.  On  the  9th,  while  the  Bilesian  army 
was  preparing  for  this  march,  Bemadotte, 
on  the  news  of  Napoleon^s  advance  on  the 
road  from  Meissen,  insisted  upon  retreating 
behind  the  Elbe,  and  only  consented  to  re- 
main on  its  left  bank  on  condition  that 
Blacher  would  resolve  to  cross  the  Saale  in 
concert  with  him,  in  order  to  take  up  a  posi- 


tion behind  that  river.  Although  by  this 
movement  the  Silesian  army  lost  anew  its  line 
of  communication,  BlQcher  consented,  since 
4>therw]se  the  army  of  the  north  would  have 
been  effectually  lost  for  the  allies.  Oct.  10, 
the  whole  Silesian  army  stood  united  with  the 
army  of  the  north  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mulde,  the  bridges  over  which  were  destroyed. 
Bemadotte  now  declared  a  retreat  upon  Bem- 
buig  to  have  become  necessary,  and  Bldcher, 
with  the  single  view  of  preventing  him  fh>iii 
crossing  the  right  bank  of  the  Mbe,  yielded 
again  on  the  condition  that  Bemadotte  shoudd 
cross  the  Saale  at  Wettin  and  take  up  a  posi- 
tion there.  Oct.  IL  when  his  columns  were 
just  crossing  the  high  road  from  Magde- 
burg to  Halle,  Blacher  being  informed  thaL 
in  spite  of  his  positive  promise,  Bemadotte  had 
constructed  no  bridge  at  Wettin,  resolved  upon 
following  that  high  road  in  forced  marohea. 
Napoleon,  seeing  that  the  northern  and  Silesian 
armies  avoided  accepting  battle,  which  he  had 
offered  them  by  concentrating  at  Duben,  and 
knowing  that  they  could  not  avoid  it  withoat 
retreating  across  the  Elbe ;  bekig  at  the  same 
time  aware  that  he  had  but  4  days  left  before 
he  must  meet  the  grand  army,  and  thus  be 
placed  between  two  fires,  undertook  a  march 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe  toward  Witten- 
berg, in  order  by  this  simulated  movement  to 
draw  the  northern  and  Silesian  armies  acroaa 
the  Elbe,  and  then  strike  a  rapid  blow  on  the 
grand  army.  Bemadotte,  indeed,  anxious  for 
his  lines  of  communication  with  Sweden,  gave 
his  army  orders  to  cross  without  delay  to  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  by  a  bridge  construct^ 
at  Aken,  while,  on  the  same  day,  Oct  18,  ne 
informed  Blacher  that  the  emperor  Alexander 
had,  for  certain  important  reasons^  put  him 
(Blacher)  under  his  orders.  He  ocoaequently 
requestea  him  to  follow  his  movements  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Elbe  with  the  Silesian  army, 
with  the  least  possible  delay.  Had  Blacher 
shown  less  resolution  on  this  occasion  and  fol* 
lowed  the  army  of  the  north,  the  campaign 
would  have  been  lost,  since  the  Silesian  and 
northem  armies,  amounting  together  to  abont 
200,000  men,  would  not  have  been  present  at 
the  battle  of  Leipmc.  He  wrote  in  reply  to 
Bemadotte,  that,  according  to  all  his  informa- 
tion. Napoleon  had  no  intention  whatever  of 
removing  the  theatre  of  war  to  the  right 
bank  of  the  Elbe,  but  only  intended  to  lead 
them  astray.  At  the  same  time  he  conjured 
Bemadotte  to  give  up  his  intended  movement 
across  the  Elbe.  Having,  meanwhile,  again 
and  again  solicited  the  grand  army  to  push  for- 
ward upon  Leipsic^  and  offered  to  meet  them, 
there,  he  received  at  last,  Oct.  15,  the  long- 
expected  invitation.  He  immediately  advanced 
toward  Leipsic,  while  Bemadotte  retreated  to- 
ward Petersberg.  On  his  march  from  Halle  to 
Leipsic  on  Oct.  16,  he  routed  at  M6ckem  the 
6th  corps  of  the  French  army  under  Marmont^ 
in  a  hotly  contested  battle,  in  which  he  cap- 
tured 54  pieces  of  artillery.    Without  delay  he 


BLtJCHER 


Bent  acoonnts  of  the  issue  of  this  battle  to  Ber- 
nadotte,  who  was  not  present  on  the  Ist  day  of 
the  battle  of  Leipsic.  On  its  2d  day,  Oct.  17, 
Blacher  dislodgea  the  enemy  from  the  right 
bank  of  the  Parthe,  with  the  exception  of  some 
honses  and  iotreDchments  near  the  HaUe  gate. 
On  the  18th,  at  daybreak,  he  had  a  conference 
at  Brachenfeld  with  Bernadotte,  who  declared 
be  could  not  attack  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Parthe  unless  BlOcher  eaye  him  for  that  day 
80,000  men  of  the  Silesian  army.  Keeping 
the  interest  of  the  whole  exdnsively  in  view, 
BlOcher  consented  without  hesitation,  but  on 
the  condition  of  remaining  himself  with  these 
80,000  men,  and  thus  securing  their  vigorous 
oo6peration  in  the  attack.  After  the  final  vic- 
tory  of  Oct.  19,  and  during  the  whole  of  Napo- 
leon's retreat  from  Leipsic  to  the  Rhine,  Blftcher 
alone  gave  him  an  earnest  pursuit.  While,  on 
Oct.  19,  the  generals  in  command  met  the  sov- 
ereigns in  the  market-place  of  Leipsic,  and 
precious  time  was  spent  in  mutual  compliments, 
bis  Silesian  army  was  already  marching  in  pur* 
suit  of  the  enemy  to  Ltktzen.  On  his  march 
from  Latzen  to  Weissenberg,  Prince  William  of 
Prussia  overtook  him,  to  deliver  to  him  the 
commission  of  a  Prussian  field-marshal.  The 
allied  sovereigns  had  allowed  Napoleon  to 
gain  a  start  which  could  never  be  recovered, 
but  from  Eisenach  onward,  Blnoher  found 
himself  every  afternoon  in  the  room  which 
Napoleon  had  left  in  the  morning.  When 
about  to  march  upon  Cologne,  there  to  cross 
the  Rhine,  he  was  recalled  and  ordered  to  block- 
ade Mentz  on  its  left  bank ;  his  rapid  pursuit  as 
fat  as  the  Rhine  having  broken  up  the  confeder- 
ation of  the  Rhine,  and  disengaged  its  troops 
from  the  French  divisions  in  which  they  were 
still  enrolled.  While  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Silesian  army  was  established  at  H6chst,  the 
grand  army  marched  up  the  upper  Rhine. 
Thus  ended  the  campaign  of  1818,  whose  suo- 
oess  was  entirely  due  to  Blticher^s  bold  enter- 
prise and  iron  energy. — The  allies  were  divided 
as  to  the  plan  of  operations  now  to  be  followed ; 
tbe  one  party  proposing  to  stay  on  the  Rhine, 
and  there  to  take  up  a  defensive  position ;  the 
other  to  cross  the  Rhine  and  march  upon  Paris. 
After  much  wavering  on  the  part  of  the  sover- 
eigns, Blftdier  and  his  friends  prevailed,  and 
tbe  resolution  was  adopted  to  advance  upon 
Paris  in  a  concentric  movement,  the  grand  army 
being  to  start  firom  Switzerland,  BtUow  firom 
Holland,  and  Blacher,  with  the  Silesian  army, 
from  the  middle  Rhine.  For  the  new  campaign, 
8  additional  corps  were  made  over  to  BltXoher, 
Tiz.,  Kleist^s,  the  elector  of  Hesse^s,  and  the 
duke  of  Saze-Oobnrg's.  Leaving  part  of  Lan- 
geron's  oorps  to  invest  Mentz,  and  the  new  re- 
enforcements  to  follow  as  a  second  division, 
Blftoher  crossed  the  Rhine  Jan.  1, 1814,  on  8 
points,  at  Mannheim,  Canb,  and  Goblentz, 
drove  Marmont  beyond  the  Vosges  and  the 
SarrcL  in  the  valley  of  the  Moselle,  posted 
York's  corps  between  the  fortresses  of  the 
Moselle,  and  with  a  force  of  28,000  men,  con- 


sisting of  Sacken's  corps  and  a  division  of  Lan- 

feron^s  corps,  proceeded  by  Yaucoulears  and 
oinville  to  IBrienne,  in  order  to  effect  his 
junction  with  the  grand  army  by  his  left.  At 
Brienne,  Jan.  29,  he  was  attacked  by  Napoleon, 
whose  forces  mustered  about  40,000,  while 
York's  corps  was  still  detached  from  the  Sile- 
sian army,  and  the  grand  army^l  10,000  strong, 
had  only  reached  Chaumont  Blacher  had  con- 
sequently to  face  the  greatly  superior  forces  of 
Napoleon,  but  the  latter  neither  attacked  him 
witii  his  usual  vigor,  nor  hindered  his  retreat 
to  Trannes,  save  by  some  cavalry  skirmishes. 
Having  taken  possession  of  Brienne,  placed  part 
of  his  troops  in  its  vicinity,  and  occupied  Dien- 
ville,  La  Rothidre,  and  Ohammenil,with  8  differ- 
ent corps.  Napoleon  would,  on  Jan.  80,  have  been 
able  to  faU  upon  Bldcher  with  superior  num- 
bers, as  the  latter  was  still  awaiting  his  rein- 
forcements. Napoleon,  however,  sept  up  a 
passive  attitude,  while  the  grand  army  was  con- 
centrating by  Bar-sur-Aube,  and  detachments 
of  it  were  strengthening  BltLcher's  right  flank. 
The  emperor's  inactivity  is  eiplained  by  the 
hopes  from  the  negotiations  of  the  peace  con- 
gress of  OhAtillon,  which  he  had  contrived  to 
start,  and  through  the  means  of  which  he  ex- 
pected to  gain  time.  In  fact,  after  the  Juno- 
tion  of  the  Silesian  army  with  the  grand  army 
had  been  effected,  the  diplomatic  party  insisted 
that  during  the  deliberations  of  the  peace  con- 
gress the  war  should  be  carried  on  as  a  feint 
onlyi  Prince  Schwartzenberg  sent  an  officer 
to  Blacher  to  procure  his  acquiescence,  but 
Blacher  dismissed  him  with  this  answer:  '*  We 
must  go  to  Paris.  Napoleon  has  paid  his  ^sits 
to  aU  the  capitals  of  Europe ;  should  we  be  less 
polite  f  In  short,  he  must  descend  fh)m  the 
throne,  and  until  he  is  hurled  from  it  we  shall 
have  no  rest."  He  urged  the  great  advantages 
of  the  allies  attacking  Napoleon  near  Brienne, 
before  he  could  bring  up  the  remainder  of  his 
troops,  and  oflbred  himself  to  make  the  attack, 
if  he  were  only  strengthened  in  York's  absence. 
The  consideration  that  the  army  could  not  sub- 
sist in  the  barren  valley  of  the  Aube,  and  must 
retreat  if  it  did  not  attack,  caused  his  advice  to 
prevail.  The  battie  was  decided  upon,  but 
Prince  Schwartzenberg,  instead  of  bearing  upon 
the  enemy  with  the  united  force  at  hand,  only 
lent  Blacher  tiie  corps  of  the  crown  prince  of 
Wartemberg  (40,000  men),  that  of  Gyuky  (12,- 
000),  and  that  of  Wrede  (12,000).  Napoleon, 
on  his  part,  neither  knew  nor  suspected  any 
thing  of  the  arrival  of  the  grand  army.  When 
about  1  o'clock,  Feb.  1,  it  was  announced  to 
him  that  Blacher  was  advancing,  he  would  not 
believe  it.  Having  made  sure  of  the  fact,  he 
mounted  his  horse  with  the  idea  of  avoiding  the 
battie,  and  gave  Berthier  orders  to  this  effed;;. 
When,  however,  between  old  Brienne  and  Ro- 
thi^re,  he  reached  the  young  ffuard,  who  had 
got  under  arms  on  hearin^^  the  approaching 
cannonade,  he  was  received  with  such  enthusiasm 
that  he  thought  fit  to  improve  the  opportunity, 
and  exclaimed,  *^  L^artiUerU  m  a/wxaU  I "  Thus, 


890 


BLt^OHEB 


about  4  o'clock,  the  afiair  of  La  Bothidre  com- 
menced  in  earnest.  At  the  first  reverse,  how- 
ever, Napoleon  no  lon^r  took  anj  personal 
part  in  the  battle.  His  infantry  having  thrown 
itself  into  the  village  of  La  Rothi^re,  the  com- 
bat was  long  and  obstinate,  and  BlQcher  was 
even  obliged  to  bring  np  his  reserve.  The 
French  were  not  dislodged  from  the  yillage 
till  11  o'clock  at  night,  when  Napoleon  ordered 
the  retreat  of  his  army,  which  had  lost  4,000  or 
^  6,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded,  2,600  prison- 
^  era,  and  58  cannon.  If  the  allies,  who  were  then 
only  6  days'  march  from  Paris,  had  vigorously 
pushed  on.  Napoleon  must  have  succumbed  he- 
lore  their  miroensely  superior  numbers ;  but  the 
sovereigns,  still  apprehensive  of  cutting  Napo- 
leon off  from  making  his  peace  at  the  congress 
of  Oh&tillon,  allow^  Prince  Bohwartzenberg, 
the  commander-in-chief  of  the  grand  army,  to 
seize  upon  every  pretext  for  shunning  a  decisive 
action.  While  Napoleon  ordered  Marmont  to 
return  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aube  toward 
Bamern,  and  himself  retired  by  a  flank  march 
upon  Troves,  the  allied  army  split  into  2  armies, 
the  grand  army  advancing  slowly  upon  Troyes, 
and  the  Silesian  army  marching  to  the  Mame, 
where  Bldoher  knew  he  would  find  York,  be- 
side part  of  Langeron's  and  Eleist's  corps,  so 
that  his  aggregate  forces  would  be  swelled  to 
about60,000men.  The  plan  wasfor  him  to  pursue 
Marshal  Macdonald,  who  had  meanwhile  appear- 
ed on  the  lower  Mame,  to  Paris,  while  Schwart- 
zenberg  was  to  keep  in  check  the  French  main 
army  on  the  Seine.  Napoleon,  however,  see- 
ing that  the  allies  did  not  know  how  to  use 
their  victory,  and  sure  of  returning  to  the  Seine 
before  the  grand  army  could  have  advanced  far 
in  the  direction  of  Paris,  resolved  to  fall  upon 
the  weaker  Silesian  army.  Oonsequently,  he 
left  20.000  men  under  Victor  and  Oudinot  in 
face  or  the  100,000  men  of  the  grand  army, 
advanced  with  40,000  men,  the  corps  of  Mor- 
tier  and  Ney,  in  the  direction  of  the  Marne, 
took  up  Marmont's  corps  at  Nogent,  and  on 
Feb.  9  arriyed  with  these  imited  forces  at 
Suzanne.  Meanwhile  Bldcher  had  proceeded 
by  St  Ouen  and  Sommepnis  on  the  little  road 
leading  to  Paris,  and  established,  Feb.  9,  his  head* 
quarters  at  the  little  town  of  Y ertus.  The  dispo- 
sition of  his  forces  was  this :  about  10,000  men  at 
his  head-quarters;  18,000,  under  York,  posted  be- 
tween Dormans  and  Chateau  Thierrv,  in  pur- 
suit of  Macdonald,  who  was  already  on  the 
great  post  road  leading  to  Paris  from  Epernay ; 
80,000  under  Sacken,  between  Montmirail  and 
La  Fert6-Sou8-Jouarre,  destined  to  prevent  the 
intended  junction  of  Sebastioni's  cavalry  with 
Macdonald  and  to  cut  off  the  passage  of  the 
latter  at  La  Fert6-Sons-Jouarre ;  the  Bnssian 
general,  Olsuvieff,  cantoned  with  6,000  men  at 
Ohampaubert.  This  faulty  distribution,  by 
which  the  Silesian  army  was  drawn  up  in  a  very 
extended  position,  en  ichelon^  resulted  from  the 
contradictory  motives  which  actuated  Bltlcher. 
On  the  one  hand,  he  desired  to  cut  off  Mac- 
donald, and  prevent  his  Junction  with  Sebas- 


ttani's  cavalry ;  on  the  other  hand,  to  take  up 
the  corps  of  Kleist  and  Kapzewitch,  who  were 
advancmg  from  Chalons,  and  expected  to  unite 
with  him  on  the  9th  and  10th.  The  one  mo- 
tive kept  him  back,  the  other  pushed  him 
on.  Feb.  9,  Napoleon  fell  upon  Olsuvieff  at 
Ohampaubert,  and  routed  him.  BlUcher,  with 
Kleist  and  Kapzewitch,  who  had  meanwhile 
arrived,  but  without  the  greater  part  of  their 
cavalry,  advanced  against  Marmont,  despatched 
by  Napoleon,  and  followed  him  in  his  retreat 
upon  La  F^re  Ohampenoise,  but  on  the  news  of 
Olsuvieff's  discomfiture,  returned  in  the  same 
night,  with  his  2  corps^  to  Bergdres,  there  to 
cover  the  road  to  Ohalons.  After  a  successfid 
combat  on  the  10th,  Sacken  had  driven  Mac- 
donald across  the  Marne  at  Trilport,  but  hearing 
on  the  night  of  the  same  day  of  Napoleon^s 
march  to  Ohampaubert,  hastened  back  on  the 
11th  toward  MontmiraiL  Before  reaching  it  he 
was,  at  Yieux  Mnisons,  obliged  to  form  gainst 
the  eniperor,  coming  from  Montmirail  to  meet 
him.  Beaten  with  great  loss  before  York  oonld 
unite  with  him,  the  two  generals  tfected  their 
junction  atViffort,  and  retreated,  Feb.  12,  to  Cha- 
teau Thierry,  where  York  had  to  stand  a  very 
damaging  rear-guard  engagement,  and  with- 
drew thence  to  Oulchy-la-Ville.  Having  order- 
ed Mortier  to  pursue  York  and  Sacken  on  the 
road  of  Fismes,  Napoleon  remained  on  the  18th 
at  Oh&teau  Thierry.  XJnoertiun  as  to  the 
whereabout  of  York  and  Sacken  and  the  sno- 
eess  of  their  engagements,  BlQcher  had,  from 
Bergdres,  during  the  11th  and  12th,  quietly 
watched  Marmont  posted  opposite  him  at 
Etoges.  When  informed,  on  the  18th,  of  the 
defeat  of  his  generals,  and  supposing  Napoleon 
to  have  moved  off  in  search  of  the  grand  army, 
he  ^ve  way  to  the  temptation  of  striking  a 
partmff  blow  upon  Marmont,  whom  he  consid- 
ered Napoleon's  rear-guard.  Advancing  on 
Ohampaubert,  he  pushed  Marmont  to  Mont- 
mirail, where  the  latter  was  joined  on  the  14tii 
by  Napoleon,  who  now  turned  against  Blftcher, 
met  him  at  noon  at  Yeauchamps,  20,000 
strong,  but  almost  without  cavalry,  attacked 
him,  turned  his  columns  with  cavalry,  and 
threw  him  back  with  great  loss  on  (%ampau- 
bert.  During  its  retreat  from  the  latter  place, 
the  Silesian  army  might  have  reached  Etoges 
before  it  grew  dark,  without  any  considerable 
loss,  if  BlUcher  had  not  taken  pleasure  in  the 
deliberate  slowness  of  the  retrograde  move- 
ment. Thus  he  was  attacked  during  the  whole 
of  his  march,  and  one  detachment  of  his  forces^ 
the  division  of  Prince  Augustus  of  Preussen, 
was  again  beset  from  the  side  streets  of  Etoges, 
on  its  passage  through  that  town.  About  mid- 
night Sltloher  reached  his  camp  at  Bergdres, 
broke  up,  after  some  hours'  rest,  for  Ohalons, 
arrived  there  about  noon,  Feb.  15,  and  was 
joined  by  York's  and  Sacken's  forces  on  the 
16th  and  17th.  The  different  affidrs  at  Ohamp- 
aubert, Montmirail,  OhAteau  Thierry,  Vcau- 
ohampa,  and  Etoges,  had  cost  him  15,000  mea 
and  27  guns;  Gneisenaa  and  Muffling   being 


BLtJOHER 


891 


alone  responsible  for  the  strategetioal  ffttdts 
-which  led  to  these  disasters.  Leaving  Harmont 
and  Mortier  to  front  Blacher,  Napoleon,  with 
Key,  returned  in  forced  marches  to  the  Seine, 
where  Schwartzenberg  had  driven  back  Victor 
and  Ondfnot,  who  had  retreated  across  the 
Tdres,  and  there  taken  np  12,000  men  under 
Haodonald,  and  some  reinforcements  from 
Spain.  On  the  16th  they  were  surprised  by 
the  sudden  arrival  of  Napoleon,  followed  on 
the  17th  by  his  troops.  After  liis  junction 
with  the  marshals  he  hastened  against  Schwartz- 
enberg, whom  he  found  posted  in  an  extended 
triangle,  having  for  its  summits  Nogent,  Monte* 
reau,  and  Sens.  The  generals  under  his  command, 
Wittgenstein,  Wrede,  and  the  crown  prince  of 
Wturtemberg,  being  successively  attacked  and 
routed  by  Napoleon,  Prince  Schwartzenberg  took 
to  his  heels,  retreated  toward  Troyes,  and  sent 
word  to  BlClcher  to  join  him,  so  that  they  might  in 
concert  give  battle  on  the  Seine.  Blacher, 
meanwhUe,  strengthened  by  new  re^nforce- 
mentB,  immediately  followed  this  call,  and  en- 
tered M^y  Feb.  21,  and  waited  there  the 
whole  of  the  22d  for  the  dispositions  of  the 
promised  battle.  He  learned  in  the  evening 
that  an  application  for  a  truce  had  been  made  to 
K«)oleon,  through  Prince  Lichtenstein,  who 
had  met  with  a  fiat  refasal.  Instandy  de- 
spatching a  confidential  officer  to  Troyes,  he 
coloured  Prince  Schwartzenberg  to  give  battle, 
and  even  offered  to  give  it  alone,  if  the  grand 
army  would  only  form  a  reserve ;  but  Schwartz- 
enbeig,  still  more  frightened  by  the  news  that 
Angerean  had  driven  Gen.  Bubna  back  into 
Switzeriand,  had  already  ordered  the  retreat 
upon  Langres.  Blndier  understood  at  once 
that  a  retreat  upon  Langres  would  lead  to  a 
retreat  beyond  the  Rhine;  and,  in  order  to 
draw  Napoleon  off  from  the  pursuit  of  the 
dispirited  grand  army,  resolved  upon  again 
marching  straight  in  the  direction  of  Paris, 
toward  the  Mame,  where  he  could  now  expect 
to  assentble  an  army  of  100,000  men,Wintzinge- 
rode  having  arrived  with  about  25,000  men  in 
the  vicinity  of  Bheims,  Bolow  at  Laon  with 
16,000  men,  the  remainder  of  Kleist's  corps 
being  expected  from  Erfurt,  and  the  rest  of 
Langeron's  corps,  under  St.  Priest,  from  Mentz. 
It  was  this  second  separation  on  the  part  of 
BlUober  from  the  grand  army,  that  turned  the 
scale  against  Napoleon.  If  the  latter  had  fol- 
lowed the  retreating  grand  army  instead  of  the 
advancing  Silesian  one,  the  campaign  would 
have  been  lost  for  the  allies.  The  passage  of 
the  Aube  before  Napoleon  had  followed  him, 
the  only  difSoult  point  in  Bl&cher^s  advance,  he 
tfeoted  by  constructing  a  pontoon  bridge  at 
Ao^ore  on  Feb.  24.  Napoleon,  commanding 
Oudinot  and  Macdonald,  with  about  25,000 
men,  to  follow  the  grand  army,  leffc  Herbisse 
on  the  26th,  together  with  Ney  and  Victor,  in 
pursuit  of  the  Silesian  army.  On  the  advice 
sent  by  BlQcher,  that  the  grand  army  had  now 
bat  the  2  marshals  before  it,  Schwartzenberg 
stopped  his  retreat)  took  heart,  turned  round 


upon  Oudmot  and  Macdonald,  and  beat  them 
on  the  27th  and  28th.  It  was  Blacher's  inten- 
tion to  concentrate  his  army  at  some  point  as 
near  as  possible  to  Paris.  Marmont,  with  his 
troops,  was  still  posted  at  Suzanne,  while  Mor- 
tier  was  at  Ch&teau  Thierry.  On  Bltkcher's 
advance,  Karmont  retreated,  united  on  the  26th 
with  Mortier  at  La  Fert^-Sous-Jouarre,  thence 
to  retire  with  the  latter  upon  Meaux.  Bidcher's 
attempt,  during  2  days,  to  cross  the  Ourcq,  and, 
with  a  strongly  advanced  front,  to  force  the  2 
marshals  to  battle,  having  failed,  he  was  now 
obliged  to  march  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ourcq.  He  reached  Oulchy-le-Oh&teau  March 
2,  learned  in  the  morning  of  the  8d  the  capitu* 
lation  of  Soissons,  which  had  been  effected  by 
Btdow  and  Wintzingerode,  and,  in  the  course  of 
the  same  day,  grossed  the  Aisne,  and  concen- 
trated his  whole  army  at  Soissons.  Napoleon,  who 
had  crossed  the  Mame  atLaFert^-Sous-Jouarre, 
2  forced  marches  behind  BlQoher,  advanced  in 
the  direction  of  Gh4teau  Thierry  and  Fismes, 
and,  having  passed  the  Yesle,  crossed  the 
Aisne  at  Berry-au-Bac,  March  6,  alter  the 
recapture  of  Rbeims  by  a  detachment  of  his 
army.  BlCLcher  originally  intended  to  offer 
battle  behind  the  Aisne,  on  Napoleon's  passage 
of  that  river,  and  had  drawn  up  his  troops  for 
that  purpose.  When  he  became  aware  that 
Napoleon  took  the  direction  of  Fismes  and 
Berry-au-Bac,  in  order  to  pass  the  SDesian 
army  by  the  left,  he  decided  upon  attacking 
him  from  Oraone  on  the  fiank,  in  an  obUque 
position,  immediately  after  his  debouching  from 
Berry-au-Bao,  so  that  Napoleon  would  have 
been  forced  to  give  battle  with  a  defile  in  hia 
rear.  Having  already  posted  his  forces,  with 
the  right  wing  on  the  Aisne,  with  the  left  on 
the  Lette,  half  way  f^om  Soissons  to  Oraone, 
he  resigned  this  excellent  plan  on  making  sure 
that  Napoleon  had,  on  the  6th,  been  allowed 
by  Wintzingerode  to  pass  Berry-au-Bac  unmo- 
lested, and  had  even  pushed  a  detachment  on 
the  road  to  Laon.  He  now  thought  it  necessary 
to  accept  no  decisive  battle  except  at  Laon. 
To  delay  Napoleon,  who,  by  Corbeny,  on  the 
causeway  from  Bheims,  could  reach  Laon  aa 
soon  as  Uie  Silesian  army  from  Oraone,  BhXcher 
posted  the  corps  of  Woronzoff  between  the 
Aisne  and  the  Lette,  on  the  strong  nhiteau  of 
Oraone,  while  he  despatched  10,000  horse  un- 
der Wintzingerode,  to  push  on  by  Fetieux  to- 
ward Oorbeny,  with  the  order  to  fall  upon  the 
right  flank  and  rear  of  Napoleon,  as  soon  as  the 
latter  should  be  engaged  in  attacking  Woron- 
xoff.  Wintzingerode  fEtiling  to  execute  the 
manoeuvre  intrusted  to  him,  Napoleon  drove 
Woronzoff  from  the  plateau  on  the  7th,  but 
himself  lost  8,000  men,  while  Woronzoff  escaped 
with  the  loss  of  4,700,  and  proved  able  to  effect 
his  retreat  in  good  order.  On  the  8th,  BltLcher 
had  concentrated  his  troops  at  Laon,  where  the 
battle  must  decide  the  fate  of  both  armies. 
Apart  from  his  numerical  superiority,  the  vast 
plain  before  Laon  was  pecoliarly  adapted  for 
deploying  the  20,000  horse  of  the  Silesian  armyi 


blCoher 


BLUDOFF 


while  Laon  itself  situated  on  the  plateau  of  a 
detached  hill,  which  has  on  everj  side  a  fall 
of  12, 16,  20  to  80  degrees,  and  at  the  foot  of 
which  lie  4  villages,  offered  great  advantages 
for  the  defence  as  well  as  the  attack.  On 
that  day,  the  left  French  wing,  led  hj  Napo- 
leon himself,  was  repulsed,  while  the  right 
wing,  under  Marmont,  sarprised  in  its  bivouacs 
at  nightfall,  was  so  completelT*  worsted,  that 
the  marshal  could  not  bring  his  troops  to  a  halt 
before  reaching  Flsmes.  Napoleon,  completely 
isolated  with  his  wing,  numbering  85,000  men 
only,  and  cooped  up  in  a  bad  position,  must 
have  yielded  before  far  superior  numbers  flush- 
ed with  victory.  Yet  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, a  fever  attack  and  an  inflammation  of  the 
eyes  disabled  Blacher,  while  Napoleon  yet  re- 
mained in  a  provocatory  attitude,  in  the  same 
position,  whi(Ui  so  far  intimidated  the  men  who 
now  directed  the  operations,  that  they  not  only 
stopped  the  advance  of  their  own  troops  which 
had  already  begun,  but  allowed  Napoleon  to 
quietly  retire  at  nightfall  to  Soissons.  Still  the 
battle  of  Laon  had  broken  his  forces,  physically 
and  morally.  He  tried  in  vain  by  the  sudden 
capture,  on  March  18,  of  Rheims,  which  had 
fallen  into  the  hands  of  St.  Priest,  to  restore 
himself.  So  fully  was  his  situation  now  under- 
stood, that  when  he  advanced,  on  the  17th  and 
18th,  on  Arcis-sur-Aube,  against  the  grand  ar- 
my, Schwartssenberg  himself  although  but 
80,000  strong  against  the  25,000  under  Napo- 
leon, dared  to  stand  and  accept  a  battle,  which 
lasted  through  the  20th  and  21st.  When  Na- 
poleon broke  it  off;  the  grand  army  followed  him 
up  to  Yitry,  and  united  in  his  rear  with  the  Sile- 
sian  army.  In  his  despair,  Napoleon  took  a  last 
refoge  in  a  retreat  upon  St  Dizier,  pretending 
thus  to  endanger,  with  his  handful  of  men,  the 
enormous  army  of  the  allies,  by  cutting  off  its 
main  line  of  communication  and  retreat  between 
Langres  and  Ohaumont ;  a  movement  replied 
to  on  the  part  of  the  idlies  by  their  onward 
march  to  Paris.  On  March  80  took  place  the 
battle  before  Paris,  in  which  the  Silesian  army 
stormed  Montmartre.  Though  BlUcher  had  not 
recovered  since  the  battle  of  Laon,  he  still  ap- 
peared at  the  battle  for  a  short  time,  on  horse- 
back, with  a  shade  over  his  eyes,  but,  after  the 
capitulation  of  Paris,  laid  down  his  command, 
the  pretext  being  his  sickness,  and  the  real  cause 
the  dashing  of  his  open-mouthed  hatred  against 
the  French  with  the  diplomatic  attitude  which 
the  allied  sovereigns  thought  flt  to  exhibit. 
Thus  he  entered  Paris,  March  81,  in  the  ca- 
pacity of  a  private  individual  During  the 
whole  campaign  of  1814,  he  alone  among  the 
allied  army  represented  ttie  principle  of  the  of- 
fensive. By  the  battle  of  La  Bothi^re  he  baf- 
fled the  Oh&tillon  pacificators ;  by  his  resolution 
at  M6ry  he  saved  the  allies  from  a  ruinous  re- 
treat ;  and  by  the  battle  of  Laon  he  decided  the 
first  capitulation  of  Paris. — ^After  the  first  peace 
of  Paris  he  accompanied  the  emperor  Alexan- 
der and  King  Frederic  William  of  Prussia  on 
their  visit  to  England,  where  he  was  f&ted  as 


the  hero  of  the  day.  All  the  military  orders  of 
Europe  were  showered  upon  him ;  the  king  of 
Prussia  created  for  him  the  order  of  the  iron 
cross ;  the  prince  regent  of  England  gave  him 
his  portrait,  and  the  UDiversity  of  Oxford  the 
academical  degree  of  LL.  D.  In  1815  he  again 
decided  the  final  campaign  agunst  Napoleon. 
After  the  disastrous  battle  of  Ligny,  June  16, 
though  now  78  years  of  age,  he  prevailed  upon  his 
routed  army  to  form  anew  and  march  on  the  heels 
of  their  victor,  so  as  to  be  able  to  appear  in  the 
evening  of  June  18  on  the  battle  field  of  Water- 
loo, an  exploit  unprecedented  in  the  history  of 
war.  His  pursuit,  after  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
of  the  French  fugitives,  from  Waterloo  toParis^ 
possesses  one'  parallel  only,  in  Napoleon's  equal- 
ly remarkable  pursuit  of  the  Prusnans  from 
Jena  to  Stettin.  He  now  entered  Paris  at  the 
head  of  his  army,  and  even  had  Moffling,  his 
quartermaster-general,  installed  as  the  mifitary 
govemor-general  of  Paris.  He  insisted  upon 
Napoleon's  being  shot,  the  bridge  of  Jena  blown 
up,  and  the  restitution  to  their  original  owners 
of  the  treasures  plundered  by  the  French  in 
the  different  capitals  of  Europe.  His  first  wish 
was  baffled  by  Wellington,  and  the  second  by 
the  allied  sovereigns,  while  the  last  was  realized. 
He  remained  at  Paris  8  months,  very  frequentlj 
attending  the  gambling  tables  for  rougs-ei-nair. 
On  the  anniversary  of  the  battleon  the  Katzbach| 
he  paid  a  visit  to  Rostock,  his  native  place, 
where  the  inhabitants  united  to  raise  a  publio 
monument  in  his  honor.  On  the  occurrence  of 
his  death  the  whole  Prussian  army  went  into 
mourning  for  8  days.  Le  vieux  diable,  as  he  was 
nicknamed  by  Napoleon,  ^^  Marshal  Forwards,'* 
as  he  was  styled  by  the  Russians  of  the  Silesiaii 
army,  was  essentially  a  general  of  cavalry.  In 
this  speciality  he  excelled,  because  it  required 
tactical  acquirements  only,  but  no  strategetical 
knowledge.  Participating  to  the  highest  de- 
gree in  the  popular  hatred  against  Napoleon  and 
the  French,  he  was  popular  with  the  multitude 
for  his  plebeian  paasionSp  his  gross  common 
sense,  the  vulgarity  of  his  manners,  and  the 
coarseness  of  his  speedL  to  which,  however, 
he  knew,  on  fit  occasions,  now  to  impart  a  touch 
of  fiery  doquence.  He  was  the  model  of  a  sol- 
dier. Setting  an  example  as  the  bravest  in  bat- 
tle and  the  most  hidefatagable  in  exertion ;  ex- 
ercising a  fascinating  infiuence  on  the  common 
soldier;  joining  to  his  rash  bravery  a  saga- 
cious appreciation  of  the  ground,  a  quick  reso- 
lution in  difficult  situations,  stubbornness  in  de- 
fence equal  to  his  energy  in  the  attack,  with 
sufficient  intelligence  to  find  for  himself  the 
right  course  in  simpler  combinations,  and  to  re- 
ly upon  Gneisenan  in  those  which  were  more 
intricate,  he  was  the  true  general  for  the  mUttaiy 
operations  of  1818-'15,  which  bore  the  charac- 
ter half  of  regular  and  half  of  insurrectionary 
warfare. 

BLUDOFF,  Dnorm,  count,  president  of  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  St  Petersburg,  presi- 
dent of  the  legislative  department  in  Uie  coun- 
cil of  the  empire,  senator,  secretary  of  state. 


BLUE 


BLUE  LAWS 


and  member  of  yarions  other  snprerae  igoyern- 
ment  boards,  was  born  in  Mosoow  about  1788, 
from  a  family  traciog  its  origin  directly  to  Blud, 
a  oompanion  of  Ruric,  the  Variagian,  foimder 
ia  the  9th  century  of  the  grand  dukedoma  of 
Novgorod  and  Kiev.  He  completed  his  studies 
at  the  university  at  Mosoow,  and  entered  early 
into  the  diplomatic  service.  He  was  long  em- 
ployed m  London,  Stockholm,  and  Vienna,  but 
was  afterward  transferred  to  the  domestic  ad- 
ministration, and  at  the  advent  of  Nicholas 
belonged,  with  Dashkoff  and  OnwarofP,  to  the 
triad  which  Karamsin.  the  Russian  historian, 
tb^i  a  kind  of  patriarch  in  the  public  opinion, 
recommended,  at  the  request  of  the  new 
emperor,  as  the  fittest  men  to  carry  out 
his  reformatory  ideas.  Bludoff  was  created 
secretary  of  the  interior,  and  as  such  was  a 
member  of  the  board  of  inquiry  into  the  insur- 
rection of  1828.  He  instilled  new  and  healthier 
aotivi^  into  bis  branch  of  administration,  con- 
tending on  every  occasion  with  the  deeply  root- 
ed abuses  and  malversations.  In  1888  he  suc- 
ceeded Dashkoff  as  secretary  of  the  department 
of  justice,  and  subsequently  became  president 
of  the  legislative  department  in  the  council  of 
the  empire.  As  such  he  put  the  last  hand  to 
the  establishment  and  publication  of  the  code 
(Zwod  Zakonoff)  of  civil  and  criminal  laws.  In 
1846-*7  he  was  sent  by  the  emperor  Nicholas 
as  special  and  extraordinary  plenipotentiary  tt> 
Rome,  to  conclude  there  a  concoraat  concern- 
ing the  Roman  bishoprics  in  various  Russian 
provincea,  and  other  administrative-religions 
questions  then  in  dispute.  In  1842  he  was 
created  count.  Bludoff  is  a  man  of  extensive 
and  varied  information,  of  great  simplicity, 
goodness  of  heart,  and  benevolence  in  his  rela- 
tions with  his  subordinates.  He  is  one  of  the 
very  few  men  in  the  public  service  of  Russia 
who  are  wholly  unconcerned  with  regard  to 
their  personal  interests,  having  for  his  motto 
that  one  cannot  at  the  same  time  serve 
God,  the  czar,  his  country,  and  mammon.  His 
political  convictions  are  those  of  an  enlightened 
and  humane  absolutist,  of  a  fervent  panslavist 
and  a  thorough  nationalist;  thus  he  belongs  to 
what  is  commonly  called  the  old  Russian  party. 
He  prefers  tlie  development  of  genuine  national 
germs  to  the  importation  and  engrafting  of 
foreign  notions.  He  pays,  however,  due  defer- 
ence to  the  multi^irious  mental  progress  of  the 
west  of  Europe;  with  which  he  considers  it 
the  first  duty  of  every  enlightened  and  patriotic 
Busuan  to  be  familiar. 

BLUE,  one  of  the  7  primary  colors.  Like 
the  green  of  the  forest  and  the  field,  nature  ap- 
pears to  have  adopted  the  color  for  the  sea  and 
sky  with  reference  to  its  soft  and  pleasing  effect 
upon  the  eye.  In  tiiese,  its  varioas  shades  aro 
seen  in  their  highest  perfection,  and  they  are 
also  most  brilliantly  displayed  in  the  sapphire 
and  the  turquoise.  In  the  arts,  it  is  derived  for 
dyes  from  the  products  of  the  vegetable,  animal, 
and  mineral  kingdoms.  Indigo  is  the  most 
common  vegetable  material  for  producing  it*  A 


great  variety  of  berries  are  also  used,  the  Juices 
of  which  become  blue  by  the  addition  of  alkali 
or  salts  of  copper.  Among  mineral  substances, 
cobalt  is  the  most  remarkable  for  the  brilliant 
blue  produced  by  its  salts.  Cobalt  blue  is  used 
for  coloring  glass  and  porcelain.  Mountain  blue 
is  derived  from  carbonate  of  copper.  Bremen 
blue  or  verditer  is  a  greenish  blue  color,  obtain- 
ed from  copper  mixed  with  carbonate  of  lime. 
Prussian  blue,  used  for  chemical  purposes  and 
as  a  pigment,  is  obtained  from  horns,  hoofs,  or 
dried  blood ;  other  blues  are  obtained  from  com- 
binations of  molybdenum  and  oxide  of  tin.  Ul- 
tramarine is  a  beautiful  blue  pigment  prepared 
fh>m  the  mineral  lapis  lazuli,  which  untU  re- 
cently has  defied  all  imitation. 

BLUE,  Pbdssiak.    See  Pbttssiak  Blub. 

BLUE  EARTH,  a  south-western  county  of 
Minnesota,  bordering  on  Iowa,  bounded  on  the 
N.  E.  by  the  IGnnesota  river,  and  on  the  W. 
by  the  Missouri.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the 
Blue  Earth,  or  Mankato  river,  by  which  it  is 
intersected.    Capital,  Mankato. 

BLUE  LAWS.  This  term  is  sometimes  ap- 
nlied  to  the  early  enactments  of  several  of  the 
New  England  states,  but  is  more  frequently 
limited  to  the  laws  of  New  Haven  colony. 
The  origin  of  the  term  is  not  exactly  known. 
Various  coxnectures  have  been  made,  but  the 
most  probable  derivation  is  that  given  by  Pro- 
fessor Eingsley,  who  thinks  the  epithet  ^^  blue*^ 
was  applied  to  any  one  who  (in  the  times  of 
Charles  II.)  looked  with  disapprobation  on  the 
licentiousness  of  the  times.    Thus,  in  Hudibras, 

For  his  relifflon,  it  was  fit 

To  nuttch  his  learalug  And  his  wit ; 

*rwa8  Prosbyterfan  true  Hu^ 

That  this  epithet  should  find  its  way  to  the 
colonies  was  a  matter  of  course.  It  was  here 
applied  not  only  to  persons,  but  to  the  customs, 
institutions,  and  laws  of  the  Puritans,  by  those 
who  wished  to  render  the  prevailing  system 
ridiculous.  Hence,  probably,  a  belief  with 
some  that  a  distinct  system  of  laws,  known  as 
the  blue  laws,  must  somewhere  have  had  a  local 
habitation.  The  existence  of  such  a  code  c^ 
blue  laws  is  fully  disproved.  The  only  author- 
ity in  its  favor  is  Peters,  who  is  notoriously 
untrustworthy.  The  traditions  upon  this  sub- 
ject, from  which  Peters  framed  his  stories,  un- 
doubtedly arose  from  the  fact  that  the  early 
settlers  of  New  Haven  were  uncommonly  strict 
in  their  application  of  the  **  general  rules  of 
righteousness.*'  Judge  Smith,  in  his  continua* 
lion  of  the  history  of  New  York,  published  in 
"New  York  Historical  Collections,"  vol.  iv., 

g' ves  evidence  against  the  existence  of  the  blue 
ws,  which  is  particularly  valuable,  as  it  was  put 
on  record  some  15  years  before  Peters's  history 
was  published.  He  writes :  ^^  Few  there  are  who 
speak  of  the  blue  laws  (a  title  of  the  origin  of 
which  the  author  is  ignorant),  who  do  not  ima- 
gine they  form  a  code  of  rules  drawn  up  for  fu- 
ture conduct,  by  an  enthusiastio  precise  set  of 
religionists ;  and  if  the  inventions  of  wits,  hu- 
morists^ and  buffoons  were  to  be  credited^  they 


894 


BLUE  UOK  SPRINGS 


BLUEBIRD 


mnst  ooodst  of  many  large  Yolomes.  The 
author  had  the  curiosity  to  resort  to  them 
irhen  the  commissioners  met  at  New  Havea 
for  adjusting  a  partition  line  between  New  York 
and  Massachusetts  in  1767 ;  and  a  parchment 
ooyered  book  of  demi-royal  paper  was  handed 
him  for  the  laws  asked  for,  as  the  only  yolume 
in  the  office  passing  under  this  odd  title.  It 
contains  the  memorials  of  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  colony,  which  consisted  of  persons 
who  had  wandered  beyond  the  limits  of  the  old 
charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  and  who,  as  ^et 
unauthorized  by  the  crown  to  set  up  any  civil 
government  in  due  form  of  law,  resolved  to 
conduct  themselves  by  the  Bible.  As  a  necessary 
consequence,  the  judges  they  chose  took  up  an 
authority  which  every  religious  man  exercises 
over  his  own  children  and  domestics.  Hence 
their  attention  to  the  morals  of  the  people  la 
instances  with  which  the  civil  magistrate  can 
never  intermeddle  in  a  regular  weU-policied 
constitution,  because  to  preserve  liberty  they 
are  recognizable  only  by  parental  authority.'* 
*^  The  good  men  and  ffood  wives  were  ad- 
monished and  fined  for  liberties  daily  correct- 
ed, but  never  made  criminal  by  the  laws  of  large 
and  well-poised  communities ;  and  so  far  is  the 
common  idea  of  the  blue  laws  being  a  collec- 
tion of  rules  from  being  true,  that  they  are  only 
records  of  convictions  consonant  in  the  judg* 
ment  of  the  magistrates  to  the  word  of  G^ 
and  the  dictates  of  reason.'* 

BLUB  LIOK  SPRINGS,  a  village  of  Nicho- 
las CO.,  Ky.,  70  miles  N.  £.  of  Frankfort, 
celebrated  for  its  mineral  waters,  which  form 
an  article  of  considerable  traffic  in  various  parts 
of  the  United  States. 

BLUE  MONDAY,  originally  called  so  trora 
a  fashion,  prevalent  in  the  16th  century,  of  dec- 
orating the  churcheS)  on  the  Monday  preceding 
Lent,  with  blue  colors.  The  custom  of  making 
a  holiday  of  this  particular  Monday,  especially 
as  far  as  those  were  concerned  whose  vocations 
compelled  them  to  work  on  the  Sabbath,  was 
subsequently  transferred  to  all  Mondays,  indis- 
criminately, and,  although  the  excesses  produced 
by  the  celebration  of  the  day  resulted  in  strin- 
gent enactments  on  the  subject,  and  generally 
in  the  abolition  of  the  custom,  it  is,  however, 
not  yet  entirely  extinct  in  Europe,  and,  for  a 
portion  of  the  working  classes,  the  blue  Monday 
still  carriee  with  it  promises  of  ei\}oyment  and 
relaxation  from  labor.  According  to  other 
traditions,  the  name  oriffinated  from  the  revels 
during  the  Monday  holiday,  which  generally 
left  blue  marks  upon  the  fiaoes  of  quarrelsome 
persons. 

BLUE  MOUNTAINS,  the  central  mountain 
chain  of  the  island  of  Jamaica.  It  extends 
from  east  to  west  through  the  centre  of  the 
island,  with  of&ets  covering  its  eastern  extre- 
mity. These  mountains  are  remarkable  for 
their  steep  declivities  and  sharp,  narrow  crests, 
which  are  sometimes  only  a  few  yards  across. 
They  cover  the  greater  part  of  the  island ;  the 
level  portions  bcdng  estimated  atnot  more  than 


«Vth  part  of  the  whole,  the  valleyB  are  deep 
longitudinal  depressions,  covered,  as  are  also 
the  sides  of  the  mountains,  with  dense  vegeta- 
tion and  stately  forests.  In  the  great  earth- 
2uake  of  1692,  these  mountains  were  terriUy 
iiattered  and  rent. 

BLUE  RIDGE,  the  most  eastern  of  the  prin- 
cipal ridges  of  the  Appalachian  chain  of  moun- 
tains. It  is  the  continuation  south  of  the  Po- 
tomac of  the  same  great  ridge  which,  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Maryland,  is  known  as  the  Sonth 
mountain.  It  retains  the  name  of  Blue  Ridge 
till  it  crosses  the  James  river,  from  which, 
to  tHe  line  of  North  Carolina,  its  continuation 
is  called  the  Alleghany  mountain.  Through 
North  Oarolina  into  Tennessee,  it  again  receives 
the  name  of  Blue  Ridge.  Its  geological  forma- 
tions and  mineral  products  have  been  noticed 
under  the  head  of  AppiXA^oniAN  MouNTAnn. 

BLUE  RIVER,  rising  in  Henry  co.,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  state  of  Indiana,  takes  a 
S.  W.  course,  and  Joins  Sugar  creek,  in  Johnson 
CO.,  after  which  it  takes  the  name  of  Driftwood 
Fork,  or  East  Fork  of  White  river.  Above 
Sugar  creek  it  is  from  80  to  60  yards  wide,  and 
affords  excellent  water  power.  The  towns  of 
Shelby ville  and  Newcastie  are  on  its  banks. 

BLUE  STOCKINGS^  a  title  which  originated 
in  England  in  the  time  of  Dr.  Johnson  for  la- 
dies who  cultivated  learned  conversation.  Boa- 
well  relates  that  in  1781  it  was  much  the  fashion 
for  Isdies  to  form  evening  assemblies  where  they 
might  participate  in  talk  with  literary  and  in- 
genious men.  One  of  the  most  eminent  talkers 
on  these  occasions  was  a  Mr.  Stillingfleet,  who 
always  wore  blue  stockinffs,  and  his  absence  at 
any  time  was  so  regretted  that  it  used  to  be 
said^  ^^We  can  do  nothing  without  the  blue 
stockings.*'  The  title  was  by  degrees  trans- 
ferred, first  to  the  dubs  of  this  kind,  and  then 
to  the  ladies  who  attended  them.  It  soon  be- 
came a  general  wpeUation  for  pedantic  or  ridi- 
culously literary  ladies.  One  of  the  most  fin- 
mous  of  these  clubs  was  that  which  met  at  Mrs. 
Montagu's,  which  was  sometimes  honored  by 
the  presence  of  Dr.  Johnson,  and  the  principal 
members  of  which  have  been  sketched  and  eu- 
logized by  Hannah  More,  in  her  poem  entitled 
the  '*  Bas  Bleu.*' 

BLUE  VITRIOL,  called  also  Bunt  Stomb, 
the  salt,  sulphate  of  copper,  composed  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  oxide  of  copper,  and  water.  It  is 
a  natural  product  of  some  mines  of  copper  orea^ 
and  IS  also  largely  prepared  for  economical  pur- 
poses.   See  OoppsB,  Sitlfbats  of. 

BLUEBIRD  (nalia  WUsaniiy  Swains.),  a 
North  American  species  of  the  order  ptmim^ 
tribe  dmUiro§tr€$^  and  family  huoinida.  This 
well-known  species  is  about  7  inches  long,  and 
10  inches  in  extent  of  wings ;  the  bill  is  black, 
about  i  an  inch  long,  and  nearlv  straight;  the 
plumage  of  the  male  is  soft  and  blended,  above 
of  a  bright  azure  blue,  below  yellowish  brown, 
and  the  beUy  white ;  the  female  has  the  upper 
parts  of  a  hue  approaching  leaden,  with  the  rest 
ukethe  male,  though  duUer;  the  young  hava 


BLUEFIELDS 


BLUET  D'ARBfiRES 


895 


tiie  head  and  back  brownish.  It »  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  TJuitod  States,  excepting  perhaps 
some  of  the  new  Paoifio  territories;  it  is  very 
sprightly  and  familiar,  and  is  always  a  welcome 
Yisitor.  The  nest  is  made  either  in  a  box  pre- 
pared for  it,  or  in  any  convenient  hole  in  a  tree ; 
the  eggs  are  from  4  to  6,  of  a  pale  blue  color. 
The  food  consists  of  various  kinds  of  insects  and 
spiders,  and  also  the  ripe  fruits  of  the  south.  Its 
song  is  a  soft  agreeable  warble,  becoming  plain- 
tive as  winter  approaches,  at  which  season 
most  of  them  repiur  to  the  southern  states. 
Andubon  says  that  this  species  often  reminded 
him  of  the  robin  redbreast  of  Europe,  in  its 
form  and  habits.  There  are  2  other  species, 
much  resembling  the  above,  S.  Mexicana^ 
Swains,  and  S.  aretieOj  Swains.  The  former,  the 
western  bluebird,  occupies  the  same  localities 
on  the  Pacific  coast  that  the  8,  WiUonii  does  on 
the  Atlantic;  its  color  approaches  ultramarine, 
with  a  chestnut  band  across  the  back,  the  throat 
blue,  and  the  fore  part  of  the  breast  red.  The 
8.  aretiea  is  found  about  Oolumbia  river  and 
Fort  Vancouver ;  the  color  is  a  light  smalt  or 
greenish  blue  above,  and  of  a  paler  tint  of  the 
same  below  anteriorly.  The  bill  and  wings  are 
somewhat  longer  in  the  last  2  than  in  the  first 
species.  The  bluebird  is  one  of  the  earliest  of 
our  spring  songsters,  and  does  good  service  to 
the  agriculturist  in  destroying  beetles,  ^grass- 
hoppers, grubs,  wire-worms,  and  other  similar 
pesta ;  it  rarely  injures  any  of  our  garden  fruits, 
preferring  those  of  the  sumach  and  the  wilu 
cherry.   ^^ 

BLuEFIELBS,  or  Blbwfislds,  a  river  and 
town  of  the  Mosquito  territory,  Central  Ameri- 
ca. The  river  is  several  hundred  miles  long,  is 
navigable  for  80  mUes,  and  empties  into  an  in- 
let of  the  Caribbean  sea.  On  an  eminence  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  stands  the  town  of  the 
same  name.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  king  of 
the  Mosquito  country,  and  has  a  good  harbor. 

BLUEFISH  (temnodan  $aUator,  Cuv.),  an 
aeanthopterygian  fish  of  the  family  of  tcomM- 
dOf  called  also  ^*  skip-jack,"  and  sometimes 
*'  horse-mackerel  ;'*  both  of  the  latter  terms  are 
applied  to  other  scomberoid  fishes,  and  the  last 
especially,  on  the  New  England  coast,  to  a 
species  of  tunn^.  AU  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  is  of  a  bluish  color,  the  lower  part  of  sides 
and  abdomen  whitish,  a  large  black  spot  at  the 
base  of  pectoral  fins ;  the  jaws  are  armed  with 
prominent,  sharp,  and  lancinated  teeth,  the 
lower  with  1  row,  the  upper  with  a  second  pos- 
terior row  of  snoall  ones;  the  base  of  the 
tongue,  vomer,  and  palatic  bones  are  also 
crowded  with  very  small  teeth ;  the  operculum 
terminates  in  2  points,  not  spines,  the  lateral 
line  beginning  just  above  its  posterior  angle, 
and,  curving  with  the  body,  terminating  at  the 
base  of  the  caudal  fin ;  the  fins  are  covered 
with  scales.  It  arrives  on  the  coast  of  the 
middle  states  early  in  the  spring,  accompanying 
the  weakfiah  {otoUihru  regcdU,  Cuv.)  in  its 
migrations,  and  feedins  principally  upon  it ;  it 
is  not  uncommon  in  Massachusetts  bay  in  the 


summer  months,  where  it  is  often  seen  chasing 
the  schools  of  menhaden  and  mackerel,  jump- 
ing out  of  water,  and  so  hotly  pursuing  its  prey 
as  to  drive  large  numbers  of  them  upon  the 
beaches.  The  size  varies  from  1  to  8  feet  in 
length,  the  weight  from  5  to  14  lbs. ;  the  former 
being  the  ordinary  weight  of  those  seen  in  the 
market  It  is  one  of  the  most  swift^  strong,  and 
voracious  of  fishes ;  they  will  bite  eagerly  at  any 
object  drawn  rapidly  through  the  water,  and 
advanta^  is  taken  of  this  to  catch  them  by 
trolling  m  sail-boats ;  so  sharp  are  their  teet& 
that  it  is  necessary  to  wire  the  line  for  a  short 
distance  above  the  hook  or  spoon.  It  is  so  ter- 
rible a  foe  to  the  mackerel,  that  the  scarcity  of 
the  latter  fish  on  the  New  England  coast  in 
1857  was  attributed  by  the  fishermen  mainly 
to  its  presence;  considerable  numbers  were 
caught  in  Massachusetts  bay  during  that  sum- 
mer, and  many  from  the  rock-bound  beaches 
of  Cohasset  and  Scituate.  It  generally  swims 
near  the  surface.  Toward  the  latter  part  of 
summer  it  is  most  excellent  eating.  It  runs  up 
the  mouth  of  rivers  even  to  quite  fresh  water, 
being  taken  in  the  Hudson  as  high  up  as  Sing- 
Sing,  in  the  Delaware  at  Philadelphia,  and  in 
the  Potomac  as  far  up  as  Acquia  creek.  It 
ranges  far  alona  the  coasts  of  North  and  South 
America,  and,  in  the  opinicm  of  Valenciennes, 
inhabits,  as  a  single  species,  both  oceans. 

BLUEING  OF  MET AI^,  the  process  of  giv- 
ing a  blue  color  to  metallic  substances  by 
heat.  Iron,  when  heated,  becomes  first  of  a 
lights  then  of  a  darker  gold  color,  and  finally 
blue.  Steel  heated  to  redness  and  suddenly 
cooled,  b  rendered  hard  and  brittle.  It  is  re- 
stored to  any  degree  of  softness,  by  heating  it 
up  to  certain  temperatures  and  allowing  it  to 
cool  slowly.  These  temperatures  are  precisely 
indicated  by  tiie  color  of  the  film  of  oxide 
which  forms  upon  its  surface.  At  480*"  F.  it  is 
straw  yellow  of  the  very  hard  temper  suitable 
for  lancets.  At  higher  temperatures  it  appears 
successively  a  golden  yellow,  then  brown,  pur- 
ple, blue,  and  finally  green.  Pole  blue  at  560^ 
IS  the  temper  for  swords  and  watch  springs. 
The  common  shade  of  blue,  at  SdO"",  is  the  tem- 
per  for  fine  saws  and  dirks.  Deep  blue^  at 
600  J  is  the  soft  quality  of  steel  for  large  saws. 

BLUET  D'ARB£:R£S,  Bbbnard,  a  French 
fool  by  profession,  when  such  a  profession  ex- 
isted, bom  about  1660,  of  a  peasant  family, 
died  in  1606.  During  his  boyhood  he  was  a 
shepherd,  afterward  a  cartwright,  and  then  a 
fool  to  the  family  of  a  Savoyard  nobleman.  At 
the  age  of  84  he  went  to  Paris,  assumed  the 
title  of  eomte  ds  Permisnan  and  chevalier  dea 
ligues  dee  XIIL  cantons  Sumee,  He  wrote 
eulogies  for  the  great,  on  whose  bounty  he  lived, 
particularly  on  that  of  Henry  IV.,  and  afterward 
wrote  prophecies  for  the  people.  His  works 
were  collected  into  178  books,  of  which  about 
180  have  come  down  to  us.  At  the  McCarthy 
sale,  in  1816,  a  copy  of  Bluet  was  sold  for  500 
francs.  Fifteen  years  later,  it  was  sold  in  Eng- 
land for  £20  sterling.    It  is  said  that  when  the 


896 


BLUFFS 


BLUM 


plague  of  1606  ravaged  Paris,  Blnet  gave  out 
that  his  total  abstention  from  food  for  9  days 
would  save  the  citj.    He  died  on  the  6th  day. 

BLUFFS,  a  term  of  American  origin,  synony- 
moas  with  clif&.  It  has  long  been  used  to  des- 
ignate the  high  clif&  met  with  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi river;  particnlarly  those  abrupt  banks 
of  loam  on  its  eastern  side  below  the  mouth  of 
the  Ohio.  These  are  continually  washed  and 
undermined  by  the  action  of  the  river,  while 
the  opposite  side,  rising  more  gently  back  from 
the  river,  is  but  slightly  washed  by  its  waters. 
On  the  south  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  near  the 
Pictured  Kocks,  is  a  most  remarkable  bluff  of 
loose,  blowing  sand,  which  rises  so  steeply  from 
the  edge  of  the  water  to  the  height  of  ZOO  feet, 
that  one  would  in  vain  endeavor  to  ascend  it^ 
The  waves  and  the  winds  beat  against  it  from  the 
north,  and  keep  its  materials  continually  in  mo- 
tion ;  but  more  sand  appears  to  be  always  sup- 
plied to  replace  that  which  is  borne  away. 

BLUHlKiGS,  Ohbistian  Albert,  a  Banish 
statesman  of  the  present  day,  bom  in  Copen- 
hagen, Dec.  27,  1794.  Employed  in  the  public 
service  of  his  country  sinoe  1820,  he  officiated 
as  minister  of  commerce  from  March  to  Nov. 
1848,  as  chief  administrator  of  the  Sound  duties 
in  1850,  reentered  the  cabinet  as  foreign  min- 
ister in  Nov.  1851,  and  finally,  in  Jan.  1852, 
became  prime  minister.  This  office  he  retained 
until  Dec.  1854^  when  his  administration  was 
impeached  for  an  alleged  transgression  of  power 
in  the  financial  department  The  impeachment, 
however,  was  finally  ^abandoned  by  the  verdict 
of  the  supreme  court  of  Feb.  27,  1856.  Mr. 
Bluhme  resumed  his  post  as  director  of  the 
Sound  duties  in  1855,  and  in  Jan.  1856  he  was 
appointed  president  of  the  Sound  duties  com- 
mittee. 

BLUM,  BoBBBT,  one  of  the  martyrs  of  the 
German  revolution,  born  at  Cologne,  Nov. 
10,  1807,  executed  in  Vienna,  Nov.  9, 1848.  He 
was  the  son  of  a  poor  journeyman  cooper,  who 
died  in  1815,  leaving  8  children  and  a  distressed 
widow,  who,  in  1816,  again  married  a  common 
lighterman.  This  second  marriage  proved  un- 
happy, and  the  family  misery  rose  to  a  climax  in 
the  famine  of  1816-^17.  In  1819  young  Robert 
belonging  to  the  Catholic  confession,  obtained 
an  employment  as  mass-servant;  then  became 
apprentice  to  a  gilder,  then  to  a  girdler,  and, 
according  to  the  Grerman  custom,  became  a 
travelling  journeyman,  but  was  not  up  to  the 
requirements  of  his  handicraft,  and,  after  a  short 
absence,  had  to  return  to  Cologne.  Here  he 
found  occupation  in  a  lantern  manufactory, 
ingratiated  himself  with  his  employer,  was  by 
him  promoted  to  a  place  in  the  counting-house, 
had  to  accompany  his  patron  on  his  journeys 
through  the  southern  states  of  Germany,  and, 
in  the  year  1829**80,  resided  with  him  at  Berlin. 
During  this  period  he  endeavored,  by  assiduous 
exertion,  to  procure  a  sort  of  encyolop»dio 
knowledge,  without  however  betraying  a  marked 
predilection  or  a  signal  endowment  for  any  par- 
tioolar  science.    Summoned,  in  1880,  to  the 


military  service,  to  which  every  Prussian  sub- 
ject is  bound,  his  relations  with  his  protect<Hr 
were  broken  off.  Dismissed  from  the  army 
after  a  six  weeks'  service,  and  finding  his  em- 
ployment gone,  he  returned  again  to  Cologne,  in 
almost  the  same  circumstances  in  which  he  had 
twice  left  it.  There  the  misery  of  his  parents, 
and  his  own  helplessness,  induced  him  to  accept, 
at  the  hands  of  Mr.  Bingelhardt,  tJie  man- 
ager of  the  Cologne  theatre,  the  office  of 
man  of  all  work  of  9ie  theatre.  His  connection 
with  the  stage,  although  of  a  subaltern  charac- 
ter, drew  his  attention  to  dramatic  literature, 
while  the  political  excitement  which  the  French 
revolution  of  July  had  caused  throuriiout 
Rhenish  Prussia,  allowed  him  to  min^e  in 
^certain  political  circles,  and  to  insert  poetry  ia 
the  local  papers.  In  1881,  Bingelhardt,  who 
had  meanwhile  removed  to  Leipsic,  appointed 
Blum  cashier  and  secretary  of  the  Leipsio 
theatre,  a  post  he  held  until  1847.  From  1881 
to  1837  he  made  contributions  to  the  Leipsio 
family  papers,  such  as  the  Oomet^  the  Abend- 
seitung^  &c.,  and  published  a  **  Theatrical  Cydo- 
psBdia,"  the  "  Friend  of  the  Constitution,"  an 
almanac  entitled  VortcdrU,  &c.  His  writings 
are  impressed  with  the  stamp  of  a  certain 
household  mediocrity.  His  later  productions 
were,  moreover,  spoiled  by  a  superfluity  of  bad 
taste.  His  political  activity  dates  from  1887, 
when,  as  the  spokesman  of  a  deputation  of 
Leipsio  citizens,  he  handed  over  a  present  of 
honor  to  2  opposition  members  of  the  Saxon 
estates.  In  1840  he  became  one  of  the  found- 
ers, and  in  1841  one  of  the  directors  of  the 
Schiller  associations,  and  of  the  association  of 
German  authors.  His  contributions  to  the  SSeh- 
siaehe  Vaterlandsbldtter^  a  political  Journal, 
made  him  the  most  popular  Journalist  of  Saxony, 
and  the  particular  object  of  government  perse- 
cution. German  Catholicism,  as  it  was  called, 
found  a  warm  partisan  in  him.  He  founded 
the  German  Catholic  church  at  Leipsic,  and 
became  its  spiritual  director  in  1845.  On  Aug. 
12, 1845,  when  an  immense  meeting  of  arm^ 
citizens  and  students,  assembling  before  the 
riflemen^s  barracks  at  Leipsic,  threatened  to 
storm  it  in  order  to  revenge  the  murderous 
onslaught  committed  the  day  before  by  a  com- 
pany of  the  riflemen,  Blum,  by  his  popular 
eloquence,  persuaded  the  excited  masses  not  to 
deviate  from  legal  modes  of  resistance,  and 
himself  took  the  lead  in  the  proceedings  for 
legal  redress.  In  reward  for  his  exertions,  the 
Saxon  ffovemment  renewed  its  persecutions 
against  him,  which,  in  1847,  ended  in  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Vaterlandshl&tUr.  On  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution  of  February,  1848,  he  be- 
came the  centre  of  the  liberal  party  of  Saxony, 
founded  the  ^*  Fatherland's  Association,^'  which 
soon  mustered  above  40,000  members,  and  gener- 
ally proved  an  indefatigable  agitator.  Sent  by 
the  city  of  Leipsic  to  the  "  preliminary  parlia- 
ment,'' he  there  acted  as  vice-chairman,  and  by 
preventing  the  secession  en  masM  of  the  oppo- 
sition, contributed  to  sustain  that  body.    After 


BLUMENBAOH 


897 


its  diasolation,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
committee  it  left  behind,  and  afterward  of  the 
Frankfort  parliament^  in  which  he  was  the 
leader  of  the  moderate  opposition.  His  poli- 
tical theory  aimed  at  a  republic  as  the  summit 
of  Germany,  but  as  its  baae  the  different  tradi- 
tionary kingdoms,  dukedoms,  &o. ;  since,  in  his 
opinion,  the  latter  alone  were  able  to  preserve, 
intact,  what  he  considered  a  peculiar  beauty  of 
German  society,  the  independent  development 
of  its  different  orders.  As  a  speaker  he  was 
^ausible,  rather  theatrical,  and  very  popular. 
When  the  news  of  the  Vienna  insurrection  reach- 
ed Frankfort,  he  was  charged,  in  company  with 
some  other  members  of  the  German  parliament, 
to  carry  to  Vienna  an  address  drawn  up  by  the 
parliamentary  opposition.  As  the  spokesman 
of  the  deputation,  he  handed  the  address  to  the 
mnnioipal  council  of  Vienna,  Oct.  17, 1848.  Hav- 
ing enrolled  himself  in  the  ranks  of  the  students' 
corps,  and  commanded  a  barricade  duringthe 
fight,  he  sat^  after  the  capture  of  Vienna  by  Win- 
dischgratz,  qnietly  conversing  in  a  hotel,  when 
the  hotel  was  surrounded  by  soldiers,  and  he  him- 
self made  prisoner.  Placed  before  a  court-mar-r 
tial,  and  not  condescending  to  deny  any  of  his 
speechee  or  acta,  he  was  sentenced  to  the  gal- 
lows^ a  ponishment  commuted  to  that  of  being 
shot  This  execntion  took  place  at  daybreak, 
in  the  Brigittenau. 

BLUMENBAGH,  Johaitk  Frxxdbioh,  a  Ger- 
man naturalist,  bom  at  Gotha,  May  11,  1762, 
died  at  Gdttingen,  Jan.  22,  1840.  Hb  fkther 
was  engaged  in  teaching,  and  his  mother,  ac- 
cording to  Blumenbaoh's  own  statement,  *'had 
all  the  virtues  which  adorn  the  mother  of  a 
£unily."  His  love  of  science  was  first  kindled 
when  he  was  only  10  years  of  age,  by  the  acci- 
dental mght  of  a  human  skeleton,  in  the  honse 
of  a  physician,  the  friend  of  his  father;  and  al- 
though other  studies  claimed  a  portion  of  his 
time^  he  never  after  ceased  to  meditate  on  oste- 
ology, and  the  relations  of  the  skeleton  to  the 
whole  organism.  He  made  collections  of  hu- 
man skulls  and  the  bones  of  animals,  as  a  basis 
for  comparative  anatomy.  At  the  age  of  17, 
he  commenced  the  study  of  medicine  at  Jena, 
where  he  remained  8  years,  and  afterward  at 
Gdttingen,  where  he  obtained  his  degree  of 
doctor  of  medicine  in  1775.  On  that  occasion, 
he  wrote  a  thesis  on  the  different  varieties  of 
the  human  race,  De  OenerU  Humani  VarietaU 
NatinOy  in  which  he  developed  the  germ  of 
those  craniological  researches  and  comparisons, 
for  which  he  afterward  became  celebrated. 
His  acquirements  were  so  highly  estimated, 
that  he  was  appointed  Junior  professor  of  medi- 
cine in  the  following  year;  and  2  years  later, 
in  1778,  regular  professor.  From  1780  to  1794 
heeditedascientincpublication,  ihAMedieinitchA 
Bibliothek,  in  which  he  wrote  many  valuable 
articles  on  medicine^  physiology,  and  compara- 
tive anatomy.  He  also  obtained  a  well-merited 
reputation  by  the  publication  of  his  Institutions 
Pkytioloffiea,  a  condensed  and  well-arranged 
view  of  the  animal  functions;  the  work  ap- 


peared in  1787,  and  during  a  period  of  84  years, 
from  1787  to  1821,  went  through  many  editions 
in  Germany,  where  it  was  the  general  text  book 
for  science  in  the  schools.  This  work  was 
translated  into  many  foreign  languages.  It 
was  rendered  into  English  by  Dr.  Caldwell, 
and  published  in  America  in  1798,  and  in  Lon- 
don, by  EUiotson,  in  1817.  Blumenbach  be- 
came still  more  extensively  known  by  his  manual 
of  comparative  anatomy  and  physiology,  of  which 
8  editions  were  published  in  Germany,  from 
the  time  of  its  first  appearance,  in  1804,  up  to 
1824.  It  was  transkted  into  English  in  1809, 
by  the  eminent  surgeon  Lawrence;  and  again, 
with  the  latest  additions  and  improvements^  by 
Ooulson,  in  1827.  Though  less  elaborate  than 
the  works  of  Ouvier  and  Oarus,  this  work  of 
Blumenbach  will  always  be  valued  for  the  ac- 
curacy of  his  own  observations,  and  the  just 
appreciation  of  the  labors  of  his  predecessors. 
Blumenbach  was  the  first  who  placed  compara- 
tive anatomy  on  a  truly  scientific  basis.  In 
1785,  long  before  Ouvier's  time,  he  instituted 
the  method  of  comparing  different  varieties  of 
human  skeletons,  and  skeletons  of  animals. 
Oamper  had  only  compared  the  facial  angles  of 
the  skulls  of  Europeans,  negroes,  and  orang- 
outangs; Blnmenbadi  perceived  the  insufficiency 
of  these  few  points  of  comparison,  and  intro- 
duced a  general  survey  of  comparative  anatomy. 
He  insisted  on  the  necessity  of  comparing  the 
whole  cranium  and  face,  to  distinguish  the  va- 
rieties of  the  human  race ;  and  his  numerous 
observations  were  published  in  the  ColUctio 
Craniorum  Divenorum  Omtium^  published  at 
Gdttingen,  in  7  decades,  from  1790  to  1828,  in 
4to.  with  80  figures,  and  in  the  decade  VIII., 
or  Nova  Fentas  CoUoctionit  Sua  Craniorum^ 
which  was  Joined  to  the  work  in  the  latter 
year.  Blumenbach  wrote  many  works  of 
scientific  merit;  but  Ins  theory  of  generation, 
on  the  hypothesis  of  a  nieus  fomuUivtu,  has 
been  deemed  as  futile  as  the  "  predxistent  germs*' 
of  Leibnitz;  and  yet  it  does  not  seem  devoid 
of  rationality  on  dose  examination.  It  is  not 
clear  enough,  however,  to  command  assent, 
without  more  proof  than  he  has  given  of  its 
probable  reality. — ^The  greatest  part  of  Blumen- 
bach*s  life  was  passed  at  Gdttmgen,  and,  like 
the  life  of  other  scientific  men  devoted  to  the 
study  of  nature  and  her  laws,  was  not  much 
chequered  with  events  of  a  romantic  or  exciting 
nature.  In  1788  he  viuted  Switzerland,  and 
gave  a  curious  medical  topography  of  that  coun- 
try in  his  Bibliothok.  In  1788  he  was  in  Eng- 
land, and  also  in  1792.  The  prince  regent,  in 
1816,  conferred  on  him  the  office  of  physician 
to  tbe  royal  fiunUy  in  Hanover;  and  he  made 
him  kni^t-companion  of  the  Guelphic  order  in 
1821 .  The  royal  academy  of  Paris  adopted  him  as 
a  member  in  1881 .  Blumenbach  was  highly  hon- 
ored and  appreciiUbed  in  all  the  civilized  nationsof 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  Germany,  his  native  land. 
In  1776  he  was  appointed  conservator  of  the 
museum  of  natural  history  at  Gottingen,  which 
be  enriched  by  numerous  collections;  and  2  years 


BLUNDERBUSS 


BOA 


later,  he  vraa  named  professor  of  physiology 
and  comparative  anatomy.  In  early  youth  he 
was  the  friend  of  Sdmmerring,  who  became  cele- 
brated also  as  an  eminent  anatomist;  and  daring 
half  a  centary  the  noblest  youths  of  Germany 
studied  under  Blumenbach  at  GOttingen.  Not 
the  least  distinguished  of  his  pupils  was  AIex« 
ander  von  Humboldt,  who  has  since  become  as 
famous  as  his  master.  In  1826  Blumenbach 
celebrated  the  jubilee  of  his  professorship,  the 
60th  anniversary  of  his  inauguration  as  a  doc* 
tor  of  medicine.  On  this  occasion  he  bequeath- 
ed a  certain  sum  of  money  for  the  advancement 
of  natural  history.  Ten  years  later,  in  JL886, 
after  laboring  60  years  as  a  professor  and  a  dili- 
gent student  of  comparative  anatomy  and  phys- 
iology, he  retired  frem  public  life,  and  only  lec- 
tured privately  to  select  audiences,  in  which  he 
numbered  several  of  the  crowned  heads  of 
Europe,  on  different  occasions.  His  style  of 
lecturing  was  said  to  be  exceedingly  attractive, 
from  the  interest  he  took  in  his  own  favorite 
studies,  and  the  ease  with  which  he  taught  to 
others  what  he  knew  himself  so  well 

BLUNDERBUSS,  a  short,  heavy,  large-bored 
firearm,  often  brass-barrelled,  and  bell  or  trum- 
pet mouthed.  It  was  used  to  discharge  a  heavy 
load  of  slugs  or  small  bullets  at  a  short  range, 
and  some  years  since  was  generally  employed 
as  a  weapon  for  the  defence  of  houses  against 
burglars.  As  a  military  weapon,  it  was  used 
occasionally  on  ship-board  for  repelling  board- 
ers, or  pouring  heavy  volleys  into  boats,  when 
attempting  to  cut  vessels  out  from  anchorage. 
It  is  now  wholly  disused. 

BLUNT,  Edmund  Mabch,  author  of  yarioua 
nautical  works,  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
June  20,  1770.  His  "American  Coast  Pilot" 
has  made  his  name  famous  to  seamen  through- 
out the  world ;  there  is  not  a  port  on  the  ex- 
tensive coasts  of  the  United  States  undescribed, 
and  the  sailing  directions  have  been  the  means 
of  saving  thousands  from  shipwreck.  It  was 
commenced  by  him  in  1796,  has  been  published 
in  18  successive  editions,  has  been  translated 
into  most  of  the  languages  of  Europe,  and  is 
continued  to  this  day.  His  other  nautical 
works,  charts,  &c.,  have  been  numerous.  He 
yet  lives,  at  the  advanced  age  of  88. — ^Ed- 
MTiSD,  son  of  the  preceding,  born  in  Newbury- 
prt,  Mass.,  Nov.  28,  1799.  At  the  age  of  IT 
he  surveyed  the  harbor  of  New  York ;  from 
that  time  up  to  1883  he  was  engaged  in  surveys 
in  the  West  Indies,  Guatemala,  and  the  sea 
coast  of  the  United  States,  on  his  private  ac- 
count. In  1888  he  was  appointed  a  first  as- 
sistant, by  Mr.  Hassler,  in  the  U.  S  coast  sur- 
vey, in  which  office  he  has  continued  to  this 
date.  Mr.  Blunt  is  a  surveyor  of  untiring  in- 
dustry, great  skill,  and  scrupulous  accuracy. 
The  country  is  indebted  to  him  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  Fresnel  light. 

BLUNT,  John  Jakes,  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  university  of  Cambridge,  England,  bom 
at  Newcastle-under-Lyme,  in  1794,  died  at  0am- 
bridge,  June  17, 1866.    He  obtained  a  fellow- 


ship in  1816;  was  appointed  in  1818  one  of 
the  travelling  bachelors;  vinted  Italy,  and  wrote 
a  volume  on  the  ^*  Vestises  of  Ancient  Manners 
and  Customs  discoverable  in  Modern  Italy  and 
Sicily,''  published  in  1828,  and  translated  into 
German.     He  held  various  ecclesiastical  ap- 

S)intmentB  until  1889,  when,  on  the  death  of 
ishop  Marsh,  he  was  elected  to  the  Lady  Mar- 
garet's professorship  of  divinity.  On  the  death 
of  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  the  vacant  see  was 
offered  to  him,  but  he  preferred  to  remain  in 
the  university.  Many  of  his  lectures  and  ser- 
mons were  published.  A  8d  edition  of  his 
^  Undecided  Coincidences  in  the  Writings  both 
in  the  Old  and  New  Testaments"  appeared  ia 
1860.  His  most  popular  production  was  his 
^^  Sketch  of  the  Reformation  of  the  Churdi  of 
Endand,"  which  psssed  through  16  editionSy 
and  was  translated  into  French  and  German. 

BLUSHING  is  a  sudden  reddening  of  the 
fEMC,  caused  by  a  rush  of  blood  into  the  capil- 
lary vessels  of  tlie  cdcin.  A  blush  is  excited  bj 
confusion  of  mind,  arising  from  surprise  or 
diffidence,  modesty  or  shame,  or  conscious  guilt 
and  apprehension,  showing  the  influence  of  the 
passions  and  emotions  on  the  nervons  system 
and  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  Sudden 
fear  and  apprehension  cause  the  blood  to  rush 
from  the  external  surface  to  the  internal  organs, 
leaving  the  bloodless  lips  quite  pale,  and  the 
whole  fiftoe  suffused  with  deathly  pallor.  It  is 
a  kind  of  inverse  blushing;  the  one  being  a 
sudden  flash  of  color  in  the  face,  the  other  a 
sudden  flash  of  paleness. 

BOA,  a  large  serpent  of  the  fourth  family; 
hoidcB^  of  the  second  order  of  reptiles,  ophidia. 
This  family  is  known  by  the  fuUowing  charac- 
ters: The  under  part  of  the  body  and  tail,  ex- 
cept in  holyeria^  is  covered  with  transverse 
bands,  each  of  a  single  piece,  narrow,  scaly, 
and  often  6-sided;  there  is  neither  spur  nor 
rattle  at  the  tip  of  the  tail ;  the  hinder  limba, 
formed  of  several  bones,  are  developed  into  an 
ezserted  horny  spine  or  hook  on  each  side  of 
the  vent;  the  body  compressed,  larger  toward 
the  middle;  the  tail  short  and  preheoale;  the 
pupil,  except  in  tartrix^  oblong  and  erect;  and 
small  scales,  at  least  on  the  hinder  part  of  the 
head.  A  remarkable  feature  of  their  anatom  j 
consists  in  their  having  one  lung  shorter  by 
one-half  than  the  other.  They  are  the  largest 
of  serpents,  and  though  without  venom,  their 
immense  muscular  power  enables  them  to  crush 
within  theu"  folds  large  animals,  which  they 
first  lubricate  with  saliva,  and  then  swallow 
whole  by  their  enormously  dilatable  jaws  and 
gullet.  They  sometimes  entrap  their  prey  by 
fixing  themselves  by  the  tail  to  some  aquatic 
tree,  and  then  allowing  themselves  to  float. — 
It  c^pears  that,  in  former  times,  serpents 
of  this  family  existed  in  Italy,  Greece,  and 
the  Mediterranean  regions  of  Africa.  Vir> 
giPs  description  of  the  death  of  Laocodn  and 
his  2  sons,  as  well  as  the  magnificent  marble 
group,  which  either  furnished  the  sulject  for 
his  description,  or  was  suggested  to  the  sculptor 


BOA 


899 


b7  it^  and  agtln  the  aoooont,  in  the  24th  idyll 
of  Theocritus,  of  the  serpents  sent  by  Juno  to 
destroy  the  infant  Heroales  in  his  cradle,  all 
show  that  the  artists  were  perfectly  acquainted 
with  the  action  and  modus  operandi  of  con- 
stricting serpents.  The  narrative  by  Valerius 
Mazimus  of  the  gigantic  serpent,  which  had  its 
lair  by  the  waters  of  the  river  M^erda,  not 
&r  from  Utica,  or  the  present  site  of  Tunis,  and 
which  kept  the  whole  army  of  Regulus  at  bay, 
killing  many  of  his  soldiery  nntu  it  was  at 
length  destroyed  by  stones  cast  from  the  en- 
ginea  used  in  the  siege  of  cities,  is  familiar  to 
most  readers.  It  is^  moreover,  stated  that  the 
akin  of  this  serpent  was  120  feet  in  length,  and 
was  preserved  in  a  temple,  at  Borne,  until  the 
time  of  the  Numantine  war.  Pliny,  who  re- 
lates this  story,  giving  it  full  credence,  adds 
that  the  serpents  called  hoot  in  Italy  confirm 
this;  for  that  they  grow  so  large  that  one 
killed  on  the  Vatican  hill,  that  is  to  say,  within 
the  very  confines  of  the  city,  in  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  had  the  entire  body  of  an  infiEint  in 
its  belly.  Suetonius  also,  in  the  4dd  chapter  of 
his  life  of  Octavianus  Ossar,  mentions  Uie  ex- 
hibition of  a  serpent  of  50  cubits,  Y5  feet,  in 
length,  in  front  of  the  Oomitium.  These  tre- 
mendous reptiles,  which  are  now  found  in  the 
tropical  countries  only,  have  been  recently  distin* 
guuhed  into  no  less  than  25  genera,  under  which 
are  arranged,  according  to  characteristic  differ- 
ences, the  serpents  in  the  British  museum. 
Among  these  genera,  which  contain  most  of 
them  several  species,  are  the  following:  L 
Fjfthan,  2  species,  distinguished  from  the  boas 
by  placing  its  eggs  in  groups,  and  covering 
them  with  its  body.  This  habit,  which  had 
been  doubted,  has  been  verified  from  observa- 
tion of  the  proceedings  of  a  python  in  the 
jardin  de$  plantet  at  Paris.  The  ular  sawad  of 
llindoetan,  Oeylon,  and  Borneo,  and  the  rock 
snake  of  Java ;  the  former  is  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  terrible  of  all  these  hideous  monsters, 
Bald  to  grow  to  80  feet  in  length,  and  propor- 
tionally stout,  and  to  be  able  to  manage  a  full- 
grown  bufOalo.  There  are  living  specimens  of 
both  these  snakes  in  the  zoological  gardens^ 
Regent's  park,  London.  II.  JSbrtulia,  3  species, 
all  of  South  Africa  :  the  Natal  rock  snake,  25 
feet  long,  and  as  large  as  the  body  of  a  stout 
man ;  the  Guinea  rock  snake,  of  which  there 
Ss  a  specimen  in  the  Regent's  park,  which  is 
calculated  to  weigh  one  hundred  weight ;  and 
the  royal  rock  snaJce,  which  is  the  serpent  with 
which  Mr.  Gumming  had  one  of  his  severest 
contests  by  the  side  of  an  African  fountain,  near 
which  the  intrepid  hunter  was  marking  the 
spoor  of  game.  III.  .8ms,  4  species,  peculiar  to 
Mexico,  Honduras,  Santa  Lucia,  and  Peru. 
This  is  the  genua  which  has  given  the  general 
name,  in  common  parlance,  to  the  whole  family 
of  great  constricting  serpents.  The  skin  of  one 
of  these  serpents,  of  the  first  species,  hoa  eoiV' 
ttrictory  the  tlieoatl  and  temacuilcahuilia  of 
the  Mexicans,  and  the  object  of  their  hideous, 
nnnatnral,  and  sanguinary  serpent-worship,  of 


which  the  Spaniards  stood  in  such  awe,  is  pre- 
served in  the  British  museum.  The  proper  boa  is 
decided  by  Ouvier  not  to  be  a  native  of  any  por- 
tion of  the  old  world.  IV.  ^tinee^,  one  species, 
the  native  of  tropical  America ;  this  is  the  ana- 
conda, a  name  said  to  be  of  Oeylonese  origin, 
which,  like  that  of  boa,  has  been  vulgarly  given 
to  the  whole  family.  (See  ANA0ONDA.)---The 
boa  is  the  most  terrible  class  of  destructive  rep- 
tiles in  existence,  against  which  no  care  could 
defend,  no  force  avail  to  deliver,  when  once 
tiieir  deadly  hold  is  taken;  their  long,  keen 
teeth,  curved  strongly  backward,  each  tooth  in 
either  jaw  fitting  between  the  interstices  of  2 
in  the  other,  clasping  whatever  they  seize  upon 
inextricably,  and  with  the  force  of  some  dread- 
ful machine.  Then,  with  the  speed  of  light, 
the  vast  volumes  are  wound  in  huge  knots,  not 
in  regular  spirfds,  about  the  agonized  creature, 
which  rarely  has  the  power  to  utter  above  a 
single  cry;  although  the  process  of  death  is 
neither  rapid  nor  easy,  being  a  combination  of 
strangulation  by  compression  of  the  vitals,  and 
of  criuhing  all  the  bones  into  one  shapeless  and 
diaoi^anized  mass.  So  long  as  the  terrible  con- 
strictor is  sensible  of  life  or  motion,  within  his 
compressed  folds,  he  still  constricts  them  closer 
and  closer ;  but  when  once  aware  that  there  is 
life  no  longer  in  the  wretched  relic  which  he 
embraces,  he  slowly  glides  away,  and  suffers 
his  prey  to  drop,  a  mere  rag,  from  the  gripe 
of  the  folds  which  have  done  their  work  so 
fatally.  There  are  extant  several  accurate  and 
minute  accounts  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
monstrous  serpents  kill  and  eat,  drawn  up  by 
painstaking  and  scientific  observers,  who  have 
watched  their  performances  while  in  confine- 
ment ;  one  is  by  Mr.  McLeod,  who  wrote  a  narra- 
tive of  the  voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Alceste,  in  which 
was  brought  over  to  England,  from  the  island  of 
Borneo,  a  serpent  of  the  family  of  hoidOj  16  feet 
in  length,  and  18  inches  in  circumference,  to- 
gether with  6  miserable  goats  destined  to 
feed  the  snake  on  his  voyage.  One  of  these 
wretched  animals  was  devoured  every  8  weeks, 
and  Mr.  McLeod's  description  of  the  agony  of 
terror  and  antipathy  of  the  goat  on  being  thrust 
into  the  den  of  the  boa,  is  terribly  vivid,  and 
even  painful  in  its  interest ;  as  much  so  as  are 
his  details  of  the  method  of  its  absorption,  not 
by  the  power  of  suction,  as  it  is  vulgarly  called, 
but  by  the  effect  of  muscular  contraction,  as- 
sisted by  2  rows  of  strong,  hooked  teeth,  most 
curious  and  extraordinary.  This  snake  was  2 
hours  and  20  minutes  employed  in  gorging  the 
goat,  during  which  time,  particularly  while 
the  animal  was  in  the  jaws  and  throat  of  the 
constrictor,  the  skin  of  the  latter  was  distended 
almost  to  bursting,  while  the  points  of  the 
horns  of  the  victim  could  be  seen,  threatening^ 
as  it  were,  at  every  moment  to  pierce  the  scaly 
coat  of  the  destroyer;  no  such  results,  how- 
ever, followed.  The  snake  coiled  himself,  and 
remained  torpid  for  8  weeks,  during  which 
he  so  completelv  digested,  and  converted  to  his 
own  use,  the  whole  of  the  goat,  that  he  passed 


400 


BOADEN 


BOAB 


nothing  from  him  but  a  small  quantity  of  cal- 
careous matter,  not  equal  to  a  tenth  part  of  the 
bones  of  the  animal,  and  a  few  hairs ;  and  at 
the  end  of  that  time  was  in  condition,  on 
awakening,  to  devour  another  goat.  The  other 
narrator  of  his  somewhat  similar  experience,  is 
Mr.  Broderip,  the  author  of  those  delightful 
works,  *^  Leaves  from  the  Note-book  of  a  Nat- 
uralist,'' and  the  '^Zoological  Journal,"  who 
describes,  in  almost  the  same  words,  the  same 
phenomena,  in  the  killing  and  deglutition  of  arab- 
bit,  which  he  observed  in  the  tower  of  London. 
The  time  required  to  kill  the  rabbit  was  8  minutes, 
during  which  its  sufferings  were  cruel,  as  coula 
be  seen  by  its  painful  breathing,  evinced  in  the 
motion  of  its  flanks.  In  every  respect,  indeed, 
Mr.  Broderip  corroborates  the  observationsi 
and  coincides  with  the  opinion  of  Mr.  McLeod, 
except  on  one  point  of  fact,  easily  reconcilable, 
and  one  of  opinion,  in  which  Mr.  Broderip  is 
undoubtedly  correct,  as  the  more  scientific  and 

§ractised  observer  of  zoological  experiments, 
he  rabbit  which  Mr.  Broderip  saw  devoured, 
and  other  rabbits  and  chickens  which  he  saw 
exposed  to  the  snakes,  exhibited  no  terror  of, 
or  repugnance  to,  the  seroents,  the  poultry 
even  roosting  on  his  coiled  folds;  while  the 
goats  were  cast  into  agonies  of  horror  at  the 
mere  sight.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact,  that 
the  English  rabbits  and  fowls,  having  no  ex- 
perience, either  acquired  or  hereditarUy  trans- 
mitted in  the  shape  of  natural  instinct,  leading 
than  to  fear  the  boa,  feared  him  not ;  while 
the  goatS)  being  natives  of  the  same  country 
with  the  serpent,  had  the  natural  instinctive 
awe  of  him  which  the  necessity  of  preservation 
ingrafts  on  all  animals,  in  the  form  of  trans- 
mitted antipathy.  The  point  of  observation  on 
which  they  differ  is,  whether  the  respiration  of 
the  serpent  is  suspended  during  the  act  of  swal- 
lowing, which  Mr.  McLeod  affirms,  and  Mr.  Brod- 
erip denies,  although,  without  dissection,  the 
mode  of  his  breathing  cannot  well  be  determined. 

BOADEN.  Jambs,  an  English  dramatist  and 
biographer,  Dom  1762,  died  1889.  He  was  a 
painter,  but,  abandoning  the  art,  wrote  a  great 
many  plays,  none  of  which  now  keep  possession 
of  the  stage.  His  acquaintance,  as  newspaper 
critic,  with  eminent  performers,  he  turned  to 
good  account— his  lives  of  John  Kemble,  Mrs. 
Siddons,  Mrs.  Jordan,  and  Mrs.  Inchbald,  being 
the  result.  He  also  wrote  an  '*  Inquiry  into 
the  Authenticity  of  the  various  Pictures  and 
Prints  of  Shakespeare,''  directed  against  what  is 
called  Tahna's  portrait  of  Shakespeare.  He  ac- 
cepted as  most  authentic  the  likeness  given  in 
the  folio  edition  of  1628,  and  what  is  generally 
known  as  the  Ohandos  portnut. 

BOADIOEA.  or  Bokdicba,  killed  herself  by 

S>ison,  about  A.  D.  62,  queen  of  the  Iceni,  a 
ritish  tribe,  inhabiting  what  are  now  iJie 
counties  of  Oambridgeshire,  Suffolk,  Norfolk, 
and  Hertfordshire.  The  celebrated  earthworks 
still  extant,  known  as  the  Devil's  ditch,  at  New- 
market heath,  and  at  Six-Mile  bottom,  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  fortifications  of  this  tribe,  and 


perhaps  of  this  queen,  against  the  Romans.  Sho 
was  a  contemporary  of  Nero,  and  was  a  womaa 
of  remarkable  character,  botli  for  firmness  and 
ability.  Her  husband,  the  king  of  the  Iceni, 
Pnisutagus,  dying,  left  Nero  and  his  own  9 
daughters  joint  heirs  to  his  great  wealth,  hop- 
ing thereby  to  preserve  his  family  and  king- 
dom from  the  rapacity  of  the  conquerors.  But 
immediately  on  hb  death  lus  kingdom  was  tak- 
en possession  of  by  the  Roman  centurions. 
For  some  real  or  imaginary  offence,  the  British 
queen  was  publicly  scourged  by  the  execution- 
er, and  her  daughters  were  abandoned  to  the 
lust  of  the  slaves,  who  brutally  vioUted  their 
persons.  Stung  to  frenzy  by  tins  outrage,  tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  absence  of  Suetonina 
Paulinus,  the  Ronum  governor,  from  that  part 
of  England,  Boadicea  raised  the  whole  miU- 
tary  force  of  her  barbarians,  and  bursting  upon 
the  Roman  colony  of  London,  feduced  the  city 
to  ashes,  and  put  to  the  sword  in  that  and 
neighboring  places— of  Roman  citizens,  traders, 
Italians,  and  other  subjects  of  the  empire— at 
least  70,000  individuals.  Suetonius  lost  not  a 
moment  in  hurrving  to  the  scene  of  action,  al- 
though it  was  well  known  that  the  queen  of  the 
Iceni  was  in  command  of  120,000  men,  which 
gradually  increased  to  280,000,  according  to 
Dion  Oassius,  Ixii.  701,  while  he  could  bring 
into  the  field  in  all  less  than  10,000  soldiers.  It 
is  true  that  absolute  credit  cannot  be  given  to 
statements  of  prodigious  numbers,  such  as  the 
above,  but  at  all  events  the  disparity  of  force 
was  extraordinary.  The  legion,  posted  on 
heights,  where  its  flanks  and  rear  were  covered 
by  woods,  seems  to  have  received  the  attack 
passively,  sheltered  from  the  missiles  of  the 
l^ritons  by  their  large,  oblong  bucklers,  until, 
when  the  darts  and  arrows  of  the  barbarians 
began  to  fiul,  by  one  compact  charge  they  car- 
ried all  before  them.  They  spared  nothing; 
women,  children,  the  beasts  of  burden,  the 
dogs,  were  all  cut  to  pieces.  It  is  said  that 
80,000  Britons  were  butchered  that  day,  while 
of  the  legionaries  only  400  fell,  and  about  as 
many  more  were  wounded.  It  is  believed  that 
the  action  took  place  not  tar  from  St.  Albans, 
Verulamium,  a  Roman  colony,  which  at  tho 
first  irruption  had  shared  the  fate  of  London. 

BOAR  (nts  aper\  the  male  swine.  The  do- 
mestic hog  and  the  wild  boar  of  Europe,  Afri- 
ca, and  Asia,  areu  generally  n)eaking.  of  the 
same  variety,  and  will  breed  togetner  and 
produce  young  capable  of  propagating  their 
spedes  to  the  most  remote  generations.  It 
appears  that  the  most  improved  of  the  English 
and  ijnerican  domesticated  breeds  aro,  for  the 
most  part,  largely  crossed  and  intermixed  with 
the  Chinese  and,  perhaps,  the  Turkish  vari- 
eties. In  America,  Australia,  and  the  Poly- 
nesian group,  the  hog  was  unknown,  original]J^ 
in  a  natural  condition ;  but  having  been  turned 
out  everywhere  by  the  early  navigators  who 
discovered  tiie  coasts  and  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
he  has  propagated  his  species  so  rapidly,  in 
those  mild  and  moist  latitudes,  that  ho  is  now 


BOAB 


401 


eyerrwbere  abondant^  both  in  confinement 
and  m  a  state  of  nature.  The  South  American 
forests  in  particular  are  inhabited  hj  yast 
droves,  which  have  relapsed  into  primitive 
vildn^  while  in  the  more  woodv  parts  of 
Virginia,  tbe  western  states,  and  Canada,  the 
domestic  hog,  having  become  about  half  wild, 
is  not  the  pleasantest  of  objects  to  be  en- 
countered bj  a  wayfarer,  especially  if  he  fall  in 
with  a  drove  of  them,  and  be  accompanied  by 
dogs,  to  whic^  they  have  a  special  antipathy. 
The  characteristics  of  the  boar  are  the  formida- 
ble recurved  tusks  or  canine  teeth,  two  of 
which  proceed  from  the  upper,  and  two  of 
yet  more  formidable  dimensions  from  the  low- 
er jaw,  with  Vhich  it  inflicts  wounds  of  the 
most  terrible  and  often  fatal  description  on 
whatever  attacks  it,  ripping  in  an  upward  di- 
rection, and  airains  especiaUy  at  the  soft  parts, 
as  the  belly,  flanks,  and  groin  of  the  horse, 
dog,  or  man,  which  comes  in  his  way  with  hos- 
tile intentions. — ^There  is  a  singular  variety  of 
the  boar,  called  the  babyrouasa  (9us  J>abyroussa\ 
peoufiar  to  Java,  Amboyna,  and  manv  of  the 
isles,  though  not  to  the  continent,  of  Asia.  It 
is  gregarious,  is  far  taller  on  the  leg  than  the 
common  hog,  and  has  fine,  short,  woolly  hair, 
instead  of  bristies ;  its  distinguishing  character- 
istics, however,  are  the  singular  tusks  in  its 
upper  jaw,  which  are  placed  on  the  external 
surfiEKM,  and  curve  upwa^  toward  tiie  foreJiead, 
which,  when  the  animal  becomes  old,  they  al- 
most touch,  being  often  12  inches  in  length,  of 
a  fine,  hard  grain  like  ivory.  The  peccary  of 
South  America,  which  was  formeny  classed 
with  the  wild  boar,  has  been  lately  distin- 
guished as  an  entirely  separate  animal.  The 
boar,  whether  wHd  or  domestic,  has  fax  coarser 
bristles  than  tiie  sow,  and  the  wild  animal  as 
Ur  exceeds  the  tame  in  that  particular,  as  in 
his  strength,  size,  ferocity,  and  the  largeness 
of  his  tusks.  The  flesh  of  the  hog  family  is 
much  prized,  and  is  of  great  value  on  account 
of  the  readiness  with  which  it  takes  up  salt, 
and  its  excellence  when  so  prepared,  which  pe- 
culiarly adapts  it  for  preservation,  and  for  use  as 
military  or  naval  stores.  Where  the  domestic 
animal  has  the  free  range  of  forest  lands,  in 
which  it  can  feed  on  the  acorns,  the  beech  mast, 
and  the  fruit  of  the  sweet  chestnut,  the  flesh  is 
proportionally  valued ;  and  it  is  on  this  account 
that  the  pork  of  Virginia  has  obtained  a  celeb- 
rity in  America^  equ^  to  that  of  Westphalia  in 
Europe.  "So  otner  reason  tends  so  materially  to 
give  Its  superior  excellence  to  the  flesh  of  the 
wild,  over  that  of  the  tame  hog,  which  has 
been  admitted  in  aQ  ages.  It  is  singular,  how- 
ever, that  the  flesh  of  the  boar,  in  its  wild  state, 
IS  infinitely  superior  to  that  of  the  sow ;  while, 
in  the  domesticated  animal,  that  of  the  male, 
untn  castrated,  is  so  rank  as  to  be  uneatable. — 
During  the  middle  ages  the  wild  boar  abounded 
both  in  England  and  France,  and  hunting  the 
.boar  was  the  most  esteemed  of  all  field  sports. 
The  boar  goes  to  run,  as  it  is  called,  or  goes  a 
brimming,  in  December,  after  whidx  time  his 
VOL.  m. — 26 


flesh  is  uneatable;  the  season  for  hunting  him  com- 
mences in  September,  when  he  is  in  his  most  per- 
fect condition.  A  wild  boar  in  his  1st  year  is 
called  a  pig  of  the  saunder ;  the  next  year,  a  hog 
of  the  2d;  then,  a  hog-steer;  then,  in  the  4th 
year,  when  he  leaves  we  saunder,  a  boar ;  and, 
after  that,  a  sanglier.  A  boar  is  farrowed  with 
his  full  number  of  teeth,  which  only  increase  in 
size,  especially  his  tusks  of  the  lower  jaw,  which 
are  those  with  which  he  strikes,  those  of  the 
upper  jaw  being  used  only  to  whet  the  otiiers. 
Boars  were  hunted  in  Europe  in  2  ways,  either 
by  marking  them  into  their  holts,  or  dens, 
which  were  then  surrounded  by  nets  or  toils, 
and  the  boars  driven  into  them ;  or  what  was 
called  at  force  with  dogs,  when  the  beast  was 
roused  from  his  lair,  and  hunted  with  relays  of 
hounds,  until  he  turned  to  bay,  when  he  was 
despatched  with\  the  boar  spear,  or  hunting 
sword.  In  striking  a  boar  from  on  horseback, 
the  huntsman  was  particularly  charged  to  avoid 
striking  low,  as,  in  that  case,  the  boar  was  well- 
nigh  certain  to  glance  the  blow  aside  with  his 
tusks,  but  to  stab  him  from  above,  downward, 
between  the  shoulders.  "  In  attacking  him  on 
foot,''  which  was  tiie  ancient  Boman  method, 
and  very  perilous,  *^  the  hunter  must  meet  him 
with  his  spear,  holding  one  hand  on  the  middle  of 
it,  and  the  other  at  the  end,  standing  with  one 
foot  before  the  other,  and  having  a  watchful  eye 
on  the  beast,  which  way  soever  he  turns  or 
winds;  for  such  is  his  nature,  that  he  sometimes 
snatches  the  spear  out  of  the  hunter's  hands,  or 
recoils  the  force  back  upon  him.  *  *  *  And  what 

Elace  soever  he  bites,  whetiier  man  or  dog,  the 
eat  of  his  teeth  causeth  an  inflammation  in  the 
wound.  I^  tiierefore,  he  does  but  touch  the 
hair  of  the  dog,  he  bums  it  off;  nay,  huntsmen 
have  tried  the  heat  of  his  teeth,  by  laying  hairs 
on  them  as  soon  as  he  was  dead,  and  they  have 
shrivelled  up  as  if  touched  with  a  hot  iron." 
However  that  might  be,  which  seems  more  than 
a  littie  hypothetical,  a  wounded  boar  was  a 
most  formidable  adversary;  when  old,  he  nev- 
er cried  in  the  killing,  but  fought  fiercely  while 
life  lasted.  He  had  a  knack,  when  stabbed,  of 
running  up  the  shaft  of  the  spear,  so  as  to  gore 
his  dayer  even  in  his  own  death  pang;  where- 
fore the  boar  hunter  was  ordered  to  take  care 
that  ^^  his  boar  spears  should  be  very  broad  and 
sharp,  branching  forth  into  certain  forks,  that 
the  boar  may  not  break  through  them  to  the 
huntsman ;  so  the  best  places  to  wound  him  are 
the  middle  of  his  forehead,  between  the  eyelids, 
or  else  upon  the  shoulder,  either  of  which  is 
mortal."  In  England,  the  boar  has  Ions  been 
entirely  extinct ;  in  France,  they  are  still  found 
in  parts  of  Brittany  and  Normandy;  and  in 
parts  of  Grermany,  the  Holstein  provinces  of 
Denmark,  in  Italy,  especially  in  the  Pontine 
marshes,  in  many  parts  of  Greece  and  Asia  Mi- 
nor, they  are  still  abundant.  The  rifle,  how- 
ever, has  long  superseded  the  spear,  in  hunting 
them ;  and  the  danger,  as  in  a  great  measure 
the  excitement  of  the  sport,  may  be  said  to  be 
at  an  end.    While  boar  hunting  was  in  its 


402 


BOARDMAK 


palmy  force,  a  particnlar  dog  was  onltivatedibr 
the  aport,  whicn  was  of  great  rarity  and  value. 
It  appears  to  have  been  a  half-bred  dog,  be- 
tween tlie  bloodhound  and  the  mastiff  from  the 
magnificent  specimens  exhibited  in  some  of  the 
hunting  pieces  of  Teniers  and  Snyders.  There 
was,  however,  a  dog,  more  or  less  homogeneous, 
known  as  the  boar  hoand,  the  best  of  which 
came  from  Pomerania,  and  on  which  such  high 
store  was  set,  that  they  were  one  of  the  choicest 
gifts  presented  to  crowned  heads.  Boar  hunt- 
ing, or  hog  hunting,  as  it  is  there  called,  is  still 
a  most  favorite  sport  in  British  India,  especially 
in  the  Deooan,  where  hogs  abound  in  the  reedy 
jungles  of  the  plains.  The  sport  is  there  con- 
ducted in  very  diflEerent  fashion ;  the  hunters 
are  mounted  on  Arab  coursers,  and  pursue  their 
game,  when  he  is  once  roused  and  driven  out 
of  the  lungles  by  the  shouts  and  tomtoms  of 
the  native  beaters,  without  the  aid  of  dogs,  run- 
ning, or  rather  riding  him  to  bay  bv  the  mere 
speed  of  their  horses.  It  ia  said  that  a  hog, 
xmwieldy  as  he  looks,  if  he  gets  a  moderately 
good  start,  can  maintain  a  pace  for  20  or  25 
minutes,  equal  to  the  fastest  horse  with  fox- 
hounds; and  he  can  jump  nuUahs.  or  dry  water- 
courses, of  such  dimensions  as  ao  not  appear 
trifles,  even  to  Leicestershire  sportsmen.  The 
honor  of  the  day  is  to  the  man  who  draws  the 
first  blood,  or  as  Indian  sportsmen  say,  ''  wins 
the  first  spear ;''  and  the  rivalry  to  gain  it  is 
such,  that  the  last  5  minutes  of  a  well- contested 
hog  hunt  is  like  the  finishing  run  in  of  a  desperate 
steeple  chase.  The  weapon  is  a  long  lance  of 
tough  bamboo,  about  ten  feet  in  length,  with  a 
steel  head,  shq)ed  like  a  laurel  leaf,  and  as  keen 
as  a  razor.  This  is  grasped,  usually,  at  about  1 8 
inches  from  the  butt,  overhandedly,  so  that  the 
shaft  extends  nearly  horizontally  backward,  but 
with  a  downward  inclination,  the  head,  or 
blade,  being  in  the  rear  of  the  horse^s  croup. 
When  the  boar  charges  which  he  does  right 
at  the  horse's  forelegs,  often  cutting  his  shanks 
to  the  bone  with  his  terrible  tusks,  and,  if  he 
do  not  wheel  off  in  time,  ripping  out  his  intes- 
tines, the  horseman,  rising  in  his  stirrups,  strikes 
him  an  overhanded  stab,  delivered  perpendicu- 
larly downward,  between  the  shoulders,  making 
his  horse  pivot  to  the  left,  on  his  hind  legs,  at 
the  same  Instant.  Sometimes,  however,  in  the 
excitement  and  eagerness  to  get  the  first  blood, 
the  spear  is  shifted  in  the  hand,  and  delivered 
with  a  forward  lunge,  onlv  intended  to  wound, 
and  win  the  honor,  not  to  Kill  the  quarry.  This 
is  described  as  a  much  finer,  more  exciting,  and 
even  more  dangerous  sport  than  tiger  hunting, 
notwithstanding  the  more  appalling  sound  of 
the  latter,  since  the  hunter  of  the  man-eater,  on 
the  back  of  his  elephant,  is  nearly  as  safe  as  he 
would  be  in  the  tower  or  London. 

BOARDMAN,  Gbobob  Dana,  an  eminent 
missionary  of  the  Baptist  denomination,  bom 
inLivermore,  Me.,  Feb.  8, 1801,  died  in  Burmah, 
Feb.  11,  1881.  He  enjoyed  the  advantages 
of  the  public  school  in  his  native  town  until 
lie  was  9  years  of  age^  when  his  father,  who 


was  a  clergyman,  removed  to  North  Yarmouth, 
and  he  became  a  member  of  the  academy  in 
that  place.  He  remained  connected  with  this 
institution  till  1816,  when  he  was  removed  to 
the  academy  in  Farmington.  In  1819  he  enter- 
ed the  WaterviUe  academy,  which  was  organized 
as  a  college  the  succeeding  year.  He  was  gradu- 
ated from  this  institution  with  distinguished  hon- 
or in  1822.  The  estimate  whi(^  his  instructors  put 
on  his  character  and  attainments  was  evinced  by 
their  recommending  him  for  the  post  of  tutor, 
to  which  he  was  immediately  elected.  He  soon 
signalized  himself  in  this  position,  and  the  hope 
was  entertained  by  the  friends  of  the  collie 
that  he  would  consent  to  assume  a  professor's 
chair  and  retain  a  permanent  connection  with 
its  board  of  instruction.  But  he  cherished  oth- 
er views,  and  after  devoting  about  a  year  to  the 
duties  of  his  tutorship  he  resigned  his  post  to 
devote  himself  to  the  work  of  Christian  mia- 
nons.  At  an  early  period  of  his  connection 
with  the  college  he  became  impressed  with  a 
desir&  to  preach  the  gospel.  Almost  coincident 
with  his  impressions  in  reference  to  the  work  of 
the  Christian  ministiy  were  those  convictions 
of  duty  which  led  him  to  consecrate  himself  to 
the  cause  of  missions.  His  mind  bidanced  for  a 
time  between  the  purpose  of  laboring  among 
the  Indians  of  our  own  country  and  the  sug- 
gestion made  by  some  of  his  friends,  that  be 
fiiiould  offer  himself  to  the  Baptist  board  of  for- 
eign missions,  for  some  post  connected  with 
their  missions  in  the  East.  His  course  was  final- 
ly determined  by  intelligence  of  the  death  of 
the  lamented  James  Coleman  of  the  Aracan 
mission,  which  reached  this  country  soon  after 
he  entered  on  the  duties  of  his  tutorship.  He 
at  once  decided  within  himself  to  t^e  the 
place  of  the  fallen  missionary.  Accordingly, 
in  the  spring  of  1828,  he  offered  himself  to  the 
Baptist  board  of  foreign  missions,  and  was  ac- 
cepted. In  June  of  the  same  year  he  entered 
Andover  theological  seminary,  where  he  re- 
mained nearly  2  years,  earnestly  prosecuting 
his  preparation  for  his  great  life-work.  He 
was  ordained  at  West  Yarmouth,  Me.,  Feb.  16, 

1826,  was  married  to  Miss  Sarah  Hall  July  4u 
and,  on  the  16th  of  the  same  month,  sailed  • 
from  Philadelphia  for  Calcutta.  He  reached 
the  latter  place  Dec.  2.  Here  he  found  sever- 
al missionaries  who  had  been  driven  from  their 
fields  of  labor  in  Burmah,  and  learned  that  Mr. 
and  Mrs.  Judson  were  in  a  Burman  prison  at 
Ava.  No  alternative  remained  to  the  young 
missionary  and  his  wife  but  to  wut  until  the 
door  into  Burmah,  now  closed,  should  be  re- 
opened.   This  did  not  occur  until  the  spring  of 

1827.  The  interval  had  been  diligently  em- 
ployed in  acquiring  the  Burman  language,  un- 
der the  direction  of  a  native  teacher.  In  April, 
1827,  Mr.  Boardman  joined  Mr.  Judson  at  Am- 
herst^ whose  heroic  wife,  worn  out  by  the  hor- 
rors of  her  captivity  at  Ava,  had,  a  few  months 
before,  been  consigned  to  the  grave.  It  having 
been  determined  to  establish  a  mission  at  Maul- 
main,  the  new  seat  of  the  English  government, 


BOABDMAK 


BOAT 


403 


Mr.  Boardman  waa  selected  by  his  asBoeiates  to 
fiapertntend  it.  He  entered  upon  the  field  of 
his  destined  labor  in  the  latter  part  of  May, 
1827.  To  him  was  thus  aooorded  the  honor  of 
planting  a  mission  which  became  the  radiating 
point  of  all  the  GhristianiziDg  inflnenoe  connect- 
ed with  the  Baptist  missions  in  Bnrmah.  It  is 
not  too  moch  to  say  that  the  snccess  which  has 
crowned  this  station  is  attributable  in  no  mean 
degree  to  the  pradenoe,  piety,  and  organizinff 
force  of  the  young  missionary,  who  met  and 
anrmoonted  the  obntaoles  in  the  way  of  its  es- 
tablisliment.  In  the  course  of  a  few  months 
the  station  at  Amherst  was  abandoned,  and 
the  whole  missionary  force  concentrated  at 
Maulmain.  It  having  been  decided  to  establish 
another  missionary  station  at  Tavoy,  about  150 
miles  down  the  coast  from  Maulmain,  Mr. 
Boardman  was,  by  the  nnanimous  consent  of  his 
associates,  designated  as  the  agent  by  whom 
the  difficult  and  responsible  work  was  to  be 
commenced.  He  reached  Tavoy,  the  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  in  the  early 
part  of  April,  1828.  He  was  accompanied  by 
Ko  Thah-buy,  a  Karen  convert,  then  a  candi- 
date for  baptism,  a  Siamese,  lately  baptijsed, 
and  a  few  bovs  from  his  school  at  Maulmain. 
One  of  his  first  acts  after  his  arrival  was  to 
baptize  Ko  Tbah-bny — a  man  whose  wonderful 
labors^  and  more  wonderful  success,  among  his 
countrymen  have  made  his  name  historic.  The 
remarkable  religious  movement  among  the  Kar 
ren  people  commenced  with  the  enlightenment 
of  a  few  persons,  brought,  through  the  influence 
of  Ko  Thah-buy,  under  the  instructions  of  Mr. 
Boardman.  These  carried  to  their  brethren  in 
thejnnglesthenews  that  a  white  teacher  had 
come  from  beyond  the  sea  to  bring  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  true  God.  Parties  began  to  come 
from  a  long  distance  to  see  and  hear  the  teach- 
er for  themselves.  Encouraged  by  these  indi- 
cations of  candor,  Mr.  Boamman,  having  ma- 
tured his  plaos  fbr  the  systematic  instruction  of 
the  Bnrman  population  of  Xavoy,  by  means  of 
schools  and  other  instrumentalities  (to  the  for- 
mer of  which  he  attached  great  importance  as 
a  means  of  evangelization),  resolved  to  make  a 
tour  into  the  jungle  for  the  purpose  of  visiting 
several  Karen  villages  to  which  he  had  been 
urgently  invited.  Feb.  6,  1828.  he  set  out 
on  this  first  tour  of  mis8i|pary  labors  among 
the  Karen  villages.  He  was  absent  about  10 
days.  Such  was  the  success  which  attended  this 
expedition,  that  he  determined  at  once  to  enter 
on  a  systematic  course  of  itinerary  labor  among 
the  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  Tavoy.  Usually 
accompanied  by  Ko  Thah-buy,  or  some  other 
Karen  convert^  and  some  of  the  boys  from  his 
school,  he  would  visit  8  or  4  villages  in  the 
coarse  of  a  week,  preaching  in  zayats,  going 
from  honse  to  house,  conversing  by  the  wayside 
with  such  as  he  met,  spending  4,  sometunes  6 
days  of  each  week  in  this  manner.  Sometimes 
he  made  boat  trips  on  the  river,  and  ut  others 
he  took  long  journeys  by  land,  in  spite  of  dan- 
ger and  fatigue,  preaching  the  gospel  to  a  peo- 


ple ready  and  anxious  to  hear.  In  this  way  he 
spent  the  8  years  of  Ins  missionary  life  at  Tavoy. 
His  activity  during  this  period  seems  almost  in- 
credible. The  journeys  he  made  by  river  and 
land,  the  sermons  he  preached,  the  visits  he 
made^  the  conversations  he  held,  were  enough 
to  absorb  the  whole  time  and  tax  to  the  utmost 
the  endurance  of  a  hardy  man.  But  Boardman 
did  all  this,  in  spite  of  interruptions  occasioned 
by  frequent  sickness  and  repeated  deaths  in  his 
family,  and  while  he  was  rapidly  sinking  to  the 
grave  in  a  confirmed  consumption.  He  would 
not  take  a  day  for  rest.  The  only  cessation  ci 
his  labors  in  these  days  of  his  decline  was  on 
the  occasion  of  his  wife's  visit  to  Maulmain, 
after  her  recoverv  from  a  dangerous  illness. 
He  joined  her  at  the  latter  i^ace  in  May,  and 
remained  about  7  months.  This  seeming  res- 
pite was,  however,  only  a  change  in  the  form 
of  his  work.  During  this  time  he  preached 
twice  a  week  in  English  and  once  in  Burmese^ 
beside  attending  catechetical  exercises  8  even- 
ings in  a  week,  and  the  daily  correction  of 
prooft  for  the  press.  Such  instances  of  rimng 
above  bodily  weakness  and  subduing  pain  by 
the  force  of  will  are  as  rare  as  they  are  heroia 
Before  leaving  Tavoy  for  Maulmain,  he  made  a 
promise  to  the  Karens  that  he  would  visit  them 
again  in  the  jungle  on  his  return.  Jan.  81, 
1831,  he  left  Tavoy  in  a  litter  to  fulfil  that  prom- 
ise. He  reached  the  point  of  his  destination, 
but,  owing  to  the  rapid  progress  of  his  dis- 
ease, was  able  to  accomplish  but  part  of  the  task 
which  he  came  to  perform.  He  set  out  to  re- 
turn to  Tavov,  but  died  when  about  12  miles 
from  that  place.  Though  only  80  years  of 
age  when  he  died,  he  had  accomplished 
what  few  men  are  able  to  attun  during  a  long 
life.  At  the  time  of  his  death  the  misaon 
church  at  Tavoy  consisted  of  70  members, 
and  within  a  few  years  thousands  of  Karens 
were  converted  to  Christianity  through  the 
agencies  which  he  set  on  foot. 

BOAT,  properly  a  smsll  vessel  propelled  by 
oars  or  poles.  Boats  are  made  of  iron,  copper. 
India-rubber,  guttapercha,  skins,  and  of  all 
kuids  of  wood.  Wooden  boats  are  usually 
built  either  smooth  or  lap-streak,  that  is,  where 
the  upper  pkmk  laps  over  the  next  lower. 
Boats  differ  much  in  shape  and  size,  depending 
on  the  use  to  which  they  are  to  be  put. 
Launch  is  the  largest  boat  carried  by  a  man-of- 
war,  from  86  to  42  feet  in  length,  and  rowing 
24  oars.  Lang  hoat^  used  by  merchant  vessels 
for  conveying  heavy  burdens;  this  name  is 
given  to  the  largest  boat,  without  regard  to 
size.  Cutter^  shorter  and  lighter  than  the 
launch,  and  much  &ster.  Ships  of  the  line 
carry  8.  Cutters  are  from  82  to  86  feet  long. 
Jolly  hoat^  smaller  than  the  cutter,  and  not  so 
fast,  used  for  going  on  shore,  usually  rowed 
with  4  oars.  Oig^  a  fast  rowing  boat  nearly 
the  size  of  the  cutte^  employed  both  in  the 
merchant  service  and  navy.  Barge,  in  the 
English  navy,  about  the  size  of  the  cutter.  This 
name  is  given  to  the  large  boats  used  on  occa- 


404 


BOAT 


BOAVISTA 


rions  of  state.  On  the  Miamssippi  it  means  a 
Boow,  flat-bottomed,  and  of  very  light  draught. 
Sometimes  also  applied  to  the  large  8  and  10- 
oared  race  boats.  Pinnace^  smaller  than  the 
barge,  used  for  conveying  light  articles. 
In  the  English  navy  the  pinnace  launch  is 
next  in  size  to  the  lapnch.  Paddle-box  boat, 
so  called  from  the  place  where  they  are 
stowed,  commonly  built  like  a  wbale  boat, 
and  smaller  than  the  cutter.  Whale  boat, 
a  sharp,  light  boat,  very  wide  amidships, 
bow  and  stern  alike,  rowed  with  6  oars.  All 
surf  boats  are  whale-boat  model,  or  modificar 
tions  of  it.  Dory,  light,  flat-bottomed,  very 
sharp,  with  sloping  sides,  from  15  to  20  feet  in 
length,  used  very  extensively  in  the  fisheries. 
Wherry f  in  the  United  States,  a  dory ;  in  Eng- 
land, a  race  boat  for  one  rower,  and  from  15  to 
80  feet  in  length.  Shiff,  a  little  boat  for  cross- 
ing rivers,  or  going  on  shore  from  a  vessel 
Cobble,  a  small  filing  boat  flat-bottomed. 
Funt,  a  flat-bottomed,  decked  boat,  of  very 
light  draught,  used  chiefly  by  gunners ;  dimen- 
sions, according  to  Hawker,  21  feet  long,  8  feet 
beam,  6  inches  height.  JShaUop,  small  ship's 
boat;  term  not  now  used.  Seow,  a  broad  flat- 
bottomed  boat,  with  square  bow  and  stern,  for 
conveying  heavy  weights,  propeUed  by  poles  or 
sweeps,  from  80  to  50  feet  in  length,  and  12  to 
18  feet  in  width.  Canal  boat,  a  broad  shallow 
boat,  like  the  scow,  except  in  having  a  keel 
and  a  rather  sharper  bow.  used  only  on  canals. 
Flate,  flat  boats,  arJcs,  esc.,  boats  resembling 
scows,  save  in  being  decked.  They  are  still  to 
be  found  on  the  Mismssippi  and  its  tributaries^ 
and  are  used  for  bringing  all  kinds  of  produce 
down  the  river.  Bateaux,  boats  smaller  than 
the  scow,  and  used  in  the  same  way.  Gondola, 
in  the  United  States,  a  scow;  properly,  a  very 
sharp,  fast  boat,  sculled  with  1  oar.  Mosee, 
larffe  flats,  used  in  the  West  Indies  for  taking 
molasses  hogsheads  from  shore  to  ship.  Felvc- 
ea,  a  large  boat  with  lateen  sails,  decked,  and 
rowing  from  10  to  16  banks  of  oars.  Life- 
boati,  boats  used  in  storms  for  saving  life. 
They  are  made  either  with  a  lining  of  some 
buoyant  material  or  with  air-chambers.  In  1790, 
Mr.  Greathead,  of  South  Shields,  England,  in- 
vented a  life-boat  of  the  following  dimensions: 
80  feet  in  length,  8  feet  in  width,  and  about  8  feet 
in  depth.  She  was  very  broad  amidships,  with 
high  sharp  ends,  and  coated  with  cork  along 
the  gunwale.  Mr.  Greathead  was  rewarded  by 
the  society  of  arts  for  this  boat  in  1802.  Fran- 
cis's metallic  life-boats,  of  copper  or  galvanized 
iron,  are  now  much  used.  They  are  buoyed  up 
by  air-chambers  placed  at  the  ends,  or  by  air- 
tubes  running  along  the  sides.  These  boats 
are  almost  indestructible.  In  Lieut.  Lynoh's 
expedition  to  the  Dead  sea  the  wooden  boat 
soon  became  useless,  while  those  of  copper  and 
iron  were  not  in  the  least  injumd.  Jordan's 
compressible  life-boat  has  a  wooden  frame  and 
gutta  percha  covering  and  air-tubes ;  it  is  made 
to  fold  together  when  not  in  use.  Bonney's 
life-boat  has  a  large  air-chamber  running  from 


head  to  stem,  arranged  so  as  to  give  great 
buoyancy  even  when  tiiie  boat  is  full  of  water. 
Dingy,  a  wooden  life-boat,  carried  by  a  man-of- 
war,  has  wooden  air-chambers  at  each  end,  and 
is  about  18  feet  in  length.  Waist  boats  and 
quarter  boats  take  their  name  from  the 
part  of  the  vessel  where  they  are  kept,  and  are 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  cutter.  Baee  boate 
differ  very 'much  in  shape  from  any  of  tiioee 
before  named.  Having  only  speed  in  view,  they 
are  built  as  light,  narrow,  and  sharp  as  possi- 
ble. They  are  rowed  with  from  2  to  12  oars^ 
and  are  from  15  to  70  feet  in  length,  and  gene- 
rally not  more  than  8  inches  above  water.  The 
2-oared  boats  are  called  shell  boats,  scull  boata^ 
or  wherries ;  the  larger  ones  sometimes  barges. 
Their  speed  is  from  5  to  18  miles  per  hour. 

BOATBILL  (eaneroma  eoehlearia,  Linn.), 
a  bird  of  the  order  graUa,  family  ardeida. 
It  receives  its  English  name  from  the  pepuHar 
form  and  breadth  of  the  bill,  which  is  much 
depressed,  very  broad  toward  the  middle,  with 
the  sides  gradually  compressed  at  the  end;  the 
culmen  has  a  prominent  ked,  with  a  deep  lat- 
eral groove  extending  to  the  tip,  which  is 
hooked;  the  wings  are  moderate,  the  tail  short 
and  rounded,  the  tarsi  rather  longer  than  the 
middle  toe,  slender,  and  covered  in  front  with 
large  irregular  scales;  the  hind  toe  long,  and 
the  claws  short,  curved,  and  acute;  the  length 
of  the  bill  is  about  4  inches,  and  of  the  bir^  2 
feet.  The  general  color  is  whitish,  with  a  gitiy- 
ish  back,  the  belly  rufous;  the  forehead  white, 
behind  which  is  a  black  cap,  furnished,  in  the 
male,  with  a  long  cresL  This  bird  is  nearly 
alliea  to  the  herons,  and  is  found  in  the  tropical 
parts  of  South  America ;  until  recently  it  has 
been  supposed  to  be  the  only  species  or  the  ge» 
nus.  It  frequents  marshy  places  and  the  banks 
of  rivers  where  the  tides  do  not  ascend ;  it 
perches  on  the  trees  overhanging  fresh  water, 
darting  thence  on  fishes  which  happen  to  swim 
beneatn  it;  froii  its  generic  name,  it  is  snp- 
poeed  to  feed  also  op  crabs,  which  it  could  readi- 
ly crush  in  its  powerful  bill;  on  the  ground  it 
has  very  much  the  gut,  attitudes,  and  air  of 
the  herons.     It  is  sometimes  called  '^  savaoou." 

BOATSWAIN,  tlie  officer  in  a  ship  of  war 
who  has  charge  of  the  rigging,  sails,  colors,  cord- 
age, cables,  anchors,  and  boats. .  He  inspects  the 
i^mng  every  morMng,  summons  the  crew  to 
tlieir  duty  by  the^*  boatswain^s  whistle,'*  re- 
lieves the  watch,  and  is  eigoined  to  see  that  the 
working  of  the  ship  is  performed  with  as  litUe 
noise  and  confumon  as  poedble.  It  belongs  to 
him  to  seize  and  punish  offenders,  and  to  have  the 
care  of  and  steer  the  long  boat ;  the  latter  offices, 
however,  he  may  perform  through  his  mates. 

BOAVISTA,  or  Bonavista  (i.  e.  fine  view), 
an  island  of  Africa,  the  easternmost  of  the 
Gape  Yerd  islands.  It  is  noted  for  the  produc- 
tion of  salt,  the  manufacture  of  which  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  and  their 
principal  source  of  wealth.  Agriculture  is, 
consequently,  much  neglected,  although  the  soil 
is  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  cotton  and  the 


BOBADILLA 


BOBOLINK 


405 


ooooa-tree.  The  island  is  pentagonal  in  form, 
abont  20  miles  in  length,  and  has  2  basaltio 
peaks  in  the  centre.  There  are  8  ports  for  large 
yessels,  Porto  sal  Rej,  Porto  do  Norte,  and 
Porto  Corralinho.  RabU  is  the  capital.  Pop. 
9  000. 

^  BOBADILLA,  Frakoisoo  db,  a  knight  of 
Oalatrava.  appointed  in  1500  to  a  brief  author- 
ity over  tne  colonj  of  Hispaniola  or  St.  Domin- 
go, then  governed  bj  Oolnmbus,  died  June  29, 
1602.  The  discovery  of  this  island  by  Oolum- 
bos,  and  the  belief  that  it  formed  a  part  of  the 
Asiatic  continent,  which  had  so  long  been  the 
object  of  the  cnpidity  of  Europeans,  attracted 
to  it  from  Spain  every  variety  of  adventurers. 
The  colony  was  composed  of  men  impatient  of 
discipline  and  unused  to  regular  habits,  whose 
sole  aim  was  to  rapidly  amass  a  fortune  from 
the  golden  Indies.  They  immediately  began  a 
system  of  outrages  upon  the  simple  natives^ 
whom  they  threatened  soon  to  exterminate.  At 
length  the  colony  suffered  from  scarcity  of  pro- 
visions, for  the  adventurers  would  not  work  the 
soil  for  any  less  object  than  ffold,  and  the  na- 
tives were  inclined  to  starve  their  enemies  even 
if  Hiey  also  starved  themselves.  In  these  cir- 
cumstances, Columbus,  who  governed  the  isl- 
and, forced  all,  even  the  proud  hidalgo  and  the 
learned  nriest,  to  short  rations  and  to  work 
in  the  neld.  The  result  was  a  variety  of 
complaints  sent  to  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
concerning  the  maladministration,  the  indiscre- 
tions, and  the  severities  of  Columbus.  He  re- 
tained, however,  the  unabated  confidence  of 
his  sovereigns,  was  fJEivorably  received  upon  his 
second  return  from  the  new  world,  and  his  third 
Toyage  was  prepared  with  aU  convenient 
spee£  Yet  the  novelty  of  the  discovery  had 
passed  away,  and  insufficient  returns  had  as  yet 
been  received  to  answer  to  the  glowing  descrip- 
tions of  the  great  discoverer.  When,  there- 
fore, the  fleet  was  ready,  men  were  not  found 
wiUinff  to  embark,  and  the  pernicious  expedient 
-was  aaopted  of  commuting  the  r^lar  punish- 
ment of  convicts  to  transportation,  and  sending 
them,  under  Columbus,  to  colonize  the  Indies. 
The  admiral,  upon  his  arrival  again  in  Hispsr 
niola,  found  that  affiiirs  had  not  improved  dur- 
ing his  absence.  The  colonists  were  in  rebel- 
lion, and  the  natives  suffering  every  oppression. 
The  criminals  whom  he  had  brought  with  him 
only  served  to  swell  the  opposition  against  him, 
and  his  exertions  succeeded  not  tiu  after  the 
lapse  of  a  year  in  restoring  order.  Meantime, 
rumors,  complaints,  and  accusations  had  been 
reaching  Spain,  and  calumnies  were  uttered 
abundantly  at  court  by  disaffected  returned 
colonists.  Though  the  confidence  of  the  queen 
in  the  admiral  remained  unshaken,  it  was  yet 
at  length  determined  to  despatch  a  commis- 
sioner to  inquire  into  the  condition  of  the  colo- 
ny, and  the  person  selected  for  this  office  was 
Don  Francisco  de  Bobadilla.  This  is  his  first 
appearance  in  history,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
know  the  motives  which  prompted  the  choice 
of  so  arrogant  and  incompetent  a  man.    He 


intrusted  with  unlimited  powers,  which 
he  immediately  exerted  by  arresting  Columbus, 
putting  him  in  chains,  and  sending  him  to 
Spain.  He  next  abolished  the  regulations 
which  had  been  enacted  by  Columbus,  and  in- 
dulged the  colonists  in  all  we  excesses  of  power, 
and,  above  all,  in  boundless  oppression  of  tiie 
natives.  The  unexpected  outrage  upon  the  most 
noted  man  of  the  time  excited  general  indigna- 
tion in  Spain,  and  was  regard^  as  a  national 
dishonor.  Columbus,  after  landing  in  Spain, 
was  reinstated  in  his  honors  and  emoluments, 
and  before  his  departure  upon  his  fourth  voy- 
age, orders  had  oeen  already  sent  for  the  re- 
call of  Bobadilla,  under  whose  weak  adminis- 
tration disorders  had  multiplied  to  an  alarming 
extent.  Columbus  landed  again  in  tiie  harbor 
of  Hispaniola  on  the  day  when  the  fleet  bear^ 
ing  Bobadilla  and  other  enemies  of  Columbus 
started  for  Spain.  This  fleet  was  hardly  out  of 
sig^t  when  it  was  overtaken  by  a  fearfrd  tropical 
hurricane,  and  Bobadilla  perished  in  shipwreck. 

BOBBIN,  a  sort  of  spool  or  cylindrical 
piece  of  wood,  with  a  border  at  each  end, 
pierced  to  receive  an  iron  pivot,  and  used  in 
spinning  to  wind  thread  or  silk  on. 

BOBBINET,  a  kind  of  lace,  with  a  hex- 
agonal eyelet,  manufactured  by  machinery, 
chiefly  in  England,  but  also  in  France  and 
Belgium. 

BOBOLINA,  a  heroic  Greek  woman  bent  on 
avenging  the  death  of  her  husband, who  was  put 
to  death  in  1812  at  Constantinople,  by  order  of 
the  sultan.  At  the  beginning  of  1821  die  fanned 
the  flames  of  insurrection  among  the  Greek 
population  in  Turkey,  equipped  at  iier  own  ex- 
pense 8  ships,  herself  taldng  command  of  1 
bearing  her  flag,  as  admiral,  and  giving  the  2 
othen  to  competent  captains,  while  her  2  sons 
fought  against  the  Turks  on  land.  In  Sept 
1821,  she  attended  the  siege  of  Tripolitza  to 
meet  the  Peloponnesian  leaders  there  assembled. 
She  put  her  ships  at  the  disiAsal  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  maintained  the  Dkxdcade  of  Nanplia 
for  14  montbs,  until  the  Turks  were  forced  to 
capitulate.  She  then  proceeded,  with  a  small 
Greek  fleet  which  was  intrusted  to  her  charge, 
to  the  coasts  of  Morea,  and  during  the  siege  of 
Monemvada,  when  one  of  her  nephews  lost  his 
life,  she  did  not  even  waste  one  hour  upon  him, 
but  quietly  drawing  a  doak  over  his  body, 
avengdd  his  death  by  continuing  to  bombard 
the  city.  After  the  war,  she  lived  with  her 
brothers  at  Spezzia.  In  1825  her  house  was 
attacked  by  the  friends  of  a  young  lady  who 
was  supposed  to  have  been  dishonored  by  some 
member  of  Bobolina^s  family,  and  Bobolina 
was  killed  by  a  rifle  shot  fired  by  one  of  the 
assailants. 

BOBOLINE,  the  rice-bunting  (embrnwi  arky^ 
9or€i^  Linn. ;  doHehanyxoHeyvarui^  Swains.).  This 
beautiful  and  interesting  species,  which  is  the 
rice-bird,  or  ortolan,  of  the  Georgians  and  Caro- 
linians, the  reedbird  of  the  fowlers  of  the  middle 
states,  and  the  bobolink  of  the  northern  and 
norUi- western  turn  lands  in  which  he  breeds^  is 


406 


bobounb: 


mignitoiy  tbrongh  tbe  whole  length  of  the  Nortii 
American  oontinent  and  islands,  from  Labrador 
to  Mexico  and  the  Antilles.  The  drees  of  this 
bird,  or  rather  of  the  male  bird  of  this  species, 
is  so  entirely  variant  at  yarions  seasons,  that 
in  Pennsylvania,  although  they  are  continaons 
visitants  and  may  be  seen  nnder  every  modi- 
fication of  plomage  in  eaccession,  those  persons 
who  do  not  understand  or  do  not  choose  to  be- 
lieve or  acquiesce  in  zoological  distinctions,  per- 
sist in  tbe  opinion  that  tiiere  are  2  distinct 
Bpedes ;  while  in  the  southern  states,  the  plant- 
ers, who  only  see  the  bobolink  in  his  gay  nup- 
tial attire  (when  he  is,  comparatively  speaking, 
a  solitary  bird)  during  a  few  days,  on  his  up^ 
ward  or  northern  journey,  naturdly  will  not 
credit  the  assertion  that  he  is  the  same  bird 
which,  at  a  later  season  of  the  year,  devastates 
their  rice-fields  in  countless  multitudes,  to 
whose  ravafles  those  of  a  swarm  of  locusts  are 
comparatively  hannless,  clad  in  a  plain  dress  of 
din^  greenish  yellow*  The  bobolink  winters 
mainly  in  the  western  isles,  and  not  in  the 
tropi<^  parts  of  this  continent  Early  in  spring 
they  begin  to  appear  in  the  southern  states  in 
small  parties,  the  females  often  preceding  the 
males,  tarrying  only  a  few  days,  seen  only  in 
small  companies,  hurrying  from  bush  to  bush  in 
the  upland  and  for  the  most  part  making  their 
joumeyings  by  night.  In  the  first  days  of  May 
they  appear  in  Massachusetts,  gayly  dad  in  fuU 
dress,  and  in  full  song,  and  at  this  period  are 
neither  gregarious  nor  predatory,  though  on 
their  northern  voyage  they  damage  the  crops 
of  young  grain  by  &eir  small  foraging  partieiE^ 
tarrying  a  longer  or  shorter  time  on  their  up- 
ward migration,  according  to  the  temptation 
offered  by  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  their 
f&vorite  grains. — ^The  length  of  tiie  bobolink  is 
about  7i  inches ;  the  male,  in  his  spring  dressy 
has  the  upper  part  of  the  head,  shoulders, 
wings,  tail,  and  the  whole  of  the  under  plum- 
age black,  lowef  part  of  the  back  bluish 
white ;  scapulars,  rump,  and  tail  coverts 
white ;  there  is  a  large  patch  of  brownish  yel- 
low on  the  nape  and  back  of  the  neck ;  bill 
bluish  black,  which  in  the  female,  young  male, 
and  adult,  after  the  month  of  June,  is  pale  flesh 
color;  the  feathers  of  the  tail  formed  like  a 
woodpecker's ;  legs  brown.  The  female,  whose 
plumage  the  adult  male  assumes  after  the  breed* 
ing  season,  has  the  back  streaked  with  brown- 
ish black;  the  whole  lower  parts  of  a  dull 
J  yellow.  The  youn^  birds  have  the  dress 
of  the  female.  Bunng  the  breeding  season 
they  frequent  cool,  grassy  meadows,  which  they 
render  vocal  with  thdr  quick,  merry  song; 
the  male  serenading  the  female  while  she  is 
sitting,  sometimes  mounting  and  hovering  da 
the  wing,  sometinies  perched  on  trees,  bu^es, 
or  tall  weeds,  in  the  vicinity  of  the  nest  of  his 
dingy-colored  mistress.  ^^  He  chants  out,"  says 
Wikon,  the  pioneer  of  American  ornithology, 
''suoh  a  jingling  medley  of  short  variable  notmi, 
uttered  with  such  seeming  confusion  and  rapid- 
ity, and  continued  for  a  considerable  time,  that 


it  appears  as  if  half  a  dozen  birds  of  different 
kinds  were  singing  all  together.  8ome  idea 
may  be  formed  of  this  song  by  striking  tbe  high 
^eys  of  a  piano-forte  at  random,  singly  and 
quickly,  making  as  many  sudden  contrasts  of 
high  and  low  notes  as  possible.  Many  of  the 
tones  are  in  themselves  charming,  but  they  suc- 
ceed each  other  so  rapidly  that  the  ear  can 
hardly  separate  them.  Nevertheless  the  general 
effect  is  good,  and  when  10  or  12  are  all  singing 
in  the  same  tree,  the  concert  is  singularly  pleas- 
ing." The  female  makes  an  inartificial  nest  of 
withered  grass,  in  some  depressed  place  in  the 
meadows,  and  lays  6  or  6  eggs  of  puiplish  whitCL 
blotched  all  over  with  purplish  stains,  and 
spotted  with  brown  at  the  lander  end. — ^During 
the  months  of  April,  May,  and  June,  the  males 
are  constantly  singing,  and  they  neither  con- 
gregate nor  damaoe  any  crops ;  but  toward  the 
end  of  June  they  become  silent,  and  slowly  and 
gradually  assume  the  coloring  of  the  females, 
so  that  by  the  beginning  of  August  the  change 
is  complete.  They  now  assemble  in  vast  fiock^ 
mute  with  the  exception  of  a  short,  sharp  chir* 
rup,  and  do  some  mischief  to  the  latest  crops  of 
oats  and  barley;  chiefiy,  however,  they  con- 
gregate in  multitudinous  throngs,  literally  dark- 
ening the  air  like  douda,  as  they  rise  on  the 
wing,  and  making  a  whizzing  sound,  which  can 
be  heard  at  a  great  distance,  like  the  £unt 
crepitating  murmur  of  far-off  thunder,  along 
the  river  beds  and  lake  margins,  wherever  the 
wild  rice  (sieania  aquatica)  grows  abundantly. 
Along  the  Delaware  and  ^huylkill,  as  also  on 
the  borders  of  the  New  Jersey  and  many  of  the 
Virginia  streams,  they  are  much  pursued  by 
Bhooters--they  cannot  be  called  Bp<vt8men,  for 
it  requires  neither  skill  nor  exertion  to  kill 
them ;  and  tiie  sport,  as  it  is  called,  consists 
merdy  in  blaziug  into  flocks,  so  large  that  one 
cannot  miss  them,  and  bringing  down  dozens 
at  eveiy  discharge  of  an  old  king's  arm,  which 
is  better  for  the  sport  than  the  best  fowling- 
piece.  As  the  cool  frosty  pights  draw  on,  late 
in  September  and  early  in  October,  they  quit 
thdr  northern  summering  places  for  the  sonth- 
em  rice-fidds,  which  they  at  times  glean  so 
completely,  that  it  is  usdess  to  attempt  to  gather 
the  grain.  Here  they  become  so  fat  and  slug- 
gish that  they  can  scarcely  flj,  and,  when  shot, 
are  frequentiy  known  to  burst  open  on  striking 
the  ground.  Before  the  rice  crop  is  fiilly 
gathered,  they  have  already  made  their  ap- 
pearance in  Cuba  and  Jamaica,  where  they  re- 
peat the  same  ravages  on  the  seeds  of  the  guinea 
grass  (wrghum)  with  the  same  result  of  growing 
ao  fat,  that  they  receive  the  name  of  "  butter- 
birds."  To  the  poets  and  essayisU  of  the  north 
the  bobolink  fills  the  phice  held  by  the  skylark 
with  Earopean  writers,  as  the  harbinger  of 
summer  time,  and  the  merry  songster  of  the 
meadow,  cheering  the  shepherd  as  he  drives  his 
flock  afield ;  and  Mr.  Irving^s  charmingly  plav- 
ful  description  of  him  has  made  him  a  well- 
known  and  familiar  suest  in  dimes  which  his 
wing  has  never  visited. 


BOOA  TIGRIS 


BOCOAOOIO 


407 


BOOA  (or  Boooa)  TIGRIS,  or  the  Bogus, 
fhe  entrance  to  the  Canton  river,  Ohina.  In 
its  oentre  are  S  strongly  fortified  and  rocky 
islands^  called  North  and  Soath  Wantang.  They 
were  attacked  and  taken  by  the  Bridsh.  Feb. 
26,  1841.  All  that  part  of  the  eetuary  of  Can- 
ton river  which  lies  southward  of  the  Bogne  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  ^*  Cater  Water." 

BOCCACCIO,  GiOTANirr,  an  Italian  novelist, 
bom  in  1813,  in  Paris  or  Florence,  died  at  Cer- 
taldo^  Dec  21, 1376.  His  fi&mily  was  originally 
of  Oertaldo,  bat  his  father  being  engaged  in  com- 
meroe,  reawved  to  Florence,  where  he  amass- 
ed wealth,  and  filled  several  important  pablio 
offices.  On  one  occasion,  however,  the  father 
having  visited  Paris,  formed  a  connection  with 
a  lady  there,  and  the  subject  of  this  notice  was 
the  fruit  of  their  nnwedded  love.  Very  early 
in  life  Giovanni  displayed  a  remarkable  aotitude 
for  learning,  and  before  he  was  7  years  old,  com- 
posed verses  with  perfect  facility.  He  was  placed 
under  the  care  of  an  eminent  master,  Giovanni 
da  Strada,  but  his  father  having  determined  on 
a  oommercial  career  for  his  son,  removed  him 
£rom  his  tutor  before  his  Latin  course  was  com- 
pleted, and  as  soon  as  he  had  acquired  a  suffi- 
cient knowledge  of  arithmetic  apprenticed  him 
to  a  merchant,  with  whom  he  remained  6  years. 
His  master  finding  that  he  profited  nothing, 
although  ha  made  in  his  company  several  com- 
meroial  journeys,  finally  in  despair  sent  him 
back  to  his  father,  and  was  accustomed  to  re- 
gard him  as  a  very  narrow-minded  youth.  His 
fiftther  had  sufficient  penetration  to  discover 
that  his  son  would  never  make  a  merchant,  but 
thought  that  his  studious  habits  might  serve 
bun  in  the  legal  profession.  But  the  law  proved 
as  distasteful  as  commerce,  and  although  he  la- 
bored assiduously  to  gain  a  knowledge  of  it, 
his  repugnance  could  not  be  overcome,  and  led 
to  a  series  of  altercations  between  himself  and 
his  father,  who  repeatedly  declared  that  his 
son's  fondness  for  poetry  would  only  involve 
him  in  poverty.  Over  this  part  of  his  life  there 
is  some  obscurity,  but  it  would  appear  that  his 
father,  finding  that  the  law  had  little  attraction 
fbr  Qiavanni,  forced  him  to  return  to  commerce, 
and  fix:  his  residence  in  Naples.  The  exquisite 
sitaation  of  that  city,  its  delicious  climate  and 
enchanting;  scenery,  its  bay  overhung  by  the 
flaming  grandeur  of  Vesuvius,  its  classic 
monumenta^  all  combined  to  infuse  the  very 
spirit  of  poetry  and  romance  into  the  breast 
of  Boccaccio.  The  king,  Robert  of  A^ou, 
who  was  a  friend  and  patron  of  Petrarch, 
was  greatly  devoted  to  literature,  and  thus 
drew  to  his  court  the  most  eminent  schol- 
ars of  Italy.  Boccaccio  was  well  acquainted 
with  Giovanni  Barrili,  a  man  of  erudition,  and 
Paolo  of  Perugia,  the  king^s  librarian,  and  exojted 
by  their  example  and  encouragement,  he  en- 
turely  abandoned  commerce  and  gave  himself 
up  to  the  pursuit  of  learning.  His  father  gave 
his  consent  only  on  the  condition  that  he  should 
study  the  canon  law,  and  although  against  his 
disposition,  he  ^>plied  himself  to  it  for  some 


time,  took  his  doctor's  degree,  and  after  that 
found  himself  more  at  liberty  to  indulge  his 
passion  for  poetry,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
devoted  himself  to  the  higher  branches  of  phi- 
losophy, astrology,  then  a  favorite  study,  and 
to  the  fathers  of  the  church.  He  remaiued  8 
years  in  Naples,  and  during  his  stay  there  was 
nred  with  greater  desire  of  distinction  by  the 
visit  of  Petrarch  on  his  way  to  Rome,  where 
he  bad  been  decreed  the  honor  of  the  laurel 
crown.  Boccaccio  marked  with  delight  the 
splendid  reception  given  to  Petrarch,  his  exam- 
ination of  3  days,  his  noble  oration,  and  the 
applause  which  followed,  but  was  far  more 
pleased  in  after  years  to  make  the  acquaintance 
of  the  illustrious  poet,  with  whom  he  formed  a 
friendship  which  lasted  through  life.  Another 
connection  of  less  reputable  character  was  es- 
tablished about  this  time.  Boccaccio  was  nat- 
urally fond  of  gay  company,  and  had  not 
resisted  the  seductions  of  Naples,  which  5  oen« 
turies  ago  was  as  famed  for  its  dissolute  charac- 
ter as  at  the  present  day.  The  object  of  his 
passion  in  this  instance  was  the  princess  Mary, 
the  illegitimate  daughter  of  King  Robert,  ana 
half-sister  of  the  celebrated  Joanna  of  Naples. 
She  was  married  to  a  Neapolitan  gentleman, 
)>ut  at  once  ardently  returned  Boccaccio's  love 
and  became  his  avowed  mistress.  At  her  in- 
stance, he  composed  his  romance  ofllFUocopo^ 
and  UAmorow,  Fiammetta^  in  the  latter  of 
which  his  lady,  under  the  name  of  Fiammetta, 
bewiuls  the  loss  of  Pamphilo,  supposed  to  rep- 
resent himself.  The  FUoeopo  is  not  skilftQly 
constructed,  and  is  filled  with  spectres  and 
visions  of  every  kind,  and  the  powers  of  dark- 
ness are  summoned  before  the  reader  to  account 
for  its  scenes  and  incidents.  Tet  it  contains 
passages  of  that  wondrous  grace  and  vivacity 
afterward  so  signally  displayed  in  the  Beco' 
merone^  and  touches  of  human  nature  in  which 
the  whole  character  is  pictured  in  Msiugle  sen- 
tence. While  he  was  ^us  employea  at  Naples 
between  the  blandishments  of  illicit  love  and 
the  charms  of  literary  composition,  he  was  sud- 
denlv  summoned  to  Florence  by  the  illness  of 
his  father.  His  separation  from  the  prinoess 
Mary  appears  to  have  affected  both  lovers  wiUi 
violent  sorrow,  and  it  was  only  by  the  composi- 
tion of  the  romance  of  Ameto  that  he  could 
console  himself  during  his  absence.  On  the 
completion  of  his  work,  his  father's  recovery 
and  marriage  set  him  again  at  liberty  to  return* 
to  the  favors  of  his  adored  princess.  The  king 
had  died  during  his  2  years'  stay  in  Florence, 
and  his  daughter  Joanna  ascended  the  throne 
amid  great  political  disturbances.  Boccac- 
cio's nature  was  too  easy  to  be  deeply  stirred 
by  the  state  of  Italian  parties,  and  he  found  his 
position  more  enviable  than  it  had  been  before. 
He  was  not  only  happy  from  his  connection  with 
the  princess  Mary,  but  possessed  the  favor  of 
Acci^uoli,  who  had  great  power  in  Naples,  and 
even  th^  regard  of  Joanna  herself!  It  is  as- 
serted on  respectable  authority  that  many  of 
the  most  licentious  passages  in  the  DecatMran^ 


408 


BOOOACOIO 


were  written  in  conformity  witli  the  taste  and 
bv  the  command  of  the  queen.  While  em- 
ployed in  writing  this  work^  Naples  was  alarm- 
ed by  the  invasion  of  the  king  of  Hungary,  and 
Joanna  fled,  but  soon  returned.  His  £ather  died 
in  1350,  leavinff  a  son  by  his  wife  Bice  dei  Bostio- 
chi,  who  was  usodead,  to  the  care  of  Boccaccio. 
The  poet  faithfully  attended  to  his  trust,  and 
when  in  his  paternal  city  had  the  happiness  of 
becoming  acquainted  with  Petrarch,  whose  in- 
timacy his  own  fame  now  gave  him  some  claim 
upon.  Petrarch^s  example  and  influence  began 
yery  shortly  to  act  upon  the  mind  of  his  younger 
friend,  who  from  the  date  of  their  friendship 
conmienced  to  turn  his  thoughts  more  from 
licentious  pleasures  to  purer  fame.  Being  now 
permanently  settled  in  Florence,  Boccaccio,  by 
retrarch's  advice,  began  to  take  some  interest 
in  the  affairs  of  state,  although,  owing  to  the 
vicious  luxury  of  the  great,  and  the  misery  of 
the  lower  orders,  no  city  in  Europe  at  that  time 
presented  a  more  ^oomy  aspect.  His  motives 
were  appreciated,  however,  and  he  was  sent  on 
an  embassy  to  Padua,  to  invite  Petrarch  to  ac- 
cept the  presidency  of  the  university.  Several 
other  missions  foUowed,  not  very  clearly  de- 
scribed as  to  dates,  and  in  AprU,  1858,  he  took 
part  in  one  to  Pope  Innocent  YI.,  the  papal 
court  then  rending  at  Avignon.  In  the  same 
year  was  published  his  Decamerone  or  *^Ten 
Bays'  Entertiunment,"  one  of  the  most  extraor- 
dinary works  of  genius  ever  written,  and  which 
after  the  lapse  of  5  centuries  is  still  regarded  as 
one  of  the  purest  specimens  of  Italian  prose,  as 
an  inexhaustible  repository  of  wit,  beautv,  and 
eloquence,  although  unhappily  deformed  with 
such  licentious  thoughts  and  descriptions  as 
render  it  in  a  great  degree  unfit  to  be  read  by 
any  one  of  pure  mind.  While  occupied  with 
these  popular  compositions,  Boccaccio  did  not 
lose  sight  of  higher  pursuits  in  literature.  Like 
Petrarch  he  was  a  devoted  collector  of  ancient 
manuscripts,  and  a  diligent  student  of  the 
classics.  Both  were  travellers,  and  both  em- 
ployed much  of  their  time  and  money  in  rescu- 
ing from  utter  destruction  the  precious  memo- 
rials of  antiquity.  On  one  occasion  Boccaccio 
visited  Monte  Casino,  within  whose  monastery 
he  knew  many  works  had  been  collected,  which 
had  escaped  the  ravages  of  the  barbarians,  but 
found,  to  his  amazement,  that  they  were  suffered 
to  rot  in  a  damp  loft  exposed  to  the  weather, 
and  that  frequently  when  the  monks  were  in 
want  of  money,  they  took  some  of  the  manu- 
scripts, obliterated  the  writing,  replaced  it  by 
copying  on  the  parchment  some  i>art  of  the 
ritual,  and  then  sold  the  new  productions  among 
the  people  of  the  neighborhood.  To  such  col- 
lectors as  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio,  and  to  the 
latter  preeminently,  the  world  owes  a  debt  of 
gratitude  for  the  rescue  of  many  of  the  great 
classic  works  which  otherwise  would  have  been 
irretrievably  lost  In  1859  the  author  of  the  De- 
cameron visited  Petrarch  at  Milan,  conversed 
with  him,  as  he  informs  us,  at  great  length  on 
the  subjects  of  morality  and  religion,  and  deter- 


mined to  devote  himself  more  seriously  to  holy 
studies.  This  resolve  received  additional  stim^ 
ulus  in  1862  fix>m  a  singular  circumstance. 
A  monk  from  the  Oarthudan  monastery  at  Sienna 
came  to  visit  him,  saying  that  he  was  chaiged 
with  a  message  to  him  from  Father  Petroni, 
who  on  his  death-bed,  although  he  had  never 
seen  Boccaccio,  declared  that  he  knew  him  in 
spirit,  and  commissioned  the  monk  to  exhort 
him  to  repentance.  In  order  to  prove  the  truth 
of  his  words,  the  monk  told  Boccaccio  of  a  cir- 
cumstance in  his  life  which  the  poet  thought 
known  only  to  himself.  So  great  was  the  effect 
of  this  warning,  that  he  determined  to  abandon 
poetry,  sell  hh  library,  and  lead  a  life  of 
penance  and  meditation.  With  this  view  he 
wrote  to  Petrarch,  supposing  that  his  sudden 
purpose  would  meet  with  kindred  entiiusiaffln, 
but  his  friend  answered  in  a  strong  common- 
sense  letter,  instructing  him  to  receive  the 
warning  to  repentance,  but  informing  him  that 
there  was  no  necessity  for  selling  his  books  or 
abandoning  his  studies.  The  converted  man 
accordingly  pursued  literature,  and  wrote  in  a 
strain  altogether  free  from  his  former  licentious 
vein,  while  he  assumed  the  ecclesiasticid  habit, 
and  applied  himself  to  theology.  Unfortunately 
for  Boccaccio  he  was  not  wealthy,  and  his  great 
liberality,  which  was  a  striking  feature  of  his 
character,  in  time  impoverished  him.  With 
disinterested  generosity  a  large  part  of  his  means 
was  dissipated  in  the  collection  of  Greek  manu- 
scripts, his  emissaries  visiting  many  parts  of. 
Europe  to  procure  them.  His  fortune  was  thus 
gradually  impaired,  and  toward  the  dedine  of 
life  he  found  himself  poor  and  deserted  by  all 
his  friends,  except  the  noble-minded  and  con- 
stant Petrarch.  That  great  poet  wished  his 
friend  to  take  up  his  abode  with  him,  but  Boo- 
caccio  preferred  independence,  and  declined  the 
offer,  although  he  visited  Petrarch  whenever  he 
found  an  opportunity.  In  1868  he  was  invited 
to  Naples  by  the  grand  seneschal  Acdi^noli,  but 
was  so  hurt  by  his  cold  reception,  that  he  soon 
left  and  went  to  Venice  to  meet  Petrarch.  On 
returning  to  Florence  he  found  its  turbulent 
state  of  society  in  little  accordance  with  his 
wish  of  retirement,  and  took  up  his  abode  in  a 
little  cottage  in  Oertaldo,  in  the  vale  of  £18% 
dear  to  him  as  the  birthplace  ctf  his  family. 
From  this  retreat  he  was  soon  summcmed  by  the 
chief  citizens  of  Florence,  to  undertake  an  embas- 
sy to  Urban  Y.  at  Avignon,  and  repairing  to  the 
papal  court  he  experienced  the  most  flattering 
reception.  He  was  again  sent  to  Urban  in  1867, 
after  the  pontiff  had  removed  to  Rome,  when 
the  character  of  Boccaccio  had  so  completely 
changed  from  his  former  looseness,  that  he  was 
characterized  by  the  bishop  of  Florence  as  one 
in  whose  purity  of  futh  he  had  the  utmost  con- 
fidence. In  1868  he  again  visited  Venice  for  a 
short  time,  and  subsequently  Naples,  where 
Queen  Joanna  endeavored  to  persuade  him  to 
tx  his  abode.  But  earthly  pleasures  had  lost 
their  charms  for  him.  He  fell  Ul,  his  thoughts 
became  fixed  on  the  subjects  (tf  rdigion  and  of 


BOGOAGS 


BOOmOA 


409 


eternity,  and  be  hastened  baok  to  the  soHtade 
of  his  little  cottage,  and,  says  Baldelli,  ^  the 
diamber  which  used  to  ring  with  the  harmo- 
nious songs  of  the  mnsee,  was  as  silent  as  the 
grave.'*  He  was  now  honored  by  the  Florentine 
magistrates  with  a  professorship  founded  in 
memory  of  Dante,  for  the  better  explication  of 
the  JDivina  Commsdia,  His  lectures  commenced 
in  October,  1878,  and  continued  until  his  death, 
which  was  doubtless  hastened  by  the  demise  of 
Petrarch  10  months  before  his  own.  In  elo- 
quent language  he  bewailed  his  loss.  With  a 
broken  and  contrite  spirit,  on  dying,  he  be- 
queadied  the  little  property  remaining  to  him 
to  his  2  nephews,  ana  his  library  to  Father 
Martin,  an  Augustine  monk. — Boccaccio  wrote 
numerous  works  in  Italian  and  Latin,  and  both 
in  prose  and  poetry,  few  of  which  are  referred 
to  at  the  present  day;  his  great  fame  rests 
upon  the  Decameron.  In  these  hundred  tales 
of  love,  displaving  the  most  wondrous  fertility 
of  invention,  the  reader  is  perpetually  delighted 
with  the  beauty  of  the  narrative  and  the  variety 
of  the  scenes,  whether  of  intrigue,  wit,  or  pa- 
thos—no  two  stories,  nor  even  their  introduc- 
tions, resembling  each  other.  The  anthor^s* 
IbndneflB  for  involving  friars  in  every  imaginable 
scene  of  mischief  and  ludicrous  mi^p,  created 
great  scandal  to  the  church,  and  his  famous 
romance,  the  tenth  novel  of  the  sixth  day,  in 
which  *' Friar  Onion  promises  some  country 
people  to  show  them  a  feather  from  the  wing 
of  the  angel  GabrieL  instead  of  which  he  finds 
only  some  coals,  whicn  he  tells  them  are  the  same 
that  roasted  St.  Lawrence,"  drew  down  the  sol- 
emn anathema  of  the  council  of  Trent  The  edi- 
tions of  the  Decameron  are  almost  innumerable, 
and  translations  exist  in  aU  the  languages  of 
Europe.  The  earliest  editions  are  extremely 
rare,  and  of  that  of  Yaldarfer  in  1471,  only 
one  copy  is  known.  This  was  purchased,  not 
many  years  since,  at  the  sale  of  the  duke  of 
Boxour|^*8  collection,  by  the  marquis  of  Bland- 
ford,  for  the  enormous  sum  of  £2,260. — ^Boccao- 
do*B  poem,  La  Temdcy  is  written  in  the  ottaoa 
rknOf  of  which  he  is  usually  considered  as  the 
inventor,  and  is  the  first  Italian  poem  which 
preaents  a  specimen  of  the  epopee.  Chaucer 
borrowed  from  this  poem  his  **  Knight's  Tale," 
and  Shakespeare  a  part  of  his  "Midsummer 
Night's  Dream."  The  great  English  dramatist 
has  also,  in  some  measura  availed  himself  of 
Boccaccio's  DeeameranOj  as  m  ^'  Oymbeline"  and 
'^  All's  weU  tiiat  ends  well"  With  all  his  faults, 
we  may  consider  Boccaccio  one  of  the  great  re- 
vivers of  learning  and  a  benefiictor  to  mankind, 
as  well  as  worwy  of  the  third  place  in  that 
great  triumvirate  with  Dante  and  Petrarch, 
^hich  renders  the  fourteenth  century  so  splen- 
did an  epoch  in  the  history  of  literature." 

BOOO AGE,  Mabcb  Aknb  La  Paob,  a  French 
poetess,  bom  in  Rouen,  Oct.  22. 1710,  died  Aug. 
8, 1802.  Educated  at  Paris,  Mile.  Le  Page  early 
displayed  taste  and  talent.  She  married  a  liter- 
ary man  of  the  name  of  Fiquet  du  Boccage.  At 
the  age  of  86,  she  appeared  as  an  author,  a  poem 


from  her  pen  obtaining  the  first  prize  from  the 
Bouen  academy.  The  leading  literati  and  artists 
of  Paris  bowed  before  her  beauty  and  genius. 
She  wrote  a  French  *^  Paradise  Lost,"  an  imita- 
tion of  Qessner's  ^^  Death  of  Abel,"  an  epic  poem, 
called  La  Golombiade^  a  tragedy,  and  minor 
pieces.  Her  collected  works  ran  tnrough  4  edi- 
tions, were  translated  into  several  languages,  and 
obtained  her  honorary  membership  in  6  acade- 
mies of  learning.  She  also  wrote,  in  prose,  letters 
during  her  travels  through  England,Hollan(],  and 
Italy,  which  show  her  capacity  for  observation. 
When  Dr.  Johnson  visited  Paris,  in  1775,he  dined 
with  "the  Boccage,"  as  he  calls  her  in  his  diary. 

BOGOHEBINI,  Lxraoi,  an  Italian  composer, 
bom  at  Lucca,  Jan.  14, 1740,  died  in  Madrid  in 
1806.  He  left  many  compositions  for  the  vio- 
lin, violoncello,  and  piano-forte.  He  never 
composed  any  thing  K>r  the  theatre,  and  his 
Stdbat  Mater  is  his  only  church  composition. 

BOOOONE,  Paolo,  afterward  Stlvio,  a 
Sicilian  naturalist,  bom  at  Palermo,  April  24, 
1638,  died  Deo.  22,  1704.  He  was  a  Cistercian 
monk,  and  to  study  natural  history  visited  Ita- 
ly, France,  England,  Germany,  and  many  other 
countries.  He  left  many  valuable  works,  some 
of  which  have  passed  thro^h  several  editions. 

BOOHART,  Samuel,  a  French  oriental  and 
biblical  scholar,  born  inRouen,May  80, 1599,  died 
at  Caen,  May  16, 1667.  He  came  of  a  Huguenot 
fiimUy,  and  became,  like  his  &ther,  and  his  uncle 
the  famous  Pierre  du  Moulins,  a  Galvinistio 
minister.  He  studied  philosophy,  and,  perhaps, 
tiieology,  at  Sedan,  or,  as  others  think,  at  Sau- 
mur,  and  followed  Cameron  into  England  in  the 
civil  troubles  of  1620.  WhUe  there  he  laid  the 
foundation  for  that  oriental  eradition  to  which 
he  owes  his  celebrity.  He  soon  returned  to  Ley- 
den,  where  he  applied  himself  to  the  study  of 
Arabic.  He  had  already  become  so  thoroughly 
versed  in  Greek  at  14  years  of  age  that  he  wrote 
freely  in  Greek  verse,  specimens  of  which  were 
published  by  Dempster  in  the  preface  to  his 
''Roman  Antiquities"  (1616).  Returning  to 
Caen  in  1628,  he  held  a  public  disputation  with 
y^ron,  a  learned  Jesuit.  The  discussion  was 
intermpted  by  Bochart's  sickness,  but  was  con- 
tinued in  epistolary  essays  for  nearly  8  years. 
The  subjects  of  which  it  treated  embraced  the 
principid  heads  of  controversy  between  the  Prot- 
estant and  Roman  Oatholic  churches,  such  as 
the  supremacy  of  St.  Peter,  the  sacraments^  rel- 
ics, merits,  vows,  intercession  of  the  saints,  the 
Vulgate  transition  of  the  Bible,  &c.  Bochart,  for 
the  rest  of  his  life,  devoted  himself  to  the  illustra- 
tion of  biblical  literature.  He  now  began  to  write 
his  Chographia  Sacra,  the  great  work  of  his  life. 
Next  followed  his  treatise  on  the  animals  of  the 
Bible ;  and  in  pursuance  of  the  same  plan,  he 
was  collecting  materials  for  similar  treatises  on 
the  minerals  and  plants  of  the  Bible,  when  his 
sudden  death,  while  speaking  in  the  academy 
at  Oaen,  intermpted  his  labors,  and  deprived 
the  world  of  the  results. 

BOCHIOA,  an  Indian  mythological  charac- 
ter indigenous  to  the  valley  of  Bogota,  the  son 


410 


BOOHIUS 


BODIir 


of  the  san,  lawgirer,  teacher  of  agricnltnre,  and 
introdacer  of  the  semi-civilizatioQ  formerly  ex- 
isting there. 
BOGHIUS,  John,  or  Booh,  a  Flemish  Latin 

Joet,  horn  in  Brussels,  Jnlj  27,  1655,  died 
an.  18, 1609.  He  traveUed  in  Italy,  Germany, 
Poland,  and  Russia,  and  was  afterward  secre- 
tary to  the  duke  of  Parma.  His  poems  were 
published  at  Cologne  in  1615,  and  much  ad- 
mired by  his  contemporaries. 

BOOHSA,  BoBKRT  NiooLAS  Ghablbs,  harp- 
ist and  composer,  born  at  Montm6dy,  de- 
partment Meuse,  in  France,  in  1789,  died 
m  Australia  in  1856.  When  but  7  years  old 
he  performed,  in  public,  a  concerto  on  the 
piano-forte,  and  before  he  was  12  had  com- 
posed symphonies,  concertos,  overtures,  and 
tven  a  quartet,  without  having  acquired  any 
nowledge  of  composition.  At  the  age  of  16  he 
began  to  study  the  harp,  and  within  2  years  could 
perform  the  most  difficult  pieces  on  half  a  dozen 
different  instruments.  About  this  time  he  was 
placed  in  the  eanMrvatoire  at  Paris,  where  he  en- 
joyed Uie  instructions  of  Mehul  in  composition ; 
and  so  rapid  was  his  progress  that,  at  the  end 
of  the  first  year,  he  obtained  the  principal  prize 
in  harmony.  He  also  continued  to  apply  him- 
self to  the  harp,  and  soon  acquired  an  eminence 
as  a  performer  on  it  without  any  previous  par- 
allel, and  which  he  ei^oyed  until  his  death.  His 
published  compositions  for  it  amount  to  150  of 
all  sorts,  exclusive  of  50  studies ;  and  he  also 
published  2  methods  for  pupils.  In  1813  he 
was  appointed  by  the  emperor  Napoleon  first 
harpist  at  his  private  concerts ;  and  upon  the 
restoration  of  the  Bourbons  filled  the  same  office 
with  Louis  XVin.  Durine  this  period  he  com« 
posed  a  number  of  operas  for  the  French  stage, 
many  of  which  were  successful  in  their  day, 
although  now  nearly  forgotten.  In  1817  he 
went  to  England,  where  a  busy  professional 
career,  extending  through  more  than  80  years^ 
awaited  him.  He  published,  yearly,  numerous 
compositions  for  the  harp,  gave  concerts  in 
Lonaon  and  the  provinces,  directed  the  oratorios, 
and,  in  1822,  became  professor  of  the  harp  at 
the  royal  academy  of  music,  of  which  institution 
he  was  also  appointed  a  life  governor.  In  1847 
he  came  to  the  United  States  with  Madame  Anna 
Bishop,  with  whom  he  made  many  musical  tours 
in  various  parts  of  the  American  continent,  and 
whom  he  finally  accompanied  toAustralia. 

BOCK,  Xabl  Ebnbt,  a  German  anatomist, 
born  Feb.  21,  1809,  graduated  at  Leipsic  in 
1831,  served  as  surgeon  in  the  Russian  army, 
and  after  his  return  was  appointed,  in  1887, 
to  preside  and  report  over  post-mortem  ex- 
aminations at  the  Leipsic  hospital  In  1839 
he  became  professor  of  anatomy  at  Leipsic, 
and,  since  1850,  he  has  had  charge,  also, 
of  the  clinical  department  of  the  univer- 
sity. His  last  production,  Lehrhich  der  Fatho- 
logisehen  Anatomie  und  Diofffwstik  (Leipsic, 
1848),  has  passed  through  8  editions. 

B0GKEL80N,  or  Boooold,  Johabn.  See 
John  ov  Lbtdbn. 


BODE,  JoHAKir  Elbbt,  a  German  astronomer, 
bom  in  Hambuig,  Jan.  19,  1747,  died  in  Berlin, 
Nov.  23, 1826.  While  a  boy,  he  made  a  telescope 
for  himself,  and  converted  his  father's  garret  into 
an  observatory ;  having  published  in  early  life 
a  paper  on  a  solar  edipse,  and  an  excellent  pop- 
ular introduction  to  astronomy,  he  was,  in 
1772,  chosen  astronomer  to  the  Berlin  academy 
of  sciences.  His  ^^Astronomical  Alioanac,** 
of  which  54  volumes  appeared  at  Berlin  from 
1776  to  1829,  is  continued  by  Encke.  Hla 
Uranogra/phia  contains  observations  on  17,240 
stars.  He  was  one  of  those  who  gave  as- 
tronomy the  hold  which  it  now  has  on  the 
German  mind. 

BODE'S  LAW  is  not  a  law,  properly  speak- 
ing, but  simply  a  mnemonicon  for  remember- 
ing the  distances  of  the  planets  from  the  sun. 
To  4  add  8  multiplied  by  2  once,  twice,  thrice, 
&c,  and  the  sums  multiplied  by  9,500,000  will 
give  the  distances  of  the  Boccessi  ve  planets  from 
the  sun.  This  rule  fails  in  the  case  of  Neptune, 
and  it  was  thus  that  Adams  and  Leverrier  were 
misled  in  their  calculations  of  that  planet's  dia- 
tance  before  it  had  been  observed. 

BODENSTETT,  FmBDBion  Majhut,  a  Ger- 
man author,  bom  at  Peine,  in  Hanover,  April 
22, 1819.  In  1840  he  accepted  an  engagement 
as  teacher  in  the  family  of  Prince  GaUizin,  at 
Moscow.  In  1844  he  became  profiessor  in  a 
seminary  at  Tifiis,  and  after  exploring  t^e  Can* 
casus,  the  Crimea,  and  Asia  Minor,  he  returned 
to  Germany  in  1846,  officiated  in  1848  as  editor 
of  the  niyd  AuatriaeOy  published  at  Trieste, 
attended  the  Paris  convention  in  1849  as  repre- 
sentative of  the  Prussian  free  trade  party,  and 
the  peace  congress  at  Frankfort-on-the-Mun  in 
1850,  the  latter  in  the  interest  of  the  canse  of 
Schleswig  Holstein.  Subsequently  he  was  edi- 
tor of  the  Wea&r  Zeitung  at  Bremen^  and  in 
April,  1854,  he  toc^  up  his  abode  at  Munich, 
where  he  is  one  of  the  poets  who  duster 
round  the  throne  of  Eling  Maximilian,  who 
pays  him  an  annual  pension  of  about  $600, 
while  at  the  same  time  he  officiates  as  profes- 
sor of  Slavonic  languages  and  literature  at  the 
university  of  Munich.  He  has  translated  the 
works  of  the  Russian  poets  Pushkin,  Kastofi^  and 
Lermontof^  into  German,  published  an  inter- 
esting work  on  the  nations  of  the  Cancasna^ 
and  their  war  of  independence  against  Roasia, 
of  which  a  2d  and  enlarged  edition  Appeared 
in  1855,  and  a  book,  called  *^  Thousand  and  One 
Days  in  the  Orient,"  of  which  an  English 
translation  appeared  at  London  in  1851,  and  a 
Hd  German  edition  at  Berlin  in  1858.  A  first 
volume  of  his  more  recent  poems  waa  pub- 
lished at  Berlin  in  1866,  and  his  new  historical 
tragedy  Demetrim^  appeared  in  the  same  year, 
and  was  performed  at  the  theatre  of  Munich. 
His  most  original  production  is  his  German  ver- 
sion of  the  Persian  songs  of  Mirza-Shaify. 

BODIN,  Jbav,^  a  French  publicist,  bom  at 
Angers  about  1580,  died  at  Laon  in  1696. 
After  studying  law  at  Toulouse,  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  to  follow  hia  prafeasion;  but  he  saw  at 


BODI800 


BODLEIAK  LIBRARY 


411 


onoe  that  he  oonld  Boaroelj  soooeed  in  oompetl- 
tion  with  such  advocates  as  Brisson,  Pasquier, 
Fithou,  and  others ;  and  aocordingl/  he  devot- 
ed himself  to  politios.  In  1676  he  published 
his  work,  De  la  Beptiblique,  whioh  gained  for 
him  a  great  repntation,  and  the  esteem  of  Henry 
IIL,  who,  bad  king  as  he  was»  knew  how  to 
appreciate  genius.  But  having  suffered  in  the 
king's  mind  by  the  oslumnies  of  some  courtiers, 
he  went  to  the  duke  of  Alen^on,  who  was  then 
the  chief  of  the  party  called  la  politiauei^  who 
appointed  him  at  once  to  several  offices  in  his 
service.  He  went  with  that  prince  to  England, 
where  he  found  his  work  used  as  a  text  book 
at  the  university  of  Cambridge.  After  the 
death  of  his  protector,  in  1584,  he  retired  to 
Laon,  where  ne  married,  and  held  the  office  of 
procwreur.  There,  during  his  leisure  hours, 
AC  composed  a  strange  book :  La  JJemanama^ 
ni&,  ou  traiU  de»  gorcien^  which  was  printed 
at  Paris  in  1587.  The  following  years^  he  was 
sent  as  deputy  for  the  third  estate  (tters  etat) 
of  Yermandois,  to  the  states-general  at  Blois^ 
where  he  supported  several  democratic  meas- 
ures. On  the  death  of  Henry  IIL,  Bodin  made 
Laon,  his  adopted  city,  Join  the  party  of  the 
league,  which  opposed  the  accession  of  Henry 
IV. ;  but  a  little  later,  yielding,  he  went  over 
to  that  prince.  He  was  carried  away  suddenly 
by  a  disorder  resembling  the  cholera.  Beside  the 
2  works  above  mentioned,  he  left  several  others, 
whioh  bear  evidence  of  his  varied  knowledge 
and  boldness  of  mind ;  but  his  treatise,  De  la 
£ijpyhliqu6y  is  his  best  production.  He  gives 
in  it  an  exposition  of  the  principles  on  which 
government  should  be  founded ;  and  if  he  does 
not  determine  in  favor  of  the  republican  system, 
he  insists  that  monarchy  should  at  least  exhibit 
a  regard  for  popular  rights. 

BODISOO,  ALBXA2n>sB,  for  a  long  time  Rus- 
sian minister  in  the  United  States,  born  about 
1770,  of  a  Protestant  family  of  the  lower  ranks 
of  theWallachian  nobility,  died  at  Washington, 
Jan.  38,  1854.  While  he  was  yet  a  boy,  his 
father  emigrated  to  Russia,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  facilities  for  the  education  and  support 
of  his  numerous  family.  The  son  was  very 
carefully  taught  French  and  a  handsome  hand- 
writing^ and  early  entered  the  civil  service  in 
the  department  of  foreign  affiiirs.  There  he 
diBtingnlshed  himself  by  his  application,  and  was 
attached  to  that  part  of  the  imperial  cliancery 
which  accompanied  Alexander  in  his  campaigns. 
He  was  next  made  private  secretary  to  Count 
Snchtelen,  in  1810,  and  in  the  following  years, 
when  the  count  as  imperial  commissioner 
concluded  the  convention  with  Bernadotte. 
orown  prince  of  Sweden.  He  also  attended 
Suchtelen  during  the  campaigns  of  1813-14, 
and  at  the  congress  of  Vienna.  When  Suchtelen 
was  appointed  ambassador  at  Stockholm.  Bodis- 
CO  became  the  secretary  of  legation.  Here  he 
enjoyed  the  unbounded  confidence  of  his  chiej^ 
who,  on  his  deathbed,  warmly  recommended 
him  to  the  emperor  Nicholas.  After  the  death 
of  the  axnbaasadori  Bodisco  temporarily  filled 


the  place  of  ehargh  dHaffairen  at  Btodcholm 
until  he  was  appointed  to  the  same  office  at 
Washiogton,  and  soon  after  was  made  minister 
plenipotentiary,  which  post  he  filled  for  17  years ' 
until  his  death.  He  had  remarkable  financial 
abilities,  and  by  economy  and  speculation  made 
a  large  fortune,  which  he  left  to  his  numer6us 
children.  He  was  married  to  a  lady  of  George- 
town, D.  0. 

BODLEIAN  LIBRARY,  the  public  library 
of  the  university  of  Oxford,  so  called  from  Sir 
Thomas  Bodley,  who  restored  it  toward  the 
close  of  the  16th  century,  many  of  the  previous 
collections  of  books  and  MSS.  having  been  de- 
stroyed during  the  rei^  of  Edward  VI.  Be- 
side restoring  the  building  and  providing  a 
fhnd  of  £2,000  for  the  purchase  of  books,  he 
also  presented  a  collection  which  was  valued  at 
£10,000,  and  left  an  estate  for  the  maintenance 
of  officers  and  for  keeping  the  library  in  repair. 
For  the  government  of  the  library  he  drew  up 
some  statutes,  which  were  afterward  incorpo- 
rated with  those  of  the  university.  The  library 
was  first  opened  to  the  public  Nov.  8, 1602. 
The  liberal  example  of  Bodley  was  soon  follow- 
ed by  the  earl  of  Essex,  who  presented  part  of 
the  Portuguese  bishop  Osorius's  library,  which 
had  been  captured  by  Essex  in  1596,  shortly 
after  the  expedition  against  Cadiz.  AJfter  the 
death  of  Bodley,  the  earl  of  Pembroke  added  a 
Taluable  collection  of  Greek  MSS.,  procured  by 
Baroccio,  a  Venetian.  At  later  dates  Sir  Thomas 
Roe,  Sir  Eenelm  Digby.  the  "  learned  Selden,^' 
Qough  the  antiquary,  and  Archbishop  Laud,  con- 
ferr^  donations  of  valuable  Greek,  Oriental,  and 
German  MSS.  to  this  magnificent  library.  The 
library,  rich  in  rabbinical  lore,  of  the  Hebrew 
scholar  Oppenheim,  a  great  collection  of  eastern 
IhlSS.,  of  early  editions  of  the  Bible,  original  edi- 
tions of  ancient  and  classic  authors,  together  with 
50,000  dissertations  by  membcK  of  foreign  uni- 
yersities,  and  an  extensive  collection  of  medals^ 
coins,  prints,  &c.,  were  also  subsequentiy  de- 
posited in  this  library.  In  1809  Clarke,  the 
traveller,  gave  to  it  some  rare  Greek  and  Latin 
MSS.,  indndmg  a  Plato  from  the  isle  of  Patmos. 
In  1818,  an  exceedingly  valuable  collection  of 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Arabic  MSS.,  prcAsured 
from  Venice,  was  added,  together  with  a  por- 
tion of  the  famed  library  of  Richard  Heber 
(1834),  and  lastiy,  the  rare  books,  MSS.,  and 
coins  of  the  scholar,  antiquary,  and  Shake- 
spearean commentator,  Francis  Douce.  This 
renowned  library,  in  fine,  is  rich  in  many  de- 
partments in  which  other  libraries  are  deficient, 
and  forms  dtogether  the  noblest  collection  of 
which  any  university  can  boast.  The  library  is 
oonstantiy  increasing  by  donations^  by  copies  of 
every  work  printed  in  the  United  Kingdom,  as 
well  as  by  books  purchased  from  the  fbnd  left 
by  Bodley,  by  fees  received  at  matriculation, 
and  by  an  annual  payment  of  all  persons  (servi- 
tors excepted)  who  have  the  right  of  admission 
to  the  library.  In  Jan.  1849,  the  number  of 
printed  volumes  was,  according  to  a  report  pre- 
9ented  to  the  house  of  commons,  about  220,000^ 


412 


BODLEY 


BOEOKH 


and  of  MSS.  about  21,000.  Daring  the  vears 
1826-^46  the  average  annual  addition  of  the 
booka  was  about  4,&0  volumes ;  so  that,  upon 
this  basis,  the  library  must  contain,  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  at  least  260,000  printed  volumes. 
The  first  catalogue  of  the  printed  books,  by  Dr. 
James,  appeared  in  1605.  Tbis  was  followed 
by  various  other  catalogues.  Rev.  Dr.  Bandi- 
nePs  catalogue  of  the  printed  books  was  com- 
pleted in  1843,  8  vols,  folio,  and  a  large  supple- 
mental volume  was  printed  in  1851,  containing 
^e  additions  up  to  the  end  of  1847. 

BODLEY,  Sib  Thomas,  the  founder  of  the 
Bodleian  library,  born  at  Exeter,  March  2, 
1544,  died  at  Oxford,  Jan.  28,  1612.  At  the 
age  of  12,  he  went  to  Geneva  with  his  fSftther, 
who,  being  a  Protestant,  went  into  voluntary 
exile  during  the  reign  of  Queen  Mary.  At  the 
then  newly  founded  university  of  Geneva, 
young  Bo£ey  received  instruction  in  the  deaa 
languages  and  divinity.  On  the  accession  of 
Qeeen  Elizabeth,  in  1568,  he  returned  to  Eng- 
land with  his  family,  entered  the  university  of 
Oxford,  graduated  there  in  1568,  and  was  elect- 
ed fellow  of  Morton  college  the  year  following, 
and  filled  various  offices  in  the  university  until 
1576,  when  he  commenced  4  years'  foreign 
travel.  Eetuming,  he  went  back  to  Oxford, 
was  made  gentleman  usher  to  Queen  Elizabeth, 
and,  in  1585,  forfeited  his  fellowship  by  mar- 
riage. Queen  Elizabeth  successively  employed 
him,  after  this,  in  various  embassies, — ^to  Den- 
mark, Brunswick,  Hesse,  Henry  UI.  of  France, 
and  the  Hague.  At  the  last-named  place, 
where  he  was  admitted  one  of  the  council  of 
state,  taking  place  and  voting  next  Oount 
Maurice,  he  remained  5  years,  but  was  again 
sent  thither,  not  finally  quitting  Holland  until 
1597.  Abandoning  the  public  service,  he  im- 
mediately set  about  restormg,  or  rather  found- 
ing anew,  the  1[)ublic  library  at  Oxford— now 
called  the  Bodleian,  from  his  name.  He  was 
knighted  on  the  accession  of  James  I.,  and 
honored  with  a  public  fhneral  on  his  death.  His 
autobiography  was  published  at  Oxford  in  1647. 

BODmER,  Gsona,  a  Swiss  mechanic,  bom 
at  Zt^rich  in  Dec.  1786.  Being  apprenticed  to 
a  mechanic  in  Thurgau,  he  invented  screw  or 
cross  wheels  in  1808,  and  made  important  im- 

Erovements  in  the  machinery  for  wool-spinning 
1 1805.  He  established  himself  at  Etissnacht, 
where,  in  1808,  he  invented  a  1-pound  cannon 
for  firing  bombs,  which  exploded  when  they 
struck  any  object.  He  settled  in  1809  at  St. 
Blasien,  in  Baden,  devoted  himself  to  the 
manufacture  and  improvement  of  fire-arms  and 
industrial  machinery,  and  received  commissions 
from  France,  Baden,  and  Switzerland.  In 
1822  he  planned  the  bath  at  Schinznach,  in 
Switzerland.  In  1 824  he  went  to  Manchester,  in 
England,  where  he  applied  many  of  his  me- 
chanical improvements  upon  a  large  scale.  He 
constructed  at  Bolton  an  immense  water-wheel 
61  feet  in  diameter,  perfected  locomotives,  and 
during  20  years  gamed  more  than  80  patents 
for  various  machines  and  instruments  for  turn- 


ing^ boring,  and  rolling.  In  1847  he  returned 
to  Austria,  where  he  was  engaged  in  the  con- 
struction of  railroads. 

BODMER,  JoHAiTN  Jakob,  a  German  schol- 
ar, bom  at  Greiffensee,  in  Switzerland,  July 
9,  1698,  died  in  Zarich,  Jan.  2,  1788.  A 
knowledge  of  the  classics  and  of  English  and 
Italian  literature,  opened  hb  eyes  to  the 
meagre  and  insipid  character  of  the  German 
literature  of  his  own  time,  and  in  union  with 
some  other  literary  young  men,  he  issued, 
in  1721,  a  periodical,  entitled  DiKwrse  der 
MdUr^  in  which  many  German  poets  were  sum- 
moned before  the  tribunal  of  a  new  criticism. 
He  formed  a  new  literary  school  in  oppodtion 
to  the  French  school  of  Gottsched.  The  taste 
of  Bodmer  for  English  poetry,  classical  litera- 
ture, and  the  earlier  German  authors^  exercised 
a  very  happy  efifect  He  officiated  during  60 
years  as  professor  of  history  at  Zarich. 

BODONI,  GiAMBATTisTA,  an  Italian  printer, 
born  at  Saluzzo,  in  Piedmont,  Feb.  16,  1740, 
died  in  Padua,  Nov.  20,  1818.  After  serving 
some  years  in  the  printing  establishment  of 
his  father,  he  went  to  Rome  as  a  compositor 
for  the  press  of  the  Propaganda.  While  there 
he  made  himself  master  of  several  oriental 
languages,  and  restored  and  arranged  the 
types  of  those  eastern  alphabets  that  had  be- 
come disordered.  In  1766  he  became  super- 
intendent of  the  royal  press  at  Parma,  whidi 
Giambattista  soon  maae  the  most  celebrated 
in  Europe.  The  beauty  of  his  type,  ink,  and 
paper,  has  never  been  excelled,  but  the  intrindc 
vidue  of  his  editions  is  rather  inferior  to  their 
outward  splendor.  His  Iliad,  however,  and  his 
Greek  letters,  are  the  most  perfect  imitations 
of  the  originals  that  have  been  yet  attempted, 
and  his  editions  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  Itatian, 
and  French  classics,  are,  on  the  whole,  magnifi- 
cent monuments  or  his  ability  and  taste.  He 
was  a  member  of  several  Italian  academies^  and 
a  knight  of  several  celebrated  orders. 

BOeOE,  Hbotob.    See  Bobthius. 

BOEGKH,  August,  a  German  philoloffist^ 
bom  Nov.  24^  1785,  at  Oarkmhe,  studied  ia 
Halle,  as  a  pupil  of  Wolf,  became  professor 
in  Heidelberg  in  1807,  and  in  Berlin  in  1811, 
where  he  still  continues.  In  one  of  his 
earliest  works,  the  *' Metres  of  Pindar^'  (Berlin, 
1809),  and  in  his  edition  of  Pindar  (2  vols.  Leip- 
sic,  1811-^22),  he  succeeded  in  an  almost  per- 
fect restoration  of  the  text,  in  establishing  the 
rules  according  to  which  the  verses  of  Pindar 
are  constracted,  and  the  kind  of  music  by  which 
they  were  accompanied,  and  in  explaining  the 
elements  by  which  the  poetical  effect  of  these 
songs  was  produced.  In  his  work  Dis  StaaU- 
EdushaUung  der  Athener  (Berlin,  1817, 2  vols.), 
he  gives  an  accurate  and  lively  picture  of  the 
administration  and  political  economy  of  ancient 
Athens,  in  which  so  many  dark  points  are 
cleared  up,  that  we  almost  seem  to  see  the 
Athenians  living  before  our  eyes.  The  2d 
edition  (1851)  is  even  richer  and  more  complete. 
His  work  Metrologikhe  Untmuchungen  ikber 


BOEHM 


418 


Oewiehte^  MUngfuue,  und  Matte  det  Altherthuma 
(Berl.  1838),  suoceedfl  in  solving  the  almost  des- 
perate task  of  giviog,  by  a  careful  comparison 
of  all  historical  sources  and  monuments,  an  evi- 
dently correct  knowledge  of  the  chief  measures, 
weij^ts,  and  currencies  of  the  Greek^Romans, 
and  other  ancient  nations.  His  Urkunden 
aier  das  Seeweten  dee  attieehen  Staate  (Berl. 
1840)  is  an  unexceptionable  history  of  the  navy  of 
Athens  and  the  marine  achievements  of  that  city. 
His  edition  of  the  Corpus  Interiptianum  Groe- 
earum  (vols.  L  and  iil,  Berl.  1824-'63),  under- 
taken in  concert  with  Johann  Franz,  at  the 
instance  of  the  Berlin  academy,  shows  the 
meaning  of  all  the  relics  of  the  ancient  Greek 
inscriptions,  of  which  many  were  very  unintel- 
ligible. Of  his  minor  writings,  almost  all  are 
characterized  either  by  new  results  or  by  inge- 
nious combinations  of  facts,  and  a  dear  classical 
style.  He  does  not  limit  his  researches  to  Greek 
and  Roman  antiquity,  but  has  contributed 
toward  clearing  up  the  darkness  of  oriental 
history,  and  to  the  appreciation  of  the  works 
of  Leibnitz  and  Frederic  the  Great.  .  Ab  a 
philologist  he  has  founded  a  new  and  better 
sohooL  called  after  his  name.  It  has  suo- 
ceeded  in  giving^  the  completest  possible 
picture  of  antiquity  in  all  its  bearings  and 
conditionfi,  in  illustrating  ancient  history,  geo- 
graphy, religious,  social,  and  political  institu- 
tions, and  upon  this  basis  in  ezDlaining  the  real 
meaning  of  the  old  classical  authors ;  while  the 
school  before  him,  called  the  ''school  of  verbid 
critics,'^  was  almost  exclusively  bent  on  restore 
ing,  by  sagacious  conjectures  and  diligent  com- 
parisons of  the  different  readings  of  the  manu- 
scripts, the  original  text.  This  latter  school  was 
entirely  done  away  with  by  that  of  Boeckh, 
which  has  thus  given  a  usefol  scope  to  the 
study  of  classical  philology  in  Germany,  England, 
France,  and  America,  which  before  had  to  some 
extent  been  unfovorable  to  the  spirit  of  inde- 
pendent thought.  Since  Boeckh  the  real  nature 
of  ancient  life  has  been  better  understood,  and 
exercises  a  more  benign  influence  upon  modem 
society.  Boeckh  is  eloquent  in  his  delivery,  his 
appearance  is  noble,  his  political  opiniona  are 
moderately  liberal.  The  2d  edition  of  his 
**  Public  Economv  of  the  Athenians^'  was  trans- 
lated into  French  byLaligant  in  1828;  into 
English,  in  the  same  year,  by  Sir  G.  0.  Lewis, 
late  editor  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  An 
English  translation  of  the  2d  edition  was  made 
by  an  American  scholar,  Mr.  Anthony  Lamb, 
and  brouffht  out  in  1857,  simultaneously  in  Bos- 
ton and  London.  Among  Boeckh^s  more  recent 
publications  his  essay  on  the  cosmioal  system 
of  Flato  {Uhtersuehungen  iiher  das  hoamieche 
8y»iem  dee  Plato\  which  appeared  at  Berlin  in 
1852,  must  be  mentioned. 

BOEHM,  or  Boebux  (often  incorrectly  written 
Bxhmsn),  Jakob,  a  German  theosophist  or  mystic, 
bom  in  1575,  at  Altseidenberg,  near  Goerlitz,  in 
Silesia,  died  at  Goerlitz,  Nov.  27, 1624.  The  son 
of  poor  peasants,  his  early  education  was  very 
deficient;  ho  was  apprenticed  to  a  shoemaker; 


travelled  for  many  years  as  a  journeyman ; 
and  by  unoea^ng  efforts  made  himself  fami- 
liar with  the  current  theological  literature. 
Even  as  a  boy,  while  tending  the  herds  of  his 
native  village,  the  constant  intercourse  with 
nature  deeply  impressed  his  contemplative  mind. 
Exuberant  fertility  of  imagination,  a  deep- 
rooted  love  of  the  mysterious  workings  of  the 
divine  power,  enthusiastic  warmth  of  feeling, 
a  rare  power  of  intuition,  and  withal  a  want 
of  severe  mental  discipline,  rendered  him  subject 
to  hallucinations,  during  which  he  imagined 
himself  to  be  in  direct  conversation  with  the 
Divinity.  From  the  rude  theological  contro- 
versies of  his  time,  he  fled  to  the  pure  ethe- 
real regions  of  intuition,  where,  in  the  ecstasies 
of  feeling,  elevated  to  sublimity,  he  found  an 
intense  mental  ei^joyment.  Having  returned 
from  his  travels,  he  set  up  a  shoemaker's  shop 
at  Goerlitz,  in  1594,  and  married  the  daughter 
of  a  butcher.  He  led  a  plain  and  quiet  life,  but 
his  visions  continued  until,  in  1610,  the  desire  to 
disclose  to  mimkind  the  path  of  eternal  felicity, 
impelled  him  to  publish  the  mystical  trans- 
ports of  his  soul.  In  1612  he  published  his 
first  book,  Awrora^  oder  die  Margenrdthe  im 
A%rfgang  (Aurora,  or  the  Rbing  of  the  Sun), 
in  which  he  proposed  **to  light  a  torch 
for  all  who  are  longing  for  truth."  In  crude, 
enthusiastic,  and  figurative  language,  almost 
unintelligible  to  sober  modem  thought,  this 
book  contains  the  deepest  philosophical  senti- 
ments on  God,  nature,  and  mankind,  and  shows 
the  author  to  have  b«en  conversant  with  most 

literature.  It  was  videndy  denounced  by  theo- 
logians, and  the  municipal  authorities  even  at- 
tempted to  silence  the  bold  shoemaker,  but  the 
success  of  his  first  work  was  so  decided  as  to 
encourage  him  to  further  effort  In  1619  he, 
therefore,  published  other  writings,  among 
which  were  "Description  of  the  Three  Principles 
of  the  Divinity,"  and  "  On  True  Penitence  and 
Tranquillity."  The  consequence  was  his  banish- 
ment from  the  dty.  He  went  to  Dresden,  where 
the  prince  elector  endeavored  to  obtain  from  hun 
the  philosopher^  stonei  taking  it  for  granted 
that  he  was  endowed  with  supernatural  knowl- 
edge. Having  successfully  defended  his  opin- 
ions in  a  public  discussion  with  eminent  theo- 
logians, he  went  to  Silesia,  and  obtained  the 
abrogation  of  the  decree  of  banishment  just  in 
time  to  return  to  his  home  and  die.  Not  even 
then  did  the  hatred  of  his  theological  adversaries 
cease.  They  refused  to  allow  his  remains  a  Chris- 
tian burial,  but  were  compelled  to  do  so  by  the 
dvH  autiiorities. — ^It  is  yery  difficult  to  obtain  a 
clear  and  brief  idea  of  Boehm^s  conceptions  from 
the  quaint  and  obscure  metaphors  which  are  so 
intimately  blended  with  his  tlioughts,  that  it  may 
well  be  doubted  whether  he  himself  was  able 
to  discern  between  the  substance  and  the  fan- 
tastic form  of  his  effusions.  His  views,  if  closely 
analyzed,  bear  a  striking  resemblance  to  the 
fhndamental  doctrines  of  HegePs  speculative 
system.    The  Divinity,  according  to  him,  is  the 


414 


BOEHM 


BCEOTIA 


eternal  nnit^  the  pure  snbstanoe  undefined  bj 
anj  qualifications,  the  anfathomable  {Uhgrund), 
as  incomprehensible  to  hnman  anderstanding 
as  the  "  absolute  nothing,"  because  it  is  ^ci- 
fie  qualities  only  by  which  the  human  mind 
is  able  to  perceive  phenomena,  and  in  the  Divi- 
nity there  are  none.  But  this  pure  substance,  re* 
fleeting  itself^  becomes  its  own  object  {urntdndet 
ikh)^  a  self-conscious  reality.  Out  of  the  eter- 
nal formation  the  negation  detaches  itself;  by 
disuniting  only,  the  unit  becomes  consdous  of 
itself,  ^Ube  eternal  blissful  stillness  reveals 
itself  in  the  word."  This  self-condensation,  or 
self-qufdifioation  of  the  original  substance 
(divinity)  is  nature  (das  OrecU&rUehs).  The  crea- 
torely  is  the  self-revelation  of  God.  But  the 
negation,  by  which  the  Divinity  is  enabled  to 
reveal  itself,  is,  at  the  same  time,  the  evil 
principle.  *^6od  has  existence  only  through 
the  devil,"  says  Boehm,  meaning  that  the 
motionless,  eternal,  and  infinite,  substance  ob- 
tains reality  only  by  the  principle  of  limitation 
or  definition.  Yet  in  nature  only  this  principle 
Is  the  evil  one,  because  there  the  negation  has 
an  existence  of  its  own,  while  in  the  fulness  of 
the  Divine  Being  it  is  only  the  attribute  of  per- 
fection, the  moving  element,  the  tptpytta  of  the 
inert  unqualified  substance.  In  Groa  the  prin- 
ciple of  limitation  is  a  holy  glow  of  love 
{heilige  LUbesgluth)^  but  in  nature  it  is  the  de- 
structive fire  of  wrath  (f>erzehrende8  Zomfeuer), 
The  principle  of  negation  is  not  an  absolute,  in- 
active principle ;  it  tends  to  deny  itself.  The 
negative  negation  only  is  self-conscious  affirma- 
tion, eternal  bliss.  Thus  man,  led  to  evil  by 
the  negative  principle  of  liberty,  should,  as  a 
self-conscious  being,  return  to  the  absolute 
good.  Bome  few  of  the  least  enigmaticid  propo- 
sitions of  Boehm  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the 
most  lucid  passages  of  his  writings.  ^  The  divine 
substance  is  the  abyss  (Ahgrum)  of  the  crea- 
turely.  The  entirety  of  substance  is  God.  How 
could  man  be  God's  son,  if  his  snbstanoe  were 
different  from  that  of  God?  God  has  created 
all  that  is  from  nothing,  and  himself  is  this 
nothing,  as  a  self-immanent  love,  in  which 
there  is  no  affection.  Angel  and  devil  are  ail 
the  some  in  revelation  (im  Urhund  aUeein 
Ding),  We  do  not  know  any  thing  of  God,  for 
he  himself  is  our  intuition  and  knowledge;  our 
soul  is  woven  into  the  eternal  band,  and  if  it 
attains  the  love  of  God  in  the  light,  it  may  then 
intuitively  view  nature  and  God,  the  kingdom 
of  heaven  and  hell."  Sentiments  like  these  are 
perhaps  intelligible ;  but,  were  it  not  for  them, 
it  is  scarcely  possible  that  the  abstruse  and 
chaotic  lucubrations  of  Boehm  could  ever  have 
been  seriously  considered  and  analyzed  by  the 
wisest  thinkers.  However  this  may  be,  Boehm's 
writings  found  many  admirers  in  his  time,  not 
only  in  Germany,  but  in  England,  where  a  reli- 
gious sect  was  built  upon  them.  In  1697,  Jane 
Leade,  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Boehm, 
founded  a  society  for  the  true  interpretation  of 
his  works  (Philadelphists),  and  John  Pordage 
was  the  profoundest  expounder  of  Boehm.    A 


Bew  edition  of  Boehm's  works  was  published 
by  Sohiebler  (Letpsio,  1831-*46).  The  best  Eng^ 
lish  translation  of  them  is  that  of  William  Law 
(2  vols.  4to.  Lond.  1764). 

BOEHTLINGK,  Ono,  a  Rnssian  philologi^ 
of  German  descent,  learned  especially  in  the  ori- 
ental languages,  bom  at  8t.  Petersburg,  May  80, 
1815.    He  studied  first  at  the  gymnasium  of  Dor^ 

Sit,  and  then  at  the  university  of  6t.  Petersburg, 
e  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  Arabic  and  Per- 
sian, when,  becoming  acquainted  with  BoUensen, 
a  pupil  of  Ewald,  he  was  induced  also  to  under- 
take the  Sanscrit,  and  studied  for  several  yeans 
at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and  Bonn.  Be- 
tnming  to  his  native  city  in  1842,  he  became 
imperial  counsellor,  and  member  of  the  academy 
of  sciences;  andfh>m  that  time  has  devoted 
himself  to  literary  occupations,  especially  to  the 
preparation  of  grammars  and  lexicons  of  the 
Banscrit  Turkish,  and  other  eastern  languages. 
His  works  are  distinguished  for  their  accuracy. 
He  has  contributed  many  articles  to  the  publica- 
tions of  the  Busman  academy  of  sciences. 

BCEOTIA,  a  countnr  of  northern,  or  upper 
Greece,  above  the  Peloponnesus,  and  next  to 
Attica,  on  the  northward.  It  extends  across 
the  mainland,  from  the  Sinus  Opuntins  and  the 
straits  of  Egripo,  which  divide  it  from  Eubcsa, 
or  Negropont,  to  the  Sinus  Oorinthiacns,  or  gulf 
of  Lepanto.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  countries  of 
the  Epicnemidian  and  Opuntian  Locrian?,  N.  EL 
by  the  narrow  seas  and  straits  of  Egripo,  S.  by  At- 
tica and  the  waters  of  the  gul^  W.  by  the  Phthio- 
tis.  It  is  a  country  of  deep  basins,  surrounded  by 
mountain  chains,  allowing  no  egress  to  the  aocn- 
mulated  waters  of  the  lakes  and  marshy  valleys 
except  by  subterranean  ouUets,  which  are  termed 
Korafiotpa  by  the  modem  Greeks.  Hie  basins 
are  occupied  by  great  marshy  flats  and  mead- 
ows, which  are  overflowed  half  of  the  year,  and 
converted  into  vast  lakes,  teeming  with  fish  and 
wild  fowl,  and  for  the  other  half  covered  with  rich 
Tegetation,  and  dangerous  for  the  low  fevers  gen- 
erated by  the  x)estilential  miasmata  of  the  stag- 
nant waters,  the  alluvium,  and  the  decaying  veg^ 
etable  matter,  which  cause  their  extraormnarj 
fertility.  The  principal  of  tiiese  is  the  great 
Oopaic  lake,  into  which  the  Bceotian  Cephissus, 
the  largest  river  of  that  portion  of  Greece,  dis- 
charges its  waters,  having  no  visible  ontiet^  but 
passing  through  deep  underground  channela. 
under  IConnt  Onemis,  Cyrtoua,  and  Ptons,  and 
flailing  into  the  bays,  modernly  called  Scropo- 
neri,  Lamus,  and  Armyra,  near  to  the  ancient 
fates  of  Anthedon,  Larymna,  and  Liliea,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Euboic  frith,  into  which  they  rush  as 
if  new  and  original  streams,  bursting  out  of  large 
sources  in  the  mountain  sides — a  formation  hr 
no  means  unusual  in  limestone  countries,  which 
always  abound  in  caves  and  subterranean  rivers. 
Its  principal  streams  are  the  Asopus,  now  the 
Parasopia,  which  divides  it  from  Attica,  on  the 
south-eastern  frontier,  the  Oenhissus,  mentioned 
above,  now  called  the  Apostolia,  and  the  Melaa, 
which  is  the  modern  Manropotamo,  or  Black 
river,  80  called  from  the  transparency  of  its 


BOSOTIA 


415 


dear  deep  waters,  both  whidt  rivers  flow  into 
the  marshes  of  the  Oephissic  basin,  and  swell 
the  Oopaio  lake.  Beside  these,  there  are  na- 
merons  other  torrents  flowing  from  the  monn- 
tainsy  but  principallj,  like  those  already  named, 
having  no  direct  outlets  into  the  sea,  and  either 
disappearing  through  subterranean  channels,  or 
escu>ing  bj  percolation  through  the  stony  soil 
of  tue  tarns  in  which  they  terminate.  B^sotia 
was  always  famous  for  her  meadow  lands  and 
pastures,  and  was  the  most  equestrian  of  the 
true  Greek  states;  her  wide  plains,  or  rather 
level  valley  bottoms,  particularly  those  of  the 
Oephissiotis  and  Thebais,  being  wdl  suited  to 
the  breeding  and  raising  of  horses,  though  not 
so  much  so  as  the  more  extended  levels  of  the 
Hlstissotis,  of  Thessaly  and  of  Thraee,  to  the 
north-eastward.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  can  be 
conceived  from  the  fact  of  900  grains  being 
found  on  a  single  cob  of  maize  by  Col.  Leake, 
the  Grecian  traveller,  whose  researches  have 
done  so  much  to  dear  up  the  antiquities  of  that 
most  interesting  country,  and  firom  his  observa- 
tion, that  the  canes  grow  so  large  that,  when 
plastered  with  mud,  they  form  the  general  ma- 
terial of  the  cottage  walls.  The  prindpal  moun- 
tain is  Oithaoron,  the  highest  peak  of  which. 
Mount  Elatea,  immediately  above  the  inner  re- 
cess of  the  gulf  of  Oorinth,  is  4,800  feet  in 
height,  but  the  whole  territory  is  broken  with 
irr^ular  spurs  and  ofi^ts  from  the  great  moun- 
tain cliains  of  Parnassus  and  (Eta,  on  the 
northern  and  north-western  confines  of  the 
state,  one  of  the  most  famous  of  which  is  Hel- 
icon. The  capital  of  Bodotia  was  the  dty  of 
Thebes,  known  as  the  seven-gated  Thebes,  and 
iamous  for  its  siege,  in  the  heroic  or  ante-his- 
toric ages,  by  the  seven  cliie&.  who  have  given 
the  name  to  one  of  the  tragedies  of  JSschylus. 
The  other  principal  towns  were  Phitafls,  Orcho- 
menns,  Chasronea,  Coronea,  Lebadea,  and  Au- 
las, where  the  expedition  of  the  Atreidn  against 
Troy  lay  wind-bound,  until  the  ffoddess  Diana 
was  appeased  bv  the  virgin  blood  of  Iphigenia. 
In  ancient  mytnologio  legends,  BcQotia  was  ex- 
tremly  rich ;  the  tragic  tale  of  the  crimes  of  the 
Labdacides  of  Thebes,  Laius,  (Edipus,  Eteocles, 
Polynices,  Oreon,  Adrastns,  and  the  heroines 
Jocasta,  Antigone,  and  Electra,  being  second 
only,  for  solemnity  and  horror,  to  that  of  the 
Hyceniean  TantalidsB.  It  was  on  Oithttron 
that  Bacchus,  and  his  train  of  satyrs  and  Bac- 
chantes, hdd  their  wildest  revels ;  that  Aotoon, 
ojnverted  to  the  stag  which  he  hunted,  for  his 
involuntary  intrusion  on  the  bath  of  Diana,  was 
devoured  by  his  own  hounds ;  and  that  Pen- 
theus  was  torn  limb  from  limb  by  the  votaries 
of  Bacchus,  whose  rites  he  had  dishted.  It 
was  hard  by  the  capital  that  flowed  tne  stream 
of  Dirce,  into  which  the  crud  wife  of  Lycua 
was  transformed,  after  her  punishment  by  Ze- 
tbus  and  Amphion,  sons  of  Antiope,  for  her 
barbarity  to  their  mother,  one  of  the  mortal 
mistresses  of  Jupiter.  Nor  was  Bceotia  less  cel« 
ebrated  in  the  historic  than  in  the  heroic  ages; 
for,  in  many  respects,  as  regarded  the  Gzeek| 


and  afterward  the  Roman  and  Asiotio  wars,  she 
was  what  Flanders  has  been  to  Europe,  the 
general  battle  ground  of  the  conflicting  nations. 
In  the  Persian  wars,  the  Boeotians  sided,  for  the 
most  part,  with  the  Persians ;  and  on  the  plain 
of  Platsoffi  was  fought  the  decisive  battle  by 
Pausanias,  at  the  head  of  110,000  Peloponne- 
sians,  Athenians,  Argi  ves,  Maatineans,  and  Greek 
allies,  in  which,  after  8  days*  severe  fighting  and 
maiMBnvring,  he  utterly  defeated  the  Persian 
host  of  Mardonius,  wliioh,  with  the  Boeotians 
and  other  Medizing  Greeks,  was  not  less  in 
number  than  800,000  men,  and  put  an  end  to 
all  oriental  invasions  of  the  sacred  soil  of  Hd- 
las.  During  the  Peloponnesian  wars,  the  Boeo- 
tians played,  on  the  whole,  but  a  secondary 
part,  owing  to  the  dissensions  of  their  leading 
communities  among  themselves,  which  pre- 
duded  them  from  ihe  possibility  of  acting 
in  concert,  as  became  the  members  of  a  great 
state;  consequently,  they  were  alternately  at 
war  with  Athens,  and  with  the  Peloponnesiana, 
and,  notwithstanding  the  splendid  exploits  of 
Pelopidas  and  Epaminondasat  Leuctra,  on  their 
own  soil,  on  the  banks  of  Eurotas,  within  sight 
of  the  streets  of  Sparta*  and,  again,  at  Mantinea, 
on  Lacedsmonian  earth,  they  effected  nothing 
for  themselves,  or  for  Greece,  although,  beyond 
doubt  they  broke  the  power  of  the  Spartans, 
and  destroyed  forever  thdr  superiority  over 
the  Hdlenio  states.  That^  however,  was  not 
even  a  questionable  advantage,  for  the  Macedo- 
nian kingdom  was  already  on  tlie  increase,  and^ 
had  Lac^ffimon  possessed  the  power,  as  clearly 
she  possessed  the  will,  to  stand  in  arms  side  by 
dde  with  Thebes  and  Athens — 

When  tbAt  dishonest  vletorj, 
At  ChssroneA,  fatal  to  liberty, 
Killed  with  report  that  old  num  eloquent— 

it  is  more  than  doubtful  whether  Philip,  or 
Alexander  either,  would  have  ever  wielded 
the  staff  of  a  Panhellenio  command.  During 
the  Macedonio  wara,  she  played  a  noble,  al« 
though  an  unsuccessful  part^  tmd,  in  revenge  for 
her  resistance  to  his  rising  power,  Alexander 
razed  the  capitd  to  the  ground,  bidding  his 
ministers  of  havoc  spare  only  the  house  of  Pin^ 
dar,  whom  he  affected  to  hold  in  honor,  for 
tiie  sake  of  the  Boeotian  muses,  who  once  dwelt 
sublime  among  the  mountain  glades  of  Helicon* 
Twenty  years  later.  Thebes  was  restored  by 
Oassander,  when  it  is  said  that  the  Athenians 
lent  then*  dd  in  rebuilding  the  walls.  It  was, 
however,  twice  afterward  taken  and  sacked  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and  was,  at  a  still  later 
period,  utterly  impoverished  and  ruined  by  the 
rapacity  of  Sylla,  who  fought  a  yet  greater  bat- 
tle, on  the  same  bloody  field  of  Ohsaronea,  than 
any  one  of  the  conflicts  which  had  preceded  it 
on  the  same  ground,  against  Taxiles,  the  gen- 
eral of  Mithridates;  a  battle  as  remarkable  for 
the  generalship  which  gained  it,  as  for  the  dis- 
pari^  of  numbers.  From  this  period,  Bceotia 
shared  the  fortunes  of  the  rest  of  Greece,  which 
followed  those  of  the  Roman  empire,  through- 
out  her  decline  and  fall;  and  during  the  middle 


416 


BOEREAAYE 


ages  wfljs  the  soene,  first,  of  Genoese  and  Vene- 
tian colonization  and  contest  witJi  the  Mussnl- 
mana^  then  of  Mohammedan  subjugation,  of  the 
despotic  rule  of  Alt  Pasha,  and  of  some  of  the 
sharpest  fighting  of  the  war  of  the  Greek  libe- 
ration. Bcaotia  is  still  famous  for  her  mild 
and  misty  atmosphere,  to  which  the  Athe- 
nians attributed  the  proverbial  dulness  of  her 
people;  which  dulness,  however^  eeems  to  be 
prettj  thorouffhly  contradicted  by  such  sf^ndid 
examples  as  rindar,  Pelopidas,  Epaminondaa, 
and  Plutarch,  her  natives  aod  citizens. 

BOERHAAVE,  Hbbmakn,  the  most  celebra- 
ted physician  of  his  day,  born  at  Yoorhout^ 
near  Leyden,  in  Holland,  Dec  18, 1668,  died  at 
Leyden,  8ept.  23,  1788.  His  father  was  a  cler- 
gyman, and  the  son  was  destined  for  the  same 
calling.  He  received  a  very  careful  education, 
and  manifested  much  ability  in  his  studies.  At 
the  age  of  16  Boerhaave  entered  the  university 
of  Leyden,  where  he  studied  under  Gronovius, 
Byckius,  Trigland,  and  other  eminent  professors^ 
and  obtained  the  highest  academical  honors. 
In  1690  he  received  his  degree  in  philosophy. 
On  that  occasion  he  deliver^  an  inaugural  dis- 
sertation on  the  distinction  between  mind  and 
matter,  De  DUtinUiam  Mentis  a  Corpore^  in 
which  he  discussed  and  condemned  tne  doc^ 
trines  of  Epicurus,  Hobbes,  and  Spinoza.  In 
this  dissertation  he  maintained  that  the  doc- 
trines of  Epicurus  had  been  completely  analyzed 
and  refuted  by  Cicero ;  and  the  arguments  were 
deemed  so  excellent,  that  a  gold  medal  was 
given  to  him  by  the  city,  as  a  token  of  the 
estimation  in  which  his  labors  and  opinions 
were  held.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  Boer- 
haave was  left  without  the  means  of  living,  and 
was  compelled  to  support  himself  by  teaching 
mathematics.  By  the  advice  of  his  friend  Yan- 
denberg,  the  burgomaster  of  Leyden,  he  applied 
himself  to  the  study  of  medicine,  for  which  he 
had  always  had  a  predilection.  In  1698  he  ob- 
tained his  degree  of  doctor  of  medicine  at  Har- 
derwyck,  in  Guelderland,  and  immediately  en- 
tered on  the  du  ties  of  his  profession.  The  practice 
of  medicine  did  not,  however,  absorb  all  his  time, 
or  cool  his  ardor  in  the  pursuit  of  science.  The 
works  of  Hippocrates,  and  those  of  Sydenham, 
were  carefully  perused,  and  all  the  most  emi- 
nent writers  on  medical  science  became  familiar 
to  his  mind.  His  merits  soon  became  conspicu- 
ous, and  in  1701  he  was  appointed  by  the  uni- 
versity of  Leyden  to  supply  the  place  of  Drelin- 
court,  as  lecturer  on  the  institutes  of  medicine. 
His  inau^ral  discourse  on  this  occasion  was 
entitled  Dt  eommendando  HippocratU  Studio. 
Being  deeply  imbued  with  admiration  for  that 
great  physician,  he  reconunended  to  his  pupils 
tiie  study  of  his  works  as  the  best  source  of  in- 
struction. Anatomy  was  not  much  studied  by 
Boerhaave;  but  he  was  fond  of  chemistry, 
botany,  and  mathematics,  and  these  sciences 
were  much  consulted  in  his  medical  investiga- 
tions. In  1709  he  was  appointed  successor  to 
Hotton,  in  the  chair  of  botany  and  me<licine, 
and  continued  to  attract  attention  in  his  pro- 


fessional oapadty.  Under  his  influence,  addi- 
tions were  made  to  the  botanical  garden  of 
Leyden,  and  he  published  numerous  works 
descriptive  of  new  species  of  plants.  In  1714 
he  was  appointed  rector  of  the  umversity,  and 
in  the  same  year  succeeded  Bidloo  in  the  chair 
of  practical  medicine.  Whatever  branch  of 
science  he  professed,  was  sure  to  be  improved 
by  him  in  some  of  its  details.  While  professor 
of  practical  medicine,  he  had  the  merit  of  in- 
troducing into  modern  custom  the  system  of 
cHnioal  instruction,  in  which  the  physicians  and 
surgeona  of  hospitals  visit  their  paUents  several 
times  a  week,  in  the  presence  of  numerous 
medical  students^  examining  disease,  and  ex- 
plaining proper  modes  of  treatment  adapted  to 
each  case,  as  they  proceed  together  f^om  one 
bedside  to  another.  This  had  been  customary 
with  the  ancients,  but  had  been  neglected  in 
modem  times,  until  revived  by  Boerhaave,  early 
in  the  18th  century.  In  1718  he  was  i^point- 
ed  to  the  chair  of  diemistry,  and  here  again  he 
left  the  impress  of  his  genius,  in  his  celebrated 
*^  Elements  of  Chemistry."  His  fame  had  now 
spread  over  the  whole  world.  In  1728  he  was 
elected  into  the  royal  academy  of  sdenoes  of 
Paris,  and  2  years  later,  into  the  royal  society 
of  London.  In  1729,  declining  health  induced 
him  to  resign  the  chairs  of  chemistry  and 
botany,  and  m  1781  he  resigned  the  rectorship 
of  the  university,  on  which  occasion  he  deliv- 
ered a  discourse  on  the  honorable  duties  of  the 
ghysician,  De  Honore  Medici,  JServitute,  Beade 
is  active  duties  as  rector  of  the  university  of 
Leyden,  and  professor  of  chemistry,  botany, 
and  medicine,  Boerhaave  was  much  consulted 
as  a  practic»Ed  physician.  He  was  simple  and 
economical  in  his  habits,  and  when  he  oied,  he 
left  a  fortune  of  2,000.000  florins  to  his  only 
surviving  daughter. — ^The  genius  of  Boerhaave 
raised  the  fame  of  the  university  of  Leyden  aa 
a  school  of  medicine,  which  attracted  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  When  Peter  the 
Great  went  to  Holland  in  1715,  to  become  fin- 
miliar  with  maritime  affidrs,  he  also  had  re- 
course to  Boerhaave  for  instruction.  iVom  the 
time  of  HippoNcrates,  no  physician  had  excited 
80  much  admiration  as  Boerhaave.  His  per- 
sonal appearance  was  rimple  and  venerable ;  to 
nnconmion  intellectual  powers  he  united  g&n* 
tleness,  benevolence,  and  amiable  manners.  In 
lecturing,  his  style  was  eloquent  and  graceful ; 
his  ideas  clear,  and  his  delivery  perfect.  He 
possessed  an  excellent  memory,  and  was  an  ao- 
complished  linguist.  He  was  fond  of  musio, 
and  had  concerts  weekly  at  his  house.  He  was 
of  a  religious  turn  of  mind,  and  usually  devoted 
an  hour  early  hi  the  morning  to  reading  the 
Scriptures.  He  never  regarded  calumny  nor 
detraction;  but  maintained  that  'Hhe  surest 
remedy  against  scandal  is  to  live  it  down  by 
perseverance  in  well  doing,  and  by  pravin^  to« 
God  that  he  would  cure  the  distempered  minds 
of  those  who  traduce  and  injure  us."  The  city 
of  Leyden  raised  a  splendid  monument  to  his 
memory  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  inscribed 


BOEBS 


417 


**  to  the  Balataiy  genias  of  Boerhaave,''  Saluti' 
fsro  BoerhiMvii  genio  ioerum,  and  on  which 
was  engraved  his  motto,  Simplex  ngiUum  veru 
He  led  a  yer^  active  and  well-regulated  life, 
and  though  of  a  delicate  constitution,  did  an 
immense  amount  of  work.  His  views  of  medi- 
cal science  were  far  from  heing  perfect,  but  he 
labored  diligently  to  improve  the  science  as  he 
found  it  The  list  of  his  works  shows  the 
immense  activity  of  his  mind,  and  many  of  his 
writings  are  stall  held  in  repute,  although  the 
science  has  advanced  beyond  the  theories 
which  he  propounded. 

BOERS,  or  Boobb  (Dutch  hoer^  a  peasant 
or  &rmer),  the  designation  by  which  the 
Dutch  colonists  of  the  Gape  colony  have  be- 
come known  even  to  history,  since  within  the 
last  10  or  12  years  2  independent  republics, 
equalling  in  size  the  largest  of  the  United 
States,  have  been  founded  by  them.  The  first 
Dutch  settlements  in  southern  Africa  were 
established  in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury. At  that  time  the  Netherlands  were  the 
ruling  maritime  power,  and  their  colonies  in 
southern  Africa  were  growing  up  in  proportions 
at  least  equal  to  those  of  the  American  colonies 
of  England.  During  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV. 
of  France  against  the  Netherlands,  there  was 
even  a  time  when  the  thought  of  a  wholesale 
emigration  of  the  Dutch  to  the  Oape  of  Good 
Hope,  there  to  establish  a  new  republic,  was 
seriously  entertained.  But  during  the  18th 
oentuiy  the  colonizing  power  of  the  Dutch' 
gradnidly  slackened,  and  the  adventurous  roirit 
of  the  settlers  stagnated.  As  the  influx  of  fresh 
elements  fh)m  Europe  diminished,  the  original 
settlers  of  the  Cape  colony  developed  a  peculiar 
character  of  their  own,  in  which  the  steadiness 
4^  and  deliberation  of  the  Dutch  were  singularly 
blended  with  the  qualities  called  forth  by  con- 
stant intercourse  with  virgin  nature  and  savage 
tribes— daring  recklessness,  unconquerable  en- 
ergy^ distrusuiilndss  of  all  innovations  tending 
to  disturb  a  state  of  society  which  had  been 
established  by  immense  toil  and  danger.  Such 
were  the  Boers  when,  in  1814,  the  Oape  colony, 
after  several  political  changes,  became  defini- 
tively a  British  possession.  The  Boers  could 
never  be  reconciled  to  this  change.  The  obsti- 
nacy with  which  they  clung  to  their  customs  and 
traditions  was  an  insuperable  barrier  between 
them  and  their  new  rulers.  Always  consider- 
ing the  British  as  invaders,  they  maintained 
a  secret  but  constant  opposition  against  all 
efforts  to  Anglicize  the  colony.  The  inoon- 
siderate  policy  of  several  governors,  who  were 
unable  to  appreciate  the  vtdue  of  what  the 
Boers  had  already  accomplished  for  the  civ- 
ilization of  the  country,  tended  to  strength- 
en that  opposition.  The  vain  attempts  of  the 
British  authorities  and  missionaries  to  manufac- 
ture loyal  subjects  out  of  the  savage  Caffres,  by 
treating  them  like  civilized  nations,  or  baptiz- 
ing them,  disgusted  the  Boers,  who,  by  along 
intercourse  with  those  savages,  had  become 
acquainted  with  their  treacherous  character. 
VOL.  in. — 27 


But  when  the  British  rulers  went  so  far 
as  to  take  sides  with  the  Oaffres  against  the 
Boers  whenever  the  latter  endeavored  to 
protect  themselves,  the  disgust  turned  into 
indignation.    The  emancipation  of  the  negro 

«aves  (1838),  which  threatened  to  overthrow 
le  entire  domestic  system  of  the  Boers, 
and  the  retrocession  by  government  of  the 
neutral  eastern  frontier  district  to  the  Oaffres, 
in  1885,  broke  their  patience.  like  the  Israel- 
ites in  Egypt,  or  the  Mormons  in  America,  they 
resolved  upon  carrying  their  household  gods  to 
some  distant  portion  of  the  country,  where  they 
might  establish  a  community  according  to  their 
own  habits  of  life,  independent  of  their  oppress- 
ors. The  Trecien  or  emigration  of  the  Boers 
began.  Port  Natal,  or  Ohristmas  Harbor,  was 
to  be  theur  promised  land.  As  early  as  1885  the 
first  bands,  led  by  Triechard,  of  Albany,  crossed 
the  Orange  river,  but,  being  unacauainted  with 
the  fsw  passes  which  lead  through  the  almost 
perpendicular  walls  of  the  Quadilamba  {Dra- 
IberAsTg)  mountains  to  the  Natal  country,  they 
went  further  to  the  northward  than  they  had 
intended.  Part  of  them  settled  near  tlie  Zout- 
pansberg  ^Salt-pan  mountain);  another  part, 
led  by  Onch,  near  Delagoa  bay,  where  they 
were  soon  destroyed  by  malignant  coast  fevers. 
A  third  band,  which  followed  in  Aug.  1885. 
was  attacked  by  the  Matabelee  Oaffres,  and 
obliged  to  fall  baok  on  the  Modder  river.  Hav- 
ing been  reinforced  by  other  emigrants,  they 
affain  advanced  under  the  leadership  of  G^rit 
HaritZ)  and  repulsed  the  Matabelees,  Jan.  17, 
1886.  Though  still  lon^ng  for  Natal,  they  set- 
tled down  in  the  Orange  river  district,  and  or- 
snnized  a  patriarchal  oommonweidth  under 
Pieter  Retief.  Meanwhile  a  small  British  col- 
ony had  been  established  at  Port  Natal  by 
Oapt.  Gardner,  who  abandoned  it  as  hopeless 
in  1836.  The  remaining  colonists  called  on  the 
Boers  to  unite  with  them,  and  in  1887  Retief 
with  his  folbwers  crossed  the  Quathlamba 
mountains.  But  at  an  interview  with  the 
chief  of  the  Zulu  Oaffres,  he  and  his  compan- 
ions were  treacherously  slain.  The  remnant 
of  his  followers  now  turned  in  a  southerly  di- 
rection, founded  the  settlement  of  Pieter  Ma- 
ritzburg,  and,  rallying  under  the  lead  of  the 
heroic  Pretorius,  utterly  defeated  the  Zulus, 
Feb.  1,  1888.  A  Batavo-Afrioan  republic  was 
now  organized  by  them,  but  their  trials  were 
not  vet  ended.    In  1840,  Governor  Napier  by 

Srodamation  denied  their  right  to  form  an  in- 
ependent  community,  even  beyond  the  boun- 
daries of  the  British  possessions.  Their  protes* 
tations  were  not  heeded;  in  1842  a  small 
British  force  was  landed,  which  the  Boers  had 
almost  succeeded  in  starving  out,  when  reen- 
forcements  arriving,  compell^  the  Boers  to  re- 
tire from  the  coast  and  to  accept  the  amnesty 
offered  to  them  in  exchange  for  their  recogniz- 
ing the  British  sovereign^.  However,  many  of 
them,  unwilling  to  submit,  recrossed  the  moun- 
tains and  settled  in  the  Yaal  re^^on.  The  Brit- 
i^,  having  possession  of  Natal,  at  once  began  to 


418 


BOERS 


distarb  the  tradilioiiary  rights  of  the  Boers.  A 
bomestead  of  8,000  acres  from  the  public  lands 
bad  always  been  considered  the  necessary  outfit 
of  every  head  of  a  family  among  the  Boers ;  yet, 
no  sooner  had  tbe  British  ofiScials  reguned  their 
authority  than  they  began  to  survey  the  lan^ 
and  curtail  the  aUotments.  The  consequence 
was,  that  again  a  large  portion  of  the  Boers  mi- 
grated northward  beyond  the  Eiipp  river,  then 
the  northern  boundary  of  Natal.  For  8  years 
they  struggled  against  tbe  Zulus,  and  not  one 
soldier  was  sent  by  the  government  for  their 
protection.  When,  at  length,  in  1845,  they 
bad  overcome  the  resistance  of  the  Gaffres  by 
their  unaided  efforts,  the  colonial  government 
immediately  stepped  forward  and  proclaimed 
the  Buffalo  river  as  the  northern  boundary  of 
Natal,  thus  once  more  subjecting  tlie  Boers  to 
British  rule.  Exasperated  by  these  svstematio 
annoyances,  the  Boers  openly  resisted  the  civil 
ofiScers  sent  among  them,  and  were  immediate- 
ly declared  traitors.  Their  only  reply  was  emi- 
gration to  t^e  Yaal  country.  Smith,  the  gov- 
ernor-general, perceiving  the  blunders  of  his 
subordinate  at  rort  Natal,  attempted  to  retain 
the  Boers  by  promising  them  full  redress  of 
their  grievances,  but  it  was  too  late.  Similar 
events  followed  beyond  tbe  Quathlamba.  The 
bands,  led  by  Pretorius,  had  settled  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  Griquas  and  Beohuanas,  but, 
Feb.  8, 1848,  the  colonial  government  annexed, 
by  proclamation,  tbe  Orange  river  sovereign- 
^  to  the  Gape  colony,  under  the  pretext 
of  protecting  the  savage  Griquas  against  en- 
croachments on  their  territory.  The  Boers 
took  to  arms,  and,  June  17,  Pretorius  drove 
the  British  garrison  from  Bloemfontein.  But, 
Aug.  22,  Gov.  Smith  crossed  the  Orange  riv- 
er with  a  large  force,  and,  on  Aug.  29,  de- 
feated the  Boers  near  Boomplaats,  aner  a  long 
and  obstinate  resistance.  Pretorius,  and  the 
majority  of  his  followers,  unwilling  to  submit 
to  the  British,  migrated  to  the  nortJi,  beyond 
the  Yaal  river,  and  there  founded  the  Trans- 
vaal republic.  Some  12,000  Boers  remained 
in  the  Orange  river  country,  but  although  sub- 
dued by  force,  they  preserved  their  hostile  feel- 
ing against  their  conquerors.  The  attempt  to 
introduce  convicts  into  the  colony  was  so  ener- 
getically resisted  that  the  government  was 
obliged  to  desist  At  length,  when  the  Oai£re 
war,  begun  in  1851,  had  taught  the  government 
that  a  firm  and  united  action  of  the  entire 
white  population  would  be  indispensable  in  or- 
der to  save  southern  Africa  for  European  civil- 
ization, wiser  counsels  began  to  prevail,  and  in 
1853  the  relinquishment  of  the  Orange  river 
country  to  the  Boers  was  resolved  upon.  On 
Feb.  28, 1854,  this  act  was  consummated,  and 
the  Orange  river  republic  recognized  as  an  in- 
•dependent  state  by  England.  Since  that  time 
the  2  sister  republics  of  Orange  river  and 
Transvaal  have  rapidly  gained  strength  and 
power,  and  may  now  be  considered  as  the  van- 
guard of  advancing  civilization,  perhaps  as  the 
germ  of  a  future  South  African  confederacy 


of  independent  republics. — The  Obanos  Bmes 
Rbpubuo  is  bounded  S.  by  the  Orange  river, 
W.  and  N.  by  the  Vaal  river,  E.  by  the  Quath- 
lamba or  Drakenberg  mountains.  It  extends 
875  miles  N.  and  S.,  from  lat  27"^  to  SI^"  8. 
and  290  from  W.  to  K  Its  area  is  vaguely 
estimated  by  English  authorities  at  70,000 
sq.  m.,  but,  according  to  tlie  calculations 
of  the  geographer  Petermann,  is  only  49,027. 
About  f  of  this  country  is  inhabited  by 
white  men,  the  number  of  whom  is  set  down 
at  15,000.    The  mountainous  eastern  section 

S about  \)  is  inhabited  by  various  Gaffre  tribesL 
The  predominating  character  of  the  country  is 
that  of  a  high  table-land,  its  average  elevation 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean  being  about  5,000 
feet.  Immense  "flats"  or  prairies,  exoeUeut 
for  grazing  purposes,  fill  up  the  settled  portions 
of  the  republic.  At  the  Gape  it  is  generally 
called  "a  heavy  grass  country."  It  is  abun- 
dantly watered  by  numerous  creeks  and  water- 
,  courses,  which  might  easily  be  applied  to  irri- 
gation, or  to  industrial  purposes.  The  Boers, 
being  principally  cattle  breeders,  have  not  yet 
developed  Uie  agricultural  resources  of  the 
country  to  any  considerable  extent  Goal  and 
iron  have  been  fbund  in  many  places;  also, 
gold  on  the  Galedon  river,  and  in  consequence 
of  this  discovery  the  colony  was  threatened  by 
a  rather  violent  attack  of  the  gold  fever  in 
1854 ;  but  it  appears  that  the  ^  nuggets  "  found 
were  not  large  enough  to  be  permanently  at- 
tractive. The  climate  is  dry,  temperate,  and 
salubrious,  much  more  so  than  elsewhere  in  the 
same  latitude.  Excellent  roads  have  been  con- 
structed by  the  Boers  on  the  principal  routes 
communicating  with  the  Gape  colony  and  Port 
Natal.  The  republic  is  divided  into  4  districts, 
viz.,  Galedon  or  Smithfield  district^  Bloemfon- 
tein, Winburg,  and  Harrysmith  or  Yaal  river 
district.  The  principal  towns  are:  Bloemfon- 
tein, the  seat  of  government^  containing  200 
houses,  4  churches,  public  schools,  a  newspaper 
ofllce,  a  club-house,  and  a  theatre;  Smith- 
field,  on  the  Orange  river,  with  many  large 
stores ;  Winburg,  the  former  capital,  containing 
60  houses ;  Harrysmith,  the  key  of  the  Port 
Natal  road,  and  the  centre  of  what  is  to  be- 
come the  princi[)£d  agricultural  district,  no  irri- 
gation being  required  there.  The  political  or- 
ganization is  democratic.  An  elective  president 
is  the  chief  magistrate,  but  congress  (  Volktrad) 
has  all  legislative  powers.  On  the  same  prin- 
ciple the  districts  are  governed  by  LanddroBU 
(governors)  and  ffeemrctden.  J.  T.  Hoffmann 
is  the  present  chief  magistrate.  Public  educa- 
tion is  in  an  excellent  state,  all  the  districts  be- 
ing provided  with  public  schools,  churches,  &c. 
Altogether,  the  Orange  republic  promises  to 
become  of  great  importance  for  the  future  of 
Southern  Africa,  especially  as  it  is  in  direct 
communication  with  the  British  colonies. — 
The  Transvaal  Repubuc,  extending  from 
lat.  28**  to  22*  80'  S.,  is  bounded  K  by  the 
Qaathlamba  mountains,  S.  by  the  Yaal  river, 
W.  and  N.  by  the  Limpopo  river,  and  its  tribu* 


BOEBS 


BOETHIUS 


419 


taiy,  the  Meriqna  river.  Ita  area,  estimated 
at  50,000  sq.  m.  bj  Stuart,  is  oot  less  than 
80,226  sq.  m.,  accordiog  to  Petermann.  That 
it  is  ooDsiderablj  larger  than  the  Orange  repub- 
lic is  shown  by  a  single  glance  upon  the  map. 
The  physiognomy  of  the  country  is  nearly  the 
same,  viz.,  an  elevated  table-land,  intersected 
by  parallel  mountain  ranges  in  the  east.  The 
soil,  consisting  of  sand,  clay,  and  loam,  is  more 
fertile  than  uiat  of  the  Orange  country.  Its 
rolling  prairies  are  covered  with  excellent  tall 
grass,  interspersed  with  shrubs  and  magnificent 
trees.  In  the  mountainous  region,  primeval 
forests  are  frequently  met  with.  The  climate 
is  similar  to  that  of  southern  Europe.  Its 
salubrity  is  proved  by  the  large  number  of 
very  old  people,  and  by  the  rapid  natural  in- 
crease of  the  population.  All  European  and 
many  tropical  vegetables  are  grown  without 
difficulty.  Groves  of  orange-trees  are  found  in 
the  vicinity  of  many  settlements.  Maize,  pump- 
kins, water-melons,  sweet  potatoes,  tobacco, 
sugar-cane,  fruit  of  all  kinds,  and  grapes  are 
raised  in  sufficient  quantities  for  home  con- 
sumption. Apple,  pear,  and  peach-tree  cuttings 
bear  fruit  within  4  years,  grape-vines  within  2 
years.  But  these  advantt^^es  are  all  but  neu- 
tralized by  the  difficulty  of  communication 
with  the  sea-shore.  It  takes  8  weeks  to  reach 
Port  Natal  from  the  distant  settlements  of  the 
Transvaal.  The  rivers,  of  which  the  country 
has  a  good  number,  are  not  navigable,  though 
some  of  them  may  be  improved.  Grasshoppers 
are  a  constant  plague  to  the  farmer,  while  flies 
and  other  venomous  insects  often  destroy  hun- 
dreds of  cattle.  The  form  of  government  in 
the  republic  is  a  pure  democracy.  A  volksrad 
of  some  60  members,  elected  by  ballot  (every 
white  man  of  21  years  being  entitled  to  vote), 
meets  4  times  every  year  at  different  places. 
This  body  unites  all  legislative  and  executive 
powers.  It  appoints  for  each  district  or  parish 
(the  number  of  districts  being  equal  to  that  of 
the  churches)  military  and  civil  officers,  viz., 
commanders-in-chief^  commanders,  field-cornets 
(colonels,  minors,  and  captains),  lanMrosts^  and 
heemraden.  The  number  of  commanders-in- 
diief^  in  1852,  was  4,  of  whom  the  first  was 
the  celebrated  Pretorius,  tlie  terror  of  all  Gaf- 
fredom;  the  second,  Potgieter,  one  of  the 
founders  of  the  republic.  Both  died  in  1853. 
The  landdrosts  have  administrative  as  well  as 
judicial  powers;  they  and  their  messengers  are 
the  only  salaried  officers.  There  are  no  taxes, 
the  expenses  of  government  being  raised  by  the 
granting  of  traders'  licenses,  dec.  Every  white 
man  is  entitled  to  a  homestead  of  8,000  acres 
from  the  public  lands.  Slavery,  properly 
speaking,  has  no  legal  existence,  but  the  Boers 
keep  a  number  of  semi-civilized  Hottentots  as 
laborers  and  herdsmen.  The  institution  is  in 
the  strictest  sense  a  patriarchal  one,  more  so 
than  anywhere  else  in  modern  times.  The 
number  of  laborers  which  every  settler  may 
hold  on  his  property  is  restricted  to  6  or  6  by 
custom,  if  not  by  law.    The.  whole  number  of 


white  inhabitants  was  set  down  at  40,000  in 
1852.  The  principal  settlements  are:  Pot- 
che&trom,  containing  100  houses,  and  500  or 
600  inhabitants;  Rustenburg,  with  80  houses 
and  a  church ;  Oriohstadt,  20  houses  and  a  fort, 
and  Zoutpansberg.  These  towns  are  laid  out 
very  regularly,  and  are  well  supplied  with 
water. — ^The  Boers  are  representeo,  by  those 
who  have  sojourned  among  them,  as  plain, 
honest,  straightforward,  pious,  and  hospitable, 
but  distrusted  of  foreigners,  especially  English- 
men. They  live  in  the  most  patriarchal  way 
on  their  plaats  or  cattle-farms,  in  comfortable 
and  spacious,  though  unpretending  dwellings. 
Beside  cattle-breeding,  their  favorite  occupa- 
tion is  hunting,  in  which  they  show  a  coolness, 
self-reliance,  and  intrepidity  equal  only  to  their 
physical  strength.  Hotels  or  inns  are  unknown 
among  them,  and  no  Boer  is  known  ever  to 
have  denied  the  rights  of  hospitality  to  stran- 
gers. In  Livingstone's  recent  work  on  South 
Africa,  we  find  the  same  favorable  estimate  of 
the  Boers,  allowances  made,  however,  for  those 
who  break  lodse  from  British  allegiance,  and 
who  feel  aggrieved  for  being  denied  the  privi- 
lege of  using  the  Hottentots  as  slaves.  The 
cruelty  of  these  lawless  members  of  the  Boer 
community  is  pictured  by  Dr.  Livingstone  in 
appalling  colors.  They  are  in  the  habit  of 
pouncing  upon  a  village,  and  capturing  women 
and  children.  But  the  Boers  who  have  not 
revolted  on  account  of  the  emancipation  of 
their  slaves,  are  uniformly  described  by  Dr. 
Livingstone  as  a  worthy  and  industrious  class 
of  people. 

BOETHIUS,  Anioixib  Manuus  Torqua^tus 
Sevebinvs,  a  Roman  statesman,  author,  and 
philosopher,  bom  between  A.  D.  470  and  A.  D. 
475.  For  more  than  2  centuries  his  family  had 
been  illustrious  in  Rome.  His  grandfather  Fla- 
vins was  prefect  of  the  prsatorians  when  he 
was  murdered  by  order  of  Yalentinian  III.,  A. 
D.  455.  His  father  was  consul,  A.  D.  487,  but 
died  while  his  son  was  yet  a  child.  Though 
now  an  orphan,  his  mother  having  died  at  a 
still  earlier  period,  the  young  BoSthius  was  not 
friendless.  Symmachus  took  him  to  his  home, 
and  educated  him  as  if  he  were  his  own  son. 
BoSthius  commenced  his  public  career  soon  af- 
ter finishing  his  education,  and  rose  rapidly  to 
the  highest  dignities  and  offices.  He  attained 
the  rank  of  patrician  while  under  the  legal  age, 
was  consul  in  A.  D.  510,  and  subsequently  |)rt»- 
cep9  tenatus.  In  the  mean  time  he  had  married 
EusticianiL  the  daughter  of  his  guardian  Sym- 
machus, who  bore  him  2  son^,  Aurellus  Anicius 
Symmachns,  and  Anicius  Manlius  Severinus, 
both  of  whom  were  afterward  consuls.  Not- 
withstanding the  pressure  of  his  public  duties, 
he  found  leisure  to  translate  several  mathemat- 
ical and  philosophical  works  from  the  Greek, 
to  indulge  his  talent  for  the  construction  of 
curious  machines,  and  to  scatter  charity  with 
a  liberal  hand  among  the  poor  of  Rome,  wheth- 
er natives  or  strangers.  His  reputation  for 
ability,  knowledge,  and  virtue,  at  length  attract- 


420 


BOETHIUS 


ed  die  attention  of  Theodorio,  king  of  the  Os- 
trogoths, who  appointed  him  magist&r  officio' 
rum  at  his  oonrt.  For  some  years  BoSthins 
ei^ojed  the  friendship  of  this  monarch,  and  on 
the  occasion  of  the  inangnration  of  his  3  sons  in 
the  consulate,  A.  D.  622,  he  pronounced  a  glow- 
ing panegyric  on  his  barharian  patron.  His 
bold  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  the  weak  had 
raised  him  up  many  enemies  at  the  court  of 
Theodoric,  who  eagerly  watched  for  an  op- 
portunity to  effect  his  ruin.  At  lei^gth  Albi- 
nus,  a  noble  Boman^  haying  been  accused  of 
treason  by  the  dictator  Cyprianus,  Bodthiua 
not  only  undertook  his  defence,  but  in  the 
course  of  it  spoke  with  enthusiasm  of  liberty 
and  patriotism,  and  the  past  glory  and  greatness 
of  Bome.  It  was  not  difficult  to  convince  the 
distrustful  Theodoric  that  the  man  who  was 
capable  of  uttering  such  sentiments  was 
equally  capable  of  conceiving  the  scheme  of 
freeing  and  restoring  Bome.  He  was  accord- 
ingly arrested,  with  Symmachus,  and  without 
being  allowed  to  defend  themselves,  they  were 
stripped  of  their  property,  and  sentenced  to  suf- 
fer an  ignominious  death.  Bodthius  was  taken 
to  Pavia,  and  imprisoned  in  the  baptisteir  of  its 
church,  where  he  wrote  that  celebrated  work 
on  which  his  fame  as  an  author  and  philoso- 
pher chiefly  rests.  He  was  executed  there, 
either  by  being  beheaded,  or  by  being  first  tor- 
tured and  then  beaten  to  death  with  clubs. 
The  day,  the  season,  and  the  year  of  his  ez^ 
ctttion  are  alike  uncertain.  In  A.  D.  722  a 
cenotaph  was  erected  in  his  honor  in  the 
church  of  St.  Retro  Cielo  d'Oro,  by  Luitpran- 
dus,  king  of  the  Lombards ;  and  in  A.  D.  990, 
a  still  more  magnificent  one,  with  an  epitaph 
by  Pope  Sylvester  U.,  was  raised  to  his  memo- 
ry by  the  emperor  Otho  III.  As  late  as  A.  D. 
1684  the  baptistery  in  which  Bo^thius  had 
been  imprisoned,  was  to  be  seen  at  Pavia.  He 
was  long  regarded  by  the  Catholic  church  as  a 
saint  and  a  martyr,  and  in  after  times  many 
traditions  were  current  about  his  intimacy  with 
St.  Benedict,  and  the  miracles  which  he  had 
-wrought  during  his  life  and  at  his  death.  The 
theory  has  recently  been  maintained,  however, 
that  he  was  not  a  Christian  at  aU,  and  that  the 
theological  compilations  ascribed  to  him  were 
written  by  another  person  of  the  same  name. 
The  greatest  of  his  works  is  that  which  he 
composed  in  prison  at  Pavia  while  awaiting  ex- 
ecution, and  entitled  Db  Ooruolatione  I^Uo- 
iophia.  It  is  an  imaginary  dialogue,  alternately 
in  prose  and  verse,  between  tiie  author  and 
philosophy.  Its  tone,  though  not  striotiy  Chris- 
tian, is  moral  and  elevated ;  its  style  is  eloquent, 
perspicuous,  and  pure,  and  its  arguments  inge- 
nious. It  had  great  fame  in  the  middle  ages, 
and  was  translated  into  all  the  languages  of 
central  and  western  Europe,  and  even  into 
Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic.  But  the  most 
celebrated  of  these  translations  was  that  into 
Anglo-Saxon  by  King  Alfred,  which  has  a  pe- 
culiar interest,  both  as  being  one  of  the  earliest 
specimens  of  English  literaturCi  and  one  of  the 


chief  literary  relics  of  Alfred.  The  best  editions 
of  the  works  of  Bo^thius  are  those  published 
at  Basel  in  folio  in  1670,  and  at  GUisgow  in  4to. 
in  1761.  The  best  edition  of  the  De  Ooruola^ 
Hone  Fhilo9ophia  is  that  of  J.  S.  Cardale,  which 
appeared  in  1828,  with  notes  and  English  trans- 
lation. 

BOETHIUS,  or  Boecib,  or  Botob,  Hsotob,  a 
distinguished  Scotch  historian,  born  at  Dundee 
about  the  year  1466.  died  1686.  His  fame  is  as 
much  in  dispute  as  his  surname,  which  is  writ- 
ten in  at  least  6  different  ways.  The  *^  Bio- 
graphical Dictionary  of  Eminent  Scotsmen^" 
however,  gives  it  Boece.  He  was  descend- 
ed  of  a  family  who  enjoyed  the  barony  of 
Panbride.  He  was  educated  first  at  Dun- 
dee, and  then  at  Paris,  and  called  to  the 
professorship  of  philosophy  in  the  college 
of  Montaigu,  where  he  formed  an  acquaintance 
with  Erasmus,  which  resulted  in  a  mutual  es- 
teem, perpetuated  through  life.  From  Montaigu, 
he  was  called  to  the  first  presidency  of  AW- 
deen  ooUege,  in  1600.  He  expresses  regret  at 
leaving  the  learned  society  by  which  he  was 
surrounded  in  France,  but  says  that  he  was  in- 
fluenced by  gifts  and  promises,  among  which 
we  shall  probably  be  compelled  to  re<^on  the 
apparentiy  remunerative  aalary  of  £2  8«.  ster- 
ling money,  which  the  incumbent  of  the  presi- 
dency of  Aberdeen  eigoyed.  But  this  was  in 
a  day  when  a  royal  pensionary  was  munifioentiy 
provided  with  £10.    Boethius,  in  addition  to  ti^e 

S residency  of  Aberdeen,  was  canon  of  Aber- 
een  and  rector  of  Tyrie.  Boethius  has 
written  2  important  works.  The  first  is  a 
history  or  biography  of  the  bishop  of  Aber- 
deen, and  published  in  1622.  He  commenced, 
after  the  death  of  Bishop  Elphinstone,  his 
patron  (1614),  out  of  gratitude,  to  write  his 
life.  Tne  work  soon  enlarged  into  an  en- 
tire change  of  plan,  so  as  to  take  in  all 
the  bishops  of  the  see,  and  so  became  a 
very  valuable  history  of  the  see  itself  as 
weU  as  of  the  college.  The  second  work  of 
Bodthius  is  that  on  which  his  fame  mainly  de- 
pends, namely,  his  '*  History  of  Scotiand,"  pub- 
lished 6  years  later  (1627).  It  contains,  it  is 
true,  much  that  is  flibulous,  and  its  author 
has  been  seriously  charged  in  later  years  with 
a  very  nnscholarly  pla^arism  in  making  it  up, 
and  by  others  with  too  much  fertility  of  im- 
agination, not  only  in  inventing  materials, 
but  imagining  authorities  for  them.  However 
this  may  be,  his  "History  of  Scotland^  was 
the  first  attempt  worthy  of  record  to  put  down 
at  least  a  litUe  that  was  historical,  with  much, 
perhaps,  that  was  fabulous,  of  Scotland.  As 
such,  the  work  and  the  author  are  deserving  of 
a  charitable  judgment,  when  we  take  into  ac- 
count the  times  on  which  the  Aberdeen  presi- 
dent fell.  His  imagination  is  doubtiess  more 
fertile  than  his  judgment*  is  mature,  but  an  air  of 
freedom  breathes  throughout  the  entire  work, 
which,  while  it  testifies  to  his  Scotch  blood, 
should  win  all  honor  from  Scotch  hearts.  The 
publication  of  his  history  drew  a  testimonial 


BOETIE 


BOG 


421 


from  the  magistrates  of  Aberdeen,  character- 
istio  of  the  times.  They  voted  ^^to  Maister 
Hector  Boeoe,  a  ton  of  wine,  or  at  his  option 
£20  to  bnj  a  new  bonnef  Erasmus  sajs  of 
him  he  was  "  a  man  that  did  not  know  how  to 
make  a  lye,"  and  in  a  contemporary  poetic 
eulogy  he  is  thus  embalmed : 

llalflter  Heetor  .  .  .  .  of  tlo  hie  Irade  ind  giorie, 

In  Albion  dnce  stories  wee  begun, 

Wes  norer  nano  etc  axoBnz  onre  poetts  fan, 

of  noblll  nme, 

Meleter  In  art,  doctor  in  theologie ; 

In  ill  eeienoe  ano  proCbande  derke  Is  he. 

BOETIE,  Etunnk  db  la,  a  French  anthor, 
the  friend  of  Montaigne,  bom  at  Sarlat,  in 
what  is  now  the  department  of  Dordogne, 
KoT.  1,  1630,  died  Aug.  18,  1668.  He 
was  celebrated  in  childhood,  his  precocious 
works,  whioh  were  translations,  being  widely 
known  in  France,  and  became  a  prominent 
eoonsellor  of  the  parliament  of  Bordeaux,  but 
is  now  chiefly  remembered  because  Montaigne 
published  some  of  his  works,  and  recorded  in  a 
few  touching  pages  the  friendship  which  exist- 
ed between  them.  His  discourse  on  voluntary 
serritude,  a  yiolent  philippic  against  royalty, 
was  written  in  his  18th  year.  He  died  in  the 
arms  of  Montaigne,  and  to  him  is  dedicated 
Hontai^e's  fimious  chi^>ter  on  "  Friendship." 

BOETTGER,  Adolf,  a  living  German  poet, 
dramatist,  and  translator,  bom  at  Leipsic,  May 
81,  1816.  Among  his  yarious  writings,  his 
translations  of  Byron,  and  Shakespeare^s  ^^  As 
Tou  Like  it,"  "Mdsummer  Night's  Dream," 
and  "Much  Ado  about  Kothinf,"  are  most 
admired.  He  has  also  translated  Goldsmith's 
poenis,  Pope,  printed  in  1842,  Milton,  and 
Ossian. 

BOG,  an  Irish  word,  literally  meaninp^  soft, 
applied  in  Great  Britain  to  extensive  districts 
of  marshy  land,  such  as  we  commonly  call  in 
this  country  swampe.  They  consist,  in  Europe, 
80  universally  of  peat,  that  this  substance  is 
there  generally  regarded  essential  to  a  bog.  As 
we  use  the  word,  it  is  in  the  sense  of  quagmire ; 
any  soft  and  wet  spot,  into  which  a  man  would 
flink  in  attempting  to  cross  it,  being  called  a 
bog.  The  true  bog  is  most  commonly  found  in 
northern  latitudes,  and  in  districts  where  great 
humidity  prevails.  Their  situation  is  not  neces- 
aarily  low,  nor  their  sur&ce  level.  Some  of  the 
great  Irish  bogs  present  even  a  hilly  appearance, 
which,  perhaps,  is  the  result  of  the  spread  of 
the  mosses  in  their  lateral  growth  from  lower 
ntoations  over  intervening  higher  grounds.  In 
places  naturally  moist^  by  the  abundance  of 
springs,  or  around  shallow  ponds,  the  mosses, 
lichens,  heaths,  and  grasses  nourish,  which  by 
their  4>i^^^  produce  the  great  peat-bogs,  or 
mosses.  They  encroach  upon  the  ponds  and 
fill  tliem  up  with  luxuriant  living  vegetation 
and  the  accumulations  of  decayed  matter.  The 
moss  called  iphof^num  palua^re  grows  more 
abundantly  than  the  rest,  and  like  the  coral  in 
the  ocean,  the  new  growth  above  leaves  the 
lower  portion  behind  dead  and  buried,  but, 
nevertheless^  laid  away  for  more  important  pur- 


poses in  the  economy  of  nature.  The  increase 
of  such  plants,  which  suck  up  the  moisture  of 
the  air  and  hold  it  like  a  sponge,  may  convert 
even  places  naturally  dry  into  bogs.  Lands 
covered  with  heavy  forests  have  been  known, 
on  the  trees  being  killed  by  some  cause,  to  be 
thus  buried  under  the  sphagnous  vegetation, 
and  the  prostrated  trees,  protected  by  it  from 
decay,  have,  ages  afterward,  been  dug  out  per- 
fectly sound  in  texture,  and  more  solid  and 
heavy  than  the  same  wood  could  have  been 
made  by  the  ordinary  methods  of  seasoning. 
Such  was  the  case  when  l^e  famous  levels  of 
Hatfield  Chase  in  Yorkshire  were  drained  and 
converted  into  arable  and  pasture^  lands.  This 
tract  of  180,000  acres  was  stripped  of  its  forests 
by  the  Romans,  on  account  of  the  refuge  Uiese 
afforded  to  the  ancient  Britons.  In  the  time  of 
Charles  I.  it  was  the  largest  chase  of  red  deer 
in  England,  belonging  to  this  monarch.  When 
cleared  up,  in  the  latter  portion  of  the  17th 
century,  vast  quantities  of  excellent  timber,  of 
pines,  oak,  birch,  beech,  &o.,  were  extracted 
from  beneath  the  morass.  The  nines  were 
many  of  great  size,  80  yards  long  ana  more,  and 
in  such  condition,  as  to  be  sold  for  the  masts 
and  keels  of  ships.  Oaks,  black  as  ebony, 
abounded,  capable  of  being  used;  a^  trees 
were  the  only  trees  found  decayed.  Many  of 
the  trees  were  of  extraordinary  size,  some  larger 
than  any  now  known  in  Great  Britain.  Upon 
them  were  retained  the  marks  of  the  axe,  and 
some  still  held  the  wooden  wedges  used  to  rend 
them.  Broken  axe-heads  were  discovered,  links 
of  chains,  and  coins  of  Vespasian  and  other 
Roman  emperors.  The  great  cedar  swamps 
in  the  southern  part  of  New  Jersey  also  retain 
in  their  peaty  soil  much  valuable  timber,  the 
relics  of  forests  of  unknown  age.  "Dr.  EatcheU, 
the  state  geologist,  reports  that  an  extensive 
business  has  long  been  carried  on  in  extracting 
this  andent  timber  and  converting  it  into 
shingles.  The  logs  are  discovered  by  thrusting 
an  iron  rod  down  through  the  mud,  till  one  is 
struck  and  traced  along  its  length.  Some  have 
been  found  80  feet  long,  of  diameter  4, 6,  and  6 
feet,  and  1  of  7  feet.  They  retain  their  buoy- 
ancy^ and  float  with  the  side  uppermost  which 
was  m  the  swamp  the  under  one.  Bogs  covered 
with  living  forests,  as  these  cedar  swamps,  re- 
ceive new  accumulations  of  vegetable  matters 
from  the  continual  waste  of  their  foliage  and  of 
the  smaller  shrubs,  which  grow  among  the 
trees.  The  forests,  once  swept  off  by  fire  or 
other  cause,  are  seldom  restored.  The  waters, 
obstracted  by  the  trunks  and  branches,  stagnate ; 
the  mosses  then  take  possesswn  of  the  surface, 
and  unless  this  is  drained,  the  spongy  covering 
increases  in  the  manner  already  described.  In 
some  instances  it  has  been  known  to  swell  up- 
ward, till  the  surface  of  the  bog  became  higher 
than  the  ground  around.  Bogs  in  this  condi- 
tion, when  overcharged  by  excessive  rains, 
have  been  known  to  burst,  and  their  contents 
to  be  discharged  with  great  violence  upon  the 
lower  lands.    Such  a  phenomenon  occurred  in  . 


BOG 


the  fleimoiis  Bolway  mbs^  on  the  western  oon- 
fines  of  England  and  Scotland,  Dec.  16,  1772. 
This  moss,  of  abont  7  miles  in  circnmferenoe, 
stretched  along  an  eminence  elevated  from  50 
to  80  feet  above  the  fertile  plain  between  it  and 
the  river  £sk.  The  surface,  of  some  consistency; 
vibrated  to  the  tread,  and  might  be  easily  pushed 
through  with  a  pole,  which  descended  in  the 
soft  muck  from  16  to  20  feet  It  was  in  this 
treacherous  bog  that  a  troop  of  home  belonging 
to  the  Scotch  army,  being  routed  at  the  battle 
of  Sol  way  by  the  army  of  Henry  VIII.,  in  the 
year  1542,  were  ingulfed  The  tale  was  tra- 
ditional, but  it  was  confirmed  by  the  exhumation 
by  modem  peat-diggers  of  a  man  and  horse  in 
complete  armor,  in  the  place  where  the  affair 
was  siud  to  have  happened.  At  the  time  of  its 
bursting,  greater  rains  had  previuled  than  for 
2  centuries  previously.  In  the  night  of  Dec.  16, 
the  shepherds  of  E&dale  were  aroused  from 
tlieir  hamlets  by  the  incursion  of  a  strange  tide 
of  black  mud,  which  slowly  spread  around 
them  like  a  current  of  lava.  The  members  of 
85  families  saved  their  lives  with  difiSculty, 
while  their  farms,  covering  about  400  acres, 
were  buried  with  the  most  of  their  property. 
The  cottages  were  some  of  them  abnost  wholly 
covered,  and  others  were  buried  in  the  petUi 
earth  to  the  thatch  of  the  roofs. — ^Peat  bogs  are 
remarkable  for  their  property  of  preserving 
animal  substances  from  putrefaction.  Several 
instances  are  recorded  of  bodies,  that  had  been 
long  buried  in  them,  being  subsequently  ex- 
humed and  presenting  the  appearance  of  per- 
sons but  just  deceaMd.  In  June,  1747,  the 
body  of  a  lady  of  the  olden  time  was  taken  from 
a  peat  bog  in  Lincolnshire,  6  feet  below  the 
sur&ce.  The  head  and  feet  were  nearly  bent 
together,  and  the  skin,  nails,  and  hair  were 
in  fk  high  state  of  preservation.  Upon  the  feet 
were  leathern  shoes  or  sandals,  each  cut  out  of 
a  single  piece  of  tanned  ox-hide,  folding  abont 
the  foot  and  heel,  and  piked  with  iron.  Such 
are  described  by  Ohauoer,  as  being  worn  in  his 
time.  In  the  Irish  bogs  the  remains  of  animals 
are  fre<^uently  met  with,  that  have  long  been 
extinct  m  that  country,  and  of  which,  as  living, 
no  mention  is  made  in  history  or  tradition — as 
different  species  of  the  deer,  elk,  dec.  In  most 
northern  countries  bogs  are  met  with  of  vast 
extent  and  in  great  numbers.  They  cover  such 
large  districts,  that  they  possess  a  geographical 
importance,  while  the  materials  of  which  they 
are  composed  give  them  no  little  geological  in- 
terest, from  the  light  they  shed  upon  the  mode 
of  formation  of  the  more  ancient  carboniferous 
deposits  of  the  coal  measures.  The  great  peat 
marsh  of  Montoire  in  France,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire,  is  said  to  have  a  circumference  of 
50  leagues.  This  is  somewhat  larger  than  the 
ffreat  Dismal  swamp  of  Virginia  and  North 
Oarolina,  and  but  little  inferior  to  the  area 
covered  by  the  swamps  that  make  up  the  Oke- 
finokee  in  Georgia,  which  is  said  to  be  about  180 
miles  in  circumference.  But  the  central  por- 
tion of  Ireland  is  the  great  region  of  bogs. 


Upon  a  map  of  the  island  is  seen,  between  Sligo 
bay  and  Gkdway  bay,  a  portion  on  the  western 
ooast^  projecting  into  the  ocean  from  the  main 
body  of  the  island.  A  strip  of  this  width, 
extended  in  an  easterly  direction  across  the 
country,  includes  about  i  of  the  area  of  the 
island,  and  in  this  portion  are  found  about  f  of 
its  b<^  leaving  out  of  the  account  the  small 
ones  not  exceeding  about  800  acres  each.  The 
whole  amount  of  bog  surface  is  2,831,000  acres, 
nearly  all  of  which  forms  one  almost  connected 
mass.  The  great  bog  of  Allen,  east  of  the 
Shannon,  extends  50  miles  in  length  by  2  to  8 
in  breadth.  This  is  divided  by  occasional  high 
lands  into  several  bogs.  They  all  consist  of 
peat,  averaging  about  26  feet  in  thickness,  never 
less  than  12,  nor  more  than  42.  The  upper  10 
feet  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  the  fibres  of  the 
mosses,  more  or  less  decomposed,  and  a  light 
turf  of  blackish  brown  color  underlies  this,  in 
which  the  fibres  of  moss  may  still  be  perceived. 
This  variety  may  extend  10  feet  deeper.  "At  a 
greater  depth  ib»  fibres  of  vegetable  matter 
cease  to  be  visible,  the  color  of  the  turf  be* 
comes  blacker,  and  the  substance  much  more 
compact,  its  properties  as  fuel  more  valuable, 
and  gradually  increasing  in  the  degree  or 
blackness  and  compactness  proportionate  to  its 
depth ;  near  the  bottom  of  the  bog  it  forms  a 
black  mass,  which  when  dry  has  a  strong  re- 
semblance to  pitch  or  bituminous  coal,  having 
a  conchoidal  fracture  in  every  direction,  with  a 
black,  shining  lustre,  and  susceptible  of  re- 
ceiving a  considerable  polish."  (Report  of  sur- 
veyors appointed  by  Parliament,  1810.)  As 
Uie  peat  is  removed  for  fuel,  more  i^  supplied 
every  year  by  the  growth  of  the  moss.  An  in- 
crease in  the  thickness  of  this  has  been  noticed 
of  2  inches  in  a  single  year.— In  England  the 
largest  lowland  bog  is  Ohatmoss^  in  the  county 
of  Lancaster.  It  is  6  miles  long,  of  8  miles 
jpreatest  breadth,  and  contains  7,000  acres.  It 
IS  a  mass  of  pure  vegetable  matter,  without  any 
mixture  of  sand,  gravel,  or  other  material,  from 
10  to  80  feet  in  depth.  The  lower  portion  is 
black,  compact,  and  heavy,  somewhat  resem- 
bling  coal. — Our  own  great  bogs  differ  frt>m 
those  of  northern  Europe  in  presenting  the 
vegetable  matter  in  a  more  decomposed  state^ 
more  commonly  in  the  form  of  muck  than  of 
peat.  In  the  great  Dismal  swamp,  the  extent 
of  which  is  aN>ut  40  miles  N.  and  S.  and  26 
miles  E.  and  W.,  little  true  peat  appears  to  be 
found.  The  soil  is  perfectly  black,  consisting 
wholly  of  vegetable  matter  to  the  depth  of 
about  16  feet  When  dug  up  and  exposed  ht 
the  surface,  it  rapidly  decomposes.  The  sur- 
face is  covered  with  mosses,  reeds,  fem^  and 
aquatic  trees  and  shrubs.  The  white  cedar  is 
abundant,  as  in  all  our  swamps,  and  they,  and 
the  tall  cypress  also,  furnish  timber  of  such 
value,  that  the  inmost  recesses  of  this  tangled 
morass  have  b^n  penetrated  by  canals  in  seardi 
of  it.  In  its  central  portion,  the  surface  is 
found  to  be  12  feet  higher  than  the  rest,  and 
the  general  level  of  the  swamp  is  above  that  of 


BOG  EARTH 


BOQ  0B£ 


428 


the  acfJoiniDg  conntrjr.  Thronghotit  the  eoim- 
try,  along  the  seaboard  to  the  gulf  of  Mexico, 
swamps  of  this  character  are  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. Their  outer  portions  are  sometimes 
wooded  swamps,  while  within  they  present 
moss-covered  heaths,  stretching,  like  the  western 
prairies,  farther  than  the  eye  can  see,  and  dotted 
occasionally  with  clumps  or  little  islands  of 
trees.  In  New  England,  the  north-western 
states,  and  Canada,  the  hogs  furnish  genuine 
peat,  and  some  of  those  bordering  the  great 
lakes  are  of  great  extent.  Over  one  of  these 
the  traveller  is  carried  upon  the  great  western 
railroad  in  Canada  West,  between  Chatham  and 
Lake  St  Clair.  Upon  Long  Island,  near  New 
York  city,  the  bogs  present  a  marked  feature 
along  the  sandy  coast,  and  their  structure  is 
finely  exposed  in  the  excavations  made  for  the 
Brooklyn  aqueduct.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  they 
are  found  to  be  the  repositories  of  the  remains 
of  the  mastodon.  (See  Alluvium.)  The  rich 
black  mud  from  the  ponds  and  marshes  of  this 
district  has  been  extracted  by  hundreds  and 
thousands  of  cart  loads,  and  is  piled  up  as  waste 
in  the  adjoining  fields.  The  surface  of  the  heaps 
spread  in  the  adjoining  fields,  is  covered  with 
an  effervescence  of  sulphate  of  iron,  the  exhala- 
tions from  which  fill  the  air  around  with  sul- 
phurous fumes.  As  this  muck  is  prepared  in 
this  region,  it  is  far  better  adapted  for  the  use 
of  the  farmer  than  the  more  compact  peat, 
which  is  so  much  esteemed  by  the  English  agri- 
culturists. The  latter  is  made  productive  by 
first  exposing  it  for  months  to  the  decomposing 
action  of  the  sun  and  rain,  by  which  it  is 
brought  to  the  condition  of  the  natural  muck. 
It  is  then  esteemed  so  valuable  that,  according 
to  the  statement  of  an  experienced  Lancashire 
farmer,  2  loads  of  it  being  made  into  a  compost 
with  1  load  of  animal  manure,  the  product  is 
equal  to  8  loads  of  the  latter  substance.  It  has 
been  used  to  similar  advantage  in  Watertown, 
Mass.,  with  the  same  proportion  of  spent  ashes 
in  place  of  the  animal  manure.  It  is  a  great  ab- 
sorbent of  ammonia,  and  is  used  to  best  advan- 
tage by  sprinkling  over  the  compost  heaps  the 
ammoniacal  liquors  of  the  gas  works  or  urine. 
Lime  is  not  so  proper  a  substance  to  mix  wUh 
it,  though  a  small  quantity  may  well  enough  be 
added  to  the  other  materials,  particularly  if 
any  acid  substance  be  present  The  method 
adopted  in  England  of  reclaiming  bogs  is,  after 
thorough  draining,  to  mix  the  day  from  the 
bottom  of  the  drains  with  the  surface  peat,  and 
to  repeat  this  practice  every  few  years.  In 
some  cases  the  surface  is  butned  over  to  the 
depth  of  1  to  8  feet,  and  upon  the  ashes  thus 
formed,  the  clay  or  earth  from  below  is  spread 
to  make  a  soiL 

BOG  EARTH,  the  soil  often  called  muck, 
highly  charged  with  decomposed  vegetable 
matters,  which  accumulates  in  bogs  and  low 
situations.  It  is  composed  essentially  of  si- 
licious  matter  and  vegetable  mould  or  humus. 
It  constitutes  an  excellent  soil  for  cultivation 
when  mixed  with  sand,  by  carting  either  one 


upon  the  other.  In  its  natural  state  it  is  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  promoting  the  rapid  growth 
of  many  plants,  as  is  evident  from  the  luxuri- 
ant natural  growth  which  usually  covers  it 

BOG  ORE,  a  variety  of  iron  ore,  whidi  col- 
lects in  low  places,  being  washed  down  in  a 
soluble  form  in  the  waters,  which  fiow  over 
rocks  or  sand»  containing  oxide  of  iron,  and 
precipitated  in  a  solid  form,  as  the  waters 
evaporate.  It  is  deposited  in  the  bottoms  of 
ponds  as  well  as  swamps,  and  is  found  in  beds 
now  dry,  above  the  level  at  which  it  must  origi- 
nally have  been  collected,  or  else  these  are  the 
product  of  springs  which  have  now  disap- 
peared. The  roots  of  trees  appear  to  have  an 
mfluenoe  in  reducing  the  peroxide  of  iron  in 
the  sands  they  come  in  contact  with,  to  the 
protoxide,  by  the  action  of  some  organic  acid. 
By  this  action  the  ore  is  rendered  soluble,  and 
is  liable  to  be  precipitated  bv  change  to  an  in- 
soluble salt,  induced  by  the  mfluenoe  of  the  air 
or  other  causes.  As  the  waters  run  among 
deposits  of  vegetable  matters,  and  this  change 
slowly  takes  place,  the  oxide  of  iron  replaces 
the  woody  fibre,  retaining  in  its  more  solid 
material  the  exact  form  of  the  branches  of 
trees,  of  the  small  twigs,  and  even  of  the  leaves, 
with  their  delicate  reticulations.  Beds  of  bright 
red  peroxide  of  iron,  made  up  entiroly  of  masses 
of  these  forms,  which  are  true  ferruginous 
X>etrifactions,  are  met  with  in  a  great  number 
of  localities,  and  worked  as  iron  ore.  The  bog 
ore  deposits  of  Monmouth  co.,  N.  J.,  contain 
them,  among  other  varieties  of  the  ore.  In 
Piscataquis  county.  Me.,  a  very  remarkable  and 
productive  bed  of  these  petrifactions  has  fur- 
nished the  supplies  of  ore  to  the  Katahdin  iron 
works.  In  the  ponds  of  Plymouth  co.,  Mass., 
bog  ores  were  found  so  abundantly,  that  in 
the  early  part  of  this  century  no  less  than 
10  small  blast-furnaces  were  kept  in  operation 
by  them.  As  the  supplies  became  exhausted^ 
more  ores  of  the  same  class  were,  for  a  time, 
brought  from  Egg  Harbor,  N.  J.,  and  cart- 
ed back  into  the  country  to  keep  the  works 
in  operation.  From  the  bottoms  of  the  ponds 
the  ore  was  raised  into  boats,  as  oysters  aro 
gathered,  with  long  tongs.  It  was  found  in 
lumps  of  various  sizes,  some  weighing  even  600 
lbs. ;  but  usually  it  occurs  in  small,  irregular- 
shaped  pieces,  or  in  the  form  of  shot  When 
taken  from  swamps,  the  workmen  were  careful 
to  cover  the  cavities  with  loose  earth,  leaves, 
bu^es,  &c.,  calculating  upon  another  growth  in 
10  or  15  years;  but  their  expectations  were 
sometimes  realij&ed  in  7  years,  i^renberg  has 
detected  in  the  ochreous  matters  that  form  bog 
iron  ore,  immense  numbers  of  organic  bodies, 
which,  indeed,  make  np  the  substance  of  the 
oc^re.  They  consist  of  slender  articulated 
plates  or  threads,  piu^y  silicious,  and  partly 
ferruginous,  of  what  he  considered  an  animal- 
cule ;  but  which  are  now  commonly  regarded  by 
naturalists  as  belonging  to  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, and  are  referred  to  the  classes  called 
diatomaeM  and  demnidud^     Bog  ore  contains 


424 


B0QARDU8 


BOGOTA 


pbosphonia,  arsenic,  and  other  impurities, 
which  greatly  impair  its  qualities  for  producing 
strong  iron.  The  pig-metal  obtained  from  it  is 
so  brittle,  that  it  breaks  to  pieces  hj  feQling 
upon  the  hard  ground;  but  the  foreign  matters 
which  weaken  it,  also  give  to  the  melted  cast- 
iron  great  fluidity,  which  causes  it  to  be  in  de- 
mand for  the  manufacture  of  fine  castings,  the 
metal  flowing  into  the  minutest  cavities  of  the 
mould,  and  retaining  the  sharp  outlines  desired. 
The  iron  made  from  the  bog  ores  of  Snowhill, 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  Maryland,  notwith- 
standing its  great  brittleness,  brings  a  high 
price,  for  mixing  with  other  qualities  of  metaL 
at  the  great  stove  founderies  of  Albany  and 
Troy,  for  producing  the  best  material  for  their 
excellent  castings.  Bog  ores  are  very  easily 
converted  into  iron,  and  when  they  can  be  pro- 
cured to  mix  with  other  kinds  of  ore,  they  pro- 
duce a  very  beneficial  effect,  both  in  the  run- 
ning of  the  furnace,  and  in  the  quality  of  the 
iron.  For  these  reasons,  as  also  K>r  the  cheap- 
ness with  which  they  are  .obtained,  it  is  an  ob- 
ject to  have  them  at  hand,  though  they  seldom 
yield  more  than  80  to  85  per  cent,  of  cast-iron. 

BOGARDUS,  EvsBARDus,  the  first  minister 
of  New  York,  came  out  with  Governor  Wouter 
van  TwiUer,  in  1688.  He  had  a  house  and 
stable  on  what  is  now  Broad  street  He  was 
of  the  communion  of  the  Dutch  Reformed 
church,  married  and  remained  here  untU  1647, 
not  always  on  the  best  terms  with  the  govern- 
ors, and  was  drowned  on  his  passage  home, 
Sept.  27,  1647. 

BOGDAN,  Neorul,  son  and  successor  of 
Stephen  the  Great,  governor  of  Moldavia,  who, 
at  his  death  in  1622,  counselled  his  son  to  an- 
ticipate by  voluntary  submission  to  the  Turks, 
an  inevitable  conquest.  Bogdan  did  not  at  first 
follow  this  counsel ;  but  having  lost  within  a 
year  the  battle  of  Mohacs,  and  Hungary  having 
been  invaded  by  a  large  Turkish  force,  he  sent 
to  Solyman  ofiers  of  submission.  He  was  re- 
ceived with  favor  by  the  sultan,  and  in  return 
for  an  annual  tribute  of  4,000  crowns  of  gold, 
beside  numerous  horses  and  falcons,  Moldavia 
was  allowed  to  preserve  its  own  religion,  an 
independent  administration,  and  the  right  to 
choose  its  own  princes.  Bogdan  did  not  long 
survive  this  treaty,  and  his  successor  refusing 
to  pay  the  tribute,  drew  again  the  arms  of  the 
Turks  upon  the  Moldavian  principaHty. 

BOGDANOWITOH,  Htppolit  Fbdoko- 
wiTOH,  a  Russian  poet,  born  Dec.  28, 1748,  in 
Little  Russia^  died  near  Eoorsk,  Jan.  6,  1808. 
His  father,  an  inferior  civil  official,  destined 
him  for  a  surveyor,  and  from  childhood  his 
studies  were  principally  mathematical ;  but  the 
poetical  spirit  was  strong  in  him,  and  having 
been  sent  to  Moscow  in  1754,  instead  of  study- 
ing mathematics  he  besought  the  manager  of  the 
theatre  there,  at  the  age  of  15,  to  receive  him 
into  the  company.  Oheraskofi^  the  manager, 
enabled  him  to  enter  the  university,  where  he 
studied  foreign  languages  and  the  poetic  art 
He  found  protectors  among  the  influential  no- 


bility, and  was  sent  as  secretary  of  legation  to 
Dresden.  There  he  had  an  opportunity  to 
study  the  masterpieces  of  art,  and  enrich  hia 
gentle  and  affectionate  imagination.  He  pub- 
Bshed  songs  and  other  poems,  whose  principal 
characteristics  are  tenderness,  naivety,  and  love 
of  nature.  He  edited  various  periodicals,  and  was 
patronized  by  Catharine  II.,  who  advanced  him 
rapidly  to  offices  which  did  not  impede  his  po- 
etical studies  and  productions.  After  tiie  death 
of  his  benefiEUStress  he  retired  from  the  pubho 
service,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his  days  at  a 
country  seat  in  the  interior  of  Russia. 

BOGENH  AUSEN,  a  village  of  upper  Bavaria, 
on  the  Isar,  and  2  miles  distant  from  Munid^. 
The  royal  observatory  of  Munich,  one  of  the 
best  in  Europe,  was  erected  here  in  1817. 

BOGHAZ  KIEUI,  or  Keweb,  or  Koi  (prob- 
ably identical  with  the  ancient  Tavifim),  a  vil- 
If^e  of  Asia  Minor,  188  miles  S.  W.  of  Amaaift. 
It  is  thought  to  have  been  the  site  of  the  great 
temple  of  Jupiter  mentioned  by  Strabo,  and  in 
addition  to  some  remiuns,  supposed  to  be  of 
this  temple,  it  contains  the  ruins  of  a  cydopean 
wall  and  2  fortresses.  Various  bas-reliefe  are 
also  to  be  seen  here. 

BOGLIPOOR,  or  Bhagitlpore,  a  district  of 
Bengal,  between  lat.  24**  17'  and  26''  20'  K,  and 
long.  86''  15'  and  88*"  8'  E. ;  area,  5,806  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  stated  at  2,000,000,  ^  of  whom  are  Moham- 
medans, and  the  rest  Braminists.  The  district  is 
traversed  by  the  Ganges  and  several  small 
streams.  It  is  exceedingly  hilly,  and  so  stony 
that  a  small  portion  even  of  the  comparatively 
level  land  is  unfit  far  the  plough.  The  hill  dis- 
trict is  inhabited  by  mountaineers  of  savage  char>- 
acter,  among  whom  a  peculiar  kind  of  judidal 
authority  has  been  established  b^the  company. 
Slavery  is  permitted. — ^The  capital  city,  of  the 
same  name,  268  N.  W.  of  Oalcutta,  is  of  modem 
erection,  on  the  river  Ganges;  pop.  about 
80,000,  the  greater  part  Mohammedans.  There 
is  a  small  Catholic  church  under  the  charge  of 
a  priest  sent  from  the  propaganda  at  Rome, 
and  a  district  school  whwe  English  is  taught, 
which  was  attended,  in  1852,  by  116  pupils. 
In  the  neighborhood  are  2  round  towers  of 
ai6ient  structure,  the  objects  of  pilgrimage. 
The  monuments  erected  in  honor  of  Cleveland, 
a  distinguished  judge  and  magistrate,  are  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  town. 

BOGOMILES.  See  Bash,  a  Bulgarian  physi- 
cian. 

BOGOTA,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Kew  Granada,  in  South  America;  formeriy 
that  of  Colombia,  when  it  was  known  by  the 
name  of  Santa  F6  de  Bogotl  The  oily  was 
founded  in  1588,  by  Gonzalez  Ximenes  de  Qne- 
sada.  The  site  he  selected  is  in  lat.  4''  85'  48" 
K,  long.  74**  18'  46"  W.,  at  the  base  of  the  east- 
em  of  the  8  ranges  into  which  the  chain  of  the 
Andes  is  here  divided.  Here  one  of  the  great 
paramos  or  extensive  plains  of  the  Andes 
spreads  out  toward  the  west  about  80  miles, 
and  in  a  north  and  south  direction  nearly  60 
miles.    Its  elevation  above  the  ocean,  according 


BOGOTA 


425 


to  Hamboldt^  \a  8»694  feet;  bat  this  eleyation 
disappears  under  the  lofbj  peaks,  which  look 
down  upon  it  on  all  sides.  On  the  east  the  pre- 
cipices at  the  base  of  La  Goadalnpe  and  Monte- 
serrate  rise  up  from  the  ontddrts  of  the  city, 
and  the  snmnuts  of  those  mountains  reach  an 
elevation  of  about  2,500  feet  above  it.  Not  finr 
off  are  summits  6,000  feet  higher  than  the  city, 
and  1  degree  further  north,  beyond  this  range, 
called  the  Cordillera  de  la  Suma  Pa^  the  peaks 
are  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  Ine  streams 
commencing  on  the  eastern  slope,  but  a  few 
miles  from  Bogota,  find  their  way  into  the 
Meta,  and  thence  into  the  Orinoco;  those  on 
the  west  feed  the  Magdalena,  and  flow  north- 
ward into  the  Caribbean  sea.  The  mountains 
west  of  the  plain,  between  it  and  the  Magdap 
leoa  river,  are  too  low  to  hide  from  the  city 
the  distant  view  of  the  great  central  range,  the 
Cordillera  de  Quindiu,  the  summits  of  which 
nae  far  above  the  snow  line.  Beyond  this  range 
is  the  valley  of  the  Cauca,  a  large  stream  which 
joins  the  Magdalena  near  the  sea,  and  beyond 
this  is  the  mountain  range  of  the  Choco,  or  the 
Western  Cordillera,  on  the  other  side  of  which 
&e  streams  flow  into  the  Pacific.  Bogota  thus 
separated  from  the  Pacific  by  250  miles  or  more 
of  a  succession  of  mountains  and  of  deep  val- 
leys, is  forced  to  communicate  with  the  more 
distant  Caribbean  coast  by  the  Magdalena  river. 
This  is  ascended  by  steamboats  to  Honda,  the 
passage  up  the  river  occupying  from  8  to  10 
days.  Honda  is  22  leagues  distant  from  the 
city.  Only  9  leagues  of  this  distance  (from 
Bogota  to  £1  Boble)  is  traversed  on  wheels,  the 
remainder  of  the  way  being  but  a  mule  path. 
The  population  of  Bogota  in  1800  was  21,464; 
in  1821,  it  was  estimated  at  80,000;  and  is 
now  about  50.000.  Its  prosperity  is  prima- 
rQy  due  to  its  situation  upon  a  remark- 
ably fertile  and  healthy  plain,  elevated  far 
above  the  reach  of  the  fevers  that  prevail  in 
the  lower  valleys.  It  was  occupied  by  a  nu- 
merous population  before  the  conquest  of  the 
country  by  the  Spaniards.  Lying  almost  imder 
the  equator,  it  yet  enjoys  in  its  high  position 
the  cfimate  and  productions  of  the  warmer 
temperate  latitudes,  while  those  of  stOl  colder 
rep;ions  are  near  at  hand  higher  m  the  monn- 
tauis^  and  those  of  the  tropics  by  descending  to 
lower  levels.  The  means  of  support  are  uius 
provided  for  a  large  population  in  sreat  profri- 
aion  and  variety.  Tne  mines  of  valuable  ores, 
of  precious  stones,  of  salt,  and  of  coal  in  the 
Ticinity,  furnish  employment  for  great  numbers ; 
and  thus  Bogota  became,  in  its  isolated  position, 
^e  important  centre  of  a  large  agricultoral  and 
Biining  community,  and  a  suitable  place  for  tbe 
seat  of  government  of  the  republic.  The  ad- 
vantages of  its  site  for  the  establishment  of  in- 
stitutions of  learning  were  early  appreciated, 
and  in  1610  was  founded  the  university  of 
Bogota.  Three  colleges  have  since  been  added. 
of  which  the  pn^essors  are  mostly  priests  and 
monks,  also  a  school  of  chemistry,  and  the  nat- 
ural Bcienoesi  and  a  military  school  under  the 


patronage  of  the  government.  There  are  also 
m  the  city  a  public  library,  an  observatory  not 
yet  fumi^ed,  and  a  theatre.  The  religious  in- 
stitutions are  still  more  numerous,  and  so  richly 
endowed,  that  they  possess  more  than  half  the 
houses  in  the  city.  The  church  edifices  are  no 
less  than  29  in  number,  some  of  Uiem  gor- 
geously adorned  in  the  interior  with  gold  and 
jewels.  The  cathedral,  built  in  1814,  is  a 
structure  of  imposing  appearance,  as  seen  in 
approaching  the  city  by  the  road  from  El 
Boble,  and  within  highly  decorated.  The 
statue  of  the  Virgin,  the  patron  saint,  was  once 
adorned  with  1,858  diamonds,  1,295  emeralds, 
and  many  other  precious  stones.  The  convents, 
of  which  there  were  formerly  83,  are  now  re- 
duced to  12  in  number,  the  others  having  fallen 
to  decay  or  been  applied  by  the  government  to 
educational  purposes.  One  of  them  is  still 
standing  upon  the  summit  of  Monteserrate, 
a  conspicuous  object  from  the  city  and  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  itself  commanding  a 
view  rarely  surpassed  for  its  grandeur  and 
beauty.  The  legislative  and  municipal  build- 
ings stand  in  the  square  round  the  cathedral, 
together  with  the  custom-house  and  the  palace 
of  the  president,  which  last  was  formerly  a 
Jesuit  college.  The  mint  is  a  large  and  hand- 
some building,  well  supplied  witn  machinery 
for  coinage.  Its  work,  however,  is  less  consid- 
erable than  formerly,  when  there  was  a  prohi- 
bition against  the  exportation  of  the  precious 
metals  in  bars  and  dust.  The  city  is  Laid  out 
in  squares,  with  streets  crossing  at  riffht  angles. 
These  are  generally  narrow,  pave^  and  the 
principal  ones  frimished  with  n>otpaths,  which 
are  not  tdways  found  in  Spanish  cities.  Streams 
of  water  fiow  through  the  streets,  and  if  these 
were  provided  with  sewers,  no  city  could  be 
better  supplied  with  the  means  of  maintaining 
the  highest  degree  of  cleanliness.  But  little 
regard  is  paid  to  this  virtue,  however,  and  the 
water  is  more  valued  for  supplying  the  foun- 
tuns  in  the  public  squares.  The  nouses  are 
built  substantially,  but  seldom  of  more  than  2 
stories  in  height.  They  are  made  of  sun-dried 
brick,  and  covered  with  tiles.  Carriages  are 
not  employed  in  the  streets,  and  the  necessary 
traffic  is  conducted  by  the  use  of  mules.  The 
climate  of  the  city  is  remarkable  for  its  uniform 
temperate  character.  The  year  is  about  equally 
divided  into  2  dry  and  2  winter  or  rainy  seasons. 
The  rainy  months  are  March,  April,  and  Hay ; 
September,  October,  and  November.  The  rains 
are  not  continuous,  often  commencing  not 
till  toward  the  latter  part  of  the  day.  The 
temperature  is  then  generally  from  58^  to  68% 
but  sometimes  descends  to  50^  F.  In  the  diy 
months,  the  average  temperature  in  the  shade  is 
from  60°  to  65°,  the  sky  is  unclouded,  and  no 
dew  collects  at  night.  jS'otwitbstandinff,  how- 
ever, the  agreeableness  and  salubrity  of  such  a 
climate,  the  inhabitants  of  Bogota  are  not  long- 
lived.  They  come  to  maturity  early,  and  old 
age  follows  sooner  tiian  with  people  of  severer 
dimes.    Thesodetyof  Bogota  has  a  high  repu- 


426 


BOGOTA 


BOGUE 


tation  for  its  agreeable  character ;  the  manners 
of  the  people  are  polite  and  cheerful,  and  amuse- 
ments of  every  description  are  followed  by  all 
classes.    The  ladies  are  fond  of  ornaments,  and 
in  addition  to  the  picturesque  costume  of  the 
morning  saya  and  mantilla,  delight  in  showy 
and  expensive  evening  dresses,  with  a  profn-  * 
sion  of  rich  jewelry.    The  moral  condition  of 
the  inhabitants  has  called  forth  a  variety  of 
comments  from  different  travellers,  some  of 
whom  have,  donbtless,  given  a  too  unfavor- 
able  coloring  to  their  sketches.     The   new 
constitution,  adopted  in  May,  1858,  in  many  of 
its  features  like  that  of  the  United  States,  ad- 
mits freedom  of  religious  education  and  of 
the  press.     The  manufactures  of  Bogota  are 
of  litUe  importance.    The  native  cottons  and 
woollens  are  coarse  fabrics,  the  finer  staffs 
being  supplied  from  abroad,  in  exchange  for 
the  mineral  productionis,  the  tobacco,  bark, 
and  other  vegetable  products  of  the  country. 
The  extensive  plain  furnishes  abundant  crops, 
sometimes  2  in  a  year,  of  wheat,  barley,  and 
vegetables,  and  pasturage  to  numberless  herds 
of  cattle,  horses,  and  flocks  -of  sheep.    It  is 
watered  by  the  river  Bogota,  which  receives 
near  the  city  the  stream  called  the  San  Fran- 
cisco, that  flows  through  the  town.     For  40 
miles  the  course  of  the  Bogota  is  through  a 
deep  ravine  in  a  S.  W.  direction  toward  the 
Bio  Magdalena.    As  it  leaves  the  plain,  17  miles 
from  Bogota,  it  is  first  contracted  from  a  width 
of  144  feet  to  about  86  feet,  and  then  is  sud- 
denly precipitated  in  a  fall  variously  stated 
at  574,  650,  and  900  feet.     This  is  the  fa- 
mous fall  of  Tequendama,  one  of  the  high, 
est  cataracts  in  the  world.      The  water  in 
such  an  immense  leap  is  thrown  into  spray, 
which  rises  in  a  column,  that  is  sometimes  visi- 
ble near  the  city.    Below  the  precipice  a  tropi- 
cal climate  and  vegetation  take  tne  place  of 
those  of  the  temperate  region  of  the  plain,  and 
instead  of  the  cereal  plants,  the  oaks,  and  the 
elms,  the  traveller  finds  the  sugar-canes,  bana- 
nas, and  palm-trees.    Another  remarkable  ob- 
ject, at  some  distance,  is  the  natural  bridge  of 
Pandi.    Across  the  top  of  a  deep  deft  in  the 
rocks,  some  fragments  appear  to  have  fallen  to- 
gether in  the  form  of  an  arch,  and  spanned  the 
chasm,  which  is  about  80  feet  wide,  with  a 
bridge  of  about  15  feet.    This  was  possibly 
formed  by  an  earthquake  at  the  same  time  with 
the  chasm  itself.    The  depth  of  the  chasm  to 
the  water  which  flows  at  its  bottom  is  about 
860  feet    In  the  eastern  Cordillera,  75  miles  K 
N.  E.  of  the  city,  at  the  junction  of  the  ammo- 
nite limestone  and  hornblende  rocks,  are  the  fa- 
mous emerald  mines  of  Muzo,  which  have  proved 
a  most  prolific  source  of  this  precious  stone  to 
tiie  European  markets.  The  mines  are  owned  by 
the  government,  and  leased  to  a  company  of  na- 
tives and  foreigners.    The  salt  mines,  also  near 
the  city,  and  owned  by  the  government,  supply 
the  whole  of  the  interior  of  New  Grenada.  That 
of  Zipaquira  or  Zichaquira  is  described  as  glit- 
tering like  an  immense  rock  of  crystal,  and  as 


having  yielded  an  annual  revenue  of  $160,000. 
The  total  revenue  which  the  government  now  de- 
rives from  all  the  salt  mines,  and  salt  springs  of 
the  mountains  to  the  N.  E.  of  Bogota,  is  estimated 
at  $500,000 ;  and  this  is  increasing  with  the  in- 
crease of  population.    In  the  vicinity  of  Yelez, 
to  the  north  of  Bogota,   are  the  celebrated 
copper  mines  of  Moniquira,  the  products  of 
which  find  their  way  to  the  Magdalena,  down 
which  they  are  shipped  to  the  Caribbean  coast. 
Mines  of  this  ore  not  worked  iq>pear  to  abound 
in  various  localities  convenient  to  the  Magdale- 
na, to  the  commerce  of  which  they  wiU  no 
doubt,  in  future  years,  add  large  contributions. 
Iron,  lead,  and  coal  are  also  known  to  exist  in 
the  same  region  with  the  copper  mines;  but 
these  have  not  attracted  much  interest.    Coal 
is  said  to  occur  abundantly,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  city,  and  a  coal  mountain  has  lately 
been  discovered  north  of  the  city.    This  state- 
ment, made  in  Taylor^s  '^  Statistics  of  Coal," 
is  said  to  be  derived  from  a  resident  of  Bogota, 
familiar   with  the  use  of  this   combustible. 
The  fossils  accompanying  it  were  figured  and 
described  by  Professor  Forbes,  in  the  journal 
of  the  geological  society  of  London,  Maj  1, 
1844,  and  others  of  similar  character,  from  the 
same  locality,  were  described   at  an  earlier 
period  by  Yon  Buch.    These  fossils  refer  the 
coal  to  the  cretaceous  formation;  and  conse- 
quently, it  is  not  likely  to  prove  of  much  im- 
portance.   Coal-beds  in  the  true  coal  formation 
are  not  known  to  occur  in  the  range  of  the 
Andes,  or-  even  in   South  America.      Silver 
mines  are  worked  in  t^e  province  of  Mariqnita, 
west  of  the  Magdalena  river,  by  an  EnglisJi 
company ;  and  in  the  same  range  of  hills,  farther 
north,  in  the  province  of  Antioquia,  are  gold 
naines  found  throughout  an  extensive  territory, 
and  worked  by  many  companies,  native  and 
foreign.    Their  annual  production  is  rated  at 
about  $5,000,000. 

BOGUE,  David,  the  principal  orig^ator  of 
the  London  missionary  society  and  the  relieioua 
tract  society,  bom  at  Halydown,  Berwickdiire, 
Scotland,  March  1,  1750,  died  at  Brighton,  Oct. 
25, 1825.  He  studied  and  graduated  at  the  imi- 
versity  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  licensed  as  a 
preacher  in  the  church  of  Scotland.  In  1771  bo 
went  to  London,  and  kept  a  school  at  Chelsea  for 
some  years.  After  a  visit  to  Amsterdam,  in  1 77A, 
where  he  declined  an  offer  to  become  minister 
of  the  Scotch  church  there,  he  became  pastor 
of  an  independent  congr^^tion  at  Go^Mrt, 
Hampshire,  where  he  also  kept  a  semi-collegiate 
establishment  for  young  men  intending  to  be 
preachers.  In  1791  he  commenced  an  agita- 
tion through  the  pulpit  and  the  press,  which 
led  to  the  formation  of  the  London  missionary 
society,  in  1795.  He  became  head  of  a  semi- 
nary founded  by  that  body,  and  wrote  the  first 
tract  for  the  religious  tract  society,  which 
chiefly  originated  with  him.  He  was  also  one 
of  the  projectors,  and  flrst  editor  of  the 
**  Evangelic^  Magazine,''  and  took  an  active 
part  in  the  formation  of  the  British  and  foreign 


BOGUS 


BOHEMIA 


427 


Bible  Bod^.  Beside  yarious  pampblets,  lie 
wrote  an  ^^  Essay  on  the  Divine  Authority  of 
the  New  Testament,"  which  was  translated  into 
several  laxignages,  and  0n  conjunction  with 
Dr.  James  Bennett,  his  pupil^  friendf  and  biog- 
rapher) a  *'  History  of  Dissenters,"  4  vols.  8vo, 
of  which  a  2d  edition  appeared  in  1883. 

BOGUS,  a  word  of  American  origin.  We  aay 
bogDs  oarren<7,  bogos  lotteries,  bogus  banks,  a 
bogus  transaction,  ^.,  to  si^^ify  something 
fraudulent  or  delusive  in  these  concerns.  It  is 
said  that  some  20  years  ago  an  individual  caUing 
himself  Borghese  drculated  in  the  north-west- 
em  and  south-western  states  of  the  union  a 
number  both  of  counterfeit  bills  on  real  banks 
and  also  of  bills  on  banks  that  existed  only  in 
Borgheae^s  imagination.  The  western  people 
corrupted  the  Italian  name  Borghese  into 
Bogus,  and  made  it  a  by-name  of  reproach. 
Jrom  the  west  it  has  become  current  in  the 
popular  speech  all  over  the  union. 

BOGUSLAWSEI,  Adalbbbt  (Polish  Wc^ 
tfiacA),  a  Polish  actor,  manager,  and  dramatic 
author,  bom  in  the  grand  duchy  of  Posen  about 
1760,  died  in  Warsaw  in  1829.  He  went  upon  the 
stage  in  Warsaw  in  1778,  and  from  that  epoch 
until  1810,  at  which  time  he  was  finally  settled 
as  the  manager  of  the  theatre  in  Warsaw, 
he  wandered  with  various  fortunes  from 
one  end  of  Poland  to  another;  establishing 
theatres  in  various  cities  and  towns;  at  times 
the  victim  of  private  misfortunes;  at  others 
bending  under  political  calamities.  He  trans- 
liU;ed  comedies,  dramas,  and  operas,  from  the 
French,  English,  and  Italian,  and  composed 
many  original  pieces,  in  which  he  reproduced 
national  songs,  legends,  manners,  and  customs, 

f  reserving  sdways  the  purity  and  vigor  of  the 
^oliah  language.    His  plays  were  published  at 
Warsaw  in  1820,  in  9  vols. 

BOGUSLAWSKI,  Palm  Hbihbzoh  Ludwio 
TOK,  astronomer,  born  Sept  7, 1789,  at  Magde- 
burg, died  at  Breslan,  June  5, 1851.  In  1800 
he  fought  against  the  invading  French  army. 
The  comet  of  1807  afforded  him  occasion  to 
make  his  first  astronomical  observations.  In 
1809,  a9  an  officer  of  artillery,  he  passed  his  ex- 
amination in  such  a  distiuffuished  manner  that 
the  government  continued  him  at  the  high  artil- 
lery school  in  Berlin,  where,  in  1811,  he  par- 
ticipated in  the  observations  and  calculations 
made  by  Bode  upon  the  great  comet  of  that 
year.  During  the  campaigns  of  1818-'15,  in 
which  he  took  part  on  the  recommendation 
of  Bode,  he  found  access  to  the  principal  Euro- 
pean observatories.  He  was  wounded  and 
made  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Eulm,  but  es- 
caped and  Joined  the  army  in  Erftirt  He  fin- 
ished his  military  career  at  the  battle  of  Water- 
loo, where  he  had  the  singular  fortune  to  fire 
the  first  and  the  last  gun-shot.  His  eyesight 
became  weakened,  and  he  devoted  himself  to 
agriculture ;  but  afterward  his  eyes  recovered, 
and  he  returned  to  his  cherished  astronomical 
studies.  In  1831  he  became  conservator,  and 
in  1848,  director  of  the  observatory  in  Bres- 


lan, and  from  1886  was  a  professor  at  the  uni- 
verfflty  there.  In  1834  he  discovered  a  comet 
bearing  his  name. 

BOHA-EDDIN,  or  Bohaddin  (Aboulmohas- 
sen-Yussut-ibn-Seeddad),  an  Arabian  scholar 
and  historian,  born  at  Mosul  in  1145,  died  in 
1235.  Having  attained  proficiency  in  Moslem 
law,  he  became,  at  the  age  of  27,  a  lecturer  at 
Bagdad.  In  1180  he  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Mecca,  and  returned  through  the  holy  land, 
visiting  Jerusalem,  Hebron,  and  other  sacred 
cities.  While  in  Damascus,  he  was  summoned  to 
the  Moslem  camp  by  Saladin,  who  was  desirous 
of  availing  himself  of  the  services  and  influence 
of  so  able  a  scholar,  and  a  man  of  such  reputed 
Moslem  piety  and  zeaL  He  accordingly  brought 
his  learning  and  talent  to  the  work  of  glorifying 
the  wars  of  tliat  ambitious  monarch,  in  a  trea- 
tise on  the  *^  Laws  and  Discipline  of  Sacred 
War."  Saladin  appointed  him  cadi  of  Jerusa- 
lem and  of  the  army,  and  a  strong  attachment 
frt>m  the  commencement  subsisted  between 
tliem,  which  the  scholar  knew  well  how  to  turn 
to  good  account  On  the  death  of  Saladin  he 
transferred  his  attachment  to  the  son,  Malek-al- 
Dhaher,  whom  he  was  instrumental  in  establish- 
ing in  the  succession  of  the  throne.  In  return, 
the  new  prince  of  Aleppo  appointed  Boha-eddin 
to  the  office  of  cadi  of  the  city,  which  brought 
him  constantly  to  reside  in  the  royal  court. 
Aleppo  now  became  the  resort  for  men  of  science 
and  learning.  At  this  period  of  his  life  Boha- 
eddin  founded  a  college,  and  he  continued  to  give 
lectures  until  he  was  90  years  old.  His  great 
work  was,  however,  the  **Life  of  Saladin.^  It 
is  a  work  .pronounced,  on  the  whole,  fr^e  from 
the  extravagance  which  so  generally  reuders 
oriental   productions  distasteful  to  the  more 

Practical  scholars  of  the  West.  It  is  written, 
owever,  from  the  stand-point  of  a  zealous 
M(Mlem,  rather  than  from  that  of  the  practised 
soldier  or  the  politic  statesman. 

BOHEMIA  (anciently  Bogenheim,  home  of 
the  Celtic  Boii),  in  S.  £.  Germany,  formerly  in- 
depenent,  now  belonging  to  Austria,  lies  between 
lat  48*  88'  and  61°  4'  K,  and  long.  12°  and  16° 
46'  E.,  bounded  K  by  Saxony,  E.  by  Prussia  and 
Austrian  Silesia  and  Moravia,  S.  by  Austria 
proper,  and  W.  by  Bavaria ;  area,  20,012  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  4^800,818.  It  is  almost  perfectly  sur- 
roundea  by  4  mountain  chains,  namely :  the  Erz- 
gebirge  on  the  side  of  Saxony,  the  BOhmerwald- 
gebirge  ^Bohemian  forest  mountains)  on  the  side 
of  Bavaria,  the  Moravian  mountains  on  the  side  of 
Moravia,  and  the  Riesengebirge  and  Sudeten  on 
the  side  of  Silesia.  The  country  is,  therefore,  be- 
lieved to  have  been  in  ancient  times  a  great  lake 
with  a  few  islands,  until  the  waters  broke  thrcTugh 
the  sandstone  formation  of  the  eastern  Erzge- 
birge  (in  a  lensth  of  20  miles,  and  over  200  feet 
deep),  and  so  formed  the  channel  of  the  Elbe, 
by  which  Bohemia  is  mainly  drained.  Within 
these  4  ridges,  of  which  the  first,  second,  and 
hat  ascend  to  over  4,000,  the  third  to  over  2,000 
feet,  is  one  great  hilly  basin,  with  an  average 
elevation  in  the  north  of   700,  and  in  the 


428 


BOHEMIA 


Boath  of  1,000  feet  abore  the  level  of  the  sea, 
with  no  extensive  plain,  and  a  great  variety 
of  geological  formation^  granite,  sienite  ana 
ffneiss  prevailing  at  the  extreme  sonth ;  gran- 
ite, greenstone,  and  other  primitive  rocks,  at  the 
west  and  north,  where  they  are  partially 
internipted  by  iMisaltic  and  other  plutonic 
masses;  and  tertiary  and  secondary  formation, 
primitive  and  basaltic  rock,  at  the  east ;  and  even 
a  greater  variety  all  over  the  interior.  The  min- 
eral products  are  more  varied  than  in  any  other 
country  of  the  same  size ;  some  gold  and  silver 
and  many  more  or  less  precious  stones  are  found, 
and  salt  and  platina  alone  are  entirely  absent. 
The  mineral  springs  of  Carlsbad,  Eger,  T6plitz, 
Harienbad,  and  many  otiiers  are  fiimon&  The 
climate,  sheltered  from  the  northern  winds  and 
varied  by  so  manifold  a  surface,  is  the  most 
genial,  and  the  soil,  except  in  some  southern 
portions,  among  the  most  fertile  in  Germany ; 
the  land  is  weUtimbered  and  well  watered,  the 
rivers  Moldau  and  Elbe  being  navigable  to  a 
great  distance.  It  is  one  of  the  best  stocked 
provinces  of  Austria  as  regards  cattie,  horses, 
sheep,  and  poultry.  Kearly  f  of  the  land  is 
under  cultivation,  the  remainder  in  forest,  fur- 
nishing a  yearly  wood-crop  of  8,000,000  cords, 
beside  timber  for  building  and  other  mechan- 
ical purposes.  Of  grain  the  yearly  crop  is  be- 
tween 20,000,000  and  40,000,000  bushels,  of 
which  rye  furnishes  a  third,  a  large  portion  of 
which  is  exported.  Enormous  masses  of  green 
vegetables  and  fruit  are  exported  to  the  north, 
on  account  of  their  early  appearance  in  market ; 
there  is  also  a  large  crop  of  flax,  hemp,  tobacco, 
and  hops,  with  much  bad  wine,  flax  is  the 
great  staple  of  the  country.  It  is  raised  from 
imported  Russian  seed ;  but  the  domestic  man- 
ufactures require  a  considerable  importation  in 
addition.  Hand-spinning,  now  almost  aban- 
doned, occupied, in  1800,  over  800,000 persons; 
since  which  machinery  has  come  in.  Weaving 
and  bleaching  employ  over  180,000  persons,  pro- 
ducmg  linen  goods,  partly  of  the  finest  descrip- 
tion, to  the  annual  value  of  nearly  $8,000,000. 
Lace-making  by  hand  formerly  supported  over 
40,000  persons  at  the  north;  but  since  the 
invention  of  machine  lace,  not  i  as  many. 
Cotton  manufactories  are  increasing ;  In  1856 
there  were  over  500,000  spindles,  producing 
about  80,000  cwt.  of  yam ;  nearly  00,000  looms 
were  employed  on  calicoes.  These  manufactories 
are  in  the  northern  region,  next  the  Erzgebirge, 
but  the  wooUen  factories,  of  which,  in  1851,  there 
were  146,  are  more  numerous  in  the  north-east, 
near  Keichenberg.  There  are  over  50  leather  fac- 
toriis,  and  the  gloves  of  Prague  are  much  in 
demand.  The  paper  miUs  of  Prague  and  the 
north-east  are  flourishing.  The  Bohemian  glass 
factories,  producing  annually  about  $2,000,000, 
are  renowned  all  over  the  world,  and  work 
mostly  for  export,  particularly  to  America ;  the 
imitation  gems,  the  looking-glass,  and  fine  orna- 
mental glass-ware  being  unsurpassed.  Factories 
of  earthen  and  stone  ware,  of  wooden  and  wil- 
low ware,  and  of  toys  and  household  fhmiture, 


give  employment  to  thousands.  'There  are 
numerous  iron  works  in  the  vicinity  of  Prague 
and  Pilsen ;  excellent  steel  and  cutlery  come 
from  Carlsbad  and  Nixdorf ;  pewter  and  tin  ware 
fit)m  Carlsbad,  Eger,  Prague,  and  Rumburg; 
mathematical  instruments  from  Nendeck ;  opti^ 
glasses  from  Btirgstein;  chemical  and  refined 
sugar  from  numerous  establishments.  The  ex- 
ports are  some  $6,000,000,  and  exceed  the  imports 
oy  $l,000,000.~Of  the  population  more  than  f 
are  SUvonic,  the  rest  of  German  descent;  the 
latter  inhabiting  in  compact  masses  tiie  north- 
ernmost quarter  of  the  country,  the  mountun- 
ous  districts,  and  forming  a  great  part  of  every 
city  and  town  population,  being  more  ^ven  to 
industrial  pursuits;  while  the  former,  called 
(7<MAi,  and  Wonging  to  the  some  tribe  as  the 
Moravians,  are  the  more  agricultural  portion  of 
the  population,  and  of  all  Slavonic  tribes,  un- 
doubtedly the  most  gifted,  cultivated,  and  th^ 
richest  in  literature  and  art  They  are  predm- 
inentiy  a  musical  people,  and  are  fond  of  song  and 
poetry.  With  the  exception  of  87,858  Protes- 
tants and  75,450  Jews,  all  are  Oatholica.  The 
educatiousl  system,  though  the  best  in  Austria, 
is  much  inferior  to  any  other  in  Germany.  There 
are  only  8,500  primary  schools,  and  the  univer- 
sity and  other  high  schools  have  but  lately 
begun  to  improve.  They  excel  solely  in  math- 
ematical, medicaL  and  technical  branches. — 
The  earliest  population  was  Celtic,  of  a  tribe 
called  Boii,  who,  before  the  Christian  era, 
were  driven  over  the  Alps  by  German  tribes,  <^ 
which,  in  the  first  centuries  of  Christianity,  a 
number  inhabiting  Bohemia  and  Moravia  were 
united  into  a  confederation  called  Maroomanni 
(frontier  men).  Aft^r  long  struggles  with  the 
Romans  along  the  Danube,  theMaroomanni 
broke  into  the  Roman  empire  in  the  5th  century, 
and,  under  the  name  of  Boioarians,  seem  to  have 
peopled  the  present  Bavaria.  In  their  wake 
the  Slavonian  Cechi  peaceably  tilled  the  whole 
of  Bohemia  and  Moravia.  The  present  admixture 
of  German  blood  in  these  countries  dates  from 
the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  when  the  Germans 
invaded  and  colonized  portions  of  the  country. 
The  Christian  religion  was  introduced  by  M^ 
thodius  about  890,  when  the  king  of  Moravia, 
Swatopluk,  also  ruled  Bohemia.  After  his 
death  in  894  an  invasion  of  the  Mogyars  de- 
stroyed this  Moravian  kingdom,  and  the  Bohe- 
mians voluntarily  sought  annexation  to  the 
German  empire,  with  which  they  have,  since 
tiien,  remained  united,  in  spite  of  tiie  endeavors 
of  Boleshiw  I.  (986-'67),  who  united  the  whole  of 
the  country  nnder  his  sceptre,  to  make  himself 
again  independent  About  1050  his  descendant 
Brzetislaw  I.  annexed  Moravia.  The  native 
dukes  several  times  assisted  the  German  em- 
perors against  rebellious  subjects,  and  in  1168 
received  the  kingly  dignity  from  Frederic  L 
Wars  of  succession  convulsed  the  country  until 
Ottokar  I.  (1197-1280),  a  truly  great  monarch, 
made  the  royalty  hereditary.  By  conquest  he 
and  his  son  Ottokar  II.  extended  their  dominion 
over  a  part  of  P<dand,  Austria,  and  Prussia, 


BOHEMIA 


BOHEMIAN  FOREST 


429 


where  the  latter,  in  1S56,  on  a  crusade  against  the 
heathen  Borassians,  founded  the  city  of  Ednigs- 
berg.  After  a  short  struggle  against  the  em- 
peror Rudolf  L,  the  Bohemian  monarohs  acquir- 
ed Poland  and  Hungary  by  election ;  but  with 
the  assassination  of  Weni^l  II.  the  native  rul- 
ing house  was  extinguished,  and  succeeded  by 
the  house  of  Luxemburg,  until  that  line,  in 
1526,  was  superseded  by  Austrian  dukes.  Charles 
I.  (1347-78),  who  as  the  German  emperor  was 
without  any  influence,  was  a  great  king  for 
Bohemia,  which  he  augmented  by  Lusatia  and 
otiier  acquisitions,  which  were  soon  lost  Under 
his  reign  the  country  flourished ;  Prague,  then 
the  only  German  university,  numbered  80,000 
students,  science  and  art  were  fostered,  and 
manufactures,  particularly  those  of  gla»  and 
linen,  were  founded.  From  the  beginning  of 
the  15  th  century  the  ideas  of  the  reformation 
began  to  roread  by  the  teachings  of  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  whose  death,  at  Oonstance,  in 
1415  and  1416,  and  the  intervention  of  the  empe- 
ror Sigismund,  caused  the  outbreak  of  the  Hussite 
war.  Under  the  victorious  sway  of  the  Hussites 
the  throne  of  Bohemia  was  filled  by  election, 
mostly  from  tiie  Luxemburg  line,  once  by  a 
native  nobleman,  George  Podiebrad  (145^'71), 
until  the  second  Austrian  duke  Ferdinand,  in 
1547,  by  treachery,  again  made  the  crown  here- 
ditaiy  in  the  house  of  Austria.  In  1618  the 
Bohemians  rebelled  and  began  the  80  years' 
war.  In  1619  they  chose  the  elector  palatine 
Frederic  Y.  as  their  king ;  but  soon  succumbed 
in  the  battle  at  the  White  Mountain,  near  Prague, 
in  1620.  The  most  cruel  persecution  com- 
menced; thousands  were  executed,  thousands 
imprisoned  and  banished,  and  their  estates  con- 
fiscated. The  constitution  was  abotished,  the 
crown  declared  hereditary,  Protestantism  for« 
bidden  and  exterminated  with  fire  and  sword,  the 
Oeohian  literature,  school  system,  and  nation- 
ality proscribed,  the  native  state  with  its  civilize* 
tion  annihilated.  No  less  than  86,000  families,  of 
whieh  1,088  were  noble,  all  Protestant  preachers 
and  teachers,  and  whosoever  refused  to  become 
Gatho]io-4nahortLthe  flower  of  the  nation — ^had 
to  emigrate,  and  found  refuge  in  Saxony, 
Sweden,  Poland,  Holland,  Brandenburg,  and 
elsewhere.  This,  and  the  sufferings  of  the  80 
years'  war,  devastated  the  land.  German  Cath- 
olics were  introduced  as  colonists,  and  every 
thing  German  &vored  and  preferred  to  such  an 
extent,  that  the  Germans  of  Bohemia,  for  more 
than  a  eentury,  furnished  more  than  half  of  all 
the  ofiicers  in  the  Austrian  provinces.  Even  up 
to  1849,  the  whole  of  the  Austrian  artillery  con- 
sisted of  German  Bohemians.  To  make  up  for 
this  loss  of  freedom  and  higher  civilization,  agri- 
onltaral  and  manufacturing  industry  was  care- 
fully fostered  by  the  government,  and  the  general 
national  welfare  was  inconsiderably,  and  but  for 
very  short  periods,  interrupted  in  the  7  years' 
war^  and  the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  revolution  of 
1848  inverted  diametrically  the  position  of  the 
parties  toward  the  Austrian  government :  the 
Germans  of  Bohemiai  enthuaastio  for  German 


unity  and  popular  liberty,  in  common  with  the 
enormous  migority  of  Austrian  Grermans,  op- 
posed their  government ;  the  Oechi  in  Bohe- 
mia, together  with  the  Slavonic  population  of 
Austria,  looked  for  a  great  Slavonic  empire  in 
Austria,  and,  in  spite  of  the  bombardment  of 
Prague,  where  a  Slavonic  congress,  under 
Bakounine's  guidance,  was  assembled  June  11, 
1848.  by  the  military,  have  ever  since  supported 
the  Austrian  authorities.  For  further  iniorma- 
tion,  see  Austria. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  Christian  soci- 
ety of  the  15th  century,  who  rejected  the  mass, 
purgatory,  transubstantiation,  prayers  for  the 
dead,  and  the  adoration  of  images^  and  contend- 
ed for  the  communion  in  both  kinds.  The 
Hussite  movement  commenced  in  1409,  and  was 
followed  by  a  general  insurrection  of  the  Bo- 
hemian heretics,  under  Zisoa,  when  800  tables 
were  spread  in  the  open  air  for  a  public  com- 
manion  in  both  kinds.  Hien  came  the  more 
moderate  Calixtines.  According  to  some  his- 
torians, the  Bohemian  brethren  were  an  off- 
shoot from  the  Calixtines  and  Catholics,  Just 
after  the  compromise  in  1467.  But  it  is  cer- 
tain that  they  had  attracted  no  particular  no- 
tice until  1503,  when  they  were  accused  by 
the  Catholic  party,  and  an  edict  was  issued 
against  them,  prohibiting  both  their  public  and 
private  meetings.  And  when,  in  the  incipient 
movements  of  Luther,  the  Bohemian  brethren 
offered  to  loin  his  party,  that  reformer  protest- 
ed, probably  on  the  ground  of  their  anabaptism. 
This  they  afterward  renounced  in  1585,  and 
having  sent  deputies  to  Luther,  who  explained  to 
him  more  fcdly  their  doctrines,  he  consented  to 
receive  them  as  colaborers.  They  afterward 
generally  joined  the  Zwinglians,  in  which  body 
they  finally  disappear  from  the  page  of  history, 
although  the  modem  society  of  United  Brethren, 
or  Moravians,  may  be  regarded  as  an  of&hoot 
from  this  body. 

BOHEMIAN  FOREST,  or  BOhmebwald, 
the  dividing  chain  of  mountains  between  the 
waters  of  the  Danube  and  Elbe,  between 
Bavaria  and  Bohemia,  between  the  Slavonic 
Cechi  and  the  Germanic  Franoonians.  It 
runs  in  a  north-westerly  direction,  from 
about  linz  to  Eger,  for  upward  of  144 
miles.  It  begins  abruptly  on  the  Danube,  and 
ascends,  for  the  first  half  of  its  course,  to 
an  average  height  of  2,300,  in  its  summits  to 
4,600  feet,  mostly  steep  and  rugged,  with  high 
plateaus  on  the  Bavarian  ttde,  ending  in  steep 
slopes  on  tiie  rivers  Begen  and  Naab,  and  short 
mountiun  chains  on  the  Bohemian  side,  over- 
looking the  southern  terrace  of  Bohemia.  It 
consists  exclusively  of  primitive  granite  and 
gneias.  Up  to  8,600  feet  the  surface  is  covered 
with  dense  forests  and  swamps,  which  in  part 
are  a  Urra  ineognita  to  this  day.  It  has  paral- 
lel rugged  chains,  with  few  passes,  and  is  one  of 
the  roughest  portions  of  Germany.  The  Mol- 
dau  and  the  Kegen  are  the  chief  rivers  which 
rise  here.  The  highest  point  is  the  Great  Ar- 
ber,  4^650  feet  high.    iHear  Neumark,  in  Bo- 


430 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


hemia,  the  main  chain  is  interrupted  by  the 
deep  transverse  valle j  of  the  river  Obam.  14  miles 
broad,  affording  a  passage  for  the  Bohemian 
and  Bavarian  railroad.  On  the  other  side  of 
this  valley  are  the  miyestio  High  Bow,  8,200  feet, 
and  the  Ossa,  8,960  feet  high.  The  northern 
continuation  of  the  forest  is  decidedly  lower  on 
an  average,  and  less  broken,  with  no  main 
chain,  but  several  parallel  ridges  as  high  as 
2,700  feet,  mingling  at  the  northern  extremity  on 
the  Bavarian  side  with  the  Fichtel  mountains; 
on  the  Bohemian  side,  with  the  Erzgebirge. 
The  whole  forest  is  of  a  high  strategetical  im- 
portance, and  proved  so  in  the  Hussite  and 
Napoleonic  wars.  The  productions  of  the 
mountains  are  very  poor,  oats  being  almost  the 
only  grain,  and  flnx  and  cattle  the  only  market 
staples.  The  population  is,  with  hurdly  an  ex- 
ception, Germanic  or  Germanized,  rough,  un- 
couth, but  temperate,  sober,  industrious,  and 
conservative.  Iron,  glass,  and  linen  fiEibrics  are 
produced.  Cham  is  the  only  city  of  importance. 
BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERA- 
TURE. The  adjective  Bohemian  is  inappropriate 
when  applied  to  the  principal  nation  of  the  west- 
erly Slavonians,  and  is,  moreover,  also  wrongly 
applied  to  the  gypsies  or  Tsigans.  The  true  name 
of  the  people  is  Ceehi  (pronounced  Ohav-hee), 
from  eetiy  to  begin,  as  they  believe  themselves 
to  be  the  first  of  the  family.  The  language  is 
the  harshest,  strongest,  most  abounding  in  con- 
sonants, and,  at  the  same  time,  the  most  signifi- 
cant, richest,  and  the  first  and  most  developed 
of  the  many  dialects  of  the  Slavic  fiEimily, 
which  itself  is  the  northernmost  relative  of  the 
Sanscrit,  the  culminating  tongue  of  the  Aryan 
stock.  Nearest  to  the  C^chio  are  the  Moravian 
and  the  Slovak  of  N.  and  W.  Hungary,  both 
sub-dialects,  and  the  Sorbo-Wendic  of  Lusatia, 
a  cognate  dialect.  The  southern  and  south-west- 
ern Slavons  had  obtained  letters  from  OyriUus, 
who  modified  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  the 
Glagolitio  characters,  wrongly  ascribed  to  St. 
Jerome,  before  the  Latin  moae  of  writing  was 
adopted  by  the  other  branches  of  the  family,  in 
the  form  of  the  black  letter,  and  recently  in  the 
Italian  shape.  In  this  language  there  are  the  6 
Italian  vowels  (both  short  and  long),  with  an 
additional  y  (short  and  long),  which  is  duller 
and  heavier  than  i;  1  diphthong,  oti  (pronounced 
as  in  English  our);  the  pseudo-diphthongs  of 
all  the  vowels  with  a  closing  y,  and  the  diph- 
thong i  (pronounced  id  as  in  the  Italian  niego\ 
written  with  one  letter.  ^,  <i,/,  ifc,  i,  m,  n,  jp, 
0,  sound  as  in  English ;  but  c  is  pronounced  as 
if  written  is  in  English ;  g  before  d,  t,  ^,  like  y  in 
yes;  h  harsher  than  in  Jien;  r  trembling  and 
rolling,  and  not  slurred  over,  as  in  the  English 
marshy  pa/rh;  8  always  as  in  sap  ;  t  always  as  in 
tin;  v>  like  the  English  v;  z  always  as  in  eeoL 
The  following  letters  with  the  diacritic  sign  (*) 
are  pronounced — c  like  English  ehvuehat;  8  like 
«A  in  shall;  z  like  the  French  j,  or  tiie  English  t 
in  glazier  ;  r  like  the  Polish  r«,  almost  like  r«A,  as 
much  as  possible  in  one  utterance ;  d  like  the 
Magyar  gy  (dy  in  one  utterance) ;  t  like  the 


Magyar  ty;n  like  the  Italian  gn  in  signore,  or 
Magyar  ny  ;  there  is  also  a  peculiar  letter  l^  with 
a  cross-bar  as  in  Polish,  having  a  heavy  and  dull 
sound  unknown  4o  the  English.  The  letter  x  oc- 
curs only  in  foreign  words.  The  combination  eh  is 
E renounced  as  in  German,  being  the  most  strong- 
/  aspirated  guttural  sound ;  the  trigramma  «di 
represents  2  sounds,  viz.,  s  and  ^  as  in  the 
German  word  Oldsehen.  The  Cechic  language 
has  no  article,  but  declinable  demonstrative 
pronouns.  It  has  8  genders,  8  declensions,  7 
cases  (nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative, 
vocative,  instrumental  or  sociative,  and  loca- 
tive); 8  numbers  (a  dual  only  in  nouns  and 
pronouns);  2  kinds  of  adJectiveB,  determinate 
and  indeterminate;  organic  and  periphrastio 
degrees  of  comparison,  declinable  numerals,  6 
forms  of  the  verb  (with  but  1  inflection),  6  moods 
(indicative,  imperative,  conjunctive,  optative, 
conditional,  and  transgresslve  or  participial). 
The  passive  voice  and  the  future  tenses  are 
made  by  means  of  auxiliaries ;  but  the  termina- 
tions of  persons  and  numbers  are  not  less  de- 
veloped than  in  Greek  and  Latin.  Great  liber- 
ty in  the  seauence  of  words  characterizes  the 
syntax,  whicn  is  analogous  to  the  Greek  and 
Latin.  Metre  predominates  oyer  the  tones  in 
the  vocalism  of  words,  so  that  the  Cechio 
language  can  vie  with  the  Magyar  in  render- 
ing Greek  and  Latin  poetic  rhythm.  Great 
variety,  force,  and  phonetic  symbolism  in  the 
derivating  afBxes,  enrich  the  language  with  a 
greot  number  of  expressions,  and  make  up  for 
its  scantiness  of  metaphony.— Jos.  Dombro  wsky, 
the  greatest  Slavic  linguist,  divides  the  history 
of  the  Cechic  language  and  literature  into  6  pe- 
riods, commencing  with  the  following  epochs: 

1,  the  immigration  of  the  Gechi,  550  B.  0.; 

2,  their  conversion  to  Christianity,  A.  D.  845;  8, 
KingJohn  of  Luxemburg,  1810;  4,  John  Husa, 
who  introduced  a  precise  orthography,  1410;  6, 
the  extension  of  printing,  and  Ferdinand  I.,  of 
Hapsbnrg,  1526;  6,  the  battle  at  the  White 
Mountain,  and  the  expulsion  of  the  non-Catho- 
lics, 1620.  The  discovery,  in  1817,  of  a  part  of 
the  Huhopis  Eralodworsky  (manuscript  of  KOni- 
ginhof ),  by  Hanka,  in  a  church  steeple,  brought 
to  light  a  collection  of  14  lyric  and  epic  poems, 
written  between  1290  and  1810,  in  a  tender 
and  emphatic  strain,  and  superior  to  most  of  the 
contemporary  productions  of  other  European  na- 
tions. There  are  about  20  poetic  and  50  prose 
works  extant  belonging  to  the  epoch  before 
Huss,  such  as  DalimiPs  chronicle  in  verse,  of 
1314;  a  song  of  1846,  on  the  battle  of  Crecy, 
where  King  John  fell,  and  other  historic 
legends;  Thom.  Stitny's  book  for  his  children, 
1376 ;  Baron  Andreas  de  Duba's  judicial  con- 
stitution of  Bohemia,  1402 ;  a  politico-didactio 
poem,  by  S.  Flaska  of  Richenburg  ;  some  alle- 
goric, dramatic,  and  elegiac  compositions,  with 
translations  of  foreign  works.  Charles  L  of 
Bohemia,  known  as  Charles  IV.,  emperor  of 
Germany,  founded,  in  1847,  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Emaus,  in  the  new  town  of 
Prague,  for  monks  who  had  fied  hither  from 


BOHEMIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


431 


Oroatia;  and  foanded  the  uniyerntjr  of  Prague 
in  1848.  John  Haas  revised  the  translation  of 
the  Bible,  wrote  tracts  and  hexameter  poetry, 
and  gave  a  great  impulse  to  the  activity  of  the 
Oechic  mind.  Notwithstanding  the  wholesale 
destruction  of  the  Hussite  writings,  there  yet 
remain,  hidden  in  archives  and  libraries,  many 
productions  6f  the  Oalixtines,  Taborites,  Horeh- 
ites,  Orphanites,  and  other  Hussite  sects,  some 
of  them  by  mechanics,  peasants,  and  women. 
Many  of  these  works  were  carried  off  by  the 
Swedes,  and  are  now  in  the  library  of  Stock- 
holm. Mere  rhyming,  however,  prevailed  over 
poetic  inspiration  in  most  of  the  effusions  of 
those  times;  witness  a  fragment  of  Prince 
Hynek,  son  of  King  George  Podiebrad  (1444- 
1471).  But  the  prose  works  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury are  models  of  composition,  especially  the 
state  papers :  concise,  clear,  and  emphatic  in 
style ;  so  much  so,  that  the  Oechic  language  was 
about  to  become  a  general  means  of  civilization 
for  all  Slavonians,  and  was  even  used  in  Lith- 
uanian oflicial  documents.  John  Ziska,  the  lead- 
er of  the  Hussites  (1419-1424),  composed  war- 
songa,  and  a  system  of  tactics  for  his  troops. 
The  work  of  H^k  de  Hodetin,  and  especially 
that  of  Wenc.  Wlcek  de  Oenow,  on  Hussite 
strategy,  are  more  important.  The  travels  of 
Albr.^ostka  de  Postupic  to  France  (1464),  of 
Lew  de  Rosmital  through  Europe  (1465),  of  the 
Bohemian  brother,  Mart  Kabatnik,  in  Ajsia 
Minor  and  Egypt  (1491),  of  John  de  Lobkowic 
to  Palestine  (1493),  &o. ;  the  spirited  and  elegant 
political  work  of  Otibor  de  Oimburg,  the  classic 
production  of  the  same  sort  by  Vict.  Gom.  deWze- 
hod,  the  *^Art  of  Governing,"  and  the  great  En- 
cydopadiaof  the  canon  Paul  Zidek,  with  many 
works  on  economy,  popular  medicine,  &c.,  are 
monuments  of  the  Gechio  intellect  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  15th  century.  After  1490  the  kings 
ceased  to  reside  in  Bohemia,  and  German  Oatho- 
fics  began  to  pour  into  the  country.  Neverthe- 
less, Oechic  literature  attained  its  golden  age  be- 
tween 1526  and  1620,  especially  under  Rudolf  11. 
(also  emperor  of  Germany,  1676-1612),  when  the 
Bcienoes  and  arts  were  zealously  cultivated  by 
all  classes  of  society.  Kepler  (though  a  Grer- 
man)  presided  over  the  astronomic  observatory 
at  Prague,  whicto^  then  had  2  universities,  and 
16  other  literary  institutions,  including  schools 
for  females  as  well  as  males.  The  Oechic 
tongue  was  now  more  developed  even  than  the 
Gennan,  and  was  used  in  all  transactions;  al- 
though in  point  of  style  the  works  of  this  period 
are  inferior  to  those  of  earlier  times^  the  polit- 
ical and  legal  literature  is  superior  to  the  rest. 
The  following  works  are  worthy  of  mention : 
George  Streye's  psalms ;  S.  Lomnicky  de  Budec's 
poems;  Oh.  de  Zerottn*s  memoirs  and  letters; 
Wenc.  Hagek  de  libocan's  extensive^  though 
rather  romantic,  chronicle  of  Bohemia;  Bar- 
tons work  on  the  religious  troubles  of  1624; 
Sizt  de  Ottendorf 's  work  on  the  diet  of  1547 ; 
John  Bkdioslaw's  history  of  the  Bohemian  and 
Moravian  brethren,  perhaps  wrongly  ascribed  to 
him;  a  universal  history,  now  at  Stockholm, 


by  an  anonymous  author,  but  rich,  clear,  and 
trustworthy;  genealogies  and  biographies  by 
Wenc.  Brzezan ;  an  excellent  history  by  Adio. 
Weleslawin ;  the  travels  and  fortunes  of  Ulr. 
de  Wlkanowa,  Wenc.  Woat.  de  Mitrowic,  and 
Ohrist(^h.  Harant  de  Polzic,  &c.  Matthew  Ben- 
esowsky's  glossology,  and  Abr.  de  Ginterrod^s 
classic  archsDoloffy,  are  also  memorable.  There 
are  several  good  works  on  judicial  atiairs  and 
on  religious  subjects,  for  instance  that  of  Au- 
gusta, a  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  brethren.  The 
translation  of  the  Bible  published  by  this  society 
reached  8  editions.  It  is  in  pure  and  elegant 
Oechic,  and  was  translated  ^om  the  original 
in  the  castle  of  Kralic,  in  Moravia,  by  a  society 
which  Jos.  Zerotin  had  collected  and  maiutainea 
there  from  1579  to  1598.~Oount  Slawata,  one 
of  the  imperial  Oatholic  party,  who  was  ejected 
through  a  window  of  the  castle  of  Prague,  by 
Oount  Thurn^s  associates,  in  1618,  left  a  de- 
tailed documentary  history  of  his  times,  in  15 
vols,  folio.  That  act  of  violence  opened  the 
80  years'  war,  and  brought  about  the  sudden 
fall  and  decay  of  Oechic  civilization,  whidi  then 
sank  to  a  low  degree  of  debasement.  The 
best  men  of  the  country  perished  by  the  sword 
and  pestilence;  others  emigrated  (even  the 
nobility  in  1628);  herds  of  German,  Italian, 
Netherlandish,  Spanish,  and  Irish  adventur- 
ers, took  their  place  in  all  offices,  dignities, 
and  emoluments.  Ferdinand  II.  import^  Ben- 
edictines from  Montserrat,  in  1624;  and  the 
Jesuits,  escorted  by  a  furious  soldiery,  ransacked 
every  house  for  Bohemian  books,  burning  all 
those  published  after  1414,  as  heretical.  This 
state  of  things  lasted  far  into  the  18th  century. 
While  it  prevailed,  many  of  the  so-called  Bo- 
hemian heretics  and  rebels  Germanized  their 
very  names.  The  Jesuit  Ant.  Konias,  who  died 
in  1760,  boasted  of  having  burnt  60,000  books. 
The  exiles,  however,  continued  to  cherish  their 
native  literature,  and  printed  several  books  in 
Poland,  Saxony,  Holland,  &c.  The  Hungarian 
Protestant  Slowaks  did  very  much  in  preserving 
Bohemian  letters.  In  Bohemia  and  Moravia  there 
i^peared  but  few  works,  such  as  Bezowsky's 
chronicle,  the  lays  of  Wohiey,  and  the  hexame- 
ter essays  of  Rosa.  John  Amos  Oomenius,  the 
last  bishop  of  the  Bohemian  brethrop,  wrote  an 
OrbisFietut,  in  several  languages,  and  although 
his  Latinity  is  barbarous,  his  native  style  is  pure, 
lively,  and  forcible.  The  Swedes  were  expelled 
from  Bohemia  in  1640,  and  carried  many  literary 
treasures  home,  among  others  the  Atiukividc^ 
Hum  orAlphabetum  Slaoorum.  in  Glagolitic  char- 
acters, on  parchment,  now  in  Uie  great  book 
at  Stockholm ;  also  the  Alphdbetum  Rutenum  in 
Oyrillic  figures.  The  empress  Maria  Theresa 
decreed,  Dec.  6, 1774^  the  cessation  of  persecu- 
tions against  the  Protestants,  and  remodelled 
the  system  of  education,  introducing  normal 
and  other  echools.  Joseph  II.  ordered  that 
German  should  be  the  language  in  the  high 
schools  and  in  all  public  affinrs.  But  thanks  to 
the  exertions  of  Count  Francis  Kinaky,  and  of 
the  historian  Pelzel,  the  Oechio  language  waa 


432       BOHEMIAN  UTERATUBE 


BOHEMOND 


introdaoed  into  the  higher  military  institotioiuiy 
and  the  sciences  were  freed  from  German  tram- 
mels. The  Cechic  culture  soon  rose  from  its  long 
lethargy,  and  writers  appeared  in  all  branches  of 
literature,  among  whom  the  following  must  be 
particularly  mentioned :  Pelzel,  F.  F.  Prochazka, 
W.  M.  Erameriufl,  A.  V.  Parizek,  an  author  of 
good  school-books,  Fr.  Tomsa,  a  linguist. 
The  father  of  modem  Bohemian  poetry  was 
Ant  Pnchmayer,  a  clergyman  (1795-1820), 
who  was  also  well  yeroed  in  Polish  and 
Bussian.  He  was  followed  by  Adalb.  and 
J.  N^edly,  Jos.  Rautenkraoz,  Fr.  Stepnioka, 
Seb.  Hniewkowsky,  who  was  also  a  good 
prose  writer,  Fr.  Jos.  Swoboda,  and  e&- 
pecially  Jos.  Jangmann,  and  Ghmelensky,  a 
lyric  poet.  The  higher  classes,  however,  con- 
tinued to  be  estranged  from  native  letters,  until 
lately;  although  since  1776  a  chair  for  the 
Gechic  language  has  existed  even  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Vienna.  Printing  had  been  intro- 
duced into  Bohemia  in  1476,  and  Jaroslaw 
Wrtatko  lately  even  claimed  a  share  in  its  in- 
yention  in  favor  of  Bohemia,  on  the  ground 
that  Gutenberff  was  originally  from  that 
country,  and  that  the  press  was  flreely  de- 
veloped in  it,  without  the  aid  of  Grermans. 
The  above-mentioned  discovery  of  Hanka, 
the  introduction  of  the  Gechic  tongue  in 
the  high  schools,  the  efforts  of  the  supreme 
Burggraf  Kolowrat,  in  the  foundation  of  a  na- 
tional museum  (1822),  and  other  favorable  dr- 
cumstances,  have  more  recentiy  produced  a  sud- 
den rise  of  Bohemian  literature.  We  must  be  con- 
tent with  notices  of  its  more  prominent  writers 
and  productions.  P.  Schafarik  and  PalacW  first 
recommended  the  old  metres  in  verse.  Dobrow- 
sky's  innovations  were  opposed  by  Jos.  Ne- 
gedly  and  Palkowic,  as  politically  dangerous. 
A  committee  on  the  language  was  formed  in 
the  museum,  in  1881.  J.  L.  Langer  was  a 
lyric,  didactic,  and  satiric  writer.  Fr.  Boko 
vrrote  an  epic  poem;  John  Holly,  an  epic  Sfuxi- 
topluh  and  the  OffrUkhMethodiade ;  Joh.  £o- 
lar,  elegies ;  Kat  Schneider,  songs  and  popular 
ballads.  Stiepanek,  Klipcera,  Gh.  Mahacek, 
J.  £.  Wooel,  and  Turinsky,  were  dramatic  writ* 
ers.  Opera  libretti  were  produced  by  the  last 
named,  by  Swoboda.  and  by  Jos.  Ghmelensky. 
Prizes  were  offered  for  the  best  dramatic 
works,  and  a  national  theatre  was  founded  by 
subscription.  Even  a  nun,  Marie  Antonie, 
wrote  lyric  compositions.  We  must  also  men- 
tion Jos.  Jungmann*s  ^History  of  Bohemian 
Literature,"  P.  Schafarik's  "History  of  Sla- 
vonic literature,"  beside  translations  from  Ar- 
istophanes, Schiller,  BUrger,  &c,  A  new  sci- 
entific glossology  was  produced  by  Dr.  J.  Swat. 
Presl,  professor  and  director  of  the  cabinet, 
and  author  of  many  works  on  natural  his- 
tory. Franc  Pahicky  is  at  the  head  of  the 
historical  school,  and  is  a  writer  on  asthetio 
and  critical  subjects.  So  are  SchafSmk  and  Wo* 
eel,  who  have  also  «vritten  on  archaology.  In 
physical  geography  we  have  Schadek  and  Fap; 
on  physics  and  technology,  Adalb.  Sedlacek,  a 


good  mathematician,  Smetana,  Amerling,  &e. ; 
on  philosophy.  Ant.  Marek;  not  to  mention  a 
host  of  others  on  the  above  subjects,  as  well  as 
writers  on  popular  theology,  and  on  popular 
amusements.  Among  Gechic  periodicals  tiiere 
are :  Catopu  ee$heho  Mtueum  (Periodical  of 
the  Bohemian  Museum) ;  Kwety  (Flowers),  with 
a  scientific  and  artistic  supplement,  WloBUnnU 
(the  country-friend) ;  Primffly  Pimel  (the  in- 
dustrial messenger).  Bohemian  grammars,  for 
Germans,  have  been  published  by  Negedly, 
Hanka,  J.  Dobrowsky,  Tmka,  Burian,  and 
Konecny.  There  are  dictionaries  by  Torosa, 
Ghmela;  the  German  and  Bohemian,  by  Tham, 
Dombrosky,  andHanka;  Bohemian  and  Latin,  by 
Hanka;  an  etymological  lexicon  and  grammar 
by  Gelakowsky ;  a  flreat  lexicon  by  Jos.  Jung^ 
mann ;  a  German-Bohemian  and  Bohemian- 
Germim,  by  Franta  Sumansky ;  a  technologic 
dictionary  by  Spatny,  ioi.  All  of  these  works,  of 
which  we  have  not  given  the  date,  are  of  com- 
paratively modem  times,  and  the  latest  work  on 
Bohemian  history  and  literature  is  Wenzig's 
JBUeie  at^das  hdhmu^  VoU:^  tsine  GeschiehU 
und  Liter atwr(L&i^  1856).  Five  Gechic  politi- 
cal papers  were  published  in  Austria  in  1868,  and 
the  principal  German  journals  of  Bohemia  are 
the  Frager  ZHtung^  published  at  Prague,  and 
the  AfueigerJuT  dot  Sudliehe  Mhmen  (Adver- 
tiser for  soutiiern  Bohemia),  which  appears  at 
Budweis. 

BOHEMOND,  Mabo,  a  crusader,  bom  about 
1066,  died  in  1111,  eldest  son  of  Robert 
Guiscard,  or  the  crafty,  who  was  the  son  of 
Tancred  de  Hauteville,  and  who  won  for 
himself  by  his  sword,  his  sole  patrimony,  the 
dukedom  of  Apulia  and  Galabria,  as  his  younger 
brother  Boger  won  the  kingdom  of  Sicily  mm 
the  Saracenic  Arabs  who  held  it.  Bohemond, 
the  son  and  nephew  of  these  2  adventurers, 
who  f^om  simple  Korman  gentiemen,  and  that 
of  the  poorest,  had  raised  themselves  to  the  rank 
of  independent  princes  by  their  unassisted  valor, 
being  only  the  natural  son,  not  the  heir,  of  his 
father,  received  for  his  inheritance  the  city  of 
Tarentum  and  his  sword.  With  the  latter  he 
determined  to  eke  out  the  profits  of  the  former, 
and  he  was  already  besieging  Amalfi,  when  he 
was  told  that  the  great  crusading  army,  con- 
sisting of  almost  all  the  nations  of  the  West,  had 
landed  in  Apulia.  "  He  informed  himself,"  sf^s 
Michelet,  in  his  history  of  France,  ^*  minutely 
of  their  names,  numbers,  arms,  and  resources, 
and  then,  without  saying  a  word,  he  took  the 
cross  and  left  Amalfi.  The  portrait  drawn  of 
him  by  Anna  Gonmena,  the  daughter  of  Alexi^ 
who  saw  him  at  Gonstantinople,  and  entertainea 
so  great  a  dread  of  him,  is  curious.  She  watched 
him  with  all  a  woman^s  interest  and  curiosity, 
'  He  was  taller  than  the  tallest  by  a  cubit,  thin- 
flanked,  wide-shouldered  and  broad-chested, 
and  neither  lean  nor  fat.  His  arms  were  power- 
ful, his  hands  fleshy  and  rather  large.  On  scan- 
ning him  closely  you  perceived  that  he  was 
somewhat  bowed.  His  skin  was  very  white, 
and  his  hair  inclined  to  flaxen,  and  instead  of 


BOHLEN 


BOIELDIEU 


488 


fioftting  wildl  J,  as  the  other  barbarians  wore  it» 
it  did  not  fall  below^  his  ears.  I  cannot  tell  the 
color  of  hiB  beard,  as  his  cheeks  and  chin  were 
ahayed ;  I  think,  however,  it  was  red.  His  eye, 
of  a  bine  approaching  to  sea-green,  bespoke  his 
valor  and  his  passionate  temperament  His  nos- 
trils took  in  the  air  freely,  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
ardent  heart  which  pulsated  in  his  vast  chest. 
Tho^  was  an  agreeabilitjr  in  his  appearance,  bat 
the  agreeability  was  destroyed  by  terror.  There 
was  something  not  likeable,  and  which  even 
Beemed  not  hnman,  in  that  stature  and  look  of 
his.  His  smile  seemed  to  me  alive  with  threats ; 
he  was  all  artifice  and  cunning ;  his  speech  was 
precise,  and  his  replies  could  not  be  laid  hold 
off  or  wrested  to  his  disadvantage.' "  Bohe« 
mond  made  himself  master  of  Antioch,  and  re- 
tained possession  of  it ;  nor  would  he  probably 
have  proceeded  further,  in  conjunction  with  the 
crusaders,  had  it  not  been  for  the  shame  of  de- 
serting his  colors,  which  compelled  him  to  ac- 
company them  to  the  assault  of  Jerusalem.  After 
the  termination  of  the  crusade,  he  married  one 
of  the  daughters  of  the  king  of  France,  his 
nephew  Tancred  espousing  another,  and  re- 
turned to  Apulia,  whither  he  was  accompanied 
by  many  of  the  French  nobility,  who  preferred 
remaining  to  aid  him  in  the  war  which  he  was 
planning  against  Alexis.  The  war,  however, 
in  spite  of  the  akill,  policy,  and  valor  of  the 
western  lances,  was,  oy  tlie  ill  effects  of  the 
dlmate,  and  by  the  poisoning  of  the  wells  and 
riven,  disastrous  to  uie  Normans;  and,  return- 
ing to  Apidia,  Bohemond  died,  leaving  a  son  of 
tender  i^  and  bequeathing  nis  Syrian  king- 
dom of  Antioch  to  Tancred. 

BOE^iEN,  Pktbb  von,  a  German  oriental 
scholar,  bom  of  poor  parents,  in  Oldenburg, 
March  18, 1796,  died  Feb.  6,  1840.  He  lost  his 
parents  early,  and  passed  his  youth  in  extreme 

Eoverty.  In  1814  he  went  to  Hamburg,  and 
ved  as  a  domestic,  until  his  good  character 
and  love  of  science  interested  some  generous 
'persons  in  his  favor,  who  furnished  him  the 
means  c^  pursuing  his  studies.  He  subsequent- 
ly became  professor  of  the  oriental  languages  in 
tlie  university  of  Ednigsberg. 

BOHK,  Hbmrt  G.,  a  London  publisher,  of 
German  parentage,  bom  in  London,  about  1800. 
who  commenced  in  1846  the  republication  or 
rare  standard  works,  selected  from  all  the  na- 
tional literatures  of  Europe,  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  in  a  cheap  form.  From  that  time 
to  the  present  Mr.  Bohn  has  issued  and  con- 
tinues to  issue,  as  serials,  and  in  a  uniform 
shape,  his  ^  Standard  Library,"  now  number- 
ing some  180  volumes,  his  ^^  Scientific  Library," 
"lUnstrated Library,"  "Library  of  French  Me- 
moirs," **  Library  of  Extra  Volumes,'*  *'  Olassical 
Library,"  consisting  of  translations  of  the  Greek 
and  liatin  classics,  '*  Antiquarian  Library," 
"Philosophical  Library,"  "Philological  Libra- 
ry," "Library  of  British  Okssics,"  "Ecclesias- 
tical Library,"  "Miniature  Library,"  and 
^  Cheap  Series."  These  libraries  number  at 
the  present  time  in  the  aggregate  about  500 
VOL.  in. — 28 


rolumes,  and  have  attained  a  very  large  eir- 
cnlation.  Several  of  the  volumes  have  been 
edited  by  the  publisher. 

BOHOL,  one  of  the  Philippine  islands,  in- 
habited by  the  Bisaya  nation ;  crossed  by  lat. 
10**  K.  and  long.  124""  E.;  area,  1,860  sq.  m.; 
pop.  in  1849,  116,751.  The  soil  is  inferior  in 
fertility  to  that  of  the  neighboring  islands, 
Zebu  and  Leyte ;  but  it  produces  rice  sufBcient 
for  the  subsistence  of  its  inhabitants;  some  to* 
bacco,  cotton  of  a  good  quality,  and  the  abaca 
banana,  from  which  is  obtained  the  well-known 
Manila  hemp.  The  small  islands,  Mino,  Polo, 
Daris,  Panglao,  and  16  inconsiderable  islets, 
belong  to  Bohol ;  and  all,  with  the  principal 
island,  are  included  in  the  province  of  Zebu. 

BOIABDO,  or  Bojabdo,  Mattbo  Mabu, 
count  of  Scandiano,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
Italian  poets,  bom  at  Scandiano,  about  1480 
or  1484,  died  at  Begc^o,  Dec  20, 1494.  He  was 
descended  from  an  ancient  family  of  Ferrara, 
and  after  finishing  his  studiea  in  the  university 
of  that  ^ce,  he  resided  at  the  court  of  the 
duke  of  £ste,  was  employed  in  several  honor- 
able missions,  and  appointed  governor  of  Beg- 
gio.  In  this  place  and  office,  after  some 
changes  of  residence,  he  died.  Although  noble 
in  birth  and  character,  brave  and  faithful  in 
office,  he  was  yet  better  known  by  his  poetry. 
His  great  chivalrous  poem,  which  was  left  un- 
finished, Orlanda  innamartUo,  although  read 
by  few,  is  the  most  celebrated  of  his  works. 
It  is  divided  into  8  books,  containing  69  cantos. 
The  Iliad  is  its  model,  and  the  siege  of  Paris  is 
another  siege  of  Troy.  The  Orlando  furiota 
of  Ariosto  is  a  continuation  of  the  Orlando 
innamorato.  In  1544  this  work  had  already 
passed  through  14  editions,  and  was  translated 
about  the  same  time  into  French  by  Vincent. 
Roeset  made  a  new  transhition  of  it  in  1619,  and 
Le  Sage  an  imitation  of  it  in  1717.  The  last 
French  translation  is  that  of  Tressan  (Paris, 
1722).  Boiardo  wrote  his  poem  in  the  Italian 
spoken  in  his  time  at  the  court  of  Ferrara,  and 
it  was,  therefore,  very  much  criticized  at  Flor- 
ence. After  various  attempts  to  purify  ^e 
style,  it  was  more  than  once  entirely  rewrit- 
ten. This  brought  the  poem  into  disuse,  and 
Panizzi  first  pubushed  the  primitive  text,  with 
a  careful  examination  of  the  poem  (London, 
1880).  Boiardo  was  the  author  of  many  other 
works,  the  most  valuable  of  which  are  his 
Sormetti  e  earuoni,  in  8  volumes,  almost  all 
addressed  to  his  mistress,  Antonia  Oapraca. 
Among  the  others  is  a  drama  in  6  acts,  entitled 
II  Timtme^  which  went  through  several  editions. 
He  also  made  an  Italian  translation  of  Herod- 
otus. 

BOIELDIEU,  FnijrgoiB  Adrikit,  a  French 
composer,  bom  at  Rouen,  Dec.  15,  1775,  died 
near  Paris,  Oct.  8,  1834.  At  a  comparatively 
early  age  he  was  distinguished  as  a  performer 
on  the  piano,  for  which  he  composea  his  first 
musical  pieces.  These  were  succeeded  by  duets 
for  the  harp  and  piano,  and  romances,  remark- 
able for  their  naive  and  graceful  melodies,  sev- 


434 


BOIGNE 


BOILINO  POINT 


eral  of  wluch,  as  the  IGnnlrtl  and  S*il  mi 
trai  que  d^iire  deux^  became  yery  pc^nlar. 
In  1797,  2  yean  after  hU  arrival  in  Paris,  he 
was  appointed  professor  of  the  piaoo  at  the 
conservatoire,  and  about  the  same  time  made 
his  debut  at  the  opera  comique  in  La/amiUe 
Suisse^  which  was  succeeded  by  La  califs  de 
Bagdad,  Ma  tante  AurorCy  and  other  works,  re- 
vealiDg  fertility  of  invention,  and  a  freshness 
and  vivacity  in  the  melodies  which  have  never 
been  surpassed  on  the  French  stage.  In  1808, 
at  the  invitation  of  tiie  emperor  Alexander  I.  of 
Russia,  he  went  to  St  Petersburg  to  fill  the 
place  of  imperial  chapel-master.  He  remdned 
8  years,  and  returned  to  Paris  in  1811,  and 
soon  after  brought  out  a  number  of  the  works 
composed  during  his  absence,  and  some  new 
ones,  among  which  were  Jean  de  Farie^  Lee 
deux  nuite,  Le  tumveau  eeigneur  du  village^ 
&c.  In  1817  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
institute,  soon  after  which  appeared  his  Chape- 
ron rouge,  the  gay  and  brilliant  music  of  which 
fully  Justified  the  honor  thus  conferred  upon 
him.  In  1825  he  produced  La  dame  hlanehe^ 
esteemed  his  ehef^csuvre,  which,  25  years  ago, 
was  familhir  to  the  English  and  American 
stage.  An  affection  of  the  throat  now  com- 
pelled him  to  resign  his  professorship,  but  he 
was  enabled  to  live  comfortably  on  a  pension 
from  the  conservatoire  and  an  annual  present 
from  Charles  X.,  until  the  revolution  of  Jul^ 
1880,  deprived  him  of  both  these  sources  of 
income.  He  died  in  somewhat  impoverished  cir- 
cumstances, but  was  honored  with  a  superb 
burial. 

BOIGNE,  BbnoIt  lb  Bobone,  comte  de,  a 
Savoyard  adventurer,  born  at  Chamb^ry,  in 
Savoy,  March  8, 1741,  died  there  June  21, 1830. 
He  was  educated  in  his  native  town,  and  first 
enlisted  in  the  Irish  brigade  in  the  service  of 
the  king  of  France,  and  then  migrated  to 
Greece,  where  he  received  the  appointment  of 
captain  in  an  independent  Greek  regiment  in 
the  pay  of  Russia.  He  now  tesolved  upon  try- 
ing his  fortune  in  Hindostan,  and  served  there 
first  as  fencing-master  and  then  as  ensign  in  a 
native  regiment,  till  Warren  Hastings  recom- 
mended him  to  the  patronage  of  the  king  of 
Oude,  by  whom  he  was  liberaUy  treated.  He 
eventually  passed  into  the  service  of  the  Bajah 
Sindiah,  whose  army  he  instructed  in  European 
tactics,  and  frequently  led  to  victory  over  the 
neighboring  potentates.  At  the  death  of  his  mas- 
ter in  1794,  be  remained  faithful  to  the  fortunes 
of  his  nephew  and  successor,  refusing  tempting 
offers  from  the  Mogul  emperor  and  the  king  of 
Gabool.  After  the  throne  of  this  prince  was 
placed  on  a  secure  basis,  he  went  to  Calcutta, 
and  sold  a  regiment  of  Persian  cavalry  which 
he  had  raised  to  the  British  East  India  com- 
pany, on  very  advantageous  terms  to  himself, 
w  ith  the  large  fortune  thus  acquired,  he  return- 
ed to  Europe,  visited  England,  married  the 
marchioness  of  Osmond,  and  bought  an  estate 
near  his  native  city.  He  built  and  presented  to 
the  citizens  of  that  place  a  theai^re^  made  new 


and  handsome  streetai  and  erected  and  endowed 
a  college  of  Jesuits. 

BOU,  a  pec^le  of  Ganl,  who  passed  into  Ger- 
many, and  settled  in  those  parts  of  it  whidi 
have  been  since  called  after  them  Bohemia  and 
Bavaria.  The  name  Boii  is  derived  from  the 
Celtic  Bo^  fear,  and  signifies  ^the  terrible  ones." 

BOILEAU  D£SPR£AUX,  Kioolas,  a  French 
poet,  bom  near  Paris,  Nov.  1,  1636,  died 
March  18,  1711.  He  applied  himself  at  first  to 
the  study  of  the  law  and  afterward  of  theology, 
butdevoting  himself  eventually  to  the  pursuit  of 
literature,  he  produced,  within  the  space  of  40 
years,  a  vast  number  of  works,  the  roost  im- 
portant of  which  is  that  on  the  art  of  poetry, 
establishing  an  asthetic  code  for  all  farms  <tf 
poetical  composition.  His  satirical  poem  Le 
Lutrin,  and  the  Dialogue  dee  heroe  de  rornam^ 
must  also  be  particularly  mentioned.  His  other 
writings  comprise  tran^ations  of  the  claasicsi 
miscellaneous  effusions  on  art,  music,  and  poet- 
ry, and  his  famous  epistles^  of  which  tiiose 
treating  of  Le  reaped  humain,  La  eonnoi$ean€e 
deeoi^nUme^and.  Plaieire  de  la  campagne  are 
the  best  When  Boileau  began  to  write,  Mon- 
taigne, Pascal,  Malherbe,  CorneiUe,  Moli^re,  La 
Fontaine,  and  other  eminent  authors,  had  ^- 
readymade  their  appearance;  yet  the  people 
were  slow  to  appreciate  the  genius  of  the  new 
school,  to  which  they  preferred  tiie  previous 
mediocre  and  imitative  writers.  Boileau^s  great 
achievement  was  to  cure  this  perversion  of 
taste.  like  his  friend  Racine,  he  was  historio- 
grapher of  Ix>uis  XIV.,  and  the  recipient  of  an 
annual  pension  of  2,000  francs.  His  admission 
to  the  French  academy  did  not  take  place  before 
1684,  owing  to  his  attacks  upon  some  of  the 
members.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  passed 
in  neglect  and  troubles,  which  accelerated  his 
death.  He  left  the  rq>utation  of  a  genial,  high- 
minded,  and  generous  man.  Among  the  best 
editions  of  his  complete  works  are  those  of 
Daunou  (1809  and  1825),  and  of  Berriat  St. 
Prix  (183()). 

BOILING  POINT.  Different  liqoids  boil  at 
different  temperatures,  and  the  same  liquid  may 
be  made  to  boil  at  any  temperature,  from  the 
freezing  point  up,  according  as  the  pressure 
upon  its  surface  is  taken  off  or  increased.  As 
the  term  is  employed,  it  is  understood  to  mean 
the  temperature  at  which  water  boils,  under 
the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  This, 
however,  it  will  be  seen,  is  not  a  definite  pointy 
but  varies  from  several  causes.  The  ccHumis- 
sioners  appointed  by  the  government  of  Great 
Britain  to  construct  standard  weights  and  meas- 
ures, give  the  following  formula,  as  defining 
the  boiling  point  at  different  latitudes  and  ele- 
vations. The  temperature  of  212°  F.  represents 
*Hhe  temperature  of  steam  under  Laplace's 
standard  atmospheric  pressure,  or  the  atmos- 
pheric pressure  corresponding  to  the  following 
number  of  inches  in  the  barometric  reading, 
reduced  to  82**  F. :  29.9218  +  0.0766  X  cosine 
(2  latitude)  +  (0.00000179  X  height  in  feet  above 
tiie  sea)."    Boiling  is  the  rapid  movement  np- 


BOILING  POINT 


485 


wsrd  of  the  heated  partidles  of  any  fluid  oon- 
yerted  into  elastic  ateam,  which  are  replaced 
hjT  the  cooler  particles  at  the  snrface  going 
down  at  the  same  time.  The  babbles  that  rise 
are  steam;  they  burst  at  the  surfiice,  and  a 
portion  eseftpes,  carrying  off  the  excess  of  heat 
above  212°  F.  But  if,  by  reason  of  boiling  in 
confined  space,  the  pressure  upon  the  snr&oe  is 
increased  so  that  the  steam  cannot  readily  pass 
off;  the  heat  accumulates  to  a  greater  degree  than 
212*',  till  the  steam  acquires  sufficient  elasticity 
to  overcome  this  increase  of  pressure.  At  the 
bottom  of  deep  mines,  the  increased  pressure  of 
the  air  has  the  same  effect,  and  steam  is  not 
generated  at  so  low  a  temperature  as  at  the 
surface.  As  the  pressure  is  diminished,  either 
mechanically  by  the  use  of  the  air-pump,  or  by 
aaoendinff  elevations,  steam  is  generated  and 
passes  off  more  freely,and  at  alower  temperature. 
On  high  mountains,  it  may  be  difficult  even  to 
produce  sufficient  heat  in  open  vesseb  to  boil 
egga  Darwin  was  led  to  notice  this,  when  he 
ascended  with  his  sailors  one  of  the  mountains 
of  Patagonia.  They  took  with  them  a  new 
pot,  in  which  th^  attempted  in  vain  to  boil 
their  potatoes.  With  the  sailors,  the  whole 
difficulty  lay  in  the  want  of  experience  of  the 
pot,  or  in  some  peculiar  defect  in  it  The  boil- 
ing point  thermometer  is  an  instrument  con- 
trived to  determine  differences  of  elevation,  by 
the  difference  of  the  temperature  of  boiling 
water.  (See  Babombter.)  If  the  pressure  be 
entirely  taken  offi  there  is  then  nothing  to 
check  the  rising  of  the  vapor,  and  the  slightest 
increase  of  temperature  may  throw  the  fluid 
into  ebullition.  But  for  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, the  ocean  would  boil  and  evaporate 
with  heat  equivalent  to  that  of  the  sun's  rays. 
Several  ingenious  experiments  have  been  de- 
vised to  illustrate  these  facts.  The  simplest  is 
in  making  a  glass  of  warm  water  boil  under 
tiie  receiver  of  an  lur-pamp.  Franklin's  pulse 
glass  consists  of  two  gloss  bulbs,  connected  by 
a  glass  tube.  The  fluid  in  one  is  made  to  boil, 
till  the  steam  has  expelled  the  air  through  a 
small  hole,  left  open  for  this  purpose.  The  hole 
is  then  hermetici^y  closed,  and,  when  the  in- 
strument is  cold,  it  contains  water  and  its  unoon- 
densed  vapor.  By  holding  one  of  the  bulbs  in 
the  warm  hand,  this  vapor  is  expanded,  and 
thrown  through  the  tube  into  the  other  bulb, 
where  it  bubbles  up  by  boiling ;  and  if  this  bulb 
is  kept  cold,  the  vapor  condenses,  and  the  boil- 
ing goes  on  till  the  bulb  is  filled  with  water 
forced  into  it  from  the  warmer  g^obe.  By 
dianging  ends,  the  water  may  all  be  passed 
back  in  the  same  manner.  By  causing  the  va- 
por that  arises  to  be  absorbed  by  quicklime, 
water  in  an  exhausted  receiver  may  be  thrown 
into  ebullition  at  any  change  of  temperature  firom 
the  freezing  point.  Even  by  the  application  of 
freezing  mixtures  water  may  be  made  to  boU. 
Let  a  glass  flask,  i  filled  with  water,  be  heated  till 
this  l^ils,  and  the  air  is  expeUed  by  the  steam; 
it  is  then  to  be  tightly  stoppered,  and  allowed 
to  partially  cool.    It  is  now«filled  i  with  water 


and  f  with  vapor.  If  it  be  set  in  a  vessel  of 
cold  water,  the  vapor  is  condensed,  and  new 
vapor  forms  to  supply  its  place,  throwing  the 
liquid  into  ebullition.  This  continues  tm  the 
contents  acquire  the  surrounding  temperature. 
Let  it  then  be  removed  into  a  freezing  mixture, 
and  the  phenomenon  will  be  repeated,  from  the 
same  causes. — ^This  property  of  fluids,  of  being 
converted  into  vapor  at  different  temperatures, 
is  made  to  serve  several  purposes  in  the  arts. 
By  boiling  under  pressure,  or  with  increase  of 
heat,  fluids  possess  greater  solvent  capacities, 
and  water  is  thus  made  to  extract  the  gelatine  of 
bones.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  solvent  pow- 
ers of  the  waters,  particularly  the  saline  waters, 
in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  are  greatly  increased 
fit>m  this  cause ;  and  that  tbey  are  thus  able  to 
act  upon  the  materials  they  come  in  contact 
with,  and  effect  chemical  changes  in  the  rocks, 
which  we  cannot  explain  nor  imitate.  Liquids 
intended  to  be  evaporated,  are  sometimes  par- 
tially freed  from  the  pressure  of  the  air,  and 
are  thus  '^  boiled  in  a  vacuum,"  with  economy 
of  friel.  ThiB  process  is  adopted  in  sugar  refin- 
ing. When  the  temperature  of  the  usual 
boiling  point  would  injuriously  affect  any  na- 
ture, as  is  the  case  in  some  medicinal  prepara- 
tions, these  are  advantageously  made  by  boiling 
with  reduced  pressure  at  a  low  temperature. — 
But  under  some  circumstances  the  boiling 
point  of  the  same  fluid  is,  very  curiously,  at  di^ 
ferent  temperatures  when  the  pressure  is  un- 
changed. This  is  the  case  when  little  angular 
pieces  of  metal  are  put  into  the  fluid.  If  this 
has  just  ceased  boiling  by  diminution  of  tem- 
perature it  will  reconmience  to  boil.  They 
also  have  tlie  effect  of  causinff  the  process  to  go 
on  gently,  preventing  the  violent  thumping  and 
jimiping  of  the  liquid,  which  is  often  attended 
with  some  inconvenience  in  boiling  strong  acid 
mixtures  in  chemical  analyses.  Their  action 
seems  to  consist  in  presenting  many  points,  upon 
which  the  steam  is  generated  in  a  great  num- 
ber of  minute  bubbles  separated  from  each 
other;  and  the  movement  of  these,  so  finely 
divided,  goes  on  with  comparative  quietness. 
Shavings  of  cedar  are  siud  to  have  the  same 
effect  in  lowering  the  temperature  at  which 
ether  and  alcohol  boil.  It  is  the  absence  of  any 
rough  points  whatever  upon  the  surface  of 
thoroughly  cleaned  glass  vessels,  that  accounta 
for  the  fact  that  water  may  be  raised  in  them 
to  the  temperature  of  220°  without  boiling. 
If  the  inner  sur&ce  of  any  vessel  be  coated  with 
sulphur  or  lac,  so  that  water  cannot  adhere  to 
or  wet  it,  the  boiling  takes  place  at  a  higher 
temperature.  A  little  oil  in  the  fiuid  has  also 
the  same  effect.  Dormy  has  shown  that  air 
mixed  in  liquids  influences  their  boiling  point 
more  than  any  thing  eke  except  pressure.  It 
forms  minute  bubbles  in  the  fiuid  into  which  the 
steam  dilates,  and  rises  to  the  surface.  He 
succeeded  in  thus  raising  the  temperature  to 
860^  without  ebullition.  When  this  did  take 
place  it  was  sudden  and  explosive.  The  height 
of  a  ooluum  of  water  adds  to  the  pressure  upon 


436 


BOILS 


BOISSY  D'ANGLAS 


its  lower  portion,  and  raises  the  temperatare 
at  which  its  particles  are  converted  into  vapor. 
Saline  mixtures  reqaire  a  greater  degree  of  heat 
to  hoil  than  pure  water,  though  the  vapor  that 
comes  off  from  these  is  nothing  but  water.  Sea 
salt,  however,  is  taken  up  mechanically  bv  the 
wind  from  the  surface,  as  was  noticed  by  Fallas 
in  the  taste  of  the  dew  deposited  near  the  salt 
lakes  of  Asiatic  Russia.  The  writer  has  ob- 
served the  same  effect  after  an  easterly  storm, 
in  the  taste  of  the  outer  surface  of  grapes 
ffrown  near  the  coast  of  New  England.  The 
boiling  point  of  a  saturated  solution  of  common 
salt  is  224'';  of  alum,  220"*;  of  sal-ammoniac, 
286'':  of  acetate  of  soda,  266°.  Pure  nitric 
acid  boils  at  248^* :  pure  sulphuric  acid  at  620^*. 

BOILS.  A  boil  begins  as  a  pimple  in  the 
skin,  and  continues  to  mcrease  until  it  becomes 
as  large  as  a  walnut,  or  sometimes  even  larger, 
or  it  may  not  exceed  the  size  of  a  large  pea.  It 
is  of  a  conical  shape,  somewhat  red,  or  of  a 
dusky  hue,  and  hard,  with  buroing  heat  and 
pain.  Between  the  4th  and  8th  day  it  becomes 
very  prominent,  and  begins  to  "point;"  a  speck 
of  matter  may  be  seen  on  the  summit,  which 
gradually  softens ;  the  skin  at  last  bursts  at  that 
point,  and  matter  mixed  with  blood  is  discharged 
throup^h  a  small  opening.  A  day  or  two  af- 
ter this,  the  core,  which  is  supposed  to  be  a  por- 
tion of  dead  connective  tissue,  finds  its  way  out, 
or  it  may  be  squeezed  out,  leaving  an  open  ca- 
vity which  soon  fills  up,  and  heals  about  the 
12th  or  14th  day.  Boils  may  appear  on  any 
part  of  the  body,  but  they  commonly  form  on 
the  face  or  on  the  neck,  in  the  arm-pits,  or  in- 
side of  the  thighs,  on  the  hips  or  in  the  groin, 
and  there  are  generally  several,  either  at  the 
same  time  or  followiog  one  another.  They 
seem  to  be  caused  by  fatigue  in  some  form; 
anxiety  of  mind,  fatigue  of  the  digestive  o> 
gans,  and  general  fatigue  of  body  or  of  mind, 
or  both.  By  lancing  the  pimple  on  its  first 
appearance  the  formation  of  the  boU  is  often 
prevented. — ^If  idlowed  to  mature  and  go  on 
to  suppuration,  the  process  may  be  hasten- 
ed by  the  application  of  warm  poultices. 
If  a  boil  be  very  quiescent,  the  application 
of  roasted  onions  will  be  useful;  or,  when 
matter  is  known  to  be  formed,  the  lancet 
may  be  used.  When  the  boil  is  allowed  to 
burst  of  itself  the  opening  is  nsually  small, 
and  the  core  remains  some  time  before  it  is  dis- 
charged, unless  it  be  drawn  out.  The  cavity 
soon  heals  after  the  core  is  discharged,  and  noth- 
ing is  required  but  simple  dressing.  In  some 
cases,  however,  the  sore  becomes  stationarv, 
and  stimulating  dressing  is  required.  A  litUe 
red  precipitate  ointment  applied  on  a  piece  of 
lint  or  linen  rag,  will  then  be  useful.  Five 
grains  of  red  precipitate  mixed  with  a  drachm 
of  basilicon,  forms  a  good  ointment  for  this  pur 
pose. 

BOIS-LE-DUO,  a  strongly  fortified  city  of 
Holland,  capital  of  North  Brabant,  situated  near 
the  junction  of  the  Dommel  and  the  Aa;  pop. 
22,000.    The  town,  which  is  about  6  miles  in 


circumference,  Is  handsome  and  well  built>  and 
traversed  by  several  canals,  crossed  by  upward 
of  80  brii^ges.  It  has  a  handsome  town-hall, 
7  churches,  including  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral, 
an  orphan  asylum,  a  grammar  school  (in  which 
Erasmus  was  for  some  time  a  pupil),  a  prison,  2 
hospitals,  an  arsenal  barracks  for  3,000  men, 
and  an  academy  of  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture.  Bois-le-Duc  was  founded  by  God- 
frey UL,  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1184.  The  <aty 
was  taken  by  the  French  under  Pichegru  in 
1794,  and  by  the  Prussians  under  BQlow  in 
1814. 

B0ISS£R£E,  Sulpiz,  a  German  architect 
and  antiquary,  bom  at  Cologne  in  1788,  died 
May  2, 1854.  A  iourney  to  Paris  in  1808  inspired 
him  with  the  idea  of  founding  a  collection  of 
old  German  specimens  of  art.  With  the  assist- 
ance of  his  brother  he  occupied  many  years  in 
the  work,  and  finaUy  procured  about  200  works 
of  German  artists,  which  went  by  the  name  of 
the  **  Boi8ser6e  collection,"  and  were  for  several 
years  deposited  in  a  gallery  at  Stuttgart  They 
were  subsequently  purchased  by  Kmg  Louis  of 
Bavaria. 

BOISSIEU,  Jean  Jacques  de,  a  French  en- 
mver,  born  Nov.  29.  1786,  at  Lyons,  died 
March  1,  1810.  He  first  devoted  himself  to 
painting ;  but  his  health  having  sufibred  by  t^e 
preparation  of  colors,  he  turned  to  engraving, 
and  especially  to  etching.  He  was  a  firiend  of 
Joseph  Vemet,  and  in  his  own  line  had  no 
rivat  His  etchings,  which  are  either  original 
compositions,  mostly  landscapes  fi*om  Italy,  or 
copies  of  Flemish  pictures,  may  be  ranked  next 
to  those  of  Rembrandt 

BOISSY  D*ANGLAS,  Francois  Antoinb  de, 
a  conspicuous  man  during  the  French  revolu- 
tion, bom  at  St  Jean  Ohambre,  Dec  8, 1766, 
died  in  Paris,  Oct  20, 1826.  His  family  were 
Protestant,  and  had  destined  him  to  the  bar; 
but  having  purchased  the  place  of  steward  to  the 
count  of  Provence,  afterward  Louis  XVIII., 
he  devoted  his  leisure  to  literary  pursuits.  He 
was  chosen  snccessivdy  a  member  of  the  states- 
general,  of  the  constituent  assembly,  and  of  the 
convention.  In  the  latter  body  he  for  t^e  most 
part  sided  with  the  Girondists.  He  voted  for 
the  trial  of  Louis  XYL,  for  his  captivity,  and 
for  his  deportation,  and  when  extreme  measurea 
were  determined  upon,  for  an  appeal  to  the  peo- 

gle  in  his  behalf,  and  for  the  postponement  of 
is  execution.  These  evidences  of  moderation 
rendered  him  suspected  to  the  committee  of 
public  safety,  and  throughout  the  reign  of  terror 
he  kept  himself  in  the  background ;  bnt  on  the 
downfall  of  Robespierre  he  reappeared  at  tiie 
tribune.  He  was  chosen  secretary  of  the  con- 
vention, Oct.  7,  1794,  and  2  months  later  a 
member  of  the  committee  of  public  sa^ty.  This 
committee  charged  him  with  the  duty  of  super- 
intending the  provisioning  of  Paris,  in  which 
position  he  was  denounc^  by  the  populace  as 
having  caused  the  scarcity  of  brtod  which  pre- 
vailed. In  the  dreadful  insurrections  of  April 
1  and  May  20,  1795,  his  situation  was  exceed- 


BOISTE 


BOKHABA 


437 


iQgly  diffiotdt  find  dangerous,  yet  he  acted  with 
firmness  and  judgment  He  presided  over  the 
deliberations  of  the  convention  daring  the 
tamultnary  scenes  in  which  the  head  of  F6raud 
was  paraded  on  a  pike,  and  Bonaparte  said  he 
was  frightened  ont  of  his  senses  by  the  frantic 
nproar;  bat  the  historians  relate  that  his  con- 
dact  exhibited  the  highest  degree  of  intrepidity. 
After  the  convention  passed  away,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  council  of  600,  and  sabseqnently 
president  Being  hostile  to  the  directory,  how- 
ever, he  was  aocased.  Sept  6,  1797,  of  corre- 
sponding with  a  royalist  dab,  and  condemned  to 
deportation.  For  2  years  he  was  concealed,  bat 
at  last  surrendered  himself  a  prisoner  at  the 
island  of  Ol^ron.  Bonaparte  released  him,  and 
in  1800  named  him  to  the  tribunate,  where  he  was 
chosen  president  in  1808.  The  following  year  he 
became  a  member  of  the  senate,  with  the  title 
of  count  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons 
in  1814,  he  gave  in  his  adheuon  to  the  new  gov- 
ernment, and  was  made  a  peer  of  France.  For 
the  meet  part  he  was  an  advocate  of  liberal 
measures,  although  he  managed,  like  so  many 
other  Frenchmen  of  those  times,  to  stand  weQ 
with  the  successive  governments.  His  leisure 
he  gave  up  to  literary  occupations,  and  was 
the  author  of  Msai  $ur  la  vie^  Us  kriU  et  le$ 
opinion  delf.de  MaU»1urhea^  in  3  vols.,  and 
A  Etudes  liUerairm  et  poStiqtles  d?un  vieillardf 
in  6  vols. 

BOIST£,  PiBBBE  Claude  YiorozBS,  author  of 
the  Dictionnaire  univenel  de  la  lanffue  Fran^ 
faiee^  bom  in  Paris,  1766,  died  at  Ivry,  April 
S^  1824.  Successively  an  advocate,  printer, 
and  man  <^  letters,  he  collected  a  wide  stock 
of  infonnation,  from  which  he  composed  his 
great  work,  which  appeared  in  1800,  and  passed 
through  ax  editions  during  the  lifetime  of  the 
aathor.  He  published  several  other  works  of 
less  importance,  but  had  not  the  talent  necessary 
for  original  composition.  The  first  edition  of 
hiB  Dietionnaire  uniMreeli  which  has  Justly 
been  called  the  dictionary  of  dictionaries  in  the 
FVenoh  tongue,  did  not  contain  all  that  it  now 
doea.  To  every  edition  the  author  added  some- 
thing—first  the  etymologies,  then  the  original 
aatborities,  finally  sentences  and  maxims,  or 
adect  thoughts,  where  each  word  is  employed. 

BOIVIN,  Mabib  Ankb  Yiotoibb  (Gillain), 
a  French  midwife,  upon  whom  a  diploma 
of  IL  D.  was  conferred  by  the  university  of 
Marburg,  noted  for  her  writings  on  obstetrics, 
bom  at  Montreuil,  April  9, 1773,  died  May  Id, 
1841.  She  was  educated  in  a  nunnery,  where 
by  her  talents  she  attracted  the  attention  of  the 
nster  of  Louis  Xy  I.,  Madame  Elisabeth.  When 
the  nunnery  where  she  was  placed  was  de* 
atroyed  in  the  course  of  the  revolution,  she 
spent  3  years  in  the  study  of  anatomy  and  mid- 
wifery* In  1797  she  married  an  emplov6  at 
Versailles,  of  the  name  of  Boivin,  but  on  beinff 
Idt  after  a  short  time  a  widow  with  a  child 
and  without  fortune,  she  undertook  the  office 
of  midwife  at  the  hospital  of  the  maternity, 
and,  in  1801^  was  iqppointed  chief  superintend- 


ent of  the  institution,  to  which,  in  accordance 
with  her  suggestion,  a  special  school  of  ac- 
couchement was  added  by  Ohaptal.  Her  Jfi^- 
morial  de  fart  dee  aceavcheinente.  published  in 
1824,  passed  through  several  editions.  The 
empress  of  Russia  invited  her  to  St  Peters- 
burg, but  she  declined. 

BOJADOB,  a  lofty  cape  of  western  Africa, 
in  lat  26°  12'  N.,  and  long.  14**  10'  W.  The 
coast  to  the  northward  is  very  dangerous,  be- 
ing perpetually  shrouded  in  mists,  and  strong 
currents  setting  in  toward  the  laud.  For  many 
years  this  cape  interrapted  the  progress  of  the 
early  Portuguese  navigators,  but  was  finally 
passed  by  Gilianes  in  1488. 

BOEER,  Gborob  Henby,  an  American  dra- 
matist and  poet,  born  in  Philadelphia  in  1828. 
He  graduated  at  Princeton  college  in  1842, 
studied  law,  but  did  not  pursue  the  profession, 
and,  in  1847,  published  the  ^*  Lesson  of  life  and 
other  Poems."  Next  he  wrote  '^Oalaynos,  a 
Tragedy,"  which  at  once  extended  his  reputa- 
tion in  this  country,  and  was  successfully  play- 
ed in  London.  His  next  production  was  *^Anne 
Boleyn,"  which  was  succeeded  by  the  tragedies 
of  ^^Leonor  de  Guzman"  and  ^^Francesca  da 
Rimini."  He  has  also  written  the  ^*  Betrothal," 
a  play,  the  ^*  Widow's  Marriage,"  a  comedy, 
and  several  minor  poems. 

BOKHABA,  or  Buchajkia,  a  state  of  central 
Asia  occupying  the  south-eastern  angle  of 
the  Tartarian  steppes  and  great  plains,  which 
commence  at  the  Hindoo  Koosh  and  extend  to 
the  Northern  ocean ;  pop.  estimated  from  1,- 
100,000  to  2,500,000.  The  country  lies  between 
lat  36°  and  41**  N.  and  long.  63°  and  70°  E.  in 
a  natural  basin,  enclosed  on  the  £.  by  the  Bolor 
Tagh  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Hindoo  Koosh  and 
Paropamisan  chain.  On  the  N.  it  is  bounded 
by  Toorkistan,  Khiva,  and  the  Eirgheez  steppes, 
while  the  Akh  Tagh  and  Kara  Tagh  (White  and 
Black  mountains),  spurs  of  the  Bolor  Tagh,  ex- 
tend into  the  country  for  some  distance.  The 
region  not  occupied  by  these  hills  is  of  day,  cov- 
ered with  moving  sand.  Owing  to  the  presence 
of  the  mountain  chains,  Bokhara  is  traversed  by 
several  rivers :  the  Amoo  (Oxus  or  Jihoon),  the 
Zer-af-shan  (or  Sogd),  the  Kashka,  and  the 
Balkh.  By  means  of  these  streams  and  of  a  la- 
borious system  of  irrigation,  the  lands  along  the 
rivers  are  redeemed,  and  are  made  to  yield  an 
abundant  harvest  of  cereals,  pulse,  fruits,  and 
the  vegetables  of  a  temperate  climate.  Gotten 
is  carefully  cultivated,  and  silk  is  obtained  in 
considerable  quantities,  the  worms  being  reared 
even  by  the  wandering  tribes.  Gk>ld,  salt,  alum, 
sulphur,  and  sal-ammoniac  are  found.  Timber 
is  brought  down  from  the  mountains.  Of  the 
native  animals,  sheep,  goats,  and  camels  are  the 
principal.  The  sheep  are  of  the  &t-tailed  breed ; 
a  peculiar  species  with  a  jet-black  curly  fleece  is 
ifound  in  Bokhara.  These  black  lamb-skins  are 
in  great  request  in  the  East,  especially  in  Per- 
sia. The  goats  of  Bokhara  are  a  variety  of  the 
Thibetan  and  Oashmerian  breeds,  and  yield  a 
bMutiful  shawl  hair.    The  Baotrian  camel,  with 


488 


BOKHABA 


BOLE 


S  hnmps,  is  mnch  used  for  carrying  burdens. 
The  wild  animals  are  of  the  smaller  species. 
Situated  in  the  centre  of  Asia,  and  exposed  to 
inyasions  from  all  sides,  the  inhabitants  are 
made  up  of  different  nations,  inolu<Ung  Afghans, 
Arabs,  Jews,  Oalmuoks,  Earakalpaks,  Kirgheez, 
Lesghians  from  the  Caucasus,  Mongols,  Persians, 
Taujiira,  Toorkomans,  and  Oozbelm.  The  Tau- 
jika  are  believed  to  represent  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants.  Thej  are  said  to  resemble  the 
Caucasian  type  most  nearly,  and  their  intellect- 
nal  activity  enables  them  almost  to  monopolize 
the  trades  and  manufactures.  The  Mohamme- 
dan is  the  prevalent  religion.  The  language  is 
Persian  or  Turkish,  the  Turkish  being  the  tongue 
of  the  Tartar  tribes.  Manufactures  of  cotton, 
silk,  furS)  leather,  and  metals  are  pursued  sue- 
cessfhlly.  Considerable  trade,  employing  not 
fewer  than  8,000  camels,  is  carried  on  between 
Bokhara  and  Rusma.  The  caravan  route  passes 
through  the  territories  of  the  khan  of  Khiva  to 
Astrakhan  and  Orenburg.  They  export  rhubarb, 
raw  cotton,  peltries,  dressed  and  raw,  fruits,  and 
shawl  goods ;  importing  metals,  mirrors,  iron  and 
steel  goods,  cloths,  and  various  other  articles. 
This  trade  is  liable  to  be  interrupted  by  the  dep- 
redations of  the  khan  of  Khiva  and  of  the  Kur- 
gheez.  But  the  Russians,  who  are  chiefly  inter- 
ested in  it,  have  lately  made  their  power  respect- 
ed in  these  regions,  and  the  terror  of  their  name 
is  felt  in  central  Asia  as  far  as  the  foot  of  the 
Hindoo  Koosh.  The  trade  between  western  Asia 
and  the  highlands  beyond  Kashgar  also  passes 
through  Bokhara,  and  employs  700  or  800  cam- 
els. A  trade  is  likewise  carried  on,  through 
the  mountain  passes,  with  Cabool  and  the 
Pui^aub,  but  the  predatory  habits  of  the 
mountaineers  make  it  very  uncertain. — ^The 
country  was  little,  if  at  ell,  known  to  the  an- 
cients, and  was  included  under  the  general 
name  of  Transoxiana  or  Sogdiana.  The  con- 
quests of  the  Mohammedans  extended  to  the 
root  of  the  Bolor  Tagh,  and  to  them  Bokhara 
was  known  as  the  Mawar-al-Nahr,  and  became 
fkmous  for  the  floods  of  light  and  knowledge 
which  radiated  from  its  great  seminaries  of 
learning  at  Samarcand,  Balkh,  and  Bokhara. 
Even  in  modem  times  these  cities  enjoy  consid- 
erable reputation  for  the  number  of  schools 
which  they  maintain.  The  education  is  very 
different  from  that  imparted  by  the  founders  of 
Arabic  literature.  It  consists  of  readings  from 
the  Koran  and  some  instruction  in  the  com- 
mentators on  the  sacred  volume,  and  in  meta- 
physical subtleties.  Writing  is  an  accomplish- 
ment. The  government  is  a  pure  despotism, 
subject,  in  conformity  with  Mohammedan  usage, 
to  some  controlling  power  in  the  priesthood. 
The  khan  of  Bokhara  may  be  stylea  the  only 
independent  sovereign  of  central  Asia ;  he  can 
bring  into  the  field  a  considerable  number  of 
fighting  men.  The  present  khan  is  unfavorably 
known  from  his  treatment  of  Col.  Stoddard  and 
Capt.  Conolly,  who  were  imprudently  sent  to 
him  by  the  British  during  the  troubles  in  Af- 
ghanistan, and  whom  he  detained  and  murder- 


ed. Wolff  describes  him  as  nothing  better  than 
the  lowest  of  his  savage  subjects. — ^The  coital, 
also  named  Bokhusa,  is  in  lat.  89^  48'  K..  long. 
640  26'  £ ;  pop.  estimated  at  70,000.  It  is  the 
residence  of  the  khan,  and  contains  his  palace, 
upward  of  800  mosques  and  medresseha,  14  car- 
avansaries for  the  accommodation  of  traveUera^ 
and  several  bazaars  of  great  extent 

BOKHARA,  Little,  a  subdivision  of  central 
Asia,  in  the  S.  W.  corner  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire, at  the  angle  formed  by  the  Bolor  Ta|^  and 
the  Thian-Shan  mountains.  It  is  also  known  as 
Khokan  and  Kashgar. 

BOL,  Fbbdinand,  a  pidnter  of  Holland,  bom 
at  Bort^  1610,  died  in  Amsterdam  in  1681.  He 
was  the  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  and  is  best  known 
by  his  admirable  portraits,  in  the  style  of  that 
master,  though  he  likewise  executed  several 
historioal  paintings  of  merit.  Many  of  his 
works  are  stiU  to  be  seen  at  Amsterdam. 
He  also  practised  etching  with  success. 

BOLAN  PASS,  a  defile  in  the  mountains  of 
Beloochistao,  on  the  route  between  the  lower 
Indus  and  the  table-land  of  Afghanistan.  It 
consists  of  a  succession  of  ravines,  the  aggregate 
length  of  which  is  about  65  miles.  Along  the 
course  of  the  Bolan  river,  which  rises  in  the 
mountains  at  an  elevation  of  4,494  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  flows  through  the  ravines  with  a 
rapid  descent,  a  wagon-road  passes  through 
this  defile  with  an  ascent  of  90  feet  per  mile. 
The  British  expedition  to  A%hanistan,  in  1889, 
spent  6  days,  from  March  16  to  21,  in  pas»ng 
through  this  defile. 

BOLBEC,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Lower  Seine,  on  the  B<^bec  river  and 
the  Paris  and  Havre  ndlway,  18  miles  £.  N.  £. 
of  the  city  of  Havre ;  pop.  in  1866,  8,664. 
Cotton  cloths  are  largely  manufactured ;  besidd 
which  it  has  woollen  and  linen  factories,  dye- 
works,  and  tanneries.  Bolbec  is  well  laid  out^ 
and  contiuns  many  handsome  residences. 

BOLDRE,  a  parish  of  England,  in  the  New 
Forest.  It  is  memorable  for  having  been  the 
scene  of  the  labors  of  the  Rev.  WilSam  Gilpin, 
author  of  *^  Forest  Scenery,'^  and  rector  of 
this  parish.  The  profits  derived  from  his 
talents  as  an  artist  and  a  writer  he  devoted  to 
the  endowment  of  3  schools  in  this  place. 

BOLE  (Gr.  0tt>Xor,  a  mass),  an  argillaceous 
earthy  mineral  of  various  colors,  as  yellow, 
black,  brown,  and  bright  red,  all  derived  from 
oxide  of  iron.  The  substance  is  probably  dis- 
integrated basalt  It  is  an  earthy  substance, 
absorbs  water  rapidly,  and  falls  to  powder.  It 
was  formerly  employed  as  a  medicine  for  its 
absorbent,  astringent,  and  tonic  properties ;  the 
last  due,  no  doubt,  only  to  tiie  iron  in  its  compo- 
sition. It  is  still  used  in  India  in  medicine,  and 
in  Europe  for  giving  a  color  to  anchovies,  and 
also  to  tooth-powders.  It  is  also  a  medidne 
in  veterinary  practice.  Analysis  shows  it  to 
be  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  with  varying 
proportions  of  oxide  of  iron,  and  very  small 
quantities  of  lime  and  magnesia;  a  composi- 
tion rendering  it  better  adapted  to  the  medum- 


BOLERO 


B0LING5R0KE 


439 


kal  pfurpoaes  to  which  it  is  applied  than  to 
medicinai  uses,  or  evea  to  satisfying  the  pangs 
of  hunger,  as  is  practised  by  some  of  the  native 
Indiana  of  South  America.  The  Japanese, 
however,  eat  it  for  another  purpose,  which  it 
may  answer  very  well ;  this  is  to  induce  a  thin 
and  spare  habit  of  the  body.  Armenian  bole 
is  much  used  as  a  tooth-powder.  In  Germany 
bole  is  calcined,  washed,  and  ground  for  a 
painL  The  paint  known  as  sienna,  or  burnt 
sienna,  is  a  preparation  of  a  chestnut-brown 
▼ariety  from  Sienna  in  Italy.  It  is  fashioned 
into  pipes  by  the  North  American  Indians, 
Turks,  and  Germans. 

BOLERO,  a  popuhir  Spanish  dance,  supposed 
to  be  of  Moorish  origin,  like  the  fandango.  It 
is  aoeompanied  with  songs,  guitar,  and  casta- 
nets, and,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Oadiz,  with 
full  orchestra.  The  dancers  represent  by  their 
pantomime  the  most  conflicting  emotions  of  the 
noman  heart,  from  the  first  blushing  dawn  of 
loTe  to  the  most  vehement  bursts  of  pasuon. 

BOLETN,  Akvb.    See  Anke  Bolbtn. 

BOLGRAD,  a  Russian  town  situated  on  the 
river  Yalpookh,  in  the  Lower  Budjak,  colonial 
district  of  Bessarabia,  celebrated  for  the  fre- 
quent mention  made  of  it  in  the  discussions 
relative  to  the  territorial  difficulties  of  Russia 
with  Turkey,  in  the  treaty  of  Paris  of  1856. 
In  1651  the  population  of  the  town  was  esti- 
mated at  8,805,  chiefly  Bulgarians  or  of  Bulga- 
rian origin,  and  the  number  of  houses,  almost 
all  of  stone,  1,037.  The  distance  from  Odessa 
18  162  miles,  and  from  Ismail,  80  miles. 

BOLT,  a  town  of  Anatolia,  in  Asiatic  Turkey, 
in  lat  40"*  85'  N.,  long.  81'>  10'  E.  It  is  the 
capital  of  a  district,  and  contains  about  1,000 
houses.  The  ruins  of  ancient  Hadrianopolis  are 
in  the  vicinity. 

BOLINGBROKE,  Henbt  St.  John,  viscount, 
a  famous  English  statesman,  wit,  and  man  of 
letters,  bom  at  Battersea,  London,  Oct.  1, 1678, 
died  Dec.  12, 1751.  He  was  of  an  ancient  and 
noble  family ;  his  father  having  been  Sir  Heniy 
St.  John,  bart.,  and  afterward  viscount,  and  his 
mother,  the  daughter  of  Robert  Rich,  earl  of 
Warwick.  His  early  education  was  managed  by 
his  mother,  on  strict  puritanical  principles, 
against  the  rigidity  of  which  he  appears  soon 
to  have  rebelled.  After  attending  school 
at  Eton,  he  proceeded  to  Christ  Ohurdi  college 
at  Oxford,  where  he  soon  distinguished  himself 
by  the  brilliancy  of  his  parts,  rather  than  by 
his  diligence  and  application.  On  leaving  the 
university,  he  is  supposed  to  have  spnt  some 
years  in  travel  upon  the  continent,  although  he 
has  left  no  record  of  this  period.  Returning 
to  En^and,  he  was  married,  in  1700,  to  Fran- 
ces»  the  daughter  of  Sir  Henry  Winchcomb; 
bat  in  spite  of  the  beauty  of  her  person,  her 
accomplishments,  and  the  possession  of  a  large 
fortune,  he  did  not  continue  on  good  terms 
with  her,  and  they  were  speedily  separated. 
St  John's  grace  of  manners,  his  varied  at- 
tainments, and  the  fascinating  arts  of  his  con- 
venation,  rendered  him  a  &vorite  and  a  leader 


in  the  fashionable  circles  of  London,  where  his 
moral  principles,  however,  were  not  stringent 
enough  to  enable  him  to  resbt  thp  seductions 
of  such  society.  Before  he  was  25  years  of 
age,  he  was  a  somewhat  notorious  libertine, 
and  wasted,  in  the  indulgence  of  his  passions, 
the  tune  which  he  ought  to  have  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  his  quick  and  dazzling  abilities. 
His  marriage,  which  had  been  promoted  by  his 
friends  in  the  hope  of  weaning  him  from  more 
miscellaneous  connections,  had  proved  no  check 
to  the  undisciplined  impulses  of  his  nature.  In 
a  similar  hope  of  interesting  him  in  noble  and 
honorable  pursuits,  his  father  retired  from  the 
position  of  representative  in  parliament  for  the 
borough  of  Wotton  Basset,  which  was  trans- 
ferred to  him,  and  thus  brought  him  into  con- 
spicuous public  life.  The  tories,  under  the 
lead  of  Rocheeter  and  Godolphin,  were  then 
in  power,  and  St  John  at  once  attached  him- 
self to  them.  In  1704  he  entered  the  ministry 
as  secretary  at  war,  and  for  4  years  he  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  that  office.  When  Go- 
dolphin  became  a  whig,  and  he  and  Marlborough 
formed  a  new  ministry,  St.  John  retired  to  the 
conntiy,  and  devoted  himself  to  study.  Two 
years  later,  the  tories  triumphed,  and  he  was 
made  secretary  of  state,  in  the  department  of 
foreign  affiurs.  He  continued  in  the  admin- 
istration until  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
in  1714,  having  taken  an  active  part  in  the 
negotiation  of  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  on  which 
he  prided  himself,  although  that  measure 
was  regarded  as  an  inglorious  one  for  his 
country,  and  had  been  strenuously  opposed 
throughout)  not  only  by  the  whigs,  the  natural 
opposition,  but  by  those  eminent  generals,  Marl- 
borough and  Eugene,  and  by  Holland  and  other 
European  powers.  Soon  after  the  conclusion 
of  the  peace,  a  violent  dissension  broke  out  be- 
tween St.  John  and  his  old  friend  Harley,  then 
lord  high  treasurer  and  earl  of  Oxford,  which 
Dean  Swift,  the  friend  of  both,  sought  in  vam 
to  allav,  but  which  did  not  terminate  till  the 
queen  nad  dismissed  Oxford,  and  made  St.  John 
her  prime  minister.  His  elevation  took  place 
July  27,  1714,  while,  unfortunately  for  him, 
the  queen  died  in  August  of  the  same  year, — 
a  litde  less  than  a  week  afterward.  The 
advent  of  George  I.  was  the  success  of  the 
whigs,  and  as  St.  John  was  more  than  suspect- 
ed of  having  plotted  for  the  return  of  the 
Stuart  family  to  the  throne,  he  could  no  longer 
hope  for  favor.  Having  been  called  to  the 
house  of  lords,  in  1712,  with  the  title  of  Vis- 
count Bolingbroke,  he  made  his  appearance 
there,  after  his  dismissal  from  office,  for  a  short 
while;  but  the  menacing  attitude  assumed  by 
the  friends  of  the  Hanover  famOy  in  the  house 
of  commons  in  1715,  caused  him  alarm,  and 
he  fled  in  disguise  to  France.  This  occurred 
March  27  of  that  year,  and  Aug.  6  fol- 
lowing he  was  impeached  by  Walpole  at  the 
bur  of  the  house  of  lords,  for  high  treason  and 
other  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  and  not  ap- 
pearing, within  the  time  specified,  to  reply  to 


440 


BOLINGBROEE 


BOLIVAR  Y  POOTE 


the  chargefl,  was  formally  attainted.  Mean- 
while, he  engaged  in  the  service  of  James  III., 
the  pretender,  as  he  was  called,  who  made  him 
his  prime  minister,  and  used  him  in  soliciting 
the  assistance  of  the  French  court  in  the  at- 
tempt ahout  to  be  made  to  revive  the  prostrate 
fortunes  of  the  Stuarts.  Bolingbroke  contin- 
ued in  the  active  management  of  his  affairs  in 
France  after  the  prince  set  out  upon  his  ezpe« 
dition  to  effect  a  rising  in  Scotland.  The  mis- 
carriage of  that  scheme,  and  the  dissatisfaction 
of  James  with  his  principal  secretarv,  caused 
his  sudden  discharge  from  his  employment; 
when,  with  a  versatility  of  principle  quite  on  a 
level  with  the  pkusibility  of  his  manner,  he 
sought  a  reconciliation  with  the  Hanoverian 
party.  Walpole,  however,  apprehensive  of  his 
influence  in  the  event  of  his  return  to  Endbemd, 
procured  the  prolongation  of  his  exile.  For  7 
years  he  remained  in  banishment,  on  the  conti- 
nent, residing  principally  at  La  Source,  an  es- 
tate he  owned  near  Orleans,  and  devoting  him- 
self to  belles-lettres,  and  an  active  correspond- 
ence witii  Pope,  Swift,  and  other  celebrated 
literary  contemporaries.  His  wife  dying  in 
1718,  he  was  privately  married  2  years  later  to 
the  widow  of  the  marquis  de  Yillette,  a  niece 
of  the  notorious  Madame  de  Maintenon.  It 
was  chiefly  through  her  instrumentality,  in 
bribing  the  duchess  of  Kendal,  a  mistress  of 
King  George,  with  the  sum  of  £11,000,  that  he 
succeeded  in  getting  permission  to  return  to 
his  own  country  in  tibe  year  1728.  But  he  did 
not  resume  a  permanent  residence  there  till 
1724,  when,  by  the  judicious  use  of  a  large 
fortune,  acquired  by  tampering  in  Law's  Missis- 
sippi bubble,  he  effected  the  restoration  of  his 
property.  The  act  was  signed  by  the  king 
May  81, 1725.  His  restoration  to  civil  rights 
was  not  granted  at  the  same  time,  and  he  found 
himself  excluded  from  his  seat  in  the  house 
of  lords.  This  denial  set  his  pen  in  motion 
against  the  ministry,  so  that  for  some  years 
his  political  papers  in  the  "  Oraftsman,''  under 
the  titles  of  "An  Occasional  Writer,"  and 
"  Humphrey  Oldoastle,"  kept  the  town  alive. 
His  "Letters  upon  English  History,"  and  his 
"Dissertation  upon  Parties,"  subsequently  col- 
lected and  published  as  separate  works,  formed 
parts  of  this  series.  At  the  same  time  he  con- 
tinued to  write,  though  not  to  publish,  on 
metaphysical  and  moral  subjects.  Convinced, 
however,  of  the  futility  of  his  attack  upon  tJie 

fovemment,  and  not  a  little  frightened,  per- 
aps,  by  a  surreptitious  issue  of  his  former 
letters  to  the  secretary  of  the  pretender,  he 

Sutted  England  once  more  for  France,  in  1785. 
e  remained  abroad  till  the  death  of  his  father 
in  1742,  when  he  returned  to  takepossession 
of  the  family  estate  at  Battersea.  Tie  fall  of 
Walpole  that  same  year  brought  him  hopes  of 
recovering  his  citizenship,  but  it  did  not  have 
that  effect,  nor  did  he  ever  again  enter  into 
political  life.  He  passed  his  leisure  in  the  pre- 
paration of  his  literary  works,  and  in  inter- 
course with  his  philosophic  and  literary  Menda^ 


among  whom  were  numbered  many  of  tlie 
most  eminent  men  then  living.  On  his  death, 
in  1751,  he  bequeathed  his  manuscripts  and 
works  to  David  Mallet,  who  published  a  com- 
plete edition  of  them^  in  5  vols.  4to,  in  1754. 
A  ne  wedition,  with  a  life  by  Goldsmith,  appeared 
in  1809,  in  8  vols.  8vo.  Among  the  most  notewor- 
thy of  bis  writings,  beside  those  already  notioed, 
are  '^  The  Idea  of  a  Patriot  King,"  a  "  Letter  on 
the  Spirit  of  Patriotism,"  "Some  Reflections  on 
the  Present  State  of  the  Nation,"  "  Letters  on  the 
Study  and  the  Use  of  History,"  and  "  Oonoeming 
Authority  in  Matters  of  Religion."  They  are 
written  in  a  fluent,  flexible,  and  eloquent  style, 
combining  a  certain  scholastic  refinement  with 
the  easy  and  natural  manner  of  a  man  of  the 
world,  and  mingling  an  apparently  profound 
philosophy  with  a  sprightly  and  careless  wiL 
Nothing  can  be  more  attractive,  especially  to  a 
young  and  immature  mind,  than  these  are 
when  they  are  first  read,  but  a  closer  funiliar- 
ity  with  them  soon  convinces  the  reader  that 
the  rhetoric  is  artificial,  the  sentiments  affected, 
the  learning  a  great  deal  of  it  borrowed^and 
the  thought  intrinsically  unimportant  With 
a  marvellous  capacity  for  appropriating  the 
knowledge  of  otliers,  so  &r  as  it  sait^  his 
purposes,  he  possessed  also  a  certain  FMndi 
elegance  and  clearness  in  setting  it  forth,  which 
gave  not  only  a  momentary  charm,  but  a  sem- 
blance of  profundity,  to  his  speculations.  Yet^ 
in  spite  of  their  more  serious  defects,  the  writ- 
ings of  Bolingbroke  for  a  long  time  infla»ieed 
the  tone  of  thought,  as  well  as  the  manner  of 
writing,  of  his  age;  and  though  they  are  not 
destined  to  be  much  read  hereafter,  they  will 
ever  occupy  a  distinguished  place  in  the  literaiy 
history  of  that  epoch.  As  an  orator,  Boling- 
broke held  a  high  rank,  although  his  reputation 
rests  chiefly  on  tradition,  and  no  complete 
specimen  of  his  eloquence  is  now  extant. 

BOLIVAR,  a  western  county  of  Mississippi, 
with  an  area  of  about  800  sq.  m.  It  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  MissisBlppi  river  from  Arkansaa 
on  the  west)  and  consists  mainly  of  swamp  land, 
part  of  which  is  subject  to  frequent  inundations. 
The  climate  of  the  lowlands  is  conndered  on- 
heidthy,  and  extensive  and  highly  fertile  timcta 
are  consequently  left  nncultlviUed.  In  1860  the 
county  produced  4,728  bales  of  cotton,  107,- 
075  bushels  of  corn,  and  29,066  of  sweet  pota- 
toes. Capital,  Bolivia.  Pop.  in  1850,  2,577, 
of  whom  2,180  were  davea 

BOLIVAR  Y  PONTE,  Simon,  the  "libera- 
tor*' of  Colombia,  born  at  Caracas,  July  24^ 
1798,  died  at  San  Pedro,  near  Santa  Mar^ 
tha,  Dec.  17,  1830.  He  was  the  son  of  one 
of  the  famUias  Mantuanaa^  which,  at  the  time 
of  the  Spanish  supremacy,  constituted  the  Creole 
nobility  in  Venezuela.  In  compliance  with  the 
custom  of  wealthy  Americans  of  those  times, 
at  the  early  age  of  14  he  was  sent  to  Europe. 
From  Spain  he  passed  to  France,  and  resided  for 
some  years  in  raris.  In  1802  he  married  in 
Madrid,  and  returned  to  Venezuela,  where  his 
wife  died  suddenly  of  yellow  fever.  After  this  he 


BOLIVAR  Y  PONTE 


441 


visited  Europe  a  ieoond  timef  and  was  present 
at  Napoleon's  coronation  as  emperor,  in  1804^ 
and  at  his  assamption  of  the  iron  crown  of  Lorn- 
bardj,  in  1605.  in  1809  he  returned  home,  and 
despite  the  importunities  of  Joseph  Felix  Ribas, 
his  cousin,  he  declined  to  join  in  the  revolution 
which  broke  out  at  Caracas,  April  19,  1810 ; 
but,  after  the  event,  he  accepted  a  mission  to 
London  to  purchase  arms  and  solicit  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Britidi  government.  Apparently 
weU  received  by  the  marquis  of  Wellesley,  then 
secretary  for  foreign  affairs,  he  obtained  nothing 
beyond  the  liberty  to  export  arras  for  ready 
cash  with  the  payment  of  heavy  duties  upon 
them.*  On  his  return  from  London,  he  again 
withdrew  to  private  life,  until,  Sept.  1811,  he 
was  prevailed  upon  by  Gen.  Miranda,  then  com* 
mander-in-chief  of  the  insurgent  land  and  sea 
forces,  to  accept  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel 
in  the  staff,  and  the  command  of  Puerto  Gabello, 
the  strongest  fortress  of  Venezuela.  The  Span* 
ish  prisoners  of  war,  whom  Miranda  used  regu- 
larly to  send  to  Puerto  Oabello,  to  be  confined 
in  the  citadel,  having  succeeded  in  overcoming 
their  guards  by  surprise,  and  in  seizing  the 
citadel,  Bolivar,  although  they  were  unarmed, 
while  he  had  a  numerous  garrison  and  large 
magazines,  embarked  precipitately  in  the  night, 
with  8  of  his  officers,  without  giving  notice  to 
hisown  troops,  arrived  at  daybreak  at  LaGuayra, 
and  retired  to  his  estate  at  San  Mateo.  On  be- 
coming aware  of  their  commander's  flight,  the 
garrison  retired  in  good  order  from  the  place, 
which  was  immediatelv  occupied  by  the  Span- 
iards under  Monteverds.  This  event  turned  the 
scale  in  £ftvor  of  Spain,  and  obliged  Muranda,  on 
the  authority  of  the  congress,  to  sign  the  treaty 
of  Yittoria,  July  26,  1812,  which  restored 
Venezuela  to  the  Spanish  rule.  On  July  80 
MirandaarrivedatLaGuayra,  where  he  intended 
to  embark  on  board  an  English  vessel.  On  his 
visit  to  the  commander  of  the  place,  Col.  Man- 
uel Maria  Gasas,  he  met  with  a  numerous  com- 
pany, among  whom  were  Don  Miguel  Pef&a  and 
Simon  Bolivar,  who  persuaded  him  to  stay,  for 
one  night  at  least,  in  Oasas's  house.  At  2  o*dock 
in  the  morning,  when  Miranda  was  soundly 
deeping,  Casas,  Pefla,  and  Bolivar  entered  his 
room,  with  4  armed  soldiers,  cautiously  seized 
his  sword  and  pistol,  then  awakened  him,  ab- 
ruptly told  him  to  rise  and  dress  himself,  put 
him  into  irons,  and  had  him  finally  surrendered 
to  Monteverde,  who  dispatdied  him  to  Cadiz, 
where,  after  some  years'  captivity,  he  died  in 
irons.  This  act,  committed  on  the  pretext  that 
Miranda  had  betrayed  his  country  by  tlie  capit- 
ulation of  Yittoria,  procured  for  Bolivar  Monte- 
yerde's  peculiar  favor,  so  that  when  he  demand- 
ed his  passport^  Monteverde  declared  *^Gol.  Bo- 
livar's request  should  be  complied  with,  as  a 
reward  for  his  having  served  the  king  of  Spain 
by  delivering  up  Miranda."  He  was  thus  allowed 
to  sail  for  Oura^oa,  where  he  spent  6  weeks, 
and  proceeded,  in  company  with  his  cousin 
Bibaa,  to  the  little  republic  or  Gartliagena.  Pre- 
TioQB  to  their  arrival,  a  great  number  of  soldiers, 


who  had  served  under  Gen.  Miranda,  had  fled 
to  Oarthagena.  Ribas  proposed  to  them  to  un- 
dertake an  expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in 
Venezuela,  and  to  accept  Bolivar  as  their  com- 
mander-in-chief. The  former  proposition  they 
embraced  eagerly ;  to  the  latter  they  demurred, 
but  at  last  yielded,  on  the  condition  of  Ribas 
being  the  second  in  command.  Manuel  Rodriguez 
Torrioes,  the  president  of  the  republic  of  Oar- 
thagena, added  to  the  800  soldiers  thus  enlisted 
under  Bolivan  500  men  under  the  command  of 
his  cousin,  Manuel  Oastillo.  The  expedition 
started  in  the  beginning  of  Jan.  1818.  Dissen- 
sions as  to  the  supreme  command  breaking  out 
between  Bolivar  and  Oastillo,  the  latter  suddenly 
decamped  with  his  grenadiers.  Bolivar,  on  his 
part,  proposed  to  follow  Oastillo^s  example,  and 
return  to  Oarthagena,  but  Ribas  persuaaed  him 
at  length  to  pursue  his  course  at  least  as  far  as 
Bogota,  at  that  time  the  seat  of  the  congress  of 
New  Granada.  They  were  well  received,  sup- 
ported in  every  way,  and  were  both  made  gen- 
erals by  the  congress,  and,  after  having  divided 
their  little  array  into  2  columns,  they  marched  by 
different  routes  upon  Oaracas.  The  further  they 
advanced,  the  stronger  grew  their  resources;  the 
cruel  excesses  of  the  Spaniards  acting  every- 
where as  the  recruiting  sergeants  for  the  array 
of  the  independents.  The  power  of  resistance 
on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards  ^as  broken, 
partly  by  the  circumstance  of  i  of  their  army 
being  composed  of  natives,  who  bolted  on  every 
encounter  to  the  opposite  ranks,  partly  by  the 
cowardice  of  such  generals  as  Tiscar,  Oaglgal, 
and  Fierro,  who,  on  every  occasion,  deserted 
their  own  troops.  Thus  it  happened  that  San 
lago  Marifio,  an  ignorant  youth,  had  con- 
trived to  dislodge  the  Spaniards  from  the  prov- 
inces of  Ouraana  and  Barcelona,  at  the  very 
time  that  Bolivar  was  advancing  through  the 
western  provinces.  The  only  serious  resist-' 
ance,  on  tne  part  of  the  Spaniards,  was  directed 
against  the  column  of  Ribas,  who,  however, 
routed  Gen.  .Monteverde  at  Lostagnanes,  and 
forced  him  to  shut  himself  up  in  Puerto  Oa* 
hello  with  the  remainder  of  his  troops.  On 
hearing  of  Bolivar's  approach.  Gen.  Fierro,  the 
governor  of  Oaracas^  sent  deputies  to  propose 
a  capitulation,  which  was  concluded  at  Yitto- 
ria; but  Fierro,  struck  by  a  sudden  panic,  and 
not  expecting  the  return  of  his  own  emissaries, 
secretly  decamped  in  the  night,  leaving  more 
than  1,600  Spaniards  at  the  discretion  of  the 
enemy.  Bolivar  was  now  honored  with  a  pub- 
lic triumph.  Standing  in  a  triumphal  car, 
drawn  by  12  young  l^ies,  dressed  in  white, 
adorned  with  the  national  colors,  and  all  se- 
lected from  the  first  families  of  Oaracas,  Bol- 
ivar, bareheaded,  in  full  uniform,  and  wielding 
a  small  baton  in  his  hand,  was,  in  about  half  an 
hour,  dragged  from  the  entrance  of  the  city  to 
his  residence.  Having  proclaimed  himself  ^^  dic- 
tator and  liberator  of  the  western  provinces  of 
Venezuela^' — ^Marino  had  assumed  the  title 
of  "dictator  of  the  eastern  provinces" — he 
created  "the  order  of  the  liberator,"  estab- 


442 


BOLIVAR  Y  PONTE 


lished  a  cboioe  corps  of  troops  tinder  the  name 
of  his  body-guard,  and  surrounded  himself  with 
the  show  of  a  court  But,  like  most  of  his 
countrymen,  he  was  averse  to  any  prolonged 
exertion,  and  his  dictatorship  soon  proved  a 
military  anarchy,  leaving  the  most  important 
affairs  in  the  hands  of  favorites,  wbo  squandered 
the  finances  of  the  country,  and  then  resorted 
to  odious  means  in  order  to  restore  them.  The 
new  enthusiasm  of  the  people  was  thus  turned 
to  dissatisfaction,  and  the  scattered  forces  of 
the  enemy  were  allowed  to  recover.  While,  in 
the  beginning  of  Aug.  1818,  Monteverde  was 
shut  np  in  the  fortress  of  Puerto  Cabello,  and 
the  Spanish  army  reduced  to  the  possession  of 
a  small  strip  of  Jaod  in  the  north-western  part 
of  Venezuela,  3  months  later,  in  December^  the 
liberator^s  prestige  was  gone,  and  Caracas  itself 
threatened,  by  the  sudden  appearance  in  its 
neighborhood  of  the  victorious  Spaniards  under 
Boves.  To  strengthen  his  tottering  power. 
Bolivar  assembled,  Jan.  1,  1814,  a  junta  of 
the  most  influential  inhabitants  of  Caracas,  de- 
claring himself  to  be  unwilling  any  longer  to 
bear  the  burden  of  dictatorship.  Hurtado  Men- 
doza,  on  the  other  hand,  argued,  in  a  long  ora- 
tion, "the  necessity  of  leaving  the  supreme 
power  in  the  hands  of  Gen.  Bolivar,  unUl  the 
congress  of  New  Granada  could  meet,  and 
Venezuela  be  united  under  one  government." 
This  proposal  was  accepted,  and  the  dictator- 
ship was  thus  invested  with  some  sort  of  legal 
sanction.  The  war  with  the  Spaniards  was, 
for  some  time,  carried  on  in  a  series  of  small 
actions,  with  no  decisive  advantage  to  either  of 
the  contending  parties.  In  June,  1814,  Bovea 
marched  with  his  united  forces  from  Calabozo  on 
La  Puerta,  where  the  two  dictators,  Bolivar  and 
Marino,  had  formed  a  junction,  met  them,  and 
ordered  an  immediate  attack.  After  some  re- 
sistance, Bolivar  fled  toward  Caracas,  while  Ma- 
rifio  disappeared  in  the  direction  of  Cumana. 
Puerto  Cabello  and  Valencia  fell  into  the  hands 
of  Boves^  who  then  detached  2  columns  (1  of 
them  under  the  command  of  Col.  Gonzales),  by 
different  roads,  upon  Caracas.  Ribas  tried 
in  vain  to  oppose  the  advance  of  Gonzales.  On 
the  surrender  of  Caracas  to  (jonzales,  July  17, 
1814r,  Bolivar  evacuated  La  Guayra,  ordered  the 
vessels  lying  in  the  harbor  of  that  town  to  saU 
for  Cumana,  and  retreated  with  the  remainder  of 
his  troops  upon  Barcelona.  After  a  defeat  in- 
flicted on  the  insurgents  by  Boves,  Aug.  8, 1814, 
at  Anguita,  Bolivar  left  his  troops  the  same 
night  secretly  to  hasten,  through  by-roads,  to 
Cumana,  where,  despite  the  angry  protests  of 
Bibas,  he  at  once  embarked  on  board  the  Bi- 
anchi,  together  with  lifarifio  and  some  other 
officers.  If  Ribas,  Paez,  and  other  generals 
had  followed  the  dictators  in  their  flight,  every 
thing  would  have  been  lost  Treated  by  Gren. 
Arismendi,  on  their  arrival  at  Juan  Griego,  in 
the  island  of  Margarita,  as  deserters,  and  ordered 
to  depart,  they  sailed  for  Corupano,  whence, 
meeting  with  a  similar  reception  on  the  part  of 
CoL  Bermcdez,  they  steered  toward  Cartha- 


gena.  There,  to  palliate  their  flight,  they  pnb- 
lished  a  justificatory  memoir,  in  hif^-sounding 
phraseology.  Having  joined  a  plot  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  government  of  Carthagena, 
Bolivar  had  to  leave  that  little  republic,  and 
pi*oceeded  to  Tunja,  where  the  congres^s  of  the 
federalist  republic  of  New  Granada  was  sitting. 
At  that  time  the  province  of  Cundinamarca 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  independent  provinces 
which  refused  to  adopt  the  Granadian  federal 
compact,  while  Quito,  Paste,  Santa  Martha, 
and  other  provinces,  still  remiuned  in  the  power 
of  the  Spaniards.  Bolivar,  who  arrived  at 
Tunja  Nov.  22,  1814,  was  created  by  the  con- 
gress commander-in-chief  of  the  federalist  forces, 
and  received  the  double  mission  of  forcing  the 
president  of  the  province  of  Cundinamarca  to 
acknowledge  the  authority  of  the  congress,  and 
of  then  marching  against  Santa  Martha,  the 
only  fortified  seaport  the  Spaniards  stiU  re- 
tuned  in  New  Granada.  The  first  point  was 
easily  carried,  Bogota,  the  capital  of  the  disaf- 
fected province,  being  a  defenceless  town.  In 
spite  of  its  capitulation,  Bolivar  allowed  it  to 
be  sacked  during  48  hours  by  his  troops.  At 
Santa  Martha,  the  Spanish  general  Montalvo, 
having  a  feeble  garrison  of  less  than  200  men, 
and  a  fortress  in  a  miserable  state  of  defence, 
had  already  bespoken  a  French  vessel,  in  order 
to  secure  his  own  fiight,  while  the  inhabitants 
of  the  town  sent  word  to  Bolivar  that  on  his 
appearance  they  would  open  the  gates  and  drive 
out  the  garrison.  But  instead  of  marching,  as 
he  was  ordered  by  the  congress,  against  the 
Spaniards  at  Santa  Martha,  he  indulged  his 
rancor  agfunst  Castillo,  the  commander  of  Car- 
thagena,  took  upon  himself  to  lead  his  troops 
against  the  latter  town,  which  constituted  an 
integral  part  of  the  federal  republic  Beaten 
back,  he  encamped  upon  La  Papa,  a  krge  hill, 
about  gun-shot  distance  from  Carthagena,  and 
established  a  single  small  cannon  as  a  battery 
against  a  place  provided  with  about  80  guns. 
He  afterward  converted  the  siege  into  a  block- 
ade, which  lasted  till  the  beginning  of  May 
without  any  other  result  than  tliat  of  reducing 
his  army,  by  desertion  and  malady,  from  2,400 
men  to  about  700.  Meanwhile  a  great  Spanish 
expedition  from  Cadiz  had  arrived,  March  25, 
1815,  under  Gen.  Morillo,  at  the  island  of  Mar- 
garite,  and  had  been  able  to  throw  powerful  re- 
enforcements  into  Santa  Martha,  and  soon  after 
to  take  Carthagena  itself.  Previously,  how- 
ever, Bolivar  hwl  embarked  for  Jamaica,  May 
10, 1815,  with  about  a  dozen  of  his  officers^  on 
an  armed  English  brig.  Having  arrived  at  the 
place  of  refuge,  he  again  pnbltshed  a  proo- 
lanoation,  representing  himself  as  the  victim  of 
some  secret  enemy  or  faction,  and  defen^ng 
his  flight  before  the  approaching  Spaniards  as  a 
resignation  of  command  out  of  deference  for 
the  public  peace.  Daring  his  8  months' 
stay  at  Kingston,  the  generals  he  had  left 
in  Venezuela,  and  Gen.  Arismendi  in  the  isl- 
and of  Margarita,  stanchly  held  their  ground 
against  the  Spanish  arms.     But  Biba%  from 


BOUVAE  T  PONTE 


443 


whom  Bolivar  had  derived  his  reputation, 
having  been  shot  by  the  Spaniards  after  the 
oaptore  of  Maturin,  there  appeared  in  his  stead 
another  man  on  tlie  stage,  of  still  greater  abili- 
ties, who,  being  as  a  foreigner  nnable  to  play 
an  independent  part  in  the  South  Amenoan 
revolution,  finally  resolved  to  act  under  Bolivar. 
This  was  Louis  Brion.  To  bring  aid  to  the 
revolutionists,  he  had  sailed  from  London  for 
Oarthagena  with  a  corvette  of  24  guns,  equipped 
in  great  part  at  his  own  expense,  with  14,000 
stand  of  arms  and  a  great  quantity  of  military 
stores.  Arriving  too  late  to  be  useful  in  that 
quarter,  he  redmbarked  for  Oayes,  in  Hayti, 
whither  many  emigrant  patriots  had  repaired 
after  the  surrender  of  Carthagena.  Bolivar, 
meanwhile,  had  also  departed  from  Kingston 
to  Porte  au  Prinoe,  where,  on  his  promise  of 
emancipating  the  slaves,  Potion,  the  president 
of  Hayti,  offered  him  large  euppliee  for  a  new 
expedition  against  the  Spaniards  in  Venezuela, 
At  Oayes  he  met  Brion  and  the  other  emigrants, 
and  in  a  general  meeting  proposed  himself  as 
the  chief  of  the  new  expedition,  on  the  condi- 
tion of  uniting  the  civil  and  military  power  in 
his  person  until  the  assembling  of  a  general 
oongress.  The  minority  accepting  his  terms^ 
the  expedition  sailed  April  16, 1816,  with  him 
as  its  commander  and  Brion  as  its  admiral. 
At  Margarita  the  former  succeeded  in  winning 
over  Arismendif  tlie  commander  of  the  islan^ 
in  which  he  had  reduced  the  Spaniards  to  the 
mngle  spot  of  Pampatar.  On  Bolivar's  formal 
promise  to  convoke  a  national  congress  at  Yen- 
esnela,  as  soon  as  he  should  be  master  of  the 
oountiy,  Arismendi  summoned  a  junta  in  the 
cathedral  of  La  Villa  del  Norte,  and  publicly 
proclaimed  him  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
republics  of  Venezuela  and  New  Granada.  On 
ICay  81, 1816,  Bolivar  landed  at  Oarupano,  but 
did  not  dare  prevent  Marifio  and  Piar  from 
aeparating  from  him,  and  carrying  on  a  war 
against  Gumana  under  their  own  auspices, 
w  eakened  by  this  separation,  he  set  sail,  on 
Brion's  advice,  for  Ocumare,  where  he  arrived 
July  8, 1816,  with  13  vessels,  of  which  7  only 
were  armed.  His  army  mustered  but  650  men, 
swelled,  by  the  enrolment  of  negroes  whose 
emancipation  he  had  proclaimed,  to  about  800. 
At  Ocumare  he  again  issued  a  proclamation, 
promising  "to  exterminate  the  tyrants"  and  to 
*' convoke  the  people  to  name  their  deputies  to 
eongresa."  On  his  advance  in  the  direction  of 
Valencia  he  met^  not  far  from  Ocumare,  the 
Spanish  general  Morales  at  the  head  of  about 
dOO  sfddiera  and  100  militia  men.  The  skir- 
mishers of  Morales  having  dispersed  his  ad- 
Tanced  guard,  he  lost,  as  an  eye-witness  records, 
^'  all  presence  of  mind,  spoke  not  a  word,  turned 
his  horse  quickly  round,  and  fled  in  full  speed 
toward  Ocumare,  passed  the  village  at  full  gal- 
lop, arrived  at  the  neighboring  bay,  jumped 
from  his  horse,  got  into  a  boat,  and  embarked 
on  the  Diana,  ordering  the  whole  squadron  to 
follow  him  to  the  litue  island  of  Baen  Ayre, 
and  leaying  all  his  companions  without  any 


means  of  assistaaoe."  On  Brion's  rebukes  and 
admonitions,  he  again  joined  the  other  com- 
manders on  the  coast  of  Oumana,  but  being 
harshly  received,  and  threatened  by  Piar  with 
trial  before  a  court-martiid  as  a  deserter  and  a 
coward,  he  quickly  retraced  his  steps  to  Oayes. 
After  months  of  exertion,  Brion  at  length  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  a  majority  of  the  Vene- 
Euelan  military  chiefs,  who  felt  the  want  of  at 
least  a  nominal  centre,  to  recall  Bolivar  as  their 
general-in-chief,  upon  the  ezpreps  condition  that 
he  should  assemble  a  congress,  and  not  med- 
dle with  the  civil  administration.  Dec  81, 
1816,  he  arrived  at  Barcelona  with  the  arms, 
munitions  of  war,  and  provisions  supplied  by 
Potion.  Joined,  Jan.  2,  1817,  by  Arismendi, 
he  proclaimed  on  the  4th  martial  law  and  the 
union  of  all  powers  in  his  single  person ;  but  5 
days  later,  when  Arismendi  had  fallen  into  an 
ambush  laid  by  the  Spaniards,  the  dictator 
fled  to  Barcelona.  The  troops  rallied  at  the 
latter  place,  whither  Brion  sent  him  also 
guns  and  reinforcements,  so  that  he  soon  mus- 
tered a  new  c(M*ps  of  1,100  men.  April  15, 
the  Spaniards  took  possession  of  the  town  of 
Barcelona,  and  the  patriot  troops  retreated  to- 
ward the  charity-house,  a  building  isolated  from 
Barcelona,  and  intrenched  on  Bolivar*s  order, 
but  unfit  to  shelter  a  garrison  of  1,000  men  from 
a  serious  attack.  He  left  the  post  in  the  night  of 
April  6,  informing  Ool.  Freites,  to  whom  he 
transferred  his  command^  that  he  was  going  in 
search  of  more  troops,  and  would  soon  return. 
Trusting  this  promise,  Freites  declined  the  offer 
of  a  capitulation,  and,  after  the  assault,  was 
slaughtered  with  the  whole  garrison  by  the  Span- 
iards. Piar,  aman  of  color  and  nativeof  Oura^  oa, 
conceived  and  executed  the  conquest  of  the 
provinces  of  Guiana ;  Admiral  Brion  supporting 
that  enterprise  with  his  gun-boats.  July  20, 
the  whole  of  the  provinces  being  evacuated  by 
the  Spaniards,  Piar,  Brion,  Zea,  Marifio,  Aris- 
mendi, and  others,  assembled  a  provincial  con- 
gress at  Angostura,  and  put  at  the  head  of  the 
executive  a  triumvirate,  of  which  Brion,  hating 
Piar  and  deeply  interested  in  Bolivar,  in  whose 
success  he  had  embarked  his  large  private  for- 
tune, contrived  that  the  latter  should  be  ap- 
pointed a  member,  notwithstanding  his  absence. 
On  these  tidings  Bolivar  left  his  retreat  for  An- 
gostura, where,  emboldened  by  Brion,  he  dis- 
solved the  congress  and  the  triumvirate,  to 
replace  them  by  a  ^*  supreme  council  of  the  na- 
tion," with  himself  as  the  chief,  Brion  and  An- 
tonio Francisco  Zea  as  the  directors^  the  former 
of  the  military,  the  latter  of  the  political  section. 
However,  Piar,  the  conqueror  of  Guiana,  who 
once  before  had  threatened  to  try  him  before  a 
court-martial  as  a  deserter,  was  not  sparing 
of  his  sarcasms  agunst  the  ^^  Napoleon  of  the  re- 
treat," and  Bolivar  consequently  accepted  a  plan 
for  getting  rid  of  him.  On  the  false  accusation 
of  having  conspired  against  the  whites,  plotted 
against  I^livars  life,  and  aspired  to  the  supreme 
power,  Piar  was  arriugned  before  a  war  council 
under  the  presidency  of  Brion,  convicted,  con* 


444 


BOUVAR  Y  PONTE 


damned  to  death,  and  shot,  Oct.  16, 181T.  His 
death  struck  Marifto  with  terror.  Fully  aware 
of  hiaown  nothiugness  when  deprived  of  Piar. 
he,  in  a  most  abject  letter,  publicly  calnmniatea 
his  murdered  friend,  deprecated  his  own  at- 
tempts at  rivalry  with  the  liberator,  and  threw 
himself  upon  Bolivar's  inexhaustible  fund  of 
magnanimity.  The  conquest  by  Piar  of  Guiana 
had  completely  changed  the  situation  in  favor 
of  the  patriots ;  that  single  province  affording 
them  more  resources  than  all  the  other  7  prov- 
inces of  Venezuela  together.  A  new  cam- 
paign, announced  by  Bolivar  through  a  new 
proclamation,  was,  therefore,  generally  expected 
to  result  in  the  final  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards. 
This  first  bulletin,  which  described  some  small 
Spanish  foraging  parties  withdrawing  from 
Oalabozo  as  '^armies  flying  before  our  victo- 
rious troops,"  was  not  calcmated  to  damp  these 
hopes.    Against  about  4,000  Spaniards,  whose 

function  had  not  yet  been  effected  by  Morillo, 
le  mustered  more  than  9,000  men,  well  armed, 
equipped,  and  amply  furnished  with  all  the 
necessaries  of  war.  Nevertheless,  toward  the 
end  of  Mav,  1818,  he  had  lost  about  a  dozen 
battles  and  all  the  provinces  lying  on  the 
northern  side  of  the  Orinoco.  Scattering  as 
he  did  his  superior  forces,  they  were  always 
beaten  in  detail.  Leaving  the  conduct  of  the 
war  to  Paez  and  his  other  subordinates,  he  re- 
tired to  Angostura.  Defection  followed  upon 
defection,  and  every  thing  seemed  to  be  drifting 
to  utter  ruin.  At  this  most  critical  moment,  a 
new  combination  of  fortunate  accidents  again 
changed  the  face  of  affairs.  At  Angostura 
he  met  with  Santander,  a  native  of  New 
Granada,  who  begged  for  the  means  of  in- 
vading, that  territory,  where  the  population 
were  prepared  for  a  general  rise  against  the 
Spaniards.  This  request,  to  some  extent,  he 
complied  with,  while  powerful  succors  in 
men,  vessels,  and  munitions  of  war,  poured  in 
from  England,  and  English,  French,  German, 
and  Polish  officers,  flocked  to  Angostura.  Lastly, 
Dr.  German  Roscio,  dismayed  at  the  declining 
fortune  of  the  South  American  revolution,  step- 
ped forward,  laid  hold  of  Bolivar's  mind, 
and  induced  him  to  convene,  Feb.  15,  1819, 
a  national  congress,  the  mere  name  of  which 
proved  powerful  enough  to  create  a  new  army 
of  about  14,000  men,  so  that  Bolivar  found 
himself  enabled  to  resume  the  offensive.  The 
foreign  officers  suggested  to  him  the  plan  of 
making  a  display  of  an  intention  to  attack 
Caracas,  and  free  Venezuela  from  the  Spanish 
yoke,  and  thus  inducing  Morillo  to  weaken  New 
Granada  and  concentrate  his  forces  upon  Vene- 
£xiela,  while  he  (Bolivar)  should  suddenly  turn 
to  the  west,  unite  with  Santander's  guerillas, 
and  march  upon  Bogota.  To  execute  this  plan, 
he  left  Angostura  Feb.  24^  1819,  after  having 
nominated  Zea  president  of  the  congress  and 
vice-president  of  the  republic  during  his  ab- 
sence. By  the  mancsuvres  of  Paez,  Morillo  and 
La  Torre  were  routed  at  Achaguas,  and  would 
have  been  destroyed  if  Bolivar  had  effected  a 


junction  between  his  own  troops  and  those  of 
Paez  and  Marifto.  At  all  events,  the  victories 
of  Paez  led  to  the  oooupadon  of  the  province  of 
Barima,  which  opened  to  Bolivar  the  way  into 
New  Granada.  Every  thing  being  here  pre> 
pared  by  Santander,  the  foreign  troops,  ooosist*- 
ing  mainly  of  Englishmen,  decided  the  fate  of 
New  Granada  by  the  successive  victories  won 
July  1  and  23,  and  Aug.  7,  in  the  province  of 
Tui\}a.  Aug.  12,  Bolivar  made  a  triumphal 
entry  into  Bogota,  while  the  Spaniards,  all  the 
Granadian  provinces  having  risen  against  them, 
shut  themselves  up  in  the  fortified  town  of 
Mompox.  Having  regulated  the  Granadian 
congress  at  Bogota,  and  installed  Gen.  San* 
tander  as  commander*in-chief,  Bolivar  march- 
ed toward  Pamplona,  where  he  spent  about 
2  months  in  festivals  and  balls.  Nov.  8,  he 
arrived  at  Montecal,  in  Venezuela,  whiUier 
he  had  directed  the  patriotic  chieftains  of  that 
territory  to  assemble  with  their  troops.  With  a 
treasury  of  about  $2,000,000,  raised  from  the 
inhabitants  of  New  Granada  by  forced  contri- 
butions, and  with  a  disposable  force  of  abont 
9,000  men,  the  8d  part  of  whom  consisted  of 
weU  disciplined  English,  Irish,  Hanoverians,  and 
other  foreigners,  he  had  now  to  encounter  an 
enemy  stripped  of  all  resources  and  reduced  to 
a  nominal  force  of  about  4,500  men,  f  of  whom 
were  natives,  and,  therefore,  not  to  be  relied 
upon  by  the  Spaniards.  Morillo  withdrawing 
from  San  Fernando  de  Apnre  to  San  Carlos, 
Bolivar  followed  him  up  to  Oalabozo,  so  that 
the  hostile  head-quarters  were  only  2  days' 
march  from  each  other.  If  Bolivar  had  boldly 
advanced,  the  Spaniards  would  have  been 
crushed  by  his  European  troops  alone,  but  he 
preferred  protracting  the  war  for  5  years  longer. 
In  October,  1819,  the  congress  of  Angostura 
had  forced  Zea,  his  nominee,  to  resign  his 
office,  and  chosen  Arismendi  in  his  place.  On 
receiving  this  news,  Bolivar  suddenly  marched 
his  foreign  legion  toward  Angostura,  surprised 
Arismenrii,  who  had  600  natives  only,  exiled 
him  to  the  island  of  Margarita,  and  restored  Zea 
to  his  dignities.  Dr.  Rosdo,  fascinating  him 
with  the  prospects  of  centralized  power,  led 
him  to  proclaim  the  ^^  republic  of  Colombia," 
comprising  New  Granada  and  Venezuela,  to 
publish  a  fundamental  law  for  the  new  state, 
drawn  up  by  Roscio,  and  to  consent  to  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  common  congress  for  both 
provinces.  On  Jan.  20,  1820,  he  had  again 
returned  to  San  Fernando  de  Apure.  His 
sudden  withdrawal  of  the  foreign  legion,  which 
was  more  dreaded  by  the  Spaniards  than  10 
times  the  number  of  Colombians,  had  given 
Morillo  a  new  opportunity  to  collect  reenroroe- 
mente,  while  the  tidings  of  a  formidable  expedi- 
tion to  start  from  Spain  under  0*Donnell  raised 
the  sinking  spirits  of  the  Spanish  party.  Not- 
withstanding his  vastly  superior  forces,  Bolivar 
contrived  to  accomplish  nothing  during  the 
campaign  of  1820.  Meanwhile  the  news  ar- 
rived from  Europe  that  the  revolution  in 
the  Ma   de  Leon  had  put  a  f<voible    end 


BOUVAB  Y  PONTE 


446 


to  O^Doniiell's  intended  expedition.  In  New 
Granada  16  provinces  out  of  22  bad  Joined 
the  government  of  Golorobia,  and  the  Span- 
iards now  held  there  onlj  the  fortresses  of 
Oarthagena  and  the  isthmns  of  Panama.  In 
Yeneznela  6  provinces  cot  of  8  obeyed  the  laws 
of  Colombia.  Sach  was  the  state  of  things 
when  Bolivar  allowed  himself  to  be  inveigled 
by  Morillo  into  negotiations  resulting,  Nov.  25, 
1830,  in  the  conclusion  at  TmziUo  of  a  truce 
for  6  months.  In  the  truce  no  mention  was 
made  of  the  republic  of  Colombia,  although  the 
congress  had  expressly  forbidden  any  treaty  to 
be  concluded  with  the  Spanish  commander  be- 
fore the  acknowledgment  on  his  part  of  the 
independence  of  the  republic.  Dea  17,  Morillo. 
anxious  to  play  his  part  in  Spain,  embarkea 
at  Puerto  Oabello,  leaving  the  command- 
in-chief  to  Miguel  de  la  Torre,  and  on  March 
10, 1821,  Bolivar  notified  La  Torre,  by  letter, 
that  hostilities  should  recommence  at  the  ex- 
piration of  80  days.  The  Spaniards  had  taken 
a  strong  position  at  Carabobo,  a  village  situated 
about  half-way  between  San  Carlos  and  Valen- 
cia ;  bat  La  Torre,  instead  of  uniting  there  all  his 
fiyroes,  bad  concentrated  only  his  1st  division, 
2,500  infJEmtry  and  about  1,500  cavalry,  while 
Bolivar  had  about  6,000  infantry,  among  them 
the  British  legion^  mustering  1,100  men,  and 
8,000  llaneros  on  horseback,  under  Paez.  The 
enemy's  position  seemed  so  formidable  to  Boll- 
Tar,  Uiat  he  proposed  to  his  council  of  war  to 
make  a  new  armistice,  which,  however,  was 
r^eeted  by  his  subalterns.  At  tiie  head  of  a 
column  mainly  consisting  of  the  British  legion, 
Paez  turned  through  a  footpath  the  right  wing 
of  the  enemy,  after  the  successful  execution  of 
which  mancsuvre,  La  Toire  was  the  first  of  the 
Spaniards  to  mn  away,  taking  no  rest  till  he 
reached  Puerto  Cabello,  where  he  shut  himself 
up  with  the  remainder  of  his  troops.  Puerto 
Oabello  itself  must  have  surrenderea  on  a  quick 
adrance  of  the  yictorions  army,  but  Bolivar  lost 
Lis  time  in  exhibiting  himself  at  Yalenda  and 
Caracas.  Sept  21,  1821,  the  strong  fortress 
of  Oarthagena  ci^italated  to  Santander.  The 
liat  feats  of  arms  m  Venezuela,  the  naval  action 
at  Maracaibo,  in  Aug.  1823,  and  the  forced 
surrender  of  Puerto  Cabello,  July,  1824,  were 
both  the  work  of  PadiUa.  The  revolution  of 
the  Isla  de  Leon,  which  prevented  O'Donnell's 
expedition  from  starting,  and  the  assistance  of 
the  British  legion,  had  evidentiy  turned  the 
wale  in  fiivor  of  the  Colombians. — ^The  Colom- 
Uaa  congress  opened  its  sittings  in  Jan.  1821, 
at  Oncuta,  pnbluhed,  Aug.  80,  a  new  constitu- 
tion, and  atler  Bolivar  had  again  pretended  to 
resign,  renewed  his  powers.  Saving  signed  the 
new  constitution,  he  obtained  leare  to  under^ 
take  the  campaign  of  Quito  (1822),  to  which 
province  the  Spaniards  had  retired  after  their 
election  by  a  general  rising  of  the  people  from 
ue  isthmus  of  Panama.  This  campaign,  end- 
ing in  the  incorporation  of  Quitoi  Paste, 
and  Guayaquil  into  Colombia,  was  nominally 
led  by  Bolivar  and  Qen.  Sucre,  but  the  few  suc- 


cesses of  the  corps  were  entirely  owed  to  British 
officers,  such  as  Col.  Sands.  During  the  cam* 
paigns  of  1823-24,  against  the  Spaniards  in 
upper  and  lower  Peru,  he  no  longer  thought  it 
necessary  to  keep  up  the  appearance  of  general- 
ship, but  leaving  the  whole  military  task  to  Gen. 
Sucre,  limited  himself  to  triumphal  entries, 
manifestos,  and  the  proclamation  of  const!* 
tutions.  Through  his  Colombian  body-guard, 
he  swayed  the  votes  of  the  congress  of 
Lima,  which,  Feb.  10,  1823,  transferred  to 
him  the  dictatorship^  while  he  secured  his  re* 
election  as  president  of  Colombia  by  a  new  ten- 
der of  resignation.  His  position  had  meanwhile 
become  strengthened,  what  with  the  formal  re- 
cognition of  tiie  new  state  on  the  part  of  Eng- 
land, what  witii  Sucre's  conquest  of  the  prov- 
inces of  upper  Peru,  which  the  latter  united 
into  an  independent  republic,  under  the  name 
of  Bolivia.  Here,  where  Sucre's  bayonets  were 
supreme,  Bolivar  gave  full  scope  to  his  propen- 
sities for  arbitrary  power,  by  introducing  the 
"Bolivian  Code,"  an  imitation  of  the  Cad^ 
Napoleon,  It  was  his  plan  to  transplant  that 
code  from  Bolivia  to  Peru,  and  from  Peru  to 
Colombia — ^to  keep  the  former  states  in  check 
by  Colombian  troops,  and  the  latter  by  the 
foreign  legion  and  Peruvian  soldiers.  By  force, 
minted  with  intrigue,  he  succeeded  indeed,  for 
some  weeks  at  least,  in  fastening  his  code  upon 
Peru.  The  president  and  liberator  of  Colombia, 
the  protector  and  dictator  of  Peru,  and  the  god- 
father of  Bolivia,  he  had  now  reached  the  climax 
of  his  renown.  But  a  serious  antagonism  had 
broken  out  in  Colombia,  between  the  centralists 
or  Bolivarists  and  the  federalists,  under  which 
latter  name  the  enemies  of  military  anarchy 
had  coalesced  with  his  military  rivals.  The 
Colombian  congress  having,  at  his  instigation, 
proposed  an  act  of  accusation  against  Paez,  the 
-vice-president  of  Venezuela,  the  latter  broke 
out  into  open  revolt,  secretiy  sustained  and 
pushed  on  by  Bolivar  himself^  who  wanted  in- 
surrections, to  fumi^  him  a  pretext  for  over- 
throwing the  constitution  ana  reossnming  the 
dictatorship.  Beside  his  body-guard,  he  led, 
on  his  return  from  Peru,  1,800  Peruvians,  osten- 
sibly against  the  federalist  rebels.  At  Puerto 
Oabello,  however^  where  he  met  Paez,  he  not 
only  confirmed  him  in  his  command  of  Vene- 
zuela, and  issued  a  proclamation  of  amnesty  to ' 
all  the  rebels,  but  openly  took  their  part  and 
rebuked  the  friends  of  the  constitution ;  and  by 
decree  at  Bogota,  Nov.  23,  1826,  he  assumed 
dictatorial  powers.  In  the  year  1827,  from  which 
the  decline  of  his  power  dates,  he  contrived  to 
assemble  a  congress  at  Panama,  with  the  ostensi- 
ble object  of  establishing  a  new  democratic  inter- 
national code.  Plenipotentiaries  came  from  Co- 
lombia, Brazil,  La  Plata,  Bolivia,  Mexico,  Guate- 
mala, &c.  What  he  really  aimed  at  was  the  erec- 
tion of  tixe  whole  of  South  America  into  one 
federative  republic,  with  himself  as  its  dic- 
tator. While  thus  giving  full  scope  to  his 
dreams  of  attaching  half  a  world  to  his  name, 
his  real  power  was  rapidly  slipping  from  his 


446 


BOLIVAR  Y  PONTE 


BOLIVIA 


grasp.  The  Colombian  troops  in  Pern,  inform- 
ed of  his  makinff  arrangements  for  the  introduo* 
tion  of  the  Bohvian  code,  promoted  a  Tioleat 
insurrection.  The  Pernvians  elected  Gen.  La« 
mar  as  the  president  of  their  republic,  assisted 
the  Bolivians  in  driving  out  the  Colombian 
troops,  and  even  waged  a  victorioas  war  against 
Colombia,  which  ended  in  a  treaty  reducing  the 
latter  to  its  primitive  limits,  stipulating  the 
equality  of  the  2  countries,  ana  separating  their 
debts.  The  congress  of  Ocafla,  convoked  bj 
Bolivar,  with  a  view  to  modify  the  constitution 
in  favor  of  his  arbitrary  power,  was  open* 
ed  March  2,  1828,  by  an  elaborate  address, 
insisting  on  the  necessity  of  new  privileges 
for  the  executive.  When,  however,  it  be- 
came evident  that  the  amended  project  of  the 
constitution  would  come  out  of  the  convention 
quite  different  from  its  original  form,  his  friends 
vacated  their  seats,  by  which  proceeding  the  body 
was  left  without  a  quorum,  and  thus  became 
extinct.  From  a  country-seat,  some  miles 
distant  from  Ocafla,  to  which  he  had  re- 
treated, he  published  another  manifesto,  pre- 
tending to  be  incensed  at  the  step  taken  by  his 
own  friends,  but  at  the  same  time  attacking 
the  convention,  calling  on  the  provinces  to  re- 
cur to  extraordinary  measures,  and  declaring 
that  he  was  ready  to  submit  to  any  load  of 
power  which  might  be  heaped  upon  him.  Under 
the  pressui-e  of  his  bayonets,  popular  assemblies 
at  Caracas,  Carthagena,  and  Bogota,  to  which 
latter  place  he  had  repaired,  anew  invested  him 
t^ith  dictatorial  power.  An  attempt  to  assassi- 
nate him  in  his  sleeping  room  at  Bogota,  which 
he  escaped  only  by  leaping  in  the  dark  from  the 
balcony  of  the  window,  and  lying  concealed 
under  a  bridge,  allowed  him  for  some  time  to 
introduce  a  sort  of  military  terrorism.  He  did 
notw  however,  lay  hands  <Hi  Santander,  although 
he  nad  participated  in  the  conspiracy,  while  he 
put  to  death  Gen.  Padilla,  whose  guilt  was  not 
proved  at  all,  but  who,  as  a  man  of  color,  was 
not  able  to  resist.  Violent  factions  disturbing 
the  republic  in  1829,  in  a  new  appeal  to  the 
citizens,  Bolivar  invited  them  to  frankly  express 
their  wishes  as  to  the  modifications  to  be  intro* 
duced  into  the  constitution.  An  assembly  of 
notables  at  Caracas  answered  by  denouncing 
his  ambition,  laying  bare  the  weakness  of  his 
administration,  declaring  the  separation  of  Ven- 
ezuela from  Colombia,  and  placing  Paez  at  the 
head  of  that  republic.  The  senate  of  Colom- 
bia stood  by  Bolivar,  but  other  insurrections 
broke  out  at  different  points.  Having  resigned 
for  the  5th  time,  in  Jan.  1880,  he  again  accepted 
the  presidency,  and  left  Bogota  to  wage  war  on 
Paez  in  the  name  of  the  Colombian  congress. 
Toward  the  end  of  March,  1880,  he  advan^  at 
the  head  of  8,000  men,  took  Caracuta,  which  had 
revolted,  and  then  turned  upon  the  province 
of  Maracaibo,  where  Paez  awaited  him  with 
12,000  men,  in  a  strong  position.  As  soon  as 
he  became  aware  that  Paez  meant  serious  fight- 
ing, his  courage  collapsed.  For  a  moment  he 
even  thought  to  subject  himself  to  Paez,  and 


declare  against  the  congress ;  bnt  the  infioenoe  of 
his  partisans  at  the  congress  vanished,  and  he 
was  forced  to  tender  his  resignation,  notice  being 
given  to  him  that  he  must  now  stand  by  it,  and 
that  an  annual  pension  would  be  granted  to  him 
on  the  condition  of  his  departure  for  foreign 
countries.  He  accordingly  sent  his  resignation  to 
the  congress,  April  27, 1880.  But  hoping  to  re- 
gain power  by  the  influence  of  his  partisans, 
and  a  reaction  setting  in  agunst  Joachim  Mos- 
qaeri^  the  new  president  of  Colombia,  he  effect- 
ed  his  retreat  from  Bogota  in  a  very  slow 
manner,  and  contrived,  under  a  variety  of  pre- 
texts, to  prolong  his  sojourn  at  San  Pedro, 
until  the  end  of  1880,  when  he  suddenly 
died.  The  following  is  the  portrait  given  of 
him  by  Duooudrey-Holstein:  **  Simon  Bolivar 
is  6  feet  4  inches  in  height,  his  visage  is  k>ng^ 
his  cheeks  hollow,  his  complexion  livid  brown ; 
his  eyes  are  of  a  middle  size,  and  sunk  deep  in 
his  head,  which  is  covered  thinly  with  hair. 
His  mustaches  give  him  a  dark  and  wild  aspecti 
particulariy  when  he  is  in  a  passion.  His  whole 
body  is  thin  and  meagre.  He  has  the  appear- 
ance of  a  man  65  years  old.  In  walking,  his 
arms  are  in  continual  motion.  He  cannot  walk 
long,  but  becomes  soon  fiadgued.  He  likes  his 
hammock,  where  he  sits  or  loUs.  He  gives  wi^ 
to  sadden  gusts  of  resentment,  and  bM>me8  in 
a  moment  a  madman,  throws  himself  into  his 
hammock,  and  utters  curses  and  imprecatioiia 
upon  all  around  him.  He  likes  to  indulge  in 
sarcasms  upon  absent  persons,  reads  only  light 
French  literature,  is  a  bold  rider,  and  passion- 
ately fond  of  waltzing.  He  is  fond  of  hearing 
himself  talk  and  givmg  toasts.  In  adversity, 
and  destitute  of  aid  from  without,  he  is  per- 
fectlv  free  from  passion  and  violence  of  temper. 
He  then  becomes  mild,  patient,  docile,  and  even 
submissive.  In  a  great  measure  he  conceals 
his  faults  under  the  politeness  of  a  man  edu- 
cated in  the  so-called  beau  nunuU,  poesesses 
an  almost  Asiatic  talent  for  dissimmation,  and 
understands  mankind  better  than  the  mass  of 
his  countrymen."  By  decree  of  the  congress  of 
New  Granada,  his  remains  were  removed  in 
1842  to  Caracas,  and  a  monument  erected  there 
in  his  honor.-— See  MiiUnre  de  Bolvoa/r^  pair  GhL 
DuMudrey-HohUiiny  eontinuke  juaqu'd  sts  mart^ 
par  Alphanse  VioUet  (Paris,  1881),  ^^  Memoirs 
of  Gen.  John  Miller  (in  the  service  of  the  Re- 
public of  Peru),"  Col.  Hippisley*s  "Account  of 
Lis  Journey  to  the  Orinoco"  (Lond.  1819). 

BOLIVIA,  a  state  of  South  America,  lying 
between  lat.  lO"*  21'  and  25''  88'  a,  and  long, 
sr  86'  and  1(f  80'  W.,  bounded  N.  by  the 
Brazilian  province  of  Alta  Amazonas,  £.  by  the 
provinces  of  Matto  Groeso  and  Parana,  from 
which  it  is  almost  completely  separated  by  the 
Mamore  and  Gnapore,  affluents  of  the  Msideira 
river,  and  by  the  Paraguay  river;  S.  by  the 
Argentine  confederation  and  the  republic  of 
Chili,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  river 
Salado ;  W.  by  the  Paciflc  ocean  to  the  month 
of  the  river  lioa,  and  thence  by  the  republic  of 
Peru,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Andesi 


BOLIVIA 


447 


Lake  Titioaoa,  aod  the  Bio  Paras.  The  greatest 
breadth  of  the  state  is  760  miles,  its  greatest 
leogth  1,100  miles.  Its  frontier  is  over  4,000 
miles,  of  which  only  250  are  sea-ooast  The 
following  table  gives  the  names  of  the  depart- 
ments into  which  it  is  divided,  together  with 
the  number  of  square  miles,  population,  capitals 
and  their  population,  according  to  the  latest 
authorities : 


1  Af^ 

PopaUi- 

tioD. 

Pop.  10 

Capital!. 

Pop.  or 

Cp. 

Bent 

IIIHIIII 

§  Sill  1  %n 

0.88 
ia73 
&93 

&24 

0.A1 
4.S8 
T.99 
8.01 

0l66 

Apolobamba, 
La  Pas, 
Coohabamba, 
Chuqulaaoa, 
or  B  acre, 
Santa  Crtts, 
Oruro, 
Potoad, 

CoSfia,  or  Pu- 
erto do  la  Mar 

1,000 

La  Pas 

Banta  Orai. .» 

Oraro 

Potosi 

Tkrga 

Ataeamtk  or  1 
Coblja.....  f 

48,849 
80.896 

18,885 

6,000 
5,637 
88,000 
5;i89 

8,000 

Total.... 

478,898 

l,42a,753 

8.01 

Bolivia,  though  comprising  but  a  limited  terri- 
tory, possesses  a  remarkable  variety  of  climate, 
soil,  and  productions.  Its  south-western  por- 
tion, lying  on  the  Pacific,  is  an  arid  and 
gloomy  desert)  on  which  no  rain  &lls,  and 
which  shows  no  traces  of  vegetation,  except 
where  mountain  torrents  have  forced  their 
way  to  the  ocean,  and  fertilized  a  few  nar- 
row valleys.  The  shore  is  high,  rocky,  and 
forbidding,  and  the  ascent  of  the  Andes  from 
this  side  steep  and  difficult.  The  Andes  them- 
sdves  here  spread  out  into  a  broad,  elevated 
plateau,  much  wider  than  in  any  other  part  of 
their  course.  TJiis  plateau,  about  14,000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  is  from  200  to  800 
miles  in  breadth,  and  along  its  eastern  border 
the  giant  peaks  of  the  East  CordUlera  tower 
aloft,  to  the  height  of  from  18,000  to  25,000 
feet.  In  no  portion  of  their  course  are  so  many 
lof^  peaks  grouped  together  as  in  central 
Bolivia.  Of  11  peaks  enumerated  by  Mr. 
Pentland,  but  2  were  less  than  20,000  feet  in 
height    Their  names  and  height  are  as  follows : 


Foot  MouBtaiM.  FmU 

l^cmra. 18,890    Nevado  do  Sorata 85,800 

Chi|»icaai 19,740    llUmaal 84,200 


Parinaeota 82,030    Chaenacomani,8  turn-  J  80,885 

«.-..  ..  ^^^^ 


mito. 


.82,850    Haayna  Potosi 80,260 

22,030    Chachi  "^  

Pomarape 81,700 

Gaalatelri 88,000 

A  later  measurement  gives  the  Sorata  21,286, 
and  the  lUiroani  21,149.  Beyond  these  grand 
sentinel  mountains  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes  is  gradual.  Still  further  eastward 
stretches  a  vast  ])lain,  covered  with  the  most 
fertile  soil,  on  whicli,  for  hundreds  of  miles, 
there  is  not  a  rock  or  pebble,  and  through 
which  thread,  with  gentle  flow,  the  numer- 
ous affluents  cf  the  Amazon  and  Madeira.  In 
time  of  flood,  portions  of  this  plain  are  over- 
flowed, and  the  vast  forests,  whose  hues  of 
vivid  green  are  perennial,  admitting  to  the  eye 
of  the  observer  glimpses  of  the  watery  waste, 
seem  like  islands  of  foliage  on  some  placid  lake. 
Still  further  east,  a  chain  of  low  hills  separates 
the  head  waters  of  the  Paraguay  river  from  those 


of  the  Madeira ;  yet  so  gentle  is  the  elevatioa 
that  in  time  of  flood  the  Indian  can  paddle  his 
boat  from  the  sources  of  one  into  those  of  the 
other. — One  of  the  most  remarkable  naturcd 
features  of  this  country  is  its  mountain  lakes. 
The  largest  of  them.  Lake  Titioaca,  is  situated 
on  the  lofty  plateau  between  the  £.  and  W. 
Cordilleras,  12,800  feet  above  the  sea  level  It 
is  about  80  miles  long  and  40  broad,  and  al- 
though it  receives  numerous  streams,  it  has  but 
one  visible  outlet,  the  Desaguadero  river,  which 
connects  it  with  Lake  Pampas  AuUagas,  180 
miles  S.  £.  of  it,  which  has  no  outlet,  but  which 
is  at  about  the  same  elevation,  and  is  about 
half  the  size  of  Lake  Titicaca.  The  latter  has 
several  islands,  upon  one  of  which  Manoo 
Oapac,  the  first  inca  of  the  last  Peruvian  dynas- 
ty, is  said  to  have  descended.  The  triangular 
rush  peculiar  to  this  lake  is  of  great  value  to 
the  Indians  of  the  Titicaca  basin,  furnishing 
them  witli  food,  clothing,  boats,  &o.  There  are 
in  eastern  Bolivia,  in  the  lowlands,  several 
other  lakes  of  considerable  size,  but  they  are 
not  fully  described.  Lake  Gaiba  is  one  of  the 
largest  of  these.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Beni,  Mamore,  Rio  Grande.  Ohapri,  and  Itenez 
or  Guapore,  tributaries  of  the  Madeira;  and  the 
Pilcomayo  and  Paraguay,  affluents  of  the  La 
Plata.  The  smaller  streams  are  countless. — On 
the  elevated  plains  of  the  Titicaca  basin  there 
is  frost  every  night,  and  ice  forms  of  sufficient 
strength  to  bear  a  man's  weight,  but  the  sky  is 
always  cloudless  and  the  air  dry.    On  some 

Sortions  of  this  plateau,  however,  there  is  rain 
uring  8  months  of  the  year.  West  of  the 
Andes  no  rain  has  fallen  within  the  memory  of 
man  until  the  last  year  (1857).  But  within  a 
day's  journey  from  the  summit  of  the  eastern 
Cordillera,  places  may  be  found  where  rain  falls 
every  day  m  the  year.  The  inhabitants,  like 
those  of  Mexico,  distinguish  8  climatic  regions, 
viz.:  The^un^,  cold,  elevated,  and  producing, 
from  the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere,  difficulty 
of  respiration  in  those  unaccustomed  to  it.  To 
this  climate  belongs  the  whole  elevated  plain 
between  the  £.  and  W.  Oordilleraa.  The  high- 
er mountainous  districts  are  designated  aapuno 
hrava.  This  is  the  home  of  the  guanaco  and 
vicufla,  while  the  llama  and  alpaca  thrive  best 
in  the  puno  region,  l^hib  paramo  is  a  more  tem- 
perate climate,  occupying  the  slopes  of  the  east- 
ern Cordillera  and  the  head  waters  of  the  Para- 
guay. It  is  the  region  of  grains  and  fruits  of 
the  temperate  zone.  Below  this  are  the  yungaa^ 
or  valleys,  which  have  all  the  characteristics  of 
the  torrid  zone,  its  terrible  heat  and  its  prolif- 
ic yegetation ;  the  coffee-shrub,  the  cacao,  the 
ooca.  and  the  other  tropical  fruits  and  plants^ 
are  round  here  in  the  richest  profusion.  A  man 
mounted  on  a  fleet  horse  can  easily  pass  from  the 
puno  to  the  yungas  in  8  days'  time.— The  vege- 
tation of  Bolivia  is,  of  course,  as  varied  as  its 
dimate.  On  tbe  slopes  of  the  loftiest  mountains, 
and  in  the  cold  and  elevated  plains,  it  is  scanty 
and  alpine  in  character.  The  trees  are  very  few, 
and  the  bare  and  dreary  plains  exhibit  only  occa- 


448 


BOLIVIA 


sional  tufts  of  lycojfodium  hastatfm^  verbena 
mimina  and  lauretia  aeaulU^  dinging  in  the 
clefts  of  the  rocks,  and  in  the  course  of  ages  at- 
taining to  considerable  size  and  a  dense  resinoos 
structure.  Near  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca  there 
is  a  very  considerable  variety  of  grasses^  which, 
with  the  Totara  rush,  already  mentioned,  form 
pasturage  for  considerable  h^rds  of  cattle,  goats, 
and  hogs.  On  the  upper,  portion  of  the  eastern 
slope  of  the  Andes,  grains  of  every  description 
flourish,  and  several  varieties  of  cactus,  one  of 
them  40  feet  in  height,  display  their  peculiar 
forms,  and  their  bright,  gay  flowers.  Below 
these  is  a  belt  of  acacias ;  still  lower,  the  bamboo 
{barrJ>U9a\  the  palm,  and  the  tree  ferns,  are 
found  in  abundance.  Among  the  more  valuable 
products  of  the  plains  and  lower  slopes  of  the 
Gordiliera,  are  the  bamboo,  the  paper  mulberry, 
the  inner  bark  of  which  furnishes  the  Indian  lus 
shirts,  the  matS,  or  Paraguay  tea,  the  balsam  of 
Peru,  and  the  cinchona,  or  Peruvian  bark. 
The  low  plains  of  eastern  Bolivia  abound  in  the 
richest  tropical  fruits  and  plants,  and  the  inhab- 
itants raise,  either  for  consumption  or  export, 
coffee,  cacao,  tobacco,  cotton,  maize,  indigo, 
yuca  or  manioc,  batatas,  guavas,  sugar-cane, 
the  chirimoya,  and,  in  their  esteem,  the  most 
important  of  all,  coca.  This  is  Uie  leaf  of  the 
erythraxylon  Feruvianum^  and  is  chewed  by 
the  inhabitants  as  a  stimulant,  like  the  betel  of 
the  Hindoo^  and  Malays.  Its  annual  consump- 
tion in  Bolivia  is  reckoned  at  more  than 
10,000,000  pounds.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the 
native  country  of  the  common  potato  (iolanum 
tubero9um)y  and  the  plant  is  cultivated  quite 
extensively  by  the  Indians  of  the  Titicaca 
basin.  Lieut.  Gibbon  found  them  small,  but  of 
excellent  quality. — ^The  inhabitants  of  Bolivia 
are:  1.  Indians  of  various  tribes;  2,  Creoles  of 
Spanisn  descent;  and,  8,  mestizos,  or  mixed 
races,  divided  into  choice,  or  descendants  of 
European  and  Indian  parents,  and  zambos,  who 
nnite  European  and  negro  blood.  There  are 
also  a  few  negroes  in  the  republic.  The  Indians 
constitute  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  population ; 
those  living  in  the  Titicaca  basin  are  Aymarus; 
north  and  east  of  these  are  the  Quichuas;  both 
these  tribes  were  formerly  the  subjects  of  the 
incas.  The  plains  east  of  the  Oordillera  are 
inhabited  by  Moios,  and  the  head  waters  of  the 
Paraguay,  as  well  as  most  of  the  region  border- 
ing on  the  states  of  the  Argentine  confedera- 
tion, by  the  Ohiquitos  and  Yuraoares.  The 
Spanish  Creoles  are  most  numerous  in  the  min- 
ing districte,  and  in  Oochabamba.  The  mes- 
tizos are  principally  located  west  of  the  Andes. 
The  Aymarus  and  Quichuas  are  a  simple-hearted, 
friendly  people,  easily  influenced  by  superstition, 
retaining  much  of  the  gentleness  and  amiability 
for  which  they  were  remarkable  in  the  first 
discovery  of  the  country  by  the  Spaniards; 
averse  to  severe  labor,  mining,  and  the  like,  but 
fond  of  pastoral  and  agricultural  pursuits; 
somewhat  addicted  to  the  use  of  ehicha  (an 
intoxicating  drink  made  from  the  maize),  but 
possessing  many  excellent  traits.     Numerous 


indications  of  their  former  numbers  and  civili- 
zation still  remain,  such  as  the  ruins  of  towns 
of  stone  and  sun-dried  brick,  great  numbers  of 
tombs,  well  built,  and  filled  with  mummies^  &c. 
The  eastern  Indians  are  more  warlike.  The 
Ohiquitos  and  Yuracares  are  savages,  and  lead 
a  nomadic  life  to  some  extent ;  the  Mojos  are  in- 
telligent, and  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits, 
but  scorn  the  control  of  the  Spanish  Creoles. — The 
foreign  trade  of  Bolivia  is  not  large^  and  is  con- 
fined almost  entirely  to  the  export  of  bullion, 
tin,  and  alpaca  wool,  to  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  and  grain,  cocis  soap,  and  silver  to 
PerUj  and  the  importation  of  furniture  and 
manufactured  goods  from  the  former  countries^ 
and  wine,  rum,  and  dried  fish  tcom  Peru. — The 
imports  coastwise  amount  to  about  $500,000; 
the  internal  traffic  with  Peru  and  ChUi  to 
somewhat  more  than  $1,500,000.  The  ex- 
ports, including  bullion,  are  of  about  equal 
amount  The  commerce  has  decreased  since 
1840,  and  so  long  as  the  people  of  the 
country  adhere  to  the  old  Spanish  custom  of 
transporting  all  goods  on  the  backs  of  mules, 
it  can  never  ^come  considerable.  €k)od 
roads,  and  railroads,  where  practicable,  would 
make  Bolivia,  in  a  few  years,  one  of  the  richest 
states  of  South  America.  The  manufactures  are 
mostly  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  and  the  diffi- 
culty of  transporting  machinery  must  prevent  any 
great  success  in  them.  The  people,  however, 
are  ingenious,  and  display  great  skill  in  the 

E reduction  of  such  articles  as  are  within  the 
mit  of  their  means.  Woollen  and  cotton  doihs, 
hats  made  from  the  vicufia  wool,  tin-war& 
and  fire-arms  of  good  quality,  are  manufactured 
by  them.  The  mines  are  much  less  extensively 
worked  than  formerly,  partly  from  the  increased 
cost,  as  the  leads  become  deepen  but  mainly 
f]x>m  the  unwillingness  of  the  Indian^  who 
have  been  the  principal  miners,  to  continue  in 
a  business  so  laborious,  and  which  yielded  so 
small  a  measure  of  comfort  and  ei\joyment 
According  to  government  statistics,  the  pro- 
duction of  gold  and  silver,  which,  in  the  5 
years  ending  in  1806.  had  reached  the  sum  of 
$21,186,460,  had  fallen  off  in  the  5  years 
ending  with  1846,  to  $9,789,640.  Probably 
these  amounts  fall  considerably  short  of  the  ac- 
tual yield  of  each  period,  but  the  proportion 
which  they  indicate  shows  a  very  great  reduc- 
tion in  the  amount  of  mining. — ^The  early  his- 
tory of  Bolivia  is  included  in  that  of  Pem^  <^ 
which  it  was  formerly  an  integral  part ;  it  is 
only  since  1825  that  it  has  had  a  separate  na- 
tional existence.  It  was  erected  into  an  inde- 
pendent state,  by  a  dedaration  of  its  citizeiisiy 
Aug.  5,  1825,  and  received  its  name  from  the 
liberator,  Simon  Bolivar.  A  constitutional  con- 
gress assembled  Aug.  11,  decreed  a  republican 
government,  called  (&n.  Sucre  to  the  presidency, 
and  requested  the  liberator  to  prepare  a  con- 
stitution. He  complied,  and  his  constitution, 
which  was  a  limited  monarchy  in  all  but  the 
name,  was  adopted  the  succeeding  year,  but 
soon  abolished;  and  from  1829  almost  to  the 


BOLKHOV 


BOLOGNA 


449 


present  time,  t^is  tmhappy  oonntrj  has  been  the 
scene  of  constAnt  revolntiona.  Glen.  Belzn, 
its  president  in  1861,  had  revived  the  consti- 
tntiou  of  1888,  which  had  been  for  some  time 
in  abeyance,  and  which  limited  the  powers  of  the 
presidents.  He  is  represented  as  a  man  of  intel- 
ligence and  ability. 

BOLKHOV,  a  town  of  Russia  in  Europe,  on 
the  Noogra,  80  miles  north  of  Orel.  It  has 
16,000  inhabitants,  22  churches,  and  numerous 
manufactories  of  leather,  gloves,  hosiery,  and 
soap.    It  is  well  built,  mostly  of  wood. 

BOLLAN,  WiLUAu,  an  American  agent  in 
England,  bom  in  England,  emigrated  to  Boston, 
Mass.,  in  1740,  died  in  England  in  1776.  He 
was  collector  of  customs  for  Salem  and  Marble- 
head,  Mass.,  when  he  was  sent  to  England  in 
1746,  by  the  colony  of  Massachusetts,  to  obtain 
a  reimbursement  for  the  expenses  incurred  in 
tiie  expedition  against  Gape  Breton,  and  in  8 
years  returned  with  £188,649.  By  the  assist- 
ance of  Alderman  Beckford,  he  afterward  ob* 
tained  in  England,  and  transmitted  to  Massa- 
chusetts, copies  of  88  letters  written  home  by 
Gov.  Barmvd,  1768-'69.  For  this  act  he  was 
denounced  in  parliament  bv  Lord  North,  and 
commended  by  Mr.  Hancock  in  the  American 
house  of  representatives. 

BOLLAND,  or  Boixasbus,  Jorst  tav,  a 
learned  Jesuit,  bom  at  Tirlemont,  in  Belgium, 
Aug.  18,  1696,  died  Sept.  12,  1666.  As  early 
as  1607,  Heribert  Rosweyd,  a  distinguished 
Jesuit  of  Antwerp,  had  formed  the  design  of 
collecting  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  all  those 
who  had  been  canonized  in  the  church.  This 
design  was  finally  approved  by  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities,  and  BoUand  was  appointed  to 
carry  it  into  effect  At  his  request  Godfrey 
Henschen  was  appointed,  in  1686,  as  his  ooad- 
lutor.  The  plan  pursued  was  chronological,  tak- 
ing up  the  saints  in  the  order  of  the  calendar. 
The  work  was  entitled  by  Holland  Aeta  Sanc- 
torum, The  first  2  volumes  treating  of  the  Jan- 
nary  saints^  were  published  in  1648.  The  Feb- 
ruary sainU,  in  8  volumes,  were  completed  in 
1668.  BoUand  did  not  live  to  finish  the  March 
saints,  though  he  prosecuted  the  work  untU  his 
death.  He  was  thus  the  first  in  modem  times 
to  attempt  the  ha^ography  of  the  Roman 
church,  and  was  snooeededfrom  time  to  time  by 
a  series  of  writers  in  prosecution  of  the  original 
plan  of  Ros weyd.  From  Holland  tiie  successive 
writers  of  the  Aeta  Sanctorum  have  been  desig- 
nated and  known  in  eodesiastioal  history  as 
Bollandists.  Five  years  before  the  death  of 
BoUand,  the  order  appointed  another  colleague, 
Paniel  Papebroek,  and  the  work  went  on 
until  the  March  and  April  saints  were  com- 
pleted, and  16  days  of  May,  when  Henschen 
died  in  1681.  Other  successive  appointments 
followed,  until,  with  two  interruptions  (the 
first  in  1778,  when  the  order  of  Jesuits  was 
abolished,  and  the  second  in  the  French  revolu- 
tion), the  work  reached  68  vols.  It  was  then  for 
a  time  a  suspended,  but  resumed  in  1887,  under 
tlie  patronage  of  the  Belgian  govemmenl^ 
VOL.  ni. — ^29 


which  appropriated  a  yearly  amount  of  6,000 
francs  for  the  continuation  of  the  work.  To 
the  Bollandists  the  world  owes  the  accumula> 
tion  of  a  vast  amount  of  historic  material,  in 
the  course  of  the  prosecution  of  the  Aeta  San^ 
torum.  Some  important  historical  points  were 
settled  in  the  collections  made  by  Papebroek 
in  his  travels.  The  Aeta  Sanctorum^  although 
the  colossal  enterprise  which  must  ever  distin- 
guish the  Jesuits,  both  for  the  magnitude  of 
Its  plan  and  the  intelligence  and  learning  which 
characterize  its  execution,  was  not  the  first  at- 
tempt of  the  kind.  It  had  for  materials,  previ* 
ously  collected  by  various  persons,  the  Acta 
Ma/rtyrumy  and  several  private  collections, 
which  bore  the  names  of  Eusebius,  Bode,  and 
others.  Among  the  principal  Bollandists,  be* 
side  those  already  named,  were  Baert,  Bosch, 
Snyskens,  Hubens,  Berthed,  Ghesqui^e,  and 
Janning.  The  present  continuation  is  under 
the  editorial  care  of  Boone,  Ooppens,  Joseph 
van  der  Moere,  and  Joseph  van  Hecke,  who 
published  the  67th  vol.  in  1866. 

BOLLES,  Ltxoius,  D.  D^  a  Baptist  divine, 
born  in  Ashford,  Oonn.,  Sept.  26,  1779,  died 
in  Boston,  Jan.  8,  1844.  He  graduated  at 
Brown  university  in  1801.  He  became  interest- 
ed in  religion  daring  one  of  his  college  vacations, 
while  on  a  visit  to  Hartford,  Conn.,  and  seems 
to  have  had  his  thoughts  directed  at  once  to  the 
work  of  the  gospel  ministry.  As  the  Baptists 
had  no  theological  school  at  that  time,  he  com- 
menced the  study  of  theology  under  the  Rev.  Dr. 
Stillman,  pastor  of  the  first  Baptist  church, 
Boston,  with  whom  he  remaned  for  8  years. 
While  pursuing  his  studies  in  Boston,  he  had 
occasionally  preached  to  a  Baptist  society  in 
Salem,  Mass.,  with  which  he  became  connected 
as  pastor,  in  Dec.  1804  and  where  he  remained 
for  over  22  years.  No  minister  ever  received 
more  constant  manifestations  of  confidence  firom 
his  people,  and  few  have  been  more  successful 
in  promoting  the  objects  of  the  ministry.  In 
1824  he  was  elected  assistant  coirespondinff 
secretary  of  the  board  of  the  Baptist  general 
convention  for  foreign  missions,  then  established 
at  Washington.  In  1826,  on  the  transference  of 
the  board  to  Boston,  he  was  chosen  correspond- 
ing secretary,  the  duties  of  which  office  he  con- 
tinued to  perform  for  more  than  16  years,  with 
marked  ability,  and  general  acceptance. 

BOLLMANN,  Erio,  a  German  physician 
and  politician,  born  at  Hoya,  in  1769,  died  in 
London,  in  1821.  He  practiced  medicine  in 
Oarlsruhe  and  Paris,  and  in  the  latter  city  be- 
came an  actor  in  the  revolution.  He  conducted 
Count  Narbonne  to  London,  and  made  an  un- 
successful attempt  to  liberate  Lafayette  from 
imprisonment  at  Olmdt^  for  which  he  was  ar- 
rested and  banished.  He  came  to  America,  re- 
turned to  Europe  in  1814^  took  part  in  the  con- 
gress of  Vienna,  and  made  another  short  visit 
to  this  country,  after  which  he  lived  in  London. 

BOLOGNA,  a  delegation  of  the  papal  states, 
bounded  N.  by  Ferrara,  E.  by  Ravenna,  S.  by 
Tuscany,  and  W.  by  Modena ;  area  1,480  sq.  m. ; 


450 


BOLOGNA 


BOLSOVER  STONE 


pop.  in  1858,  875,681.  The  natural  fertilit7  of 
tho  district  is  so  great,  that,  although  only 
partially  coltivated,  it  produces  abandant  crops 
of  grain,  oil,  wine,  ngs,  almonds,  chestnuts, 
hemp,  flax,  Ac. — ^Also  the  capital  city  (ano. 
Banania)  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
situated  at  the  foot  of  the  Apen  nines,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Beno  and  savena;  pop. 
75,000.  It  was  taken  from  tha  Lombards 
by  Charlemagne,  but  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
10th  century  threw  off  the  French  voke,  and 
established  a  republic.  In  the  middle  ages, 
Bologna  sided  with  the  Guelphd.  In  1506,  it 
was  annexed  to  the  papal  dominions  by  Pope 
Julian  II.  In  1796,  it  was  taken  by  the  French, 
and  became  part  of  a  new  republic,  and  subse- 
quently of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  On  the  down- 
fall of  Napoleon,  it  reverted  to  the  papal  states. 
In  1848,  the  Austrian  forces  were  repulsed  by 
the  inhabitants,  but  finally,  on  May  16,  1849, 
they  were  oblig^  to  surrender,  after  a  heroic 
defence.  Since  then  the  Austrians  have  miun- 
tained  possession,  in  accordance  with  a  treaty 
with  the  papal  states.  The  university  of  Bo- 
logna is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Theodo- 
sius,  in  425,  and  to  have  been  restored  by  Char- 
lemagne, in  the  middle  ages  it  had  several 
thousand  students ;  the  present  number  is 
about  800.  Among  the  professors  have  been 
Galvani,  Orioli,  Tommasini,  Mezzofanti ;  the 
university  is  also  famous  for  its  female  profes- 
sors, as  Clotilde  Tambroni,  professor  of  Greek, 
who  died  in  1817,  Novella  a' Andrea,  professor 
of  canon  law  in  the  14th,  and  Laura  Basn, 
who  received  the  degree  of  doctor  of  philoso- 
phv  in  the  first  part  of  the  18th  century.  Hez- 
zonmti  for  some  time  presided  over  the  nniveiv 
sity  library,  which  contains  150,000  volumes 
and  1,000  M8S.  Another  public  library,  with 
88,000  volumes,  in  the  convent  of  San  Domenico, 
was  bequeathed  to  the  town  by  Father  Magnani. 
The  college  Yenturoli,  founded  in  1825,  is  de- 
voted to  architecture.  A  college  for  Spanish 
students  was  founded  by  Cardinal  Albornoz, 
and  one  for  Flemish  students  by  John  Jacobs, 
a  Flemish  goldsmith.  In  the  centre  of  the  city 
is  the  Aslnelli  tower,  820  feet  high,  and  the 
Ckirisenda,  about  160  feet  high,  and  which  leans 
to  one  side  about  9  feet  There  are,  beside  the 
cathedral,  78  churches,  85  convents,  88  nun- 
neries, 9  hospitals,  several  schools,  a  military 
academy,  and  various  benevolent  institutions. 
Pope  Clement  XIII.  founded  the  academy  of 
fine  arts,  also  called  Clement  academy,  which 
possesses  the  finest  works  of  the  founders  of 
the  Bolognese  school  of  painting,  as  Caracci, 
Guido  Reni,  Domenichino,  Albani,  and  other 
native  artists.  Not  less  than  8  popes  have  been 
natives  of  Bologna,  among  whom  Benedict  XIV. 
is  the  most  eminent.  Ainong  other  persons  of 
distinction  born  at  Bologna  may  be  mentioned 
the  naturalist  Aldovrandi,  the  anatomist  Mon- 
dino,  Malpighi,  Maragli,  Manfredi,  and  Galvani 
BOLOGNA,  GiovAion  di,  a  sculptor  and  ar- 
chitect, born  at  Douay,  in  Flanders,  aboutl524^ 
died  in  Florence  in  1608.    At  an  early  age  be 


went  to  Eome,  where  he  passed  2  years  in 
studying  the  masterpieces  of  art  Going  to 
Florence,  he  was  attracted  by  the  works  of 
Michel  Angdo,  and  determined  to  peas  the 
rest  of  his  life  there.  He  rapidly  rose  to  the 
foremost  rank  among  sculptors,  and  few  artists 
were  charged  with  the  execution  of  so  many 
and  such  important  works.  His  surname  of 
Bologna  seems  to  have  been  derived  from  t^e 
celebrated  fountain  in  that  city,  dedgned  by 
himself^  of  which  the  crowning  colossal  figure 
of  Neptune  is  one  of  the  wonders  of  modem 
art  At  Florence,  however,  where,  with  ooca- 
sional  intermissions,  he  constantly  resided,  are 
to  be  found  his  finest  works,  such  as  the  cele- 
brated "Rape  of  the  Sabine  Women,"  and  the 
equally  celebrated  bronze  of  Mercury  Jnst 
sprinffing  into  the  air,  with  one  foot  stiU.  npon 
the  globe. 

BOLOGNA  yiAL,  a  name  ffiven  to  mdely 
shaped  flasks  of  glass, .  which,  m  making,  are 
suddenly  cooled  without  annealing.  They  are 
made  to  illustrate  the  peculiar  effects  of  the 
annealing  process. 

BOLOGNIAN  STONE,  a  peculiar  variety  of 
sulphate  of  barytes,  found  atMonte  Patemo,  near 
Bologna.  It  is  of  fibrous,  radiated  structure,  and 
possesses  the  singular  property,  when  caldned, 
pulverized,  converted  into  a  paste,  and  dried, 
of  emitting  a  phosphorescent  light,  which  Is 
sometimes  sufficient  to  enable  one  to  read. 

BOLONCHEN,  a  village  of  Yucatan;  pop, 
7,000.  In  the  plaza,  or  square  of  the  vilhige, 
are  9  wells,  cut  through  a  stratum  of  rock,  and 
communicating  with  a  common  reservoir.  In 
the  vicinity  is  a  remarkable  cave,  which  has 
been  careftdly  explored  by  Mr.  Stephens. 

BOLOR  TAGH,  or  Belub  Taoh,  a  chain  of 
mountains  in  central  Asia,  separating  Inde- 
pendent Tartary  from  the  Chinese  empire,  and 
connecting  the  systems  of  the  Altai  ana  the 
Himalaya.  Its  culminating  points  exceed  2,000 
feet  in  height 

BOLSENA,  a  town  of  the  papal  states,  on 
the  lake  of  the  same  name,  56  miles  N.  N.  W.  of 
Rome ;  pop.  1,800.  In  the  immediate  vicinity 
stood  the  ancient  Yolsinium,  one  of  the  most 
powerM  of  the  Etruscan  cities.  Some  re- 
mains of  its  temples,  including  several  granite 
columns,  are  still  in  existence.  The  lake  of 
Bolsena,  which  is  supposed  to  fill  an  ancient 
crater,  exhales,  a  deadly  malaria  during  the 
summer  season.  It  is  about  9  miles  long, 
7  miles  broad,  and  285  feet  deep.  The  shores 
are  formed  by  finely  wooded  hills,  presenting 
much  beautiftd  scenerv ;  it  has  2  small  islands^ 
called  Martana  and  Bisentina^  believed  once  to 
have  been  fioating,  and  it  discharges  its  sor- 
plus  waters  into  the  Mediterranean  by  the 
Marta  river. 

BOLSON  DE  MAPIMI,  a  part  of  Durango, 
Mexico;  area  about  60,000  sq.  m.  It  is  a  wild, 
mountainous  tract  of  country,  peopled  chiefiy 
by  wandering  Apaches. 

BOLSOYEB  STONE,  the  building  stone  se- 
lected by  the  commissions  of  scientific  and 


BOLSWEBT 


BOMB 


451 


G] 


^raetioal  men,  appointed  by  the  government  of 
rreat  Britain,  for  the  construction  of  the  new 
houses  of  parliament*  Good  baUding  stone  is 
difficult  to  find  in  England,  and  none  has  jpt 
been  used  that  entirely  withstands  the  dis{||^ 
grating  effect  of  its  moist  climate.  The  stone 
select^  is  a  yellow  dolomite,  or  magnesian 
carbonate  of  lime,  of  crystalline  structure,  found 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bolsover,  in  Derbyshire, 
It 'is  of  very  uniform  grain,  is  worked  with 
easS,  and  is  well  adapted  for  long  preserving 
the  sharp  lines  of  the  complicated  ornamenta- 
tion to  which  it  is  applied  in  the  splendid  8tru<>- 
tures  of  the  British  parliament. 

BOLSWERT,  BoBTius  Adaic,  called  Bolswert 
after  his  native  place  in  Friesland,  a  Dutch  en- 
graver, bom  about  1580,  died  in  1634,  author  of 
many  valuable  engravings  after  designs  of  Bloe- 
maert  and  Bubens.^His  younger  brother,  Sohsl* 
nus  Adaic,  rose  to  higher  fame  in  the  same  art^  es- 
pecially distinguishing  himself  by  his  prints  alter 
some  of  the  best  works  of  Bubens  and  Van- 
dyke. Both  brothers  practised  their  art  at 
Antwerp. 

BOLT,  a  cylindrical  or  square  bar  of  metal, 
with  a  head  at  one  end  and  a  screw-thread  and 
nut  at  the  other,  used  in  ship  and  bouse  build- 
ing, and  in  machine  shops,  to  bind  together 
timber,  metal,  or  masonry.  Bolts  are  generally 
made  of  iron  of  inferior  quality,  which  must 
be  such  that  the  admixture  of  foreign  substances, 
which  diminishes  its  cohesive  strength  and 
malleability,  does  not,  at  the  same  time,  render 
it  more  liable  to  rust.  This  last  consideration 
is  especially  important  in  the  United  States, 
where  iron  exposed  in  the  open  air  rusts 
through  in  a  much  shorter  time  than  in  Eu- 
rope. Most  bolts  are  made  of  rod-iron,  cut  of 
the  required  length,  and  the  heads  forged, 
either  by  turning  over  the  ends  of  the  rods,  or 
by  welding  to  them  a  head  punched,  like  a  nut, 
out  of  sheet-iron.  The  bolts  are  then  passed 
through  the  hollow  spindle  of  a  lathe,  and  the 
threads  cut  in  the  usual  manner,  when  nuts 
are  screwed  on  and  the  bolts  are  ready  for  mar- 
ket. A  very  important  improvement  in  this 
manufacture  was  patented  in  England  in  1657, 
by  Mr.  A.  H.  Benton,  who  is  proprietor  of  the 
piU:ent,  but  not  the  inventor.  It  consists  in 
raising  up  the  screw-threads  by  forging  instead 
of  cutdng  out  the  metal  between  them.  This 
is  done  by  pladng  the  end  of  the  bolt  heated 
red  hot  between  2  steel  dies,  each  similar  to  a 
half  nut,  one  of  which  i^  made  to  move  up  uid 
down  above  the  other.  The  threads  are  thus 
stamped  with  great  fsicillty,  and  are  much 
tougher  than  when  cut.  Moreover,  as  the  cut- 
ting of  the  screw  is  the  most  costly  part  of  the 
work  in  bolt  making,  the  new  process  consid- 
erably reduces  the  price  of  bolts. 

BOLTON^  or  Boulton,  Edmttnd,  an  English 
antiquary  of  the  17th  century,  the  author  of 
a  number  of  curious  treatises,  the  chief  of 
which,  entitled  ^^Nero  Cassar,  or  Monarchie 
Depraved  ^'  (Lond.  1624),  contains  an  account 
ci  the  insurrection  under  Boadioea. 


BOLTON  LE  MOORS,  a  manufacturing 
town  and  borough  of  Lancashire,  England,  1§ 
miles  N.  W.  of  Manchester;  pop.  61,171.  The 
Oroal,  a  tributary  of  the  Jewell,  divides  the 
place  into  Great  and  Little  Bolton.  The  manu- 
facture of  woollens  was  introduced  here  by  the 
Flemings  in  1887,  but  the  inventions  of  Ark- 
wright  and  Crompton,  both  natives  of  the 
place,  laid  the  foundation  of  its  present  pros- 
perity. It  is  now  one  of  the  principal  seats  of 
the  cotton  manufacture  in  England.  In  1849, 
there  were  58  cotton  mills  in  operation,  giving 
employment  to  9,759  persons.  Bolton  has  also 
extensive  founderies  and  iron  works,  paper,  flax, 
and  saw  mills.  Numerous  coal-pits  are  workea 
in  the  vicinity.  The  town  is  well  supplied  with 
water.  It  is  connected  by  canal  and  railway 
with  Manchester  and  Bury,  and  by  railway 
with  Liverpool,  Preston,  Leigh,  and  Black- 
bum.  It  sends  2  members  to  the  house  of 
commons. 

BOLZANO,  Bbbnhabd,  a  Bohemian  Roman 
Catholic  theologian  and  philosopher,  born  at 
Prague,  Oct  5, 1781,  died  Dec.  18, 1848.  From 
1805  to  1820  he  was  professor  and  chaplain  at 
the  university  of  Prague,  but  was  accused  of 
insidiously  instilling  into  the  minds  of  the  stu- 
dents the  heresies  of  Schelling  and  Hegel,  and 
was  dismissed  from  his  office.  He  left  many 
writings,  of  which  his  WUu7iMclu\fUlehT6\&  the 
most  important. 

BOMARSUND,  a  narrow  channel  between 
the  island  of  AJands  and  Yardo,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  Russian 
fortifications  to  the  harbor  of  Bomarsund  were 
destroyed  by  the  British  and  Frendi  fleets  dur- 
ing the  war  of  1854.  The  channels  leading  up 
to  Bomarsund  were  blockaded  at  the  end  of 
July  by  4  British  ships  and  a  few  small  steam- 
ers. Shortly  afterward  strong  detachments  of 
the  allied  fleets  arrived,  with  the  admirals  Na- 

Eier  and  Parseval-Desoh^nes^  followed,  Aug.  7, 
y  the  line-of-battle  ships  with  Gen.  Baraguay 
d'HiUiers  and  12,000  troops,  mostly  French. 
The  Russian  commander.  Gen.  Bodisoo,  was 
compelled  to  surrender  on  Aug.  16,  the  allies 
continuing  to  occupy  the  island  until  the  end 
of  the  month,  when  the  whole  of  the  fortifica* 
tion  was  blown  up.  The  trophies  of  the  victors 
were  112  mounted  guns,  79  not  mounted,  8 
mortars,  7  field  guns,  and  2,285  prisoners.  The 
principal  military  Interest  offer^  by  this  siege 
IS  its  setting  completely  at  rest  the  question  as 
to  the  employment  of  uncovered  masonry  m 
fortifications  with  land-fironts. 
'  BOMB,  or  Shbix,  a  hoUow  iron  shot  for  heavy 
guns  and  mortars,  filled  with  powder,  and 
thrown  at  a  considerable  elevation,  and  intend- 
ed to  act  by  the  force  of  its  faXL  and  explosion* 
They  are  generally  the  largest  of  all  projectiles 
used,  as  a  mortar,  being  shorter  than  any  other 
class  of  ordnance,  can  be  made  so  much  larger 
in  diameter  and  bore.  Bombs  of  10, 11,  and  18 
inches  are  now  of  common  use;  the  French,  at 
the  siege  of  Antwerp  in  1881,  used  a  mortar  and 
i^ells  cast  in  Belgium,  of  24  inches  calibre.    The 


452 


BOMB  EETOH 


BOMB-PROOF 


powder  contained  in  a  bomb  is  exploded  by  a 
fuze  or  hollow  tabe  filled  with  a  Blow-baming 
composition,  which  takes  fire  by  the  discharge 
of  ihe  mortar.  These  fbzes  are  so  timed 
that  the  bomb  bursts  as  short  a  time  as 
possible  aft^r  it  has  reached  its  destination, 
sometimes  just  before  it  reaches  the  ground. 
Beside  the  powder,  there  are  sometimes  a 
few  pieces  of  Valenciennes  composition  put 
into  the  shell,  to  set  fire  to  combustible  ob- 
jects, but  it  is  maintained  that  tiiese  pieces  are 
useless,  the  explosion  shattering  them  to  atoms, 
and  that  the  incendiary  effects  of  shells  without 
such  composdtion  are  equally  great.  Bombs  are 
thrown  at  angles  varying  from  16°  to  45°,  but 
generally  from  80°  to  45°;  the  larger  shells  and 
smaller  charges  having  the  greatest  proportional 
ranges  at  about  45"*,  while  smaller  shells  with 
greater  charges  range  furthest  at  about  80^. 
The  charges  are  in  ad  instances  proportionally 
small :  a  18-ineh  bomb  weighing  200  lbs.,  thrown 
out  of  a  mortar  at  the  elevation  of  45°,  with  a 
charge  of  8J  lbs.  powder,  ranges  1,000  yards, 
and  with  20  lbs.  or  j\  of  its  weight,  4,200  yards. 
The  effects  of  such  a  bomb,  coming  down  from 
a  tremendous  height,  are  very  great  if  it  falls  on 
any  thing  destructible.  It  will  go  through  all 
the  floors  in  a  house,  and  penetrate  vaulted 
arches  of  considerable  strengUi ;  and,  though  a 
IS-inch  shell  only  contains  about  7  lbs.  of  pow- 
der, yet  its  bursting  acts  like  the  explosion  of  a 
mine,  and  the  fragments  will  fiy  to  a  distance  of 
800  or  1,000  yards  if  unobstructed.  On  the  con- 
trary, if  it  falls  on  soft  soil,  it  will  imbed  itself 
in  the  earth  to  a  depth  of  from  8  to  12  feet,  and 
either  be  extinguished  or  explode  without  doing 
any  harm.  Bombs  are  therefore  often  used  as 
small  mines,  or  fcugoMe^  being  imbedded  in  the 
earth  about  a  foot  deep  in  such  places  where 
the  enemy  must  pass ;  to  fire  them,  a  slow  match 
or  train  is  preparad.  This  is  the  first  shape  in 
which  they  occur  in  history:  the  Chinese,  ac- 
cording to  their  chronicles,  several  centuries  be- 
fore our  era  used  metal  balls  filled  with  bursting 
composition  and  small  pieces  of  metal,  and  fired 
by  a  slow  match.  They  were  employed  in  the 
defence  of  defiles,  being  deposited  there  on  the 
approach  of  the  enemy.  In  1282,  at  the  siege 
or  Kal-fong-fb,  the  Chinese  used,  against  an  as- 
sault, to  roll  bombs  down  the  parapet  among 
the  assailant  Mongols.  Mahmood  Shah  of  Guz- 
erat,  in  the  siege  of  Champaneer,  in  1484,  threw 
bombs  into  the  town.  In  Europe,  not  to  mention 
earlier  instances  of  a  more  doubtful  character, 
the  Arabs  in  Spain,  and  the  Spaniards  afbar 
them,  threw  shells  and  carcasses  from  ordnance 
after  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century,  but  the 
costliness  and  difiSculties  of  manufacturing  hol- 
low shot  long  prevented  their  genend  introduc- 
tion. They  have  become  an  important  ingredient 
of  siege  artillery  since  the  middle  of  Sie  17th 
century  only. 

BOMB  KETCH  is  now  generally  used  to 
designate  the  more  old-fashioned  sort  of  mortar 
vessels  {galiote*  d  honibes).  They  were  built 
strong  enough  to  resist  the  shock  caused  by  the 


recoil  of  the  mortar,  60  to  70  feet  long,  100  to 
150  tons  burden ;  they  drew  from  8  to  9  feet 
water,  and  were  rigged  usually  with  2  masts. 
They  nsed  to  carry  2  mortars  and  some  guns. 
The  sailing  qualities  of  these  vessels  were  natur- 
ally very  inferior.  A  tender,  generally  a  brig, 
was  attached  to  them,  which  carried  the  artil- 
lerymen and  the  greater  part  of  the  aramn- 
nition,  until  the  action  commenced. 

BOMB  LANCE,  an  instrument  recently  intro- 
duced in  the  whale  fishery,  being  shot  into  the 
body  of  the  whale,  in  which  it  explodes.  One 
called  Brande^s  patent  bomb  lance  has  been  for 
some  time  in  use,  and  the  manufacture  of  them, 
as  of  the  large  muskets  from  which  they  are 
discharged,  is  carried  on  at  Norwich,  Connecti- 
cut. The  lance  consists  of  a  thin  cylindrical 
shell  of  iron  armed  with  a  sharp  and  heavy  point 
of  a  triangular  section.  The  shell  is  made  open 
at  its  rear  end,  but  after  receiving  the  powder 
and  a  suitable  piece  of  fuze,  it  is  stopped  water- 
tight by  a  layer  of  melted  lead.  From  the  fact 
of  the  fuze  enclosed  in  the  solid  lead  burning 
instantly  when  fired,  it  is  found  necessary  to 
use  two  leaden  diaphragms,  between  which  a 
proper  quantity  of  foize  is  coiled.  The  muskets  for 
shootiuff  these  lances  are  very  heavy,  the  charge 
of  powder  being  about  4  ounces.  Its  explosion 
fires  the  fuze,  and  the  explosion  of  the  bomb  fol- 
lows in  a  few  seconds  in  the  body  of  the  whale. 

BOMB-PKOOF,  the  state  of  a  roof  strong 
enou^  to  resist  the  shock  of  bombs  falling  upon 
it.  witii  the  enormous  calibres  now  in  use,  it 
is  almost  impossible,  and  certainly  as  yet  not 
worth  while,  to  aim  at  absolute  security  from 
vertical  fire  for  most  buildings  covered  in  bomb- 
proof. A  circular  vault  8^  feet  thick  at  the 
keystone,  will  resist  most  shells,  and  even  a 
single  18-inch  shell  miffht  not  break  through; 
but  a  second  one  could  in  most  cases  do  so. 
Absolutely  bomb-proof  buildings  are  therefore 
confined  to  powder  magarines,  laboratories,  &o., 
where  a  single  shell  would  cause  an  immense 
explosion.  Strong  vaults  covered  over  with  8 
or  4  feet  of  earth,  will  give  the  greatest  security. 
For  common  casemat^  the  vaults  need  not  be 
so  very  strong,  as  the  chance  of  shells  fiftlling 
repeatedly  into  the  same  place  is  very  remote. 
For  temporary  shelter  against  shells,  buildings 
are  covered  in  with  strong  balks  laid  close  to- 
gether and  overlaid  with  fascines,  on  which 
some  dung  and  finally  earth  is  spread.  The  in- 
troduction of  casemated  batteries  and  forts,  and 
of  casemated  defensive  barracks,  placed  mostly 
along  the  inner  slope  of  the  rampart^  at  a  short 
distance  from  it,  has  considerably  increased  the 
number  of  bomb-proof  buildings  in  fortresses; 
and  with  the  present  mode  of  combining  violent 
bombardment  continued  night  and  day,  with 
the  regular  attack  of  a  fortress,  the  garrison 
cannot  be  expected  to  hold  out  unless  effective 
shelter  is  provided  in  which  those  off  duty  can 
recover  their  strength  by  rest  This  sort  of 
buildings  is  Uierefore  likely  to  be  still  more  ex- 
tensively applied  in  the  construction  of  modem 
fortresses. 


BOMB  VESSEL 


BOMBAY 


453 


BOMB  VESSEL,  or  Mortab  Boat,  is  the 
expression  ia  use  for  the  more  modern  class  of 
ships  oonstracted  to  carry  mortars.  Up  to  the 
Kassiaa  war,  those  huilt  for  the  British  service 
drew  8  or  9  feet  water,  and  carried,  heside 
their  2  10-inch  mortars,  4  68-poanders,  and  6 
18  lb.  carronades.  When  the  Russian  war  made 
naval  warfare  in  shallow  waters  and  intricate 
channels  a  neoessitj,  and  mortar  boats  were  re- 
quired on  account  c^  the  strong  sea-fronts  of 
the  Russian  fortresses,  which  defied  any  direct 
attack  by  ships,  a  new  class  of  bomb  vessels 
had  to  be  devised.  The  new  boats  thus  built 
are  about  60  feet  long,  with  great  breadth  of 
beam,  round  bows  Hke  a  Dutch  galliot,  flat- 
bottoms,  drawing  6  or  7  feet  water,  and  pro- 
pelled by  steam.  They  carnr  2  mortars,  10  or 
184noh  calibre,  and  a  few  neld-guns  or  carro- 
nades to  repel  boarding  parties  by  grape,  but 
no  heavy  guns.  They  were  used  with  great 
eSbct  at  Sweaborg,  which  place  they  bombard- 
ed firom  a  distance  of  4,000  yards. 

BOMBARDIER,  originally  the  man  having 
charge  of  a  mortar  in  a  mortar  battery,  but 
now  retuned  in  some  armies  to  designate  a  non- 
commissioned rank  in  the  artillery,  somewhat 
below  a  sergeant.  The  bombardier  generally 
has  the  pointing  of  the  gun  for  his  principal 
duty.  In  Austria,  a  bombardier  corps  is  formed 
as  a  training  school  for  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers of  the  artillery,  an  institution  which  has 
contributed  much  to  the  effective  and  scientific 
mode  of  serving  their  guns,  for  which  that 
branch  of  the  Austrian  service  is  distinguished. 

BOMBARDMENT,  the  act  of  thro  wing  bombs 
or  shells  into  a  town  or  fortress  for  incendiary 
purposes.  A  bombardment  is  either  desultory, 
when  ships,  field  batteries,  or  a  proportionally 
small  number  of  siege  batteries,  throw  shells 
into  a  place  in  order  to  intimidate  the  inhabi- 
tants and  garrison  into  a  hasty  surrender,  or 
for  some  other  purpose ;  or  it  is  regular,  and 
then  forms  one  of  the  methods  of  conducting 
the  attack  of  a  fortified  place.  The  attack  by 
regular  bombardment  was  first  introduced  by 
the  Prussians  in  their  sieges  in  1815,  after 
Waterloo,  of  the  fortresses  in  the  north  of 
fVance.  The  army  and  the  Bonapartist  party 
being  then  much  dispirited,  and  the  remamder 
of  the  inhabitants  anxiously  wishing  for  peace, 
it  was  thought  that  the  formalities  of  the  old 
methodical  attack  in  this  case  might  be  dispens- 
ed with,  and  a  short  and  heavy  bombardment 
substituted,  which  would  create  fires  and  ex- 
plosions of  magazines,  prevent  every  soul  in 
the  place  from  getting  a  night's  rest^  and  thus 
in  a  short  time  compel  a  surrender,  either  by 
the  moral  pressure  of  the  inhabitants  on  ih» 
commander,  or  by  the  actual  amount  of  devas- 
tation caused,  and  by  out-fatiguing  the  garrison. 
The  regular  attack  by  direct  fire  against  the 
defences,  though  proceeded  with,  became  sec- 
ondary to  vertical  fire  and  shelling  from  heavy 
howitaEcrs.  In  some  cases  a  desultory  bombard- 
ment was  sufficient,  in  others  a  regular  bom- 
bardment had  to  be  resorted  to ;  but  in  every  in- 


stance the  plan  was  successful ;  and  it  is  now  a 
maxim  in  the  theory  of  sieges,  that  to  destroy 
the  resources,  and  to  render  unsafe  the  interior 
of  a  fortress  by  vertical  fire,  is  as  important  (if 
not  more  so)  as  the  destruction  of  its  outer  de- 
fences by  direct  and  ricochet  firing.  A  bom- 
bardment will  be  most  effective  against  a  for- 
tress of  middling  size,  with  numerous  non-mili- 
taij  inhabitants,  the  moral  effect  upon  them 
being  one  of  the  means  applied  to  force  the 
commander  into  surrender.  For  the  bombard- 
ment of  a  large  fortress,  an  immense  materiel 
is  required.  The  best  example  of  this  is  the 
siege  of  Sebastopol,  in  which  quantities  of  shells 
formerly  unheard  of  were  used.  The  same  war 
furnishes  the  most  important  example  of  a  de- 
sultory bombardment,  in  the  attack  upon  Swea- 
borg by  the  Anglo-French  mortar  boats,  in 
which  above  5,000  shells  and  the  same  number 
of  solid  shot  were  thrown  into  the  place. 

BOMBAST,  in  rhetoric,  the  statement  of 
mean  ideas  by  lofty  words.  It  is  an  affectation  of 
energy  or  inspiration,  and  is  often  produced 
when  persons  lacking  sensibility  attempt  to 
describe  the  passions,  <$r,  lacking  imagination, 
attempt  to  paint  fictitious  scenes. 

BOMBAY  (Port,  lomor  loa  lahia^  good 
harbor),  a  city  and  presidency  of  British  In- 
dia.—The  city  of  Bombay  is  in  lat.  18^  67' 
N.,  long.  72^  62'  E.,  on  an  island  of  the  same 
name,  to  which  the  a^'acent  island  of  Salsette 
Lb  joined  by  a  causeway.  The  island  was  con- 
quered by  the  Mussulmans  in  the  latter  part  of 
the  16th  century,  and  ceded  to  the  Portuguese 
in  the  early  part  of  the  16th.  In  1661  it  came 
to  the  English  crown  as  part  of  the  dowry  of 
Catharine  of  Braganza,  wife  of  Charles  II.  In 
1669  it  was  transferred  by  the  king  to  the 
East  India  company,  with  all  politico  powers 
necessary  to  its  maintenance  and  defence. 
Bombay  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the 
preeidencv,  and  a  naval  station.  It  is  well 
fortified,  has  a  convenient  dock-yard,  in  which 
several  ships  of  war  have  been  built,  and  the 
finest  harbor  of  western  India.  The  population 
of  Bombay  island,  including  Colabba,  according 
to  the  census  of  1849,  is  666,119,  of  which 
6,088  are  Europeans.  The  Parsees,  the  rem- 
nant of  the  ancient  fire  worshippers,  form  an 
important  class  of  the  population,  not  only  by 
numbers,  but  also  by  their  intellectual  capaci- 
ties, habits  of  business,  and  great  wealth.  They 
have  the  management  of  the  dock-yards,  whicn 
belong  to  the  government.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished and  public  spirited  of  the  many 
wealthy  Parsee  merchants  of  Bombay  is  Sir 
Jamseljee  J^eebhoy.  Bombay  carries  on  an 
extensive  trade  with  Europe,  and  with  the 
coasts  of  western  Asia.  It  is  a  depot  for  the 
merchandise  and  produce  collected  by  naUve 
traders,  and  waiting  transport  to  Europe,  or 
other  parts  of  Asia.  Cotton  is  an  important 
article  of  export  from  Bombay;  in  1860  it 
exported  160,000,000  lbs.  It  is  principally 
supplied  from  the  provinces  of  Guzerat  and 
the  Concan,  from  Malabar,  Cutch,  and  Sinde. 


454 


BOMBAY 


BOMMEL 


The  produce  exported  to  England  is  princi- 
pally  Persian  raw  silk,  cotton,  wool,  spices, 
gums,  and  drags.  Bombay  is  connected  with 
England  by  what  is  called  the  overland  mail 
route,  by  way  of  Aden,  the  Red  Sea,  Suez,  and 
Alexandra,  completing  in  85  days  a  transit 
which  nsed  to  occupy  6  months.  The  first 
railway  in  the  East  Indies  was  opened  April  6, 
1858,  from  Bombay  to  Tanna,  and  telegriaphio 
communications  between  Bombay  and  Calcutta 
in  1854.  Bombay  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
bishop,  and  of  the  supreme  court  for  the  presi* 
dency.  Among  the  principal  banks  are  the  bank 
of  Bombay,  and  the  branch  office  of  the  Great 
Eastern  bank  of  London.  There  is  an  Asiatic 
society,  a  medical,  geographical,  and  agricul- 
tural society.  The  most  important  louraals  of 
Bombay  are  the  "Bombay  Times,"  " Bombay 
Courier,*'  "  Overland  Bombay  Times,"  and  the 
'^Indian  News."  Bombay  is  one  of  the  most 
important  Indian  stations  for  American  and 
Bntish  missionaries.  The  first  British  estab- 
lishment within  the  limits  of  the  presidency  of 
Bombay  was  made  at  6urat,  in  1601. — ^The  pres- 
idency, which  is  subordinate  to  the  authority 
of  the  governor-general  of  India,  includes  a 
territory  on  the  continent  north  and  south  of 
the  island  of  Bombay,  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Indus  to  lat.  15^  K.,  and  comprises  the  follow- 
ing coUectorates  and  population,  according  to 
the  census  of  1849 : 

ArM  la  M.  m.  PopnUtioa. 

Bunt 1,689  4M,684 

BoTOMh 1,819  890,984 

AhmedAbad 4,856  650,288 

Kalra 1,869  580,681 

Candetah. 9,811  7T8  US 

Turna,  or  North  Concan 5477  815,849 

Poonah 5,398  666,006 

AhmedAOggar,lacladiiigNaaaook.....  9,981  995,585 

Bholapore 4,991  675,115 

Belgaam 5,405  1,095,889 

Barwar 8,887  754,885 

Butnagbcrry,  or  Boatb  Concan 8,964  665,988 

Bombay  ialand,  Inclading  Golabba. ...       18  666,119 

Colabba  territory 819  68,721 

Sattarah 10,929  1.005,771 

67,946         10,091,806 
Binde: 

Bhlkarpoor ) 

Hyderabad TO2,190  1,087,768 

Rarrachee ) 

Natire  states  within  the  Bombay  ter- 
ritory  60,650  4,469,985 

180,716  16,678,999 

The  revenue  of  the  presidency  for  the  year 
1851-'6a  was,  £2,738,962;  disbursements, 
£8,209,588.  For  the  same  year  the  mili- 
tary disbursements  were  £1,683.828.  The 
sources  of  revenue  are  the  land  tax,  salt 
tax,  the  stipend  from  native  princes,  and 
duties  on  various  other  articles,  among  which 
is  a  heavy  duty  on  opium.  The  government 
of  the  presidency  is  essentially  the  same  as 
that  of  other  parts  of  British  India;  the  edu- 
cational arrangements  are  of  the  same  general 
character.  Much  has  been  done  in  this  presi- 
dency in  the  way  of  internal  improvements, 
roads,  tanks,  and  irrigation.  A  survey  of  the 
land  has  also  been  made,  the  Ikrger  part  of  the 
cultivators  being  placed  in  direct  relation  with 


the  government. — On  the  outbreak  of  the  Se- 
poy mutiny  in  185T,  the  Bombay  troops  exhib- 
ited a  fidelity  which  was  frequently  contrasted 
with  the  conduct  of  the  native  regiments  in 
Bengal,  but  in  time  the  spirit  of  revolt  affected 
some  of  tliem  also.  A  formidable  rising  at 
Oolapoor  was  suppressed  after  8  Eurc^iean 
officers  had  been  murdered.  Conspiracies  were 
opportunely  detected  at  Kurraohee,  Shikarpoor, 
and  Hyderabad  in  8inde,  and  even  the  dty  of 
Bombay  was  thrown  into  a  panic  by  the  dis- 
covery of  a  plot  to  massacre  ail  its  European 
inhabitants.  The  ringleaders  were  apprehended 
and  2  of  them  blown  away  from  guns.  The 
tnutiny  in  this  pre^dency,  however,  did  not 
attain  a  serious  magnitude. 

BOMBAZINE  (Gr.  /5o^/9vf  a  silkworm),  a 
fabric  of  which  the  warp  is  silk,  and  tlie  weft 
worsted,  manufactured  originally  in  Lombardy, 
and  chiefly  for  mourning  apparel.  It  is  now 
usually  composed  wholly  of  woollen,  and  is  man- 
ufactured in  France,  England,  Holland,  and  Grer- 
many.  A  large  amount  of  capital  is  uivestod 
in  its  manufacture  in  Norwich,  England. 

BOMBELLI,  RA.FFABLO,  a  Bolognese  math- 
ematician, of  whom  little  else  is  known  than  that 
he  lived  In  the  16th  century,  and  in  the  year 
1572  published  a  treatise  on  algebra,  which  has 
now  become  very  scarce.  He  is  the  first  who 
attempted  the  solution  of  the  ^*  irreducible  case*^ 
in  cubic  equations.  He  gave  the  geometrical 
solution  depending  upon  the  trisection  of  an 
angle,  which  latter  problem,  he  observed,  could 
be  reduced  to  a  cubic  equation.  He  was  also 
the  first  to  attempt  the  extraction  of  the  cube 
root  in  the  result  of  Cardan's  formula.  He 
states  in  the  preface  to  his  work  that  algebra 
was  known  to  the  Hindoos  earlier  than  to  the 
Arabs,  an  assertion  which  cannot  be  subetan- 
tiated  by  any  published  books  or  manuscripts. 

BOMBERG,  Daniel,  a  famous  printer  of  He- 
brew characters,  bom  at  Antwerp,  in  the  Neth- 
erlands, died  at  Venice  in  1549.  He  printed 
several  editions  of  the  Hebrew  Bible,  the  first 
of  which  appeared  at  Venice,  in  1518.  The 
Talmud  and  many  other  Hebrew  books  issued 
from  his  press.  His  style  of  execution  was  so 
expensive  that  it  ruined  him. 

BOMFIM,  Jos£  JoAQriM,  count,  aPortnguese 
general,  and  leader  of  the  constitutional  party, 
born  at  Peniche,  in  Estremadura^  March  5, 1790. 
After  serving  with  distinction  in  the  army,  he 
besan  his  political  career  in  1828,  as  an  opponent 
of  Don  Miguel.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  raUy 
under  the  banner  of  Don  Pedro  on  his  arrivsi 
in  Portugal,  and  supported  Donna  Maria  in  the 
civil  war  which  foUowed  her  accession  to  the 
throne.  He  was  minister  of  war  and  of  the  navy 
from  1887  to  1841.  After  the  overthrow  of  the 
constitution  ho  was  defeated  and  captured  by 
the  duke  of  Saldanha,  and  banished  to  Africa. 
Recalled  in  1847,  he  took  part  in  the  movement 
of  1848,  which  gave  a  momentary  triumph  to 
the  republican  party. 

BOMMEL,  CoBNsuim  Richard  AirronnE 
VAN,  bishop  of  li^ge,  bom  at  Boia-le-Duc,  April 


BONA 


BONALD 


455 


Sy  1790,  died  in  Li£ge»  April  7, 1852.  He  sprang 
from  au  influential  and  wealthy  Roman  Oatbolic 
£imily  of  Lejden,  and  was  educated  for  the 
ohurch.  His  exertions  in  behalf  of  education 
caused  him  to  be  appointed  director  of  a  seminary 
near  Ley  den,  which  appointment  he  retained  un- 
til 1815,  when  the  government  closed  all  schools 
which  had  been  established  by  the  dergy.  He 
now  retired  to  private  life,  where,  in  anonymous 
publications^  he  vindicated  the  cause  of  free 
education  against  the  government.  Without 
any  knowledge  of  the  authorship  of  these  pub- 
lications, the  government  appointed  Bommel 
bishop  of  Li^  in  1829.  On  the  outbreak  of 
1880  he  espoused  the  Belgian  cause,  and,  after 
the  successful  issue  of  the  revolution,  he  re- 
tained his  post,  became  the  leader  of  the  ultra- 
montane party,  opposed  freemasonry,  refused  to 
transfer  his  episcopal  see  to  Holland,  favored 
the  missions  of  the  Jesuits,  and  caused  the  ad- 
ministration of  Nothomb,  in  1842,  to  adopt  his 
theory  of  making  the  dergy  the  guardians  of 
educt^ion,  which,  however,  was  discarded  by 
subsequent- administrations.  He  was  a  scholar 
of  great  erudition,  and  left  several  works, 
among  which  may  be  named,  especially,  ^  An 
Exposition  of  the  True  Principles  of  Public  In- 
struotion,  in  its  connection  with  Bdigion,"  pub- 
lished in  1840. 

BONA,  a  fortified  town  on  the  coast  of  Alge- 
riA»  265  miles  £.  of  Algiers;  pop.  10,000. 
It  was  the  key  of  the  province  of  Oonstan- 
tine;  and,  though  unimportant  in  any  other 
point  of  view,  was  early  occupied  by  the 
French  in  their  attack  upon  Algiers.  It  is  rich 
in  historical  recollections ;  the  ruins  of  the  an- 
cient Hippo-Regius,  the  Numidian  capital,  are 
still  visible  at  about  a  mile  distant.  The  place 
k  not  healthy  from  the  neighborhood  of  the 
marshes  formed  by  the  river  Seibous  and  two 
smaller  affluents.  It  exports  oil,  wool,  hides, 
and  wax.  About  500  vessels  enter  and  clear 
the  port  annually.  The  town  was  rebuilt  1832, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  finest  in  Algeria,  with  a 
public  garden,  and  schools  for  the  Erench,  Moor- 
ish, and  Jewish  population. 

BONA,  Giovanni,  a  Koman  cardinal,  born 
at  Mondovi,  Piedmont,  Oct.  10,  1609,  died  in 
Rome,  Oct  27, 1674.  He  was  renowned  for  his 
piety  and  learning,  a  collaborator  in  the  Acta 
Sanetorum^  the  author  of  Berum  Liturgi/carum^ 
which  is  an  authority  on  the  service  of  mass, 
and  of  Le  prineipiU  vita  ChrUtianm — a  book 
which  has  frequently  been  compared  to  the 
^^  Imitation  of  Jesus  Ohrist,"  and  of  which  French 
transLitions  have  appeared  in  1693-1728.  The 
last  edition  of  his  works  is  that  of  Turin 
1747-'5d,  in  4  vols. 

BONA  DEA,  the  good  goddess,  a  mysterious 
divinity  of  the  Roman  mythology,  the  wife  or 
the  daughter  of  Faunus.  Her  worship  was 
secret,  performed  only  bv  women ;  men  were 
even  required  to  ignore  her  name*  Her  sanc- 
tuary was  in  a  cavern  in  the  Aventinian  hill, 
but  her  festival,  which  occurred  May  1,  was 
odfibrated  in  a  separate  room  in  the  dwelling  of 


the  consul  who  then  had  the  fasces.  No  man 
was  allowed  to  be  present  and  all  male  statues 
in  the  house  were  covered.  The  wine  used  at 
this  festival  was  called  mUk,  and  the  vessel  in 
which  it  was  kept,  ineUarium.  After  the  sac- 
rifices, bacchanalian  dances  were  performed. 
According  to  Juvenal,  licentious  abominations 
marked  these  festivals.  The  snake  was  the 
synyibol  of  the  goddess,  and  this  would  point  to 
her  being  considered  as  possessing  a  curative, 
medical  power,  and  in  her  sanctuary  various 
herbs  were  offered  for  sale. 

BONACOA.    See  Bat  Islands. 

BONALD,  Loms  GabbiblAmbboxsk,  vicomte 
de,  an  absolutist  political  philosopher,  bom  of 
an  ancient  noble  family  at  Le  Monna,  near 
Millau,  department  o^  Aveyron,  Oct  2, 1754, 
died  there  Nov.  23,  iB40.  When  young  he 
served  in  the  mou9qustairea  under  Louis  aY.  ; 
resigning  his  charge  at  the  beginning  of  the 
revolution,  he  became  mayor  of  hia  commune, 
but  on  account  of  his  ardent  royalism  he  em- 
igrated in  1791  and  joined  the  royalist  army 
under  the  Bourbon  princes.  Returning  to 
France  under  Napoleon,  he  became,  with  Cha- 
teaubriand and  Fi6v6e,  editor  of  the  Mercure 
newspaper,  received  a  small  office,  but  refused 
to  become  tutor  to  the  sons  of  Louis,  king  of 
Holland.  On  the  accession  of  Louis  XYUI. 
he  became  a  person  of  infiueitoe,  was  mem- 
ber of  the  oluunber  of  deputies  in  1815  and 
the  succeeding  years,  always  favoring  an  ab- 
solutist and  reactionary  policy ;  as  one  of  the 
secretaries  of  state  in  1828  he  presided  over 
the  censorship  of  the  press.  At  tiie  revolution 
of  1880  he  resigned  his  seat  as  a  peer,  and  re- 
tired from  pubuc  life.  His  literary  labors  were 
devoted  exclusively  to  establishing  the  theory 
of  power  in  society,  of  its  origin  and  extent 
He  attempted  to  draw  demonstrations  from 
history,  philosophy,  and  religion;  and,  in  imi- 
tation of  Yico,  even  from  the  philological 
meaning  of  words.  He  stoutiy  denied  the 
validity  of  reason,  and  recognized  absolutely 
that  or  authority.  But  above  tiie  higjiest  dyiL 
authority,  that  of  legitimate  kings,  he  affirmed 
that  of  religion,  or  the  church  and  its  hierar- 
chy. Authority  from  above  forms  the  main 
pnnciple  in  aU  his  theories.  It  is  in  tiie  word, 
the  logos,  the  faculty  of  speech  derived  from 
above,  that  the  whole  power  and  manifestation 
of  man,  as  a  social  and  rational  beings  is  to  be 
sought  Bonald  opposed  every  form  of  self- 
asserting  reason,  in  philosophy  as  well  as  in  so- 
cial order  and  in  politics,  and  was  on  this  ao- 
count  considered  by  the  absolutists  as  a  firm 
and  luminous  defender  of  society.     His  com- 

flete  works  were  published  in  12  volumes, 
'aris,  1817-19.— Louis  Jacquss  Maubiob, 
a  French  cardinal,  third  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  Oct  80,  1787,  at  Millau.  In  1817  he  bo- 
came  curate  and  archdeacon  of  Ghartres,  bishop 
of  Puy  in  1828,  archbishop  of  Lyons  in  1839. 
and  a  cardinal  in  1841.  He  is,  beside,  entiUed 
to  the  appellation  of  primate  of  Gaul.  During 
all  his  career  he  has  evinced  great  zeal  for  the 


456 


BONAPARTE 


freedom  of  the  church,  strongly  opposing,  on 
several  occasions,  the  so-called  encroachments 
of  civil  power,  and  remonstrating  against  the 
monopolj  of  public  education  by  the  university 
of  France.  He  hailed  the  revolution  of  1848  as 
a  new  era  for  the  church,  and  the  signal  of  its 
emancipation  from  the  thraldom  of  the  state. 
**  You  have  often  wished,"  he  said  in  a  circular 
directed  to  his  diocesans,  **to  eqjoy  that  liberty 
which  makes  our  brothers  in  the  United  States 
so  happy;  now  it  will  be  yours.  Henceforth 
France  will  have  no  occasion  to  envy  North 
America  on  this  point."  He  had  some  trouble 
with  the  agents  of  the  republic,  but  with  the 
government  of  Napoleon  III.  he  has  m&lntain- 
ed  a  better  understanding. 

BONAPARTE,  Family  of.  The  extraordi- 
nary  career  of  Napoleon  has  directed  public  curi- 
ositv  to  the  origin  of  his  fiunily ;  but  the  servile 
adulation,  which  desired  to  endow  him  with  an 
ancient  and  noble  ancestry — as  if  his  own  abili- 
ties and  performances  were  not  his  best  claim 
to  attention — ^has  somewhat  perverted  the  ac- 
curacy of  the  reports.  One  genealogical  tree 
traces  him  to  Emanuel  H.,  a  Greek  emperor  of 
the  house  of  Gomnenus,  whose  2  sons,  after  the 
fall  of  Gonstantinople,  fled,  under  the  name  of 
Bonaparte,  to  Italy.  This  is  doubtful ;  and  yet 
it  is  a  historical  fact  that  a  Bonaparte  family 
was  distinguished  among  the  nobles  of  Italy  in 
the  middle  ages.  In  the  ^^  Golden  Book  of 
Bologna,"  the  Bonapartes  appear  among  the 
Florentine  patricians,  and  their  names  are  also 
inscribed  in  the  *'  Golden  Book  of  Venice," 
and  in  the  nobility  records  of  Treviso.  When 
Napoleon  married  Maria  Louisa,  his  father- 
in-law,  the  emperor  of  Austria,  sent  him  some 
documents  to  show  that  his  ancestors  had 
been  among  the  lords  of  Treviso.  He  is  reputed 
to  have  said  on  the  occasion,  that  '*  he  dated 
his  nobility  from  Millesimo  and  Monte  Notte." 
When  theBonapartes  went  to  Ooreica  is  uncer- 
tain. Among  the  witnesses  to  a  law  document 
of  94T  is  one  Messer  Bonaparte,  who  is  sup* 
posed  to  have  belonged  to  a  branch  of  the  Tus- 
can Bonapartes.  The  latter  were  first  settled 
at  Florence,  and  afterward  at  San  Miniato  al 
Tedesco.  A  tomb  in  the  church  of  San  Spirito 
at  Florence,  belonging  to  the  Bonapartes,  has  a 
coat  of  arms  on  it,  which  displays  a  star  above 
and  below  the  fesse  of  the  escutcheon.  Mem- 
bers of  this  family  remained  in  San  ^niato 
till  1V99,  when  an  old  canon  there,  named  Fil- 
ippo  Bonaparte,  made  the  young  hero  his  heir. 
There  was  a  Nioolo  Bonaparte,  of  Florence,  who 
wrote  a  comedy  named  La  Vedov€t,  and  likewise 
aJacopo  Bonaparte,  who  wrote  a  narrative  of 
the  sack  of  Rome  under  Oharles  V. — Oablo 
Masia,  Napoleon's  father,  was  bom  in  AJaccio, 
March  29, 1746,  at  the  time  when  the  Oorsicans 
were  making  their  last  desperate  effort  to  shake 
off  the  Genoese  yoke.  He  called  himself  a  noble 
and  patrician  of  Florence,  had  been  educated  as 
a  lawyer  at  the  university  of  Pisa,  and  was  the 
most  popular  advocate  of  Corsica,  when  he  at- 
tached himself  to  the  cause  of  Paoli  and  his 


country  in  the  war  against  G^noa.  In  1764  he 
fell  in  love  with  Letizia  Ramolino,  then  in  her 
14th  year,  but  as  her  parents  were  of  the  Geno- 
ese party,  while  he  was  a  Paolist,  they  were 
not  married  till  2  or  8  years  later.  The  sub- 
mission of  Corsica  to  France  took  place  in  1769, 
a  few  months  before  Niq)Oleon's  birth,  so  that 
he  was  bom  a  French  subject.  Had  England 
interfered  against  this  cession  of  Corsica  to 
France,  as  a  great  many  at  the  time  fancied 
that  she  ought  to  have  done,  Corsica  might 
probably  have  been  English,  and  Napoleon  an 
English  subject!  ^^How  littie,"  observes  a 
historian,  "could  the  duke  of  Ohoisenl  suspect, 
while  he  was  sending  amy  after  army  to  make 
sure  the  acquisition  of  Corsica  to  his  Bourbon 
monarch,  that  a  child  was  born  the  very  year 
of  the  event,  destined  to  usurp  his  throne,  and 
drive  out  the  princes  of  that  £uDily  like  out- 
casts and  traitors."  After  the  close  of  the  Cor- 
rican  war,  Carlo  Bonaparte  wished  to  aooompa* 
ny  Paoli  into  exile,  but  was  prevented  by  the 
tears  of  his  wife.  He  became,  subsequently, 
assessor  of  the  royal  court  of  justice  under  the 
French  rule.  Count  Marbcsu^  the  Fraioh 
commissioner,  retained  his  name  on  the  reds- 
ter  of  nobles,  and  also  procured  for  his  son  Jo- 
seph a  place  at  the  school  of  Autun,  and  for 
Napoleon  at  Brienne.  In  1779  he  was  the 
deputy  of  the  Corsican  nobility  to  Paris.  He 
died  Feb.  24, 1786,  at  Montpellier,  where  he  was 
buried. — ^His  wife,  Letizia,  bom  at  ^aodo, 
Ai^.  24,  1750,  bore  him  8  children,  Giuseppe 
or  Joseph,  Napoleone,  Luciano,  Lui^  or  Louis. 
Mariana,  afterward  Elisa,  Carlotta,  afterward 
Marie  Pauline,  Annunziata^  afterward  Caro- 
line, and  Girolamo  or  Jerome.  When  the 
English  conquered  Corsica  in  1793,  she  fled 
with  her  mother,  who  had  married  a  Captain 
Francis  Fesch  of  Basel,  and  with  her  daughters^ 
to  Marseilles.  On  the  elevation  of  Napoleon 
to  the  first  consulship  in  1799,  she  went  to 
Paris ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  rise  of  her  son 
to  the  imperial  dignity  that  she  was  distin* 
guished  as  Madame  MSre.  Napoleon  appointed 
her  general  protectress  of  charitable  institu- 
tions, in  which  c^>acity  she  maintained  her 
own  separate  household^  and  was  surrounded 
by  the  homage  of  friends  and  the  affections  of 
her  children.  She  does  not  appear  to  have 
been  elated  by  the  dazzling  success  of  her  fami- 
ly, but  retained  the  oriffmal  simplicity  of  her 
character,  often  interposing  to  restore  the  har- 
mony of  her  children  when  it  was  disturbed. 
After  the  reverses  of  Napoleon  she  went  to 
live  at  Rome  with  her  haJf  brother.  Cardinal 
Fesch.  By  the  treaty  of  1816  the  whole  fami- 
ly of  Napoleon  was  banished  from  France,  and 
by  the  ordinance  of  1816  their  property  was 
confiscated.  During  the  last  years  of  her  life 
she  was  blind  and  bedridden,  and  she  died  in 
1880  in  the  86th  year  of  her  age.  Las  Cases 
speaks  of  her  as  a  person  of  remarkable  energy 
and  decision  of  character,  as  well  as  of  great 
benevolence,  but  others  have  said  that  she  was 
avaricious  and  obstinate.— Mabia  Aitna  Eliba, 


BOliTAPARTE 


467 


eldest  sister  of  the  emperor  Kapoleon  I:,  bom 
at  AjacciO)  Jan.  8,  1777  (or,  according  to 
some  bioffraphera,  in  1778  or  1774),  died  at 
the  villa  Ymcentina,  near  Trieste,  Aog.  7, 1820. 
She  was  edaoated  in  a  convent  at  St.  Ojr, 
lived  with  her  mother  in  Marseilles  at  the 
breaking  out  of  the  revelation,  married  at  Paris, 
in  1797,  Felice  Pascale  Baooioohi,  a  Oorsican 
noble,  was  made  princess  of  Lncca  and  Rom- 
bino  in  1805,  and  grand  duchess  of  Toscanj  in 
1808.  The  vigor  and  state  with  which  she 
raled  her  principality  gained  her  the  appella- 
tion of  the  oemiramis  of  Lncca.  She  protected 
Hteratore,  science,  and  the  industrial  arts^  and 
was  especially  the  friend  and  patron  of  Oh&teau- 
briand  and  Fontanes.  In  1814  she  retired  to 
B<dogna;  thence,  the  next  year,  to  Austria, 
where  she  lived  with  her  sister  Caroline,  the 
widow  of  Murat;  thence,  with  her  fimiily,  to 
her  estate  of  Villa  Vincentina,  where,  under 
the  title  of  countess  of  Oompignano,  she  passed 
the  remainder  of  her  life.  She  left  2  sons, 
Jerome  Charles,  who  died  in  1880,  Kapo- 
leoQ  Frederic,  who  died  in  Kome  in  18S8, 
and  a  daughter,  Napoleone  Elisa,  who  married 
Count  Camerata,  and  whose  only  son,  Napoleon, 
bom  1827,  who  held  an  office  in  the  public 
service,  lolled  himself  ICarch  8, 1858.— Masia 
AsKxnxuAXJL  Cabolina,  youngest  sister  of  the 
emperor  Napoleon  I.,  bora  at  Ajaccio,  March 
26, 1782,  died  in  Florence,  May  18, 1889.  She 
came  to  France  in  1798,  married  Joachim  Murat, 
Jan.  1800,  became  grand  duchess  of  Berg  in  1806, 
and  queen  of  Naples  in  1808.  She  gained  the 
affection  of  the  people,  patronized  letters,  re« 
stored  the  Neapolitan  museum  of  antiquities,  or- 
ganized the  excavations  at  Pompeii,  and  estab- 
lished a  school  for  800  girls.  Made  a  widow  in 
1815,  she  retired  to  Haimburg^  in  Austria,  and 
took  the  title  of  countess  of  Lipona,  the  anagram 
of  Napoli  (Naples).  She  was  permitted  to  visit 
Paris  in  1880,  where  she  resided  8  months,  to 
obtain  indemnity  for  the  castle  of  Neuilly, 
which  her  husband  had  purchased,  and  which 
had  been  restored  to  the  fisunily  of  Orleans. 
The  French  chamber,  in  1888,  granted  her  a  pen- 
sion for  life  of  lOOJ^OO  francs.  She  left  2  sons 
and  2  daughters. — ^Paulinb.    See  Bobohxsb. 

BONAPARTE,  Jsboicb,  the  youngest  brother 
of  Napoleon,  born  at  Ajaccio,  Dec.  16,  1784, 
educated  under  Madame  Campan  at  Paris,  and 
next  at  JuiUy,  was  early  placed  in  the  naval  ser- 
vice, where  he  remained  until  in  1801  he  was 
sent,  as  lieutenant,  to  St.  Domingo,  under  Gen. 
Leelero,  his  brother-in-kw.  ^turning  soon 
to  France,  as  a  bearer  of  despatches,  he  re- 
ceived an  independent  command,  and  sailed 
again  for  Martinique.  During  the  hostilities  of 
1808  between  France  and  England,  he  cruised 
between  St.  Pierre  and  Tobago,  but  for  some 
reason  or  other  he  was  obliged  to  leave  the  sta- 
tion and  went  to  New  York.  Dec.  24, 1808, 
he  married  Miss  Elizabeth  Patterson,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  wealthy  and  eminent  merchant  of  Bal- 
timore. After  the  empire  was  dedared  he  re- 
tomed  with  his  wife  to  Europe;  but  as  his  mar- 


riage had  not  pleased  the  imperial  will,  she  was 
not  allowed  to  land  in  France.  Napoleon  had 
the  marriage  annulled  by  a  decree  of  his  council 
of  state,  but  the  pope,  to  whom  politics  were 
not  in  this  case  a  superior  consideration  tomor- 
alS|  refused  to  sanction  the  divorce.  Madame 
Bonaparte  went  first  to  Holland,  where,  too,  she 
was  not  permitted  to  go  on  shore,  and  then  to 
England.  In  that  country  she  gave  birth  to  a 
son,  July,  1805,  who  was  named  Jerome  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte.  The  father  himself  entered 
France  aft^  a  while,  and  was  given  a  captaincy. 
Subsequently  he  was  created  rear-admiral,  and 
in  1807  was  transferred  to  the  land  service,  with 
the  rank  of  general  of  division.  He  commanded 
a  body  of  Wtlrtembergers  and  Bavarians  in 
the  campaign  of  that  year,  and  was  success- 
ful in  a  movement  against  Silesia.  Aug.  12, 
the  same  year,  his  brother  caused  him  to  be 
married  to  Frederica  Catharine,  daughter  of  the 
King  of  WtLrtemberg,  although  his  own  wife 
was  still  living.  On  the  18th,  Westphalia  was 
erected  into  a  kingdom,  and  the  youthful^  half- 
educated,  and  extravagant  Jerome  made  the  king. 
His  government,  however,  though  excessively 
lavish  and  prodigal,  was  an  improvemoit  upon 
that  of  the  old  rSgime:  he  was  little  more  than 
the  deputy  or  viceroy  of  the  emperor;  but 
that  emperor  was  a  greatly  superior  man  to  the 
conservative  Germans,  who  before  had  held 
sway.  In  the  campaign  against  Russia,  in  1812, 
he  led  a  corps  of  Grermans,  and  considerably  dis- 
tinguished himself  by  his  bravery ;  but  having 
been  guilty  of  some  neglect,  which  disconcerted 
the  mans  of  Napoleon,  he  was  severely  rejNi- 
manded  by  him,  and  went  home  in  dudgeon. 
In  the  ensuing  year,  when  the  French  were 
driven  out  of  Germany,  Jerome  went  with 
his  family  to  Paris ;  but  in  1814  they  were  com- 
pelled to  quit  France.  His  wife  was  arrested 
just  as  they  were  leaving  Paris,  by  a  body  of 
the  allies,  but  was  speedily  released.  After 
Napoleon^s  abdication  he  lived  alternately  at 
Blois,  at  Gratz,  and  at  Trieste,  and  did  not  get 
back  to  Paris  till  April,  1815.  He  at  once  em- 
braced the  fortunes  of  his  brother,  and  fought 
with  him  at  Ligny  and  Waterloo.  The  final 
downfall  of  the  family  sent  him  wandering 
through  Switzerland,  to  settle  at  last  near 
Vienna,  as  Prince  de  Montfort,  a  title  con- 
ferred upon  him  by  his  father-in-law.  In  1852, 
when  Louis  Napoleon  assumed  the  supreme  con- 
trol in  Paris,  he  was  called  back  to  France,  made 
a  marshsd  of  the  empire,  president  of  the  senate, 
and,  in  ti^e  failure  of  a  direct  succession  to  Louis 
Napoleon,  heir  to  the  throne.  By  his  first  wife, 
Miss  Patterson,  he  had  one  son,  who  was  lately 
a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  by  his  second, 
two  sons.  Prince  Napoleon,  and  one  who  is  not 
now  living,  and  a  daughter. — ^Napoleon  Joskph 
Chablbs  Paul,  prince  de  Montfort,  commonly 
called  the  Prince  Napoleon,  is  the  second  son 
of  Jerome,  by  his  second  wife.  He  was  bom  in 
Trieste,  Sept  9, 1822,  and  was  educated  chiefly 
in  Austria,  but  has  travelled  extensively,  both  in 
Europe  and  America.    After  the  revolution  of 


458 


BONAPARTE 


Feb.  1848,  he  was  elected  in  Cbrsica  a  member 
of  the  constitnent  and  afterward  of  the  legisla- 
tive assemblj,  and  began  to  figure  as  a  leader 
of  the  democratic  party,  bat  he  is  now  a  sup- 
porter of  the  imperial  policj.  Jn  1849  be  offici- 
ated for  a  ^ort  time  as  French  ambassador 
at  Madrid.  When  the  Russian  war  was  de- 
clared, he  received  a  command,  and  served  for  a 
time  in  the  Crimea,  but  did  not  particularly  dis- 
tinguish himself  there.  He  was  .a  member  of 
the  council  of  war  which  arranged  the  campaign 
of  1855,  and  was  preddent  of  the  commission 
during  the  great  exposition  of  industry  in  1855. 
In  1856  he  went  on  an  expedition  to  the  Arctic 
ocean,  and  in  1857  paid  a  visit  to  the  Prussian 
court. 

BONAPARTE,  Jossph,  the  eldest  brother 
of  Napoleon,  born  at  Corte,  in  Corsica,  Jan.  7, 
1768,  died  at  Florence,  July  28,  1844.  He  was 
educated  at  the  college  of  Autun,  in  France, 
and  at  the  university  of  Pisa.  Returning  to 
Corsica,  he  studied  law  there,  and  in  1792  became 
a  member  of  Paoli*s  administration.  But  when 
that  patriot  declared  against  the  French  con- 
vention, he  removed,  with  his  mother's  family, 
to  Marseilles.  There  he  was  married  to  the 
daughter  of  a  wealthy  banker,  whose  youngest 
daughter  had  also  touched  the  heart  of  Napo- 
poleon,  but  was  afterward  married  to  Bema- 
dotte,  the  king  of  Sweden.  In  1797,  Joseph 
was  elected  to  the  council  of  600,  from  one 
of  the  departments  of  his  native  island.  On 
repairing  to  Paris,  however,  he  was  sent  by  tiie 
dkectory  as  ambassador  to  the  papal  court, 
where  the  indiscreet  zeal  of  certain  Italian  re- 
publicans soon  involved  him  in  difficulties  with 
the  government,  and  he  demanded  his  passports. 
He  resumed  his  seat  in  the  council  of  500, 
while  Napoleon  was  absent  in  Egypt,  and, 
in  connection  with  his  brother  Lucten,  prepared 
the  way  for  the  18th  Brumaire,  which  made 
Napoleon  first  consul.  The  success  of  the 
scheme  created  Joseph  councillor  of  state,  in 
which  capacity  he  negotiated  the  treaty  of  peace 
and  commerce  with  the  United  States  in  1800. 
The  following  year  his  diplomatic  skill  was  of 
service  in  concluding  the  treaty  of  Luneville 
with  the  emperor  of  Germany,  and  that  of 
Amiens  with  England.  When  Napoleon  assumed 
the  imperial  crown,  Joseph  became  an  imperial 
prince,  and  grand  elector  of  the  empire.  In 
1806,  the  emperor  gave  him  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  which  he  hesitated  at  first  to  accept,  but 
afterward  took,  acting  as  the  mere  locum  tenem 
of  his  brother ;  he  governed  for  2  years,  making 
various  internal  alterations,  and  striving  to 
conciliate  his  subjects,  in  which  policy  he  was 
incessantiy  overruled  by  his  superior  in  France. 
In  1808,  Napoleon  wanting  a  kins  for  Spain, 
ordered  Joseph  to  take  the  place,  which  he  did, 
but  only  to  encounter  still  more  trying  difficul- 
ties than  he  had  found  in  Naples,  nis  own  dis- 
position was  mild  and  compromising,  and,  if 
left  to  himself,  he  might  have  overcome  the 
nnbending  pride  and  enmity  of  tiie  Spanish  peo- 
ple; bat  his  remonstrances  and  suggestiona 


as  well  as  his  fraternal  appeals,  were  met 
with  equal  disdain  by  his  brother ;  and  he 
was  compelled  to  govern  Spain  as  he  had  gov- 
erned Naples,  not  in  the  interest  of  tiie  nation, 
but  according  to  the  policy  of  the  emperor. 
Three  times,  during  his  admimstration  of  5 
years,  he  was  driven  by  hostile  armies  from  his 
capital ;  and  the  last  time,  in  1818,  never  to  re- 
turn. In  Jan.  1814,  when  Napoleon  took  com- 
mand of  the  army,  Joseph  was  2^)pointed  lieaten- 
ant-general  of  tiie  empire,  and  the  head  of  the 
council  of  regency.  In  this  capacity,  when  the 
allied  army  invested  Paris,  in  March,  1814,  he 
authorized  Marmont  to  treat  for  a  suspennon  of 
armS)  and  subsequentiy  consented  to  a  capitula- 
tion. When  his  brother  abdicated,  he  repaired 
to  Switzerland,  where  he  remded,  busily  en- 
gaged in  political  intrigues  for  the  restoration  of 
the  emperor,  until  he  joined  Napoleon  in  Paris 
agdn,  m  1815.  During  the  Hundred  Days  he 
occupied  a  seat  in  the  imperial  senate ;  bat  on 
the  second  reverse  of  the  emperor,  he  took 
solemn  leave  of  him  at  the  Be  d^Aiz,  and  quit- 
ted France  and  politics  forever.  Assuming  the 
titie  of  Count  de  Survilliers,  he  purchased  a 
splendid  country-eeat  at  B<Mrdentown,  New 
Jersey,  on  the  bulks  of  the  Delaware,  and  lived 
in  opulent  retirement,  till  1880.  The  revolntion 
of  that  year  in  France  induced  him  to  write  to 
the  chamber  of  deputies,  in  behalf  of  the  claims 
of  his  nephew,  Louis  Napoleon,  who  is  now  the 
emperor;  but  as  the  letter  was  not  read  in  the 
chamber,  he  repau^  to  England  in  person.  He 
does  not  i^>pear  to  have  been  able  to  effect  any 
thing  for  his  nephew,  and  after  a  brief  eojoom 
in  England,  he  removed  to  Florence  in  Italy, 
where  he  died.  Joseph  was  a  man  of  entirely 
different  constitution  from  his  brother;  he  was 
not  made  for  camps  or  councib;  his  ambition 
was  moderate,  and  nis  sentiments  generally  mild 
and  amiable.  In  person  he  was  graceful  and 
elegant,  and  he  was  fond  of  books,  of  pictares^ 
and  of  society.  The  correspondence  between 
himself  and  his  brother,  which  has  been  imb- 
lished  since  his  death,  is  one  of  the  moat  im- 
portant contributions  to  history  that  has  been 
made  for  a  long  while ;  for  it  reveals  the  confi- 
dential intercourse  of  the  two  brothera,  and 
throws  a  great  deal  of  light  upon  thedetails  of  im- 
portant transactions.  See  Memoirs  et  carr&- 
Bwmdancedu  rai  Joseph  (Paris,  1855) ;  a  selection 
from  the  same  Q^ew  York,  1856) ;  BrecU  At*- 
tarique  dM  Sohiementa,  qui  ant  conduit  Jottpk 
Napoleon  mir  U  trSne  iEtpagns,  by  Abel  Hugo ; 
Storia  d^Italia^  by  Botta;  Thiers,  Le  eomulat 
et  V empire^  and  bouthey^s  ^^  Peninsular  War." 
— Zenaidb  Cjdablottb  Julix,  a  dau^ter  of 
Joseph,  bom  in  Paris,  July  8,  1804,  manied 
June  29, 1825^  to  Charles  Laden  Jules  I^mrent 
Bom^iarte,  prince  of  Canino,  residing  princi- 
pally at  Rome,  died  in  Naples,  Aug.  8, 1854. 

BONAPARTE,  Louis,  the  fourth  son  of  the 
Corsican  family,  and  father  of  Napoleon  III., 
was  bom  at  Ajaedo,  Sept.  2, 1778,  and  died  at 
Leghorn,  July  25, 1846.  He  entered  the  army 
at  an  eariy  age,  and  was  with  Napoleon  in  the 


BONAPARTE 


459 


QampaignB  of  Italy  and  of  Egypt,  distingnlghing 
himself  partioolarly  at  the  bridge  of  Aroole.  He 
iras  appointed  by  the  first  oonsal  ambassador  to 
St.  Petersburg,  bat  he  did  not  go  there  in  con* 
sequence  of  the  death  of  the  emperor  Paul. 
In  1802  he  married  Hortense  Beaubarnais,  the 
daughter  of  Josephine,  but  the  union  was  not 
a  pleasant  one,  inasmuoh  as  her  love  did  not  go 
-with  her  hand,  and  he  was  obstinate  and  ecoen- 
trio.  Napoleon,  on  becoming  emperor,  made 
him  governor  of  Piedmont,  and  afterward,  in 
1806,  when  the  republic  of  Holland  was  trans- 
muted into  a  kingdom,  king  of  Holland.  He 
refused  subsequently  the  crown  of  Spain,  al- 
though his  wife,  instigated  by  the  emperor, 
strenuously  urged  his  acceptance  of  the  dig- 
nity. From  the  beginning  Napoleon  and  Louis 
were  not  cordially  agreed,  and  this  refusal  ag- 
gravated their  estrangement  Napoleon's  idea 
always  was,  that  the  countries  he  conferred  on 
his  family  eJiould  be  governed  in  the  interest 
of  himself  and  of  France^  while  his  brothers 
were  apt  to  fe^l  that  they  ought  to  be  governed 
with  reference  to  the  domestic  policy  of  each 
nation.  Louis,  as  a  Holland  magistrate,  favored 
the  trade  with  Ensland,  and  encouraged  the 
Dutch  nobility,  and  when  he  commanded  a 
contingent  of  his  own  troops  on  the  continent, 
he  did  so  as  king  of  Holland,  whereas  Napoleon 
wished  him  to  command  as  a  mere  Frendi  gen- 
eral. But  this  the  stubborn  temperament  of 
Louis  would  not  brook,  and  he  was  consequent- 
ly often  treated  with  studied  contempt.  When 
tiie  splendid  assembly  of  vassal  princes  was 
held  in  Paris  in  1809,  Louis  was  not  invited  to 
be  present.  At  last  their  disagreements  came 
to  an  open  breach;  his  wife,  who  was  devoted 
to  the  emperor,  left  him  to  reside  in  Paris,  and 
Napoleon  sent  Oudinot  with  a  large  force  to 
compel  him  to  abdicate,  which  he  did,  in  favor 
of  Ms  son;  but  the  emperor  refused  to  ac- 
knowledge the  son,  and  in  July,  1810,  annexed 
Holland  to  the  empire.  Louis  removed  first 
to  T6p]itz  in  Bohemia,  and  then  to  Gratz 
in  Styria,  as  the  count  St  Leu.  In  1813  he 
offered  his  services  to  the  emperor,  who  ac- 
cepted them,  but  gave  him  no  employment 
Wiken  the  Batavians,  on  the  downfall  of  the 
empire,  resumed  their  independence,  he  assert- 
ed his  right  to  the  throne,  but  they  refused  to 
fisten  to  his  pretensions.  His  wife,  in  the 
mean  tame,  had  obtained,  through  the  inter- 
ference of  Alexander,  a  grant  of  &e  domain  of 
St  Leu,  with  the  title  of  duchess,  and  he 
opened  a  suit  against  her  for  the  restitution  of 
his  two  sons,  who  were  in  her  keeping ;  but 
the  return  of  NapdeoA  put  a  stop  to  the  pro- 
ceedings. Louis  then  retired  to  the  papal 
states,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  literature, 
publishing  Marie,  ou  les  BbllandauM^  8  vols. 
(1814)^  a  romance  of  Holland  life ;  XheumenU 
ki§torijiu0f  et  rijlexumt  iur  le  ginwememmt  ds 
la  MoQande.  8  vols.  8vo  (London,  1821) ;  MS^ 
fMir€$  $ur  la  tenifleatum,  2  vola  8vo ;  a  B^ 
pon$e  A  Sir  WaUer  Scotty  and  several  poetical 
oompoaitioiu.    He  died  at  Leghorn,  Dut  his 


body  was  buried  at  St  Len,  in  France.  M^ 
moires  sur  la  cow  do  Z^w  Napdleon,  etturla 
MoUando^&na,  1828). 

BONAPARTE,  Luonaf,  the  third  son  of 
Charles  and  Letizia,  bom  at  Ajaccio  in  1T76, 
died  at  Yiterbo,  July  29, 1840.  He  removed  to 
Harseilles  in  1Y93.  More  than  the  rest  of  the 
family  he  adopted  the  revolutionary  principles 
of  that  time.  On  the  faU  of  Bobespierre  he 
was  arrested  as  a  Jacobin,  but  was  not  long 
afterward  released.  In  1796  he  received  the 
appointment  of  commissary  of  war,  and  in 
179  V  was  elected  deputy  to  the  council  of 
600,  in  which  he  took  the  side  of  Si6y^s,  the 
amateur  of  new  constitutions.  On  the  return  of 
Napoleon  from  Egypt  in  1799,  he  took  the 
most  active  part  in  overturning  the  directory, 
and  at  the  famous  sitting  of  the  18th  Brumaire 
was  instrumental  in  preventing  the  outiawty  of 
his  brother.  He  was  one  of  &e  members  who 
framed  the  new  organ  of  government,  and  in 
1800  he  was  sent  ambassador  to  Spain,  where 
he  became  a  favorite  of  Oharles  IV.  and  Godo^, 
and  secured  the  league  of  Spain  with  France  m 
the  attack  upon  Portugal.  On  his  return  to 
Paris  in  1802,  he  became  a  member  of  the 
tribunate,  where  he  elo<|uentiy  supported  the 
establishment  of  the  legion  of  honor,  and  the 
concordat  with  the  pope.  He  was  also  made 
senator.  His  first  wife,  who  was  the  daughter 
of  an  innkeeper,  having  died,  he  married,  in 
1808,  the  widow  of  Jouberthon,  a  rich  stock- 
broker. He  assisted  his  brother  in  the  pro- 
ject of  making  himself  consul  for  life,  but 
ne  refused  to  participate  in  his  imperial  de- 
signs, and  in  1804  went  to  Italy.  Fixing  his 
residence  near  that  of  the  pope,  he  lived  in  a 
style  of  great  affluence,  and  satbered  a  brilliant 
society  about  him.  When  Napoleon  repaired 
to  Italy  in  1807,  he  offered  Lucien  one  of  the 
crowns  at  his  disposal,  but  as  the  condition  of 
acceptance  was  unquestioning  obedience  to  the 
emperor,  he  dedin^  the  offer.  Napoleon  was 
offended  at  this  sign  of  contumacy,  and  told 
him  to  prepare  to  ouit  the  continent ;  but  he 
refused  to  do  so,  ana  purchased  a  new  estate, 
called  Ganino,  on  the  borders  of  Tuscany.  Pius 
YIL,  who  liked  him,  created  him  prince  of 
Ganino  and  Musignano  in  1808 ;  and  in  1809, 
when  the  French  entered  Home,  he  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  to  his  estate,  having  expressed 
opinions  hostile  to  the  French  proceedings. 
The  next  year  he  went  on  board  of  a  vessel 
witii  a  view  of  sailing  to  the  United  States,  but 
he  was  seized  by  an  English  cruiser,  and  taken 
to  Malta,  whence  he  was  transferred  to  Eng« 
land.  Ludlow  castie  was  assigned  him  as  a 
residence  during  this  kind  of  semi-imprison- 
ment.  He  there  wrote  a  poem,  called  Oharle* 
mague,  which  was  published  after  the  peace  of 
1814,  at  Rome,  whither  he  returned.  On  the 
escape  of  Napoleon  &om  Elba,  Lucien  went  to 
Paris  to  renew  their  friendship,  and  to  inter- 
cede for  tiie  pope.  He  tried  to  take  a  seat  in 
the  house  of  peers  as  an  imperial  prince,  but 
his  pretensions  in  that  reepect  were  resisted^ 


460 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


inaamiieh  as  he  had  never  been  accredited  aa 
anch,  and  he  only  i^>peared  as  a  common  peer. 
When  the  emperor  was  defeated  at  Waterloo, 
he  nsed  his  best  exertions  to  recover  his  popu- 
laritj  in  the  chamber  of  deputies  and  amonff 
the  people;  he  spoke,  among  other  things,  of 
the  gratitude  which  France  owed  him;  to 
which  Lafajette,  referring  to  the  8,000,000 
Frenchmen  sacrificed  to  his  schemes  of  ambi- 
tion, made  a  crushing  reply.  Lucien  advised 
Napoleon  to  dissolve  the  chieunber,  but  the  Ut- 
ter, distrusting  his  hold  upon  the  popular  senti- 
ment,  refused  to  oomply.  On  the  occasion  of 
the  abdication,  he  shouted,  **  Long  live  the  em- 
peror," but  failed  in  elicitiug  a  response.  He 
then  returned  to  Italy,  where  he  occupied  him- 
self in  literary  pursuits,  and  in  gathering 
Etruscan  remains.  Some  excavations  on  his 
estate  in  Yiterbo  supplied  him  with  many  curi- 
ous monuments  of  tnat  ancient  and  mysterious 
people,  of  which  he  gave  an  account  in  a  work 
entitled,  MuUum  mni9qus  de  Luden  Bona- 
parte^ prines  de  Oanino,  Not  long  afterward 
he  revisited  England,  where  he  produced  sev- 
eral books,  among  them  a  ^ixmse  aux  M^ 
moirea  du  gineral  Lamarque  (London,  1835), 
in  which  he  discloses  the  operations  of  himself 
and  his  brother  during  the  Hundred  Days ;  also, 
Memoirea  tur  la  vie  politique  et  littSraire  de 
Ltiden  Bonaparte^  prince  de  Canino^  redigh 
par  lui  meme^  2  vols.  (London,  1836),  and  La 
OgrtUide,  ou  la  Corse  eautee,  a  poem  in  12  can- 
tos. He  left  his  title  to  his  eldest  son,  Charles 
Lucien  Bonaparte,  and  divided  his  property 
among  his  11  children. — ^Princess  Ohbistink 
EoYFTS,  a  daughter  of  Lucien  by  his  first  mar- 
riage with  Christine  Boyer,  born  1800,  whose 
first  husband  was  the  Swedish  count  Posse,  after* 
ward  the  wife  of  Lord  Dudley  Stuart,  died  in 
Rome,  Kay  18,  1847. — Chablks  Luoibn  Julbs 
LiLUBKNOs,  the  eldest  son  of  Lucien  Bonaparte, 

Srinoe  of  Canino,  bom  in  Paris,  May  24,  1808, 
led  there  July  80,  1867.  He  was  more  distin- 
guished for  his  scientific  attainments  than  his 
political  influence.  The  greater  part  of  his  life 
was  steadily  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
letters.  For  some  years  he  resided  in  the  United 
States,  passing  his  time  chiefly  in  ornithological 
studies,  which  led  him  to  publish  a  splendid  con- 
tinuation of  Wilson's  "  American  Ornithology," 
in  4  folio  volumes,  beautifully  illustrated.  He  was 
the  author  also  of  the  leonoffra^  della  Faunia 
Italica,  in  8  vols.,  finely  illustrated.  As  a  member 
of  nearly  all  the  learned  and  scientific  associa- 
tions of  Europe  and  America,  he  achieved  a 
wide  distinction,  while  he  was  the  efficient  pro- 
moter and  active  member  of  the  several  sci- 
entific congresses  which  have  given  impulse  to 
the  prosecution  of  natural  history  in  Italy.  His 
wife,  to  whom  he  was  married  in  1822,  was  the 
daughter  of  Joseph  Bonaparte.  During  the 
revolution  of  1848,  he  was  one  of  the  leaders  of 
the  republican  party  at  Rome,  and  officiated  in 
1849,  as  member  and  vice-president  of  the  con- 
Btituent  assembly. — ^Loms  Lugibn,  the  second 
son  of  Lucien,  bom  in  England,  Jan.  4,  1818, 


has  also  written  much  on  scientific  anlneclH, 
and  is  a  chief  promoter  of  the  sciences  in  Italy. 
After  the  successful  coup  d'Stat  of  Louis  Na- 
poleon, he  repaired  to  Paris  and  became  a  deputy 
to  the  legislative  assembly,  and  afterward  a 
senator.  He  has  lately  published  a  valnable 
work  on  the  Basque  language,  which  contains 
much  useful  and  curious  information. 

BONAPARTE,  Napolbon,  bom  at  Ajaoeio^ 
capital  of  the  island  of  Corsica,  Aug.  15, 1769, 
died  at  St.  Helena,  Hay  6, 1821.  It  is  related 
that,  his  mother  being  taken  in  labor  ooddenly 
as  she  returned  from  mass,  he  was  bom  on  a 
piece  of  old  tapestry,  on  which  were  figored  the 
events  of  the  Iliad.  The  name  of  the  fiimily, 
at  that  time,  was  usually  written  Buonaparte; 
although  it  is  also  found  without  the  u  in  some 
documents  of  the  time ;  but  Napdeon,  in  after 
life,  dropped  the  u  altogether.  He  warn  bap- 
tized in  1771,  and,  according  to  the  goesqia^ 
struggled  violentiy  against  the  sprinkHng  d 
the  holy  water  by  the  priest  As  a  boy  he 
manifested  a  violent  and  passionate  temper,  and 
in  the  little  disputes  with  his  elder  brother  Jo- 
seph, always  came  off  master.  The  traditions  re- 
port, also,  that  he  delighted  in  nmning  alter  the 
soldiers,  who  taught  him  militaiy  manQBavres; 
that  his  favorite  pUything  was  a  small  bras 
cannon,  and  that  he  regularly  drilled  the  chil- 
dren of  AJaccio  in  batties  with  atones  and 
wooden  sabres.  These  military  pr(^>ensitie% 
however,  are  common  to  nearly  all  children. 
His  first  teacher  was  his  mother,  who  exerted 
a  powerful  influence  upon  his  mind.  He  was 
next  admitted  to  the  royal  college  of  Ajaoeb, 
and  spent  a  short  time  with  his  filths  on  the 
continent^  and  with  his  brother  Jos^h  at  the 
college  of  Autun.  In  his  10th  year,  April  28, 
1779,  he  was  sent  to  the  military  achooL  at 
Brienne,  where  Pichegru,  afterward  odebra- 
ted,  was  one  of  his  instructora.  His  oompanioDS 
there  regarded  him  as  taciturn  and  morose ;  hot 
as  he  was  a  Corsican,  speaking  very  little  fVeodi, 
and  poor  aa  well  as  proud,  like  those  islanden 
generally,  his  conduct  is  doubtieas  to  be  aaoribed 
as  much  to  his  circumstances  as  to  his  tempera- 
ment Toward  those  who  showed  him  sym- 
pathy, like  Bourrienne,  he  was  snso^itible  of 
strong  attachments.  The  annual  report  of  the 
school  for  1784  says  of  him:  ^^Distinguished  in 
mathematical  studies,  tolerably  versed  in  his- 
tory and  geography,  much  behind  in  Ijitin  and 
belles-lettres,  and  other  accompliahmentB;  of 
regular  habits,  studious,  and  well  behaved,  and 
enjoying  excellent  health."  His  favorite  anther 
was  Plutarch,  whose  romantic  biogri4>h]ee  are 
so  captivating  to  the  Imagination  of  youth. 
The  stories  of  his  assuming  undue  authori^ 
over  his  fellows  are  contradicted  by  Bonrrienne 
in  his  Mhnoiree.  In  1784  Napoleon  repaired 
to  the  miiitaiy  school  at  Paris  to  complete  his 
studies.  He  was  shocked  at  the  expensive  s^le 
of  living  there,  and  wrote  a  letter  against  it  to 
his  late  superior  at  Brienne,  Father  Berton. 
In  Sept  1y85,  he  was  oouunissioned  a  snb- 
lientenant  of  artillery,  and  aoon  afterward  was 


NAPOLEON  BONAPAETE 


461 


promoted  to  be  first  lieutenant  of  artillery  in 
the  regiment  of  Grenoble,  stationed  at  Valence. 
At  Yfdenoe  be  wrote  an  essajr  for  the  prize  of- 
fered by  the  Lyons  academy,  on  tiie  qnestion, 
^^Wbat  are  the  principles  and  the  insdtutions 
necessary  to  make  man  happy  ?^*  and  was  sac- 
oessftiL  Talleyrand  procured  this  essay  when 
Napoleon  was  at  the  height  of  his  power,  and 
showing  it  to  him,  he  cast  it  into  the  fire. 
With  his  friend  De  Manis  he  also  made  an  ex- 
carsion,  during  this  time,  to  Mount  Oenis,  which 
he  pnrposed  to  describe  in  the  style  of  Sterne^s 
"Sentimental  Journey,"  then  much  in  Togne; 
but  he  did  not  complete  what  he  had  design- 
ed. A  pretty  Mile.  Oalombier  of  Valence,  with 
whom  he  had  stolen  interriews,  and  ^^ate 
Innocent  cherriee,"  was  sapp(»ed  to  have  in- 
spired the  sentimental  part  of  this  literary  plan. 
A  more  suitable  undertaking  was  the  project 
of  a  history  of  Corsica,  which  he  began,  and 
communicated  to  Paoii,  then  living  in  exile  in 
London.  The  parts  of  it  still  preserved  are  full 
of  warm  patriotic  expressions,  and  vehement 
democratic  thoughts.  They  were  not  phrases 
borrowed  firom  the  oUusic  authors,  but  the 
spontaneous  outbursts  of  a  fresh  young  mind, 
stimulated  by  the  spirit  of  his  age,  and  not  yet 
contaminated  by  the  experiences  of  life,  or  fet- 
tered by  its  own  schemes  of  aggrandizement 
Napoleon  visited  Ajacdo  every  year,  and  inter- 
ested himself  in  furthering  the  education,  as 
well  as  the  fortunes,  of  his  brothers  and  siisters. 
He  was  not  the  oldest  son,  but  he  was  in- 
stinctively recognized  as  the  true  head  of  the 
family,  his  father  having  died  in  1785.  His 
allowance  in  those  days,  probably  furnished  by 
his  unde,  was  1,200  rrancs.  Nothing  could 
have  been  more  de<^ed  than  his  democratic 
tendencies  at  this  period.  The  great  revolution 
of  France  was  already  moving  powerfully  on- 
ward, and  he,  in  oonunon  with  the  other  offi- 
cers of  the  regunent  at  Valence,  watched  its 
complicated  movements  with  deepening  anxi- 
etj.  Many  of  those  officers  openly  took  part 
with  the  royalists,  whUe  others,  and  among 
them  Napoleon,  inclined  as  strongly  to  the 
patriot  side.  On  Feb.  6,  1792,  he  became  a 
captain  of  artillery  by  seniority,  and  in  the 
same  year,  being  at  Paris,  he  witnessed  the 
insuireottons  of  June  20  and  of  Aug.  10. 
Boorrienne  relates  that,  on  one  of  these  oc- 
casions, when  he  saw  the  mob  break  into 
the  palace,  and  force  the  king  to  appear  at 
the  window,  with  the  bonnet  rouge  on  his  head, 
Bonaparte  excbiimed :  ''Iris  all  over  with  that 
poor  mant  A  few  discharges  of  grape  would 
have  sent  all  those  despicable  wretches  flying.^' 
Paoli,  having  emerged  from  his  retirement,  had 
been  enthusiastically  received  at  Paris,  and  in- 
vested with  the  presidency  and  military  com- 
mand of  his  native  island,  where  the  ferment 
of  revolution  was  also  at  its  height.  AJaccio 
appears  to  have  been  for  a  while  the  head-quar- 
ters of  the  patriots,  the  Bonwarte  house  their 
place  of  meeting,  and  Joseph  and  Napoleon 
(who  bad  retnmed  thither)  the  acknowledged 


leaders.  But  Paoli's  views  of  liberty  were  far 
more  moderate  than  those  of  the  national  le^s- 
lature,  and  in  a  little  while  he  found  himself  in 
direct  opposition  to  the  government.  Tlie  Bo- 
napartes,  strongly  attached  to  him  personally, 
did  not  follow  him  in  this  movement,  as  the  in- 
habitants of  Ajaccio  did  generaUy,  but  adhered 
to  the  cause  of  the  convention.  A  civil  war 
was  the  consequence  of  Paoli's  defection ;  and 
in  the  course  of  it,  Napoleon,  who  acted  pro* 
visionally  as  the  commander  of  a  battalion  of 
the  national  guard,  had  the  unpleasant  duty 
laid  upon  him  of  assaulting  his  native  place.  He 
succeeded  agaitist  it  at  the  outset;  but  the  besieged 
party  rallying,  and  his  communication  with  the 
frigate  which  had  set  him  ashore  having  been  cut 
oflE;  he  was  deprived  of  his  temporary  success, 
and  in  turn  besieged  in  the  tower  of  Capitello« 
During  this  time  he  and  his  50  men  were  re- 
duced to  the  extremity  of  living  for  8  days 
upon  horse  flesh,  when  some  shepherds  from 
the  mountains  released  them  from  their  situa- 
tion. The  exasperation  of  the  adverse  fieiction 
now  drove  the  Bont^artes  out  of  AJaccio; 
Madame  Letizia,  frightened  by  the  signs  of  im- 
minent danger,  fled  with  her  children  to  Milelli, 
and  thence  afterward,  across  the  rugged  moun- 
tain roads,  to  the  sea-shore,  where  thev  con- 
cealed themselves  in  the  thickets,  until  Napo- 
leon succeeded  in  conveying  them  to  Nice. 
From  Nice  they  removed  in  1798  to  Marseilles. 
During  their  residence  at  Marseilles,  Napoleon 
was  employed  by  Gen.  Dngear,  who  command- 
ed the  artillery  of  "  tlie  army  of  Italy,"  to  ne- 
gotiate with  the  insurgents  of  Marseilles  and 
Avignon.  In  the  latter  place  he  published  in 
the  same  year  a  little  pamphlet  called  Le  eouper 
de  Beaueaire,  in  which  h^  endeavored  to  per^ 
Buade  the  excited  people  of  those  parts  not  to 
provoke  the  vengeance  of  the  revolutionists, 
who  were  then  the  ruling  powers,  and  who 
were  deding  a  feaifnl  retribution  upon  all 
whom  tiiey  suspected  to  be  the  enemies  of  the 
country.  Its  sentiments  were  generally  re- 
publican, and  in  favor  of  the  convention,  but 
not  at  all  Jacobinical,  as  has  been  alleged. 
The  pamphlet  is  given  in  Bourrienne,  and 
translated  in  the  appendix  to  8ir  Walter  Scott's 
*^  Bonaparte."  But  the  provinces  were  not 
the  sphere  for  Napoleon,  and  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  where  he  spent  a  i>art  of  the  summer  of 
1798.  In  September  he  was  ordered  on  ser- 
vice at  the  siege  of  Toulon,  then  possessed  by 
the  Spanish  and  English,  where  he  displayed 
such  extraordinary  military  intdligence  and  ac- 
tivity as  to  lay  the  foundation  of  his  whole 
subsequent  military  career.  After  reconnoi- 
tring Toulon  for  a  month,  he  commtmicated  to 
the  council  of  war  a  plan  of  attack,  which  was 
adopted,  and  which  he  himself  executed  with 
brdhant  success.  The  place  was  so  important 
that  the  capture  of  it  diffused  a  general  ioy 
over  France,  and  gave  to  the  young  colonel  of 
artillery,  by  whom  the  reduction  had  been 
chiefly  accomplished,  a  distinguished  name. 
In  consequence  of  his  services,  he  was  recom- 


462 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


mended  by  Gen«  Dngommier  for  promotion, 
and,  Feb.  6, 1Y94,  was  made  a  brigadier-gen- 
eral of  artillerj.  He  was  then  in  his  26th 
year.  Dngommier's  letter  to  the  committee 
of  public  safety,  in  regard  to  him,  said  ear 
gacionsly  enough:  "Reward  this  young  man 
and  promote   him:    for,    should   he   be  nn- 

fratefolly  treated,  he  wiQ  promote  himself.'^ 
oining  the  army  under  Gen.  Dnmorbian, 
stationed  at  the  foot  of  the  Maritime  Alps, 
he  made  the  camgaign  of  1794  against  tne 
Piedmontese  troops.  On  the  downfall  of  Ro- 
bespierre, July  27  and  28,  1794,  he  was  sus- 
pected by  the  moderate  party  of  too  strong  a 
sympathy  with  that  leader,  and,  in  spite  of  his 
disclaimers,  was  temporarily  put  under  arrest. 
He  wrote  a  sharp  remonstrance  against  this 
proceeding,  and  was  released  by  the  committee 
of  public  safety,  after  a  detention  of  about  a 
fortnight  At  the  close  of  the  campaign  of 
1794,  he  went  to  Paris  again  to  solicit  some 
new  employment,  but,  in  spite  of  his  abilities, 
he  did  not  procure  it  instantly.  His  letters  to 
his  brother  Joseph,  written  during  this  time 
and  recently  published,  have  the  tone  and 
manner  of  those  of  a  mere  adventurer,  some- 
what depressed  by  ennui,  and  waiting  impa* 
liently  upon  fortune,  though  ready  for  any 
good  luck  that  may  turn  up.  "Liife,"  he  re- 
marks, "  is  a  flimsy  dream,  soon  to  be  over," 
as  if  he  was  yet  unsuspicious  of  what  a  dis- 
turbed and  restless  dream  his  was  destined  to 
be.  He  lodged  in  the  Bue  du  Mail^  near  the 
Place  cU  la  Victoire^  often  complained  of  his 
poverty,  and  suggested  schemes  for  raising 
money,  and,  at  one  time,  thought  of  offering  his 
services  to  the  sultan  of  Turkey.  But  the  con- 
stitution of  the  year  UI.  organizing  the  direc- 
torial government  having  in  tibe  mean  time  been 
adopted  (1795),  and  the  Thermidorians  of  the 
convention  which  adopted  it  having  passed  2 
decrees  declaring  that  the  2  new  councils  cre- 
ated by  the  constitution  should  be  constituted 
f  of  the  present  and  i  of  new  members,  and 
ordering  the  electoral  bodies  to  designate  the 
f  that  were  to  be  returned,  a  new  germ  of 
civil  war  was  planted.  The  sections  or  pri- 
mary assemblies  of  Paris  resisted  this  dic- 
tatorial attempt  to  perpetuate  its  own  power, 
on  the  part  of  the  convention,  and  the  conven- 
tion prepared  to  put  down  the  sections.  The 
convention  held  at  its  disposal  some  5,000  reg- 
ular troops,  beside  a  large  number  of  cannon, 
under  the  general  control  of  Barras,  one  of  its 
members.  Menou  was  at  first  chosen  to  lead 
these  troops  against  the  people,  but  through 
indecbion  or  want  of  ener^,  failed  in  his 
movements.  Barras,  who  had  known  Napoleon 
at  Toulon,  then  said  to  the  committee  of  the 
convention  that  the  young  Oorsican,  who  was 
already  employed  by  them  in  some  slight  mili- 
tary occupation,  was  the  very  person  to  tiJce 
command.  Tbey  accordingly  gave  it  to  him, 
and  he,  willing  to  fight  for  the  people  or 
against  them,  as  best  served  his  own  des^ns  or 
necessities,  made  his  arrangements  for  the  dJa- 


persion  of  the  populace.  On  the  monuBg  of 
the  18th  Yend^miaire  (Oct  5. 1795),  the  na- 
tional guards,  as  the  defenders  of  the  Becti<ni8 
were  named,  advanced  to  the  number  of  80,000 
men,  along  the  quays  of  the  Seine,  the  street 
6t  Honore,  and  other  approaches  to  the  Tnil- 
eries.  Everywhere  as  they  advanced,  however, 
they  encountered  a  most  formidable  remstanoa. 
Napoleon,  though  he  had  had  but  one  night  to 
make  his  arrangements,  left  no  point  undefend- 
ed, while  he  established  bodies  of  troops  in 
the  best  positions,  and  to  a  fire  of  mui^etry 
returned  a  murderous  discharge  of  <s«nwftw. 
In  less  than  an  hour  of  actual  fighting,  lie  se- 
cured the  victory  to  the  convention.  One 
of  the  letters  addressed  to  Joseph  by  Na- 
poleon, during  the  interval  of  his  idlenoBS, 
said,  jokingly,  '^If  I  stay  here  it  is  pos- 
sible I  maybe  fool  enough  to  marry,"  and 
fortune  had  already  prepared  his  bride  for 
him.  Moving  in  the  society  of  Barras,  Til- 
lien,  Garnot,  and  their  fiunilies,  was  a  young 
widow  named  Josephine  Beauhamais,  a  na- 
tive of  Martinique,  and  poaaessed  of  rare 
beauty  and  accomplishments.  Bonaparte  paid 
hii^  addresses  to  her,  and  was  soon  an  accepted 
lover.  On  Feb.  28,  1796,  he  was  appointed, 
at  the  instance  of  Oamot,  to  the  commana 
of  the  army  of  Italy,  which  for  8  or  4  years 
had  been  carrying  on  an  indedsive  war  against 
the  Sardinians  and  Austrians,  amid  the  de- 
files of  the  Alps  and  the  Ligurian  Apennines. 
His  marriage  took  place  the  next  month, 
March  9,  and  in  less  than  a  week  afterward, 
he  departed  to  assume  his  command.  His  army 
consisted  of  about  85,000  men,  and  was  in  a 
miserable  state  of  destitution  as  to  clothing  and 
provisions,  and  considerably  relaxed  in  disd- 
plhie.  The  allied  army  opposed  to  him  con- 
tained some  60,000  men,  conducted  by  BeaoMeiL 
an  experienced  and  courageous  general,  and 
manoeuvred  according  to  the  most  skilful  strat- 
egies of  the  time.  But,  in  spite  of  the  superi- 
ority of  numbers  and  experience,  Napoleoa 
brought  to  the  campaign  several  incontestable 
advantages:  1,  the  enthudasm  and  alacrity 
of  a  young  mind  given  for  the  first  time  a  sep- 
arate and  independent  field  of  glory,  and  deter- 
mined on  conquest  or  ruin;  2,  an  unrivalled 
power  of  combination,  Joined  to  a  celerity  of 
movement  that  seemed  idmost  miraculous;  and, 
lastiy,  the  free  use  of  sudi  a  stimulant  to  the 
hopes  of  impatient  and  desperate  troops,  half 
famished  amid  the  barren  Alpine  rocka,  as 
the  promise  of  an  unrestrained  eigoyment  of 
'^the  rich  provinces  and  opulent  towns"  of 
Italy.  Against  France,  at  that  time,  a  formi- 
dable coalition,  consisting  of  England,  Austria^ 
Bavaria,  Piedmont,  Naples,  and  several  minor 
states  both  of  Germany  and  Italy,  was  arrayed; 
but  Austria  was  the  prindpal  of  the  league)  and 
the  possession  of  Italy  the  key  to  the  dtuation. 
Napoleon  perceived  this,  and  at  once  proceeded 
to  make  himself  master  of  Italy.  On  April  11, 
he  gained  a  victory  at  Monte  Notte,  on  the  14th, 
that  of  Millesimo^  on  the  2l8t,  that  of  Mondovi ; 


NAPOLEON  BONAFABTE 


468 


by  which  series  of  snooeBses  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia was  compelled  to  eoe  for  peace.  Turning 
his  attention  next  to  upper  Itaijr,  he  advancea 
upon  Lodi,  the  capture  of  whioh,  Maj  9, 
after  a  brilliant  battle,  put  Lombardj  in  his 
power.  Ifay  15,  he  entered  Milan,  where 
neayy  oontribntions  were  levied  upon  the  state, 
and  the  principal  works  of  art  scazed  and  sent 
to  Paris.  Naples,  Modena,  and  Parma,  hast- 
ened to  conclude  a  peace;  the  pope  was  forced 
to  sign  an  armistice;  and  Itidy,  from  the  Alps 
to  the  papal  dominions,  was  in  the  x>o6S6Ssion 
of  the  French.  Mantua  was  the  next  object  of 
attack.  Wurmser,  at  the  head  of  large  Austrian 
reinforcements,  came  through  Tyrol  to  the  de* 
fence ;  he  was  defeated  at  Oastiglione  Delle  Sti- 
▼iere,  Aug.  5,  and  the  larger  part  of  his  forces 
driven  back.  On  Sept.  4,  another  division  of  the 
Austrians  was  repulsed  at  Roveredo.  Wurmser) 
having  rallied  his  scattered  troops,  in  the 
mean  time,  was  again  attacked  and  routed  at 
Bsssano.  A  8d  Austrian  army,  under  Marshal 
Alvinczy,  now  entered  Italy,  and  for  a  part  of  the 
autumn  held  the  French  in  check ;  but,  on  Nov. 
16,  a  battle  was  joined  at  Arcole,  which^  after 
8  days  (16th-17th)  of  the  hardest  fighting  that 
had  yet  occurred  in  the  Italian  campaign,  gave 
the  victory  agun  to  the  French.  Bonaparte 
then  turned  his  attention  to  the  settlement  of 
the  internal  affiurs  of  Italy,  which  was  every- 
where disturbed,  and  in  many  places  in  insure 
reotion.  A  letter  written  to  the  directory, 
Dec.  28, 1796,  reveals  the  principles  upon  whidi 
he  acted  in  Kis  various  arrangements :  "  There 
are  in  Lombardy  8  parties :  1,  that  which  is 
subservient  to  France  and  follows  our  direc- 
tions: 2,  that  which  aims  at  liberty  and  na- 
tional government,  and  with  some  degree  of 
impatience ;  and  8,  that  which  is  friendly  to 
Austria  and  hostile  to  us.  I  support  the  first, 
restrain  the  second,  and  put  down  the  third« 
Aj9  for  the  states  south  of  the  Po,  there  are  also 
8  parties:  1st,  the  friends  of  the  old  govern- 
ment; 2d,  the  partisans  of  a  ft^  aristocratical 
constitution;  and  8d,  the  partisans  of  pure  de- 
mocracy. I  put  down  the  first;  I  support  the 
second,  because  it  is  the  party  of  the  great  pro- 
prietox^  and  of  the  clergy,  who  exercise  the 
greatest  influence  over  the  masses  of  the  peo- 
ple, whom  it  is  our  interest  to  win  over  to  us; 
and  I  restrain  the  third,  which  is  composed 
chiefly  of  young  men^  of  writers,  and  of  people 
who,  as  in  France  and  everywhere  else,  love 
liberty  merely  for  the  sake  of  revolution.'^  In 
the  beginning  of  the  year  1797,  Austria  again 
took  the  field  with  a  formidable  army,  which 
Napoleon  encountered,  Jan.  14,  at  Rivoli,  and 
defeated.  Immediately  afterward,  Wurmser 
was  besieged  in  Mantua,  and  compelled  to  sur- 
render. On  the  same  day,  proclaiming  the 
truce  with  the  pope  at  an  end,  he  entered  the 
papal  territories,  and  repulsed  the  papal  troops 
on  the  Senio ;  took  Faenza,  and,  in  quick  sno- 
cesnon,  Ancona,  Loreto,  and  Tolentico;  and, 
Eeb.  19,  forced  the  pope  to  conclude  a  peace. 
By  this  he  was  enabled  to  wage  war  upon  Aus- 


tria on  her  own  soil.  He  crossed  the  ^ve, 
and,  Marcb  16,  forced  the  passage  of  the  Taglia- 
mento  and  the  Isonzo ;  on  the  19th  he  seized 
Gradiska,  on  the  20th  Gdritz,  and  on  the  28d 
Trieste.  Before  April  1,  the  greater  part  of  Oa- 
rinthia,  Oarniola,  and  of  the  Tyrol,  was  reduced 
to  suUection.  On  April  7,  he  granted  the  depu« 
ties  of  the  archduke  Oharles  an  armistice  of  5 
days,  and  on  the  18th  of  the  same  month  con- 
cluded preliminaries  of  peace  at  I^eoben,  which 
laid  the  Austrians  under  pretty  severe  conditions, 
and  assured  the  French  possession  of  Trieste, 
whence  they  proceeded  to  aasail  Venice.  On 
May  5,  a  declaration  of  war  against  that  republic 
was  published,  on  the  ground  of  its  having  vio- 
lated neutrality ;  and  on  May  12,  the  city  was  en- 
tered, the  old  constitution  abolished,  and  a  new 
constitution,  somewhat  less  aristocratic,  impro- 
vised. During  the  same  month  Genoa  was 
revolutionized,  and  on  June  6  received  a  new 
French  constitution  as  the  ^^Ligurian  republic.'^ 
On  June  29,  at  Milan,  the  new  Cisalpine  re- 
public was  proclaimed,  and  speedily  organized, 
and  on  July  14  the  French  army,  retiring  from 
the  territories  of  the  new  republic,  took  up 
cantonments  in  the  Yenedan  states.  During  the 
remainder  of  the  summer  and  the  autumn  !Napo- 
leon  was  engaged  in  conferences  and  negotiations 
for  a  definitive  treaty  of  peace  with  Austria, 
which  was  signed  at  Oampo  Formio,  Oct  17. 
By  that  celebrated  arrangement  Austria  guar- 
anteed Belgium  and  the  Italian  provinces  to 
France,  with  the  extension  of  its  boundary  to  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  while  she  received  the 
Venetian  provinces  of  Istria  and  Dalmatia,  and 
the  mainland  of  the  republic  as  far  as  the  Adige. 
Of  the  violence,  the  pillage,  and  the  despotism 
which  marked  these  Italian  campaigns,  it  is  for 
history  to  speak;  but  they  did  not  prevent  the 
popular  French  sentiment  of  the  time  from 
hailing  Napoleon  when  he  returned  to  Paris^ 
Deo.  6, 1797,  not  merely  as  the  conqueror,  but 
as  the  liberator  of  Italy.  In  the  short  space  of 
2  years  he  had  won  a  series  of  the  most  splen- 
did victories  on  record,  dictated  forms  of  gov- 
ernment to  nearly  the  whole  of  Italy,  humbled 
Austria,  aoquiredlarge  accessions  of  wealth  and 
territory  for  France,  and  rendered  the  French 
arms  formidable  to  the  world.  Under  these 
circumstances,  his  journey  from  Italy  to  Paris 
was,  of  course,  a  triumphal  procession;  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  Parisians  was  immense,  and 
the  festivals  in  his  honor  were  endless;  but 
Napoleon  himself  received  his  honors  with  be- 
comiug  moderation,  and  was,  in  fact,  sombre 
and  thonghtfol.  Being  a  member  of  the  insti- 
tute, he  assumed  its  dress,  associated  principally 
with  men  of  science,  and  in  all  the  congratu- 
latory addresses  of  the  period  was  extolled  for 
his  simplicity,  his  modesty,  and  his  complete 
want  of  ambition. — The  directory,  then  in 
power,  had  created  an  "army  of  England,*' 
with  a  view  to  hostilities  against  that  country, 
and  conferred  the  command  of  it  on  Bonaparte. 
He  i^>peared  to  favor  the  movement,  but  at 
heart  he  didiked  it|  knowing  how  impracticable 


464 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


an  attempt  to  conquer  the  island  would  prove; 
and  he  sought  to  suhstitnte  for  it  a  magnifi- 
cent dream  of  his  own,  the  conquest  of 
Egypt  and  the  East.  At  last  the  directory  con- 
sented to  it,  and  Napoleon  made  his  prepara- 
tions to  emhark  at  Toalon.  By  Mav  9, 1798,  a 
creat  army  had  heen  collected,  ana  the  expe- 
dition set  sail  on  the  19th.  On  June  9,  it 
Iwded  at  Malta,  and  the  next  day  took  posses- 
sion of  the  island,  which  was  garrisoned  by  the 
French.  Ten  days  after,  the  fleet  renewed  its 
jonmey,  reaching  Alexandria,  July  1,  when 
the  French  took  the  city,  and  having  secured 
it,  advanced  toward  the  Nile.  They  crossed 
the  desert,  and  reached  the  river,  July  10.  A 
flotilla  ascended  the  stream,  while  the  army 
marched  along  the  shore.  Arrived  at  Ouro, 
July  21,  they  encountered  a  large  body  of 
Mamelukes  under  Mourad  Bey,  which,  after  a 
most  determined  struggle,  was  repulsed.  The 
battle  was  called  the  battle  of  the  Pyramids, 
and  the  success  of  the  French  struck  terror  far 
into  Africa  and  Asia.  A  great  many  of  the 
surrounding  tribes  and  nations  submitted  to  the 
conqueror ;  yet  fortune  was  preparing  for  him  a 
terrible  reverse.  His  ships,  18  in  number, 
moored  at  Aboukir,  under  Admiral  Brueys, 
were  found  by  Nelson,  the  English  admiral,  who 
had  long  been  in  pursuit  of  them,  and  attacked 
on  the  evening  of  Aug.  1,  with  a  degree  of  vigor 
and  activity  which  was  never  surpassed  in 
naval  warfare.  The  whole  squadron,  with  the 
exception  of  4  vessels,  which  made  their  escape, 
was  utterly  destroyed.  Out  off  from  the 
means  of  return,  the  sultan  issued  a  declara- 
tion of  war  against  Napoleon,  Sept.  10,  for  in- 
vading one  of  his  provinces,  incited  an  insur- 
rection in  Oairo,  and  prepared  to  send  an  army 
into  Egypt.  In  Feb.  1799,  Bonaparte  crossed  the 
desert  with  about  18,000  men,  took  El  Arish  and 
Gaza,  stormed  Jaffai,  where  a  larse  number  of 
Turkish  prisoners  were  deliberately  massacred, 
and  advanced  into  Syria.  On  the  17th  the 
French  army  reached  Acre,  commanded  by  a 
strong  force  of  English,  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith, 
and  2  ships  of  the  line.  Repeated  but  ineffec- 
tual attempts  to  storm  the  place  were  made  up 
to  May  20,  when  Napoleon  saw  himself  com- 
pelled to  abandon  the  siege.  The  French  army 
retreated  to  Oairo,  which  place  they  entered 
June  14.  The  Syrian  campaign,  which  had 
lasted  8  months,  cost  the  fVench  4^000  men, 
who  were  either  killed  or  died  of  the  plague.  On 
July  25,  they  recovered  the  poeseBsion  of  Abou- 
kir from  the  Turks,  and  then  Napoleon  returned 
privately  to  France.  He  endeavored  to  conceal 
the  failure  of  his  expedition  under  the  glory  of 
its  immense  scientific  results,  but  he  could 
not  disguise  from  himself  that  his  plan  to  mo- 
lest the  English  supremacy  in  India,  to  colonize 
Egypt,  to  give  Fhmce  itie  command  of  the 
Mediterranean,  and  to  build  up  for  himself, 
perhaps,  a  vast  oriental  empire,  had  miscarried. 
He  returned  to  France  in  time  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  political  intrigues  then  rife,  and  by 
means  of  the  events  of  the  18th  Brumaire(Nov. 


9, 1799),  to  get  himself  chosen  the  first  consul  of 
the  republic  (Dec.  18). — ^From  this  time  hia  line 
of  policy  unfolded  itself  more  distinctly;  toe&- 
tabtish  order  at  home,  and  to  humiliate  the  ene- 
mies of  the  nation,  were  the  honorable  objects 
of  it ;  but  the  extension  of  his  own  power  was 
unfortunately  an  end  scarcely  less  conapicnons. 
Nothing  ooidd  have  been  more  needed  thai  a 
reformation  of  the  administrative  departments ; 
the  finances  were  deranged,  the  treasury  empty, 
the  taxes  increasing,  and  trade  at  a  stand-stilL 
In  the  same  summary  maimer  in  which  he 
ordered  his  troops,  but  with  remarkable  sa- 
gacity, and  still  more  remarkable  courage  and 
activity,  Napoleon  undertook  to  reform  civil 
affairs.  At  the  same  time,  Austria,  Englimd, 
and  the  Porte,  if  not  carrying  on  active  hos- 
tilities against  France,  refused  all  terms  of 
Seace,  while  a  civil  war  was  raging  in  La  Yeo- 
6e.  Suppressing  the  latter  by  a  series  of  de- 
cided but  conciliatory  measures,  he  turned  bis 
whole  attention  to  iLe  continental  war.  An 
army  was  concentrated  near  the  banks  of  Lake 
Qeneva  in  Switzerland,  with  which  he  passed 
the  Great  SU  Bernard  May  14-20, 1800.  and 
entered  Milan,  June  2.  On  the  14th  of  the 
same  month,  after  several  unimportant  skir- 
mishes, he  met  the  Austrians  at  the  village  of 
Marengo,  where  he  achieved  another  brilliant 
victory*  Havings  established  provisional  gov- 
ernments at  M£m,  Turin,  and  C^noa,  he  re- 
turned to  Paris,  July  8.  As  his  general, 
Moreau,  had  also  defeated  the  archduke  John 
in  the  great  battle  of  Hohenlinden,  Dea  8, 
1800,  Austria  was  obliged  to  make  a  separate 
peace.  The  preliminary  treaty  of  LuneviUe, 
dated  Feb.  9,  1801,  made  a  new  arrangement 
of  the  states  of  the  continent,  and  although 
it  was  essentially  the  same  as  that  of  the 
treaty  of  Oampo  Formio,  it  contained  pro- 
visions which  laid  the  foundation  of  much 
subsequent  trouble.  Pursuant  to  the  same  ob- 
jects, a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Spain,  Mardi 
21,  1801;  with  Naples,  March  18;  with  the 
pope,  July  15;  with  Bavaria,  Aug.  24;  with 
Portugal,  Sept.  29;  with  Russia,  Oct.  4;  with 
Turkey,  the  9th;  with  Alners,  Dec.  17;  and 
the  treaty  of  Amiens  with  Ei^land,  March 
25,  1802.  Thus  it  seemed  as  if  a  universal 
cessation  of  hostilities  was  about  to  mark  the 
history  of  Europe.  To  the  title  of  ooncjuerory 
the  first  consul  now  added  that  of  pacihcator. 
But  hia  attempt  to  crush  an  insurrection  of  the 
blacks  in  St.  Domingo,  for  which  an  expedition 
had  been  sent  out  Nov.  1,  1801,  under  hia 
brother-in-law  Gen.  Lederc,  is  not  to  be  re- 
garded as  one  of  the  grounds  of  this  latter  title. 
The  greata*  part  of  the  army,  some  20,000  in 
number,  was  swept  away  by  fever  and  the  sword ; 
the  blacks  were  instigated  by  brutal  cruelties  to 
still  nu>re  brutal  massacres,  in  which  some 
60,000  whites  perished;  and  the  island  was 
desolated  by  the  fiercest  exhibitions  of  alter- 
nate terror  and  revenee.  It  was  by  the  direct 
act  of  N^>oleon  that  slavery  was  established  ia 
Guadeloupe,  and  the  slave  trade  again  opened. 


NAPOLEON  BONAPAETE 


466 


TooBsaint  Lonyertnre,  an  able  and  conrageona 
negro,  who  had  made  himself  the  leader  of  his 
fltrnggliuff  oonntrymen,  was  seized  during  a 
trace,  and  carried  to  France,  where  he  died  in 
prison.  Napoleon  availed  himself  of  this  inter- 
val to  perfect  the  administration  of  the  interior 
affikirs  of  his  country.  A  general  amnesty  al- 
lowed flJl  the  French  emigrants  to  return  home ; 
a  new  order  of  knighthood  Jcnown  as  the  legion 
of  honor  was  established,  and  the  constitution 
of  tlie  Cisalpine  republic  was  perfected.  On 
Aug.  8,  1802,  Bonaparte  was  proclaimed  con* 
sol  for  ILfe  by  a  decree  of  the  senate,  which 
was  confirmed  by  a  popular  sanction  of  some 
8,000,000  votes.  A  senatus  eomultwn^  issued 
a  few  days  after,  reconstructing  the  electoral 
bodies  and  reducing  the  tribun^  to  60  mem- 
bers, indicated,  however,  that  he  was  not  yet 
satisfied  with  tne  dignity  to  which  he  had  been 
nused.  Many  persons  saw  in  the  movement 
a  cautious  step  toward  a  still  more  absolute 
power. — It  is  to  this  period  that  the  greatest  of 
l^apoleon^s  services  to  France  belongs.  The 
civil  code,  which  has  ever  since  been  the  law 
of  the  nation,  was  then  digested  and  arranged 
by  a  commission  of  eminent  lawyers  and  civil- 
ians, under  the  presidency  of  Oambac6rds.  The 
various  branches  of  public  instruction  also  at- 
tracted his  attention ;  and  the  lycenm,  the  col- 
lege of  France,  the  polytechnic  and  other  mili- 
tary schools^  were  organized  on  the  most  liberal 
scale.  But  his  scheme  which  reduced  the  pro- 
vincial administration  of  France  to  one  uni- 
form plan,  having  its  head  at  Paris,  and  vir- 
tually abrogating  the  old  commercial  liberty 
and  independence,  was  a  more  questionable  re- 
form. Nor  were  his  efforts  to  restore  the  re- 
ligious harmony  of  France,  by  renewing  the 
ancient  privileges  ^f  the  Catholic  priests^  as 
happily  conceived  as  many  of  his  political  im- 
provements. In  fiact,  like  all  organizers,  and 
reformers,  Napoleon  undertook  too  much,  and 
in  the  exaggeration  of  his  own  powers,  fell  into 
many  mistakes.  The  recovery  of  a  diseased 
and  distracted  nation  is  not  to  be  accomplished 
at  ono^  and  by  a  few  strokes  of  the  pen.  Tet^ 
in  considering  the  epoch  of  the  consulate,  it  is 
impossible  not  to  derive  from  it  a  high  admira- 
tion of  the  scope  and  versatility  of  Napoleon's 
talent,  and  a  general  sympathy  with  his  publio 
aims.  But  already  his  head  was  giddy  with 
succes^  and  in  the  midst  of  the  great  labors  of 
1802,  he  thought  secretly  of  the  imperial  dia- 
dem. Disturbances  in  Switzerland  in  the  Ikh 
ginning  of  1802,  caused  ^apoleon  to  resort  to 
an  armed  mediation  in  its  affairs ;  in  August  ci 
the  same  year,  the  island  of  Elba  was  united  to 
France ;  on  Sept.  11,  the  incorporation  of  Pied- 
mont took  place,  and  in  October  that  of  the 
duchy  of  Parma.  England  professed  to  see,  in 
these  events,  an  infringement  of  the  treaty  of 
Amiens;  and,  in  a  short  time,  there  was  an 
open  resumption  of  hostilities.  On  March  21, 
1808,  a  tenatus  e&ruuUum  placed  120,000  con- 
scripts at  Napoleon's  command,  "nrhile  England 
made  no  less  active  preparations.  On  May  18, 
VOL.  m. — 30 


England  declared  war  against  France,  and  laid 
an  embargo  upon  all  French  vessels  in  her 
ports.  France  retaliated  by  a  decree  that  all 
Englishmen,  of  whatever  condition,  found  on 
her  territory,  should  be  detained  as  prisoners  of 
war ;  and  Gen.  Mortier  was  sent  to  occupy  the 
electorate  of  Hanover,  as  belonging  to  Great 
Britain.  In  the  mean  time,  the  police  of  Paris 
professed  to  have  discovered  a  conspiracy  against 
the  life  of  the  first  consul,  in  which  Pichegru, 
returned  from  exile  at  Guiana,  Georges  Cadou- 
dal,  a  Chouan  chief,  and  Gen.  Moreau,  were 
said  to  be  concerned.  These  were  arrested,  and 
suspicions  of  complicity  attaching  to  the  duke 
d'Enghien,  son  of  the  duke  of  Bourbon  and 
grandson  of  the  prince  de  Cond6,  the  neutral 
territory  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden  was  in- 
vaded in  order  to  effect  his  seizure.  He  was 
taken  during  the  night  of  March  15, 1804^  con- 
veyed to  the  citadel  of  Strasbourg,  and  thence, 
under  escort,  to  the  castle  of  Y incennes.  A  mili- 
tary court,  consisting  of  7,  was  hastily  summoned 
there  by  the  first  consul,  by  which  he  was 
tried  and  found  guilty  of  the  charges  of  bearing 
arms  against  France,  of  offering  his  services  to 
England,  of  conspiring  with  emigrants  on  the 
frontiers,  and  being  an  accomplice  of  the  Paris 
conspirators.  He  was  sentenced  to  death  and 
executed  immediately  after  the  expiration  of 
the  same  night,  between  4  and  6  A.  M.  of 
March  21.  On  April  6,  Pichegru  was  found 
dead  in  his  prison.  At  a  later  period  Georges 
Cadoudal  and  others  were  executed,  wMle 
some  of  their  confederates  were  reprieved, 
and  Moreau  was  banished.  In  the  midst  of 
these  sinister  events,  a  motion  was  made  ia  the 
tribunate  by  one  Cur^e,  that  Napoleon  be  made 
emperor  of  the  French,  with  a  right  of  sacces- 
sion  to  his  family.  Carnot  spoio  against  the 
motion  with  much  patriotic  fervor,  but  it 
was  carried  by  a  large  minority.  May  8,  1804. 
On  submission  of  the  question  to  the  votes  of 
tiie  people,  an  apparent  popular  sanction  was 
^ven  to  tne  dera,  and  on  May  18,  Napoleon 
assumed  the  imperial  tide.  He  requested  the 
pope  to  perform  the  ceremony  of  his  coronation. 
Pius  YII.,  after  consulting  with  his  cardinals, 
came  to  Paris  for  that  purpose,  in  November. 
On  Dec.  2,  the  ^*  soldier  of  fortune,"  as  he  had 
been  sometimes  called,  was  consecrated  at  the 
altar  of  Notre  Dame,  "the  high  and  mighty 
Napoleon  I.,  emperor  of  the  ]^ench."  Being 
emperor,  he  proceeded  to  surround  himself  with 
all  the  splendors  and  f^uds  which,  in  the  puerile 
fancy  of  the  old  nations,  are  supposed  to  be 
essential  to  the  dignity.  He  created  a  new  no- 
bility with  sounding  titles ;  he  opened  a  bril- 
liant court;  he  established  the  ridiculous  eti- 
%uette  of  royalty ;  and  in  a  thousand  other  ways 
sought  to  dazzle  weak  minds  by  ostentation  and 
parade.  He  who  had  proved  himself  the  first 
military  genius  of  modern  times,  who  by  his 
abilities  had  raised  himself  to  the  highest  post 
of  a  great  nation — who  wielded  more  actual 
power  than  any  potentate  of  Europe— who  had 
inspired  the  labors  of  the  civil  code — ^was  yet 


466 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


weak  enough  to  conceive  that  a  grand  title 
would  add  to  hia  distinction,  and  the  aflbotation 
of  a  royal  dignity  and  magnificence  extend 
his  acceptance  among  the  people.  A  mingled 
ambition,  pride,  and  piqne  against  the  preten- 
sions of  the  royal  races  seem  to  have  blinded 
the  eye  else  so  firm  and  penetratiDg,  and  to 
have  misled  the  judgment  else  so  cool  and  sa- 
gacious, into  a  career  of  egotism  and  fully.  For 
ihiQ  Ulusion  which  led  to  the  aasumj^tion  of  the 
crown  soon  precipitated  Europe  into  a  war 
which  deluged  the  continent  in  blood,  and  al- 
most annihilated  France. — ^The  changes  which 
had  taken  place  in  France,  rendered  changes  in 
the  Italian  governments  necessary,  and  from 
republics  they  were  transformed  into  a  king- 
dom. Napoleon  went  to  Milan,  in  Italy, 
where.  May  26,  1805,  he  was  formally  anointed 
king,  in  the  midst  of  imposing  ceremonies  and 
theatrical  pomp.  The  same  summer,  the  north- 
em  powers  listened  to  the  solicitations  of  Eng- 
land, and  united  in  a  coalition  against  the  new 
emperor.  Russia.  Austria^  and  Sweden  Joined 
in  the  charges  or  territorial  usurpation  which 
were  levelled  at  Napoleon,  but  Prussia,  already 
bribed  by  him  with  the  promise  of  Hanover, 
could  not  be  sauced  into  l^NComing  a  party.  By 
September,  the  French  forces  in  8  divisions,  and 
numbering  180,000  men,  were  upon  the  Rhine, 
ready  to  act  against  Austria.  Unfortunately 
that  country,  governed  by  decrepit  bureaucrats, 
sent  forward  its  troops  under  an  incompetent 
general,  Mack,  without  waiting  for  the  Russian 
allies.  On  Oct.  20,  he  was  completely  sur- 
rounded by  Napoleon  at  Ulm,  and  compelled  to 
Burrender  his  whole  army  of  23,000  men.  The 
next  day,  however,  the  immortal  victory  of 
Nelson,  at  Trafalgar,  over  the  combined  neets 
of  France  and  Spain,  compensated  the  allies  for 
this  temporary  reverse.  Nothing  daunted  by  the 
naval  disaster,  Napoleon  advanced  to  Vien- 
na, which  dty  he  entered  Nov.  18,  where  he 
made  his  preparations  to  meet  the  combined 
armies  of  Russia  and  Austria,  then  concentrating 
on  the  plains  of  Ohntltz.  On  Deo.  2,  1805,  the 
grand  encounter  came  on,  at  Austerlitz,  and 
after  a  struggle  of  unexampled  enei^y — ^in  which 
three  of  the  greatest  armies  of  Europe,  each 
commanded  by  an  emperor,  with  the  mastery 
of  the  continent  for  the  prize,  met  in  desperate 
strife.  Napoleon  won  the  victory,  the  most  glo- 
rious, perhaps,  of  his  career.  The  allies  were 
thoroughly  routed ;  the  emperor  of  Austria 
made  instant  peace,  while  the  emperor  of  Rus- 
sia withdrew  into  his  own  territories.  The 
king  of  Prussia  was  rewarded  for  his  neutrality 
in  the  possession  of  Hanover,  and  England  alone 
remained  to  stem  the  tide  of  success,  which  w^ 
bearing  forward  the  victorious  Oorsican.  JA 
the  king  of  Naples,  instigated  by  his  wife,  an 
Austrian  princess,  had  received  the  troops  of 
Russia  and  England  into  his  dominions,  during 
the  recent  war,  Napoleon  construed  the  act  into 
one  of  predetermined  hostility,  and  in  Feb. 
of  1806  sent  an  army  tiiither  to  enforce  redress. 
The  king  fled  to  Sicily,  when  Napoleon  declared 


the  crown  vacant,  and  conferred  the  tide  of 
king  of  Naples  and  Sicily  upon  his  brother  Joseph, 
June  6.  Following  this  oy  another  decree,  he 
transformed  the  Batavian  republic  into  a  kiog- 
dom,  dependent  upon  France,  and  gave  the 
crown  to  his  brother  Louis.  About  the  same 
time,  he  erected  various  districts  in  Germany 
and  Italy  into  dukedoms,  which  he  bestowed 
upon  his  principal  marshals.  But  a  more  im- 
portant movement  was  that  of  July  12,  which 
created  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and 
which  some  14  princes  in  the  south  and  west  of 
Germany  were  induced  to  join,  thereby  placing 
themselves  under  the  supremacy  of  France,  and 
detaching  some  16,000,000  people  from  the 
Germanic  dominion  of  Austria.  The  policy 
which  Napoleon  had  pursued  in  making  his 
brothers  kings,  he  now  extended  to  bis  sisters, 
who  were  made  imperial  princesses,  and  they 
and  their  husbands  distributed  as  rulers  over 
Tflrious  nations  of  the  continent.  Elisa,  his 
eldest  sister,  married  to  Gen.  Baociocfai,  re- 
ceived the  principality  of  Piombino,  for  her- 
self and  her  male  descendants,  but  witii  the 
condition  that  the  hereditary  prince  should  not 
ascend  the  throne  until  he  had  received  the 
investiture  from  France.  Feudalism,  in  its  most 
decrepit  and  despicable  form,  was  revived  by 
this  "  child  of  the  revolution."  William  Pitt,  the 
minister  of  Great  Britain,  having  died  Jan.  23, 
1806,  and  Oharles  Fox  succeeding  to  his  place, 
negotiations  were  opened  between  France  and 
England,  in  regard  to  the  termination  of  hos- 
tiliiies.  In  the  course  of  these,  propositions 
were  entertained,  looking  towara  a  restoration 
of  Hanover  to  the  latter  power,  which  at  once 
opened  the  eyes  and  aroused  the  jealousies  of 
Prussia.  It  was  not  long  before  tiie  Prussian 
monarch  acceded  to  the  coalition  against  N^k>- 
Icon,  and  entered  into  active  preparations  for 
war.  The  emperor,  whose  celerity  of  action 
was  proverbial,  instantaneously  inoved  toward 
Prussia  with  a  powerful  force,  and  by  Oct  8, 
1806,  had  reached  the  Prussian  outp<»t8.  On 
the  14th  he  routed  the  enemy  with  fearful 
slaughter  at  Jena,  and  the  same  day  Marshal 
Bavoust  achieved  the  most  important  successes 
at  Auerstadt,  slinring,  among  others,  the  duke 
of  Brunswick,  dj  this  double  encounter,  in 
which  more  than  20,000  Prussians  were  killed, 
the  strength  of  the  monarchy  was  fatally  broken, 
and  Napoleon  followed  up  his  victories  with 
such  signal  energy,  that,  in  2  weeks  fit>m  the 
commencement  of  hostilities,  Oct.  25,  he  entered 
the  Prussian  capital  in  triumph.  After  occupy- 
ing all  the  fortresses,  and  reducing  such  towns  as 
were  dbposed  to  maintain  a  show  of  resistance!, 
he  issuea  from  Berlin,  Nov.  21,  tiie  famous  de- 
cree, declaring  the  British  islands  in  a  state  of 
blockade,  forbidding  all  correspondence  or  trade 
with  England,  defining  all  articles  of  English 
manufacture  or  produce  as  contraband,  and  the 
property  of  all  British  subjects  as  lawful  prize  of 
war.  Meanwhile,  the  Russian  allies,  who  had 
advanced  as  far  as  the  Vistula,  were  driven  back 
through  Poland,  and  the  French  entered  War- 


NAPOLEON  BONAPABTE 


467 


saw.  A  winter  oampalgn  was  then  be^n 
against  the  Rossians;  oat  after  the  indecisive 
battle  at  Pultosk,  Deo.  26,  the  Rossians  retreated 
to  Ostroienka,  and  the  French  behind  the  Yis- 
tnla,  toward  the  north.  The  month  of  Jan. 
1807,  was  spent  in  repose  and  preparation  hj 
both  sides,  bat  on  Feb.  8,  the  two  armies  met 
at  Eylau,  where  a  desperate  engagement  took 
place,  in  which  a  loss  of  50,000  men  was  divided 
between  them,  and  both  claimed  the  victory. 
The  following  May,  Napoleon  attacked  and  con- 
quered the  important  fortress  of  Dantzic,  and 
having  reinforced  his  army  with  200,000  men,  be 
once  more  advanced  against  the  Russians.  On 
June  14^  the  battle  of  Friedland  was  fought,  and 
the  Russians  were  so  worsted  that  Alexander 
claimed  an  armistice.  The  two  emperors  met  for 
the  first  time,  June  25,  on  a  raft  in  the  middle 
of  the  Niemen,  and  on  Julv  7  a  treaty  of  peace 
was  concluded  at  Tilsit.  The  Prussian  monarch 
received  back  about  half  of  his  dominions. 
The  duchy  of  Warsaw  was  given  to  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  an  ally  of  the  French,  who  was  made 
a  king»  while  the  principal  Prussian  fortresses 
and  seaport  towns  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  French  till  a  more  general  peace  shotdd 
be  concluded.  Russia  obtained  a  part  of  Prus- 
sian Pohmd,  and,  by  secret  articles,  was  allowed 
to  take  Finhmd  from  Sweden.  Out  of  the 
Prussian  territory  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
Hesse  Cassel,  Hanover,  and  Brunswick,  the  new 
kingdom  of  Westphalia  was  formed,  and  be- 
stowed upon  Jerome,  the  brother  of  Napoleon. 
Soon  after  the  treaty  of  Tilsit^  England,  con- 
ceiving that  Napoleon,  with  the  connivance  of 
Russia,  was  about  to  make  arrangements  with 
Denmark  and  Portugal  for  the  conversion  of 
their  fleets  to  his  purposes^  which  would  expose 
ber  to  the  assaults  of  the  combined  navies  of 
Europe,  sent  a  powerful  squadron  to  bombard 
Copenhagen.  Denmark,  upon  the  surrender  of 
that  place,  threw  herself  openly  into  the  hands 
of  France.  As  to  Portugal,  however,  having  i^e- 
fused  to  enforce  the  Berlin  decrees  against  Eng- 
land, and  despatched  herfleet  to  Brazil,  at  the  in- 
stigation of  England,  and  to  avoid  lending  aid  to 
France,  Napoleon  declared  that  the  house  of 
Braganza  had  ceased  to  reign,  and  sent  Junot 
to  occupy  Lisbon.  Nov.  27,  1807,  the  prince 
regent,  the  queen,  and  the  court  of  Portugal 
embarked  for  a  foreign  port^  and  on  the  SOth  the 
French  entered  their  capital  In  December  of 
the  same  year  Napoleon  became  involved  in 
a  serious  controversy  with  the  pope,  which  led 
to  the  annexation  of  the  marches  of  the  Adri- 
atic  provinces  to  his  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  to 
the  military  occupation  of  Rome.  At  the  same 
time  Napoleon  found  a  pretence  for  interfering 
in  the  affairs  of  Spain.  A  series  of  corrupt 
intrigues,  in  which  the  king,  Charles  lY.,  his 

Sueen,  the  favorite  Godoy,  and  the  pretender  to 
tie  throne,  Ferdinand,  son  of  Charles,  were  en- 
gaged, had  involved  the  internal  administration 
of  Spain  in  inextricable  confusion.  Napoleon 
cut  the  Gordian  knot  with  his  sword.  Madrid 
was  occupied  by  Murat,  March  23, 1608,  and  the 


emperor  prodaimed  his  brother  Joseph  king  of 
Spain,  June  6.  The  Neapolitan  kingdom,  which 
Joseph  was  thus  obliged  to  vacate,  he  trans- 
ferred to  his  brother-in-law  Murat  Many  of  the 
Spanish  nobility  acquiesced  in  this  summary 
disposal  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  nation,  but 
the  great  body  of  the  people  rose  in  arms  against 
it  Ferdinand,  although  a  prisoner  in  France, 
was  deokred  by  them  the  legitimate  monarch, 
while  England  sent  immense  supplies  to  sustain 
the  population,  and  Napoleon  prepared  to  en- 
force his  policy.  A  war  which  lasted  7  years 
was  thus  begun  in  the  peninsula.  At  the  out- 
set the  Spaniards  were  successful.  On  June  14 
a  French  squadron  was  captured  by  the  English 
fleet)  in  the  bay  of  OMz ;  on  the  28th  Marshal 
Moncey  was  repulsed  in  an  attack  upon  Valen- 
cia ;  for  6  weeks  Palafoz  made  a  heroic  defence 
of  Saragossa ;  July  20,  the  new  king  made  his 
triumphal  entry  into  Madrid ;  on  the  22d,  Gen. 
Dupont,  with  18,000  men,  surrendered  to  the 
Spaniards  atBaylen;  and  on  Aug.  2,  Joseph, 
with  all  his  remaining  forces,  commencea  a 
retreat  beyond  the  Ebro;  Aug.  21,  Marshal 
Junot  was  defeated  at  Yimiebo  by  Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  and  this  battle  led  to  the  convention 
of  Cintrai,  under  which  Portugal  was  evacu- 
ated by  tlie  French  forces.  Napoleon  tlierefore 
deemed  it  necessary  to  take  tne  field  in  per- 
son, and,  in  the  early  part  of  November,  ap- 
peared in  the  north  of  Snain  with  180,000  men. 
The  Spapiardswere  rapidly  defeated  at  Reynosa, 
Burgos,  and  Tudela,  and  on  Dec.  4  he  entered 
Madrid.  The  British  troops,  hastening  to  the  as- 
sistance of  the  Spaniards,  were  pursued  to  and 
ineffectually  attacked  at  Oorunna)  but  their 
leader,  the  gallant  Sir  John  Moore,  was  &tally 
wounded.  The  presence  of  Napoleon  seemed  to 
have  redeemed  nearly  every  reverse.  But,  in 
Jan.  1809,  he  was  compelled  to  return  to  Paris 
to  counteract  the  movements  of  Austria,  which, 
taking  advantage  of  the  peninsular  war,  had 
sent  forward  large  bodies  of  troops  into  the  Ty- 
rol and  Italy.  On  April  17  he  assumed  the  oom- 
numd  of  his  army,  and  before  the  close  of  the 
22d  he  had  completely  routed  tbe  Austrian 
forces.  On  that  day,  at  Eckmahl,  he  defaated 
the  archduke  Charles ;  on  May  18  he  again  en- 
tered Vienna ;  on  the  21st  and  22d  he  was 
worsted  at  Aspem  and  Essling,  but  on  July  6  he 
more  than  recovered  all  his  losses,  and  gained  a 
stupendous  victory  at  Wagram,  which  enabled 
him  to  dictate  once  more  his  own  terms  of  ■ 
peace.  During  these  troubles  the  Tyrolese 
seized  the  opportunity  to  raise  the  standard  of 
insurrection ;  the  British  made  a  descent  upon 
the  coast  of  Holland ;  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley  was 
carrying  on  a  most  effective  war  in  Spain,  and 
the  difiiculties  with  the  pope  were  renewed; 
yet  Napoleon  contrived  to  make  face  against 
all  these  assaults.  By  a  decree  of  May  17  the 
papal  states  were  annexed  to  the  French  em- 
pire, which  was  followed  by  a  bull  of  excom- 
munication against  the  emperor,  when  the  pope 
himself  was  arrested  and  conveyed  to  Paris, 
where  he  remained  a  virtual  prisoner  till  1814. 


468 


KAPOLEON  BONAPABTE 


Yet  in  the  midst  of  his  trmmphs,  an  attempt 
upon  his  life  was  made,  Oct  18,  bj  the  young 
Grerman  enthusiast,  Stapss,  from  which  he  had 
but  a  narrow  escape.    To  crown  the  events 
of  the  year,  it  was  announced  in  December 
that  Napoleon  was  about  to  repudiate  his  wife 
Josephine,  in  order  to   contract  an  alliance 
with  some  of  the  dynastic  families,  and  thus 
procure  to  himself  a  successor  of  royal  blood. 
On  the  16th  of  that  month  an  act,  formally 
divorcing  him,  was  passed  by  the  obedient 
commissioners  of  the  senate,  and  on  April  2, 
1810,  the  emperor  was  married  to  the  arch* 
duchess  Maria  Louisa,  a  daughter  of  the  proud 
and  ancient  house  of  Hapsburg.    Josephine  re- 
tired with  a  broken  heart  to  Malmaison,  and 
the  new  empress  took  the  place  of  the  affection- 
ate and  devoted  companion  of  his  early  years. 
From  this  nnion  there  was  bom  a  son  on  March 
20, 1811,  who  was  proclumed,  in  his  cradle, 
the  king  of  Borne.     The  French  empire  had 
now  reached  its  greatest  extent  and  its  highest 
glory.    In  addition  to  the  86  departments  of 
lYance  proper,  it  embraced  8  departments  along 
the  Alps,  15  beyond  the  Rhine,  15  beyond  the 
Alps,  in  upper  and  central  Italy,  and  7  lUyrian 
provinces,  beside  exercising  control  in  Spain,  in 
the  Italian  kingdoms,  in  Switzerland,  and  in  the 
confederation  of  the  Rhine.    The  French  codes 
and  French  ideas  were  predominant  at  War- 
saw, at  Milan,  at  Naples,  in  Holland,  Westpha- 
lia, and  Bavaria.    To  Sweden  a  king  was  given 
in  the  person  of  Marshal  Bemadotte.    Holland 
was  annexed  to  France  by  decree  of  the  senate, 
July  9, 1810.    But  in  the  Spanish  peninsula  the 
progress  of  the  French  was  slow.    Sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  who  had  recently  been  made  Lord  Wel- 
lington, exhibited  a  degi*ee  of  military  skill  and 
activity  which  easily  held  the  marshals  of  Napo- 
leon in  check,  and  began  to  call  for  the  presence 
of  the  grand  master  of  war  himself.    On  July  10, 
1810,  the  fortress  of  Ciudad  Rodrigo  capitulat- 
ed to  Ney,  and  in  the  following  December  Mas- 
sena  was  defeated  by  Wellington  at  the  heights 
of  Busaco.    Nov.  14,  Massena  was  driven  from 
before  the  fortified  lines  of  Torres  Vedras.    In 
the  early  part  of  1811  Soult  besieged  Badf^^^ 
and  captured  it  on  March  10,  but  on  May  16  he 
was  routed  at  Albuera.    Thus  a  series  of  alter- 
nate successes  and  reverses  marked  the  cam- 
paign throughout  the  year.    The  surrender  of 
Valencia  to  Suohet,  Jan.  9,  1812,  was,  how- 
ever, the  last  of  the  French  triumphs.    Ten 
days  afterward,  Wellington  recaptured  Ciudad 
Rodrigo;    April   6,  he   recaptured    Bad^oz; 
July  22,  he  worsted  Marmont  at  Salamanca ; 
and  the  next  day  the  capital  of  Spain  was  in 
possession  of  the  victorious  En^ish  captain. 
But  not  until  the  battle  of  Yittoria,  June  21, 
1818,  were  the  French  driven  entirely  beyond 
the  Pyr6n6es.    Napoleon  was  personally  occn- 
pied  at  the  time  with  a  greater  enterprise  than 
that  of  the  reduction  of  Spain.    His  good  un- 
derstanding with  Russia  was  not  destined  to 
endure.   Alexander  complained  of  his  encroach- 
ments upon  the  interests  of  Russia,  especially 


upon  her  commerce  in  the  northern  seas,  and 
the  commencement  of  the  year  1812  saw  both 
emperors  engaged  in  formidable  preparations  for 
war.     The  scheme  of  a  nniversal  monarchy, 
which  dazzled  the  ambition  of  Napoleon,  seems 
to  have  blinded  him  to  the  consequences  of 
his  acts,  or  to  have  allured  him  to  conquest 
with  utter  indifference  to  other  results.    A 
^^  grand  army,"  of  more  than  500,000  men,  was 
gathered  on  the  frontiers  of  Poland  to  enter 
npon  the  Russian  campaign — one  of  the  most 
stupendous  as  it  was  one  of  the  most  disastrous 
events  in  the  records  of  history.    Thi'ee  hun- 
dred thousand  Russians  assembled  on  the  banks 
of  the  Niemen  to  oppose  the  mighty  force  of 
the  French.    June  24,  1812,  Napoleon  crossed 
the  river,  and  the  Russians  retired  step  by  step 
before  the  invaders.    Tempests,  rains,  and  fam- 
ine sconrged  the  camps  of  the  French,  and  yet 
they  pushed  forward.    Under  the  walls  of  Smo- 
lensk, on  the  evening  of  Aug.  16,  a  division  of 
the  Russians  ventured  to  m^e  a  stand  against  an 
advanced  division  of  the  French,  and  before  the 
morning  of  the  18th  the  entire  city  was  a  heap 
of  smoking  ruins.    Both  the  main  armies  drove 
rapidly  on  toward  the  city  of  Moscow.    Sept  6, 
at  the  small  village  of  Borodino,  they  halted,  and 
came  face  to  face  with  each  other,  resolved  to 
risk  a  trial  of  strength.    As  the  morning  of  the 
7th  dawned,  a  solitary  gun  announced  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fight ;  immediately  1,000  cannons 
belched  forth  their  fire  of  deadi ;  more  than  250,- 
000  men  were  enveloped  in  the  dense  smoke  of 
the  confiict ;  and  when  the  night  fell  more  tiian 
90,000  of  killed  and  wounded  heaped  the  field. 
(See  BoBonnro.)    On  the  following  day  the  Rus- 
sians retired  into  Moscow,  only  to  prepare  the 
inhabitants  to  withdraw  in  a  body  before  the  ir- 
resLstible  arms  of  France.    On  tiie  15th,  when 
Napoleon  rode  into  the  ancient  capital,  it  was 
as  silent  as  tiie  desert,  and  he  took  up  his 
residence  in  the  Kremlin  as  if  he  were  about 
to  sleep  in  a  tomb.    But  suddenly,  at  mid- 
night, a  hundred  glares  of  light  showed  that 
the  people  had  not  yet  all  deserted.    The  vast 
city  was  in  fiames  in  every  direction,  and  the 
baffled  French,  enveloped  in  fire,  were  com- 
pelled to  seek  refuge  in  the  desolate  surround- 
ing country.    Napcueon  lingered  over  the  splen- 
did ruins  until  Oct.  19,  when  all  his  proposals 
for  a  peaceful  adjustment  of  difficulties  being 
rejected,  he  was  reluctantly  compelled  to  order 
a  retreat.    At  first  the  weather  was  fine,  and 
only  moderately  cold ;  but  soon  the  snow,  the 
rain,  fatigue,  and  swarms  of  harassing  Ooasacka 
threw  the  dispirited  Frenchmen  into  disorder. 
Then  commenced  that  terrible  retreat  of  120,000 
men,  which  for  various  suffering  and  horror  has 
no  parallel  in  the  annals  of  our  race.   Napoleon 
himself  returned  immediately  to  France,  and  was 
almost  the  first  to  announce  his  disaster  in  his 
own  capital,  so  rapidly  had  he  fied  from  the  scene. 
The  loss  of  the  French  and  their  auxiliaries,  in 
this  campcugn,  was  125,000  slain,  132,000  dead 
of  fiEitigue,  hunger,  disease,  and  cold,  and  193,- 
000  made  prisoners.    Yet  the  author  of  this 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


469 


fearfal  waste  of  linman  life  had  soaroeljr  reach- 
ed Paris  whea  he  ifisaed  orders  for  new  con- 
scriptionsy  and  still  thought  of  proaeoating  the 
warl  This  dreadful  reverse  enoouraged  the 
European  powers  to  a  6th  coalition,  com- 
posed of  Bassia,  Ensland,  Sweden,  Pmssia, 
and  Spain,  which,  early  in  the  year  1818,  sent 
forward  its  forces  towiud  the  Elhe,  with  a  view 
to  hem  in  the  indomitable  general,  who  seemed 
to  set  every  misfortune  at  defiance.  With  an 
army  of  850,000  men  Napoleon  repaired  to 
Germany,  where  he  fought  and  won  the  battle 
of  LtUzen  on  May  2,  and  the  battle  of  Bautzen 
on  the  2l8t  and  22d,  but  neither  of  them  with 
decisive  results.  On  June  4  an  armistice  was 
agreed  upon,  when  Ni4)oleon  repaired  to  Dres- 
den, where  Metternich,  on  the  part  of  Austria, 
offered  a  mediation  with  a  view  to  closing  the 
war.  But  Napoleon  could  not  agree  to  the 
terms  which  were  proposed  to  him,  fixing  the 
limit  of  the  French  empire  at  the  Khine,  and 
hostilities  recommenced.  From  Aug.  24  to  27, 
a  battle  raged  around  the  city  of  Dresden,  with 
the  preponderance  of  success  on  the  side  of  the 
French;  but,  owing  to  the  want  of  cavalry, 
Niq>oleon  was  unable  to  derive  from  it  all  the 
advantages  for  which  he  looked.  The  greater 
part  of  the  month  of  September  was  passed  in  a 
desultory  war&re,  the  French  armies,  on  the 
whole,  losing  ground,  and  experiencing  constant 
desertions  on  the  part  of  their  G^man  allies.  It 
was  no  longer  the  dynasts  who  were  opposing 
Napoleon,  but  the  people,  and  the  prestige  of 
popular  svmpathy,  which  had  carried  him  along, 
even  in  the  midst  of  nominal  enemies,  was  be- 
ginning to  £ul.  Among  the  Teutonic  masses 
tbe  thought  had  spread  that  the  war  before 
them  was  a  FreikeiUhrieg — a  war  of  inde- 

S^ndence;  and  the  victor,  hitherto  invinci- 
e,  was  at  last  brought  to  fiEUie,  not  the  rep- 
resentatives of  dilapidated  monarchies,  but 
a  nation  in  its  moral  might  and  dignity.  (For 
a  more  detailed  history  of  the  great  cam- 
piugn  of  1818-^14  see  BLtionsB.)  On  Oct 
16  the  battle  opened  at  Leipsic,  and  a  gallant 
struggle  on  the  part  of  the  French  showed  that 
their  enei^^es  were  still  fresh,  and  the  genius 
of  their  leader  unimpaired.  The  17th  was  a 
day  of  anxious  suspense  and  rapid  preparation. 
On  the  18th  the  carnage  was  renewed,  and  Na- 
poleon discovered  that  it  would  be  necessary  to 
retire  beyond  the  Rhine.  The  morning  of  the 
19th  saw  the  d^eoted  lines  of  the  French  slow- 

S  filing  out  of  the  city,  when  the  allies  forced 
eir  way  into  the  town,  and  by  blowing  up  a 
bridge  committed  a  sad  havoc,  and  made  some 
25,000  prisoners.  Thus,  after  an  obstinate  re- 
sLstance  of  8  days.  Napoleon  was  compeUed  to 
retreat — a  movement  for  which,  prodigious  as 
his  genius  was  in  assault  and  defence,  he  seem- 
ed to  have  but  little  capacity.  As  at  Moscow, 
and  later  at  Waterloo,  his  backward  march  was 
worse  than  a  battle  lost.  Though  he  cut  his 
way  bravely  through  the  Bavarians,  his  late 
friends,  at  Hanau,  yet,  when  he  crossed  the 
Ehine,  but  80,000  remained  of  all  his  splendid 


army.  He  reached  Paris  Nov.  9,  to  encoun- 
ter a  strong  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  on  the 
part  of  his  own  countrymen.  The  le^siative 
body  expressed  a  desire  for  peace,  and  could 
only  be  answered  by  a  guard  of  soldiers.  Tet 
tlie  devoted  France,  in  the  midst  of  her  humili- 
ations, was  not  unwUling  to  allow  her  hero 
another  chance.  With  a  fertilitv  of  resource 
and  a  genius  for  combination  which  were  almost 
miraculous,  Napoleon  was  prepared,  by  the  end 
of  Jan.  1814,  to  enter  upon  another  campaign, 
which  is  called  the  campaign  of  France.  Prus- 
sia, Russia,  and  Austria  were  already  on  her 
eastern  borders;  Wellington  had  crossed  the 
Pyr6n6es,  and  had  laid  siege  to  Bayonne;  Ber- 
nadotte,  the  king  of  Sweden  and  late  companion 
of  the  emperor,  was  coming  down  from  the 
north  at  the  head  of  100,000  troops;  andMnrat, 
his  own  brother-in-law,  had  entered  into  a 
secret  treaty  with  Austria  for  the  expulsion  of 
the  French  from  Italy,  llius,  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  enemies,  with  his  disposable  force 
shattered  and  broken,  the  indomitable  emperor 
still  repulsed  their  attacks,  and  still  continued 
to  astonish  Europe  with  his  dazzling  victories. 
But  numbers,  as  well  as  moral  power,  were  now 
against  him;  the  allies  succeeded  in  reaching 
the  exterior  defences  of  Paris;  the  capital, 
which  for  so  many  years  had  dictated  law  to 
all  other  capitals,  was  obliged  to  capitulate; 
and,  on  Mfurch  81,  Alexander  and  his  al- 
lies entered  Paris  amid  the  acclamations 
of  the  people.  The  senate,  formerly  his 
too  serviceable  instrument^  declared  that, 
"by  arbitrary  acts  and  violations  of  the  con- 
stitution," Napoleon  had  forfeited  the  tlirone, 
and  absolved  all  Frenchmen  from  their  al- 
legiance. His  own  generals,  in  this  the  hour 
of  his  abasement,  insisted  that  he  ought  to  ab- 
dicate, and  on  April  11,  he  signed  his  sur- 
render of  power.  He  was  allowed  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  island  of  Elba,  with  a  revenue* 
of  6,000,000  francs,  and,  after  taking  leave  of 
his  army  at  Fontaineblean,  he  departed  for  his 
new  abode.  On  May  4,  he  landed  from  the 
British  frigate  Undaunted,  at  the  port  of 
Ferriy  o ;  and  Louis  X  VUI.  resumed  the  seat  of 
his  ancestors.— Ten  months  later,  invited  by  a 
conspiracy  of  old  republicans,  joined  to  the 
Bonapartists,  Napoleon,  who  had  not  ceased  to 
watch  and  foment  the  intrigues  of  Paris,  was 
secretly  returning  to  France.  On  Feb.  26, 
1815,  escaping  from  Elba,  he  landed  at  Can- 
nes, not  far  from  Fr^os,  with  an  escort  com- 
posed of  about  1,000  of  his  old  guard.  As  soon 
as  his  arrival  was  known,  a  Itf ge  part  of  the 
army,  headed  by  Ney  and  Colonel  LabMoy^re, 
Joined  his  cause ;  and  he  made  a  triumphal  pro- 
gress toward  Paris.  Europe  was  overwhelmed 
with  surprise  at  the  suddenness  of  the  apparition. 
On  March  20,  and  before  a  shot  was  fired,  Louis 
XYIII.  was  driven  from  the  throne  to  which  he 
had  just  been  restored  by  the  combined  armies 
of  the  world.  The  congress  of  Vienna,  still  in 
session,  disposing  of  the  rights  of  nations  in  a 
spirit  which  almost  justified  the  whole  previous 


470 


NAPOLEON  BONAPARTE 


career  of  Napoleon,  heard  the  news  with  aston- 
ishment, and  instantly  concerted  a  plan  for  con- 
joint resistance  to  the  terrible  man.  The  armies 
resumed  their  march  toward  the  French  fron- 
tier. Napoleon,  hastily  reorganizing  the  gov- 
ernment, out  on  a  basis  more  liberal  than  that 
of  the  empire,  and  having  in  vain  attempted  to 
open  negotiations  for  peace,  advanced  to  their 
encoanter.  Drained  as  France  was  by  a  long 
series  of  desolating  oonqnests,  250,000  men 
went  forward  to  meet  almost  double  that  num- 
ber of  enemies.  On  June  1 5,  with  1 50,000  vete- 
rans, Napoleon  crossed  the  Belgian  frontier; 
the  next  day  he  defeated  the  Prussians  under 
Blacher,  at  Ligny ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  he 
sent  Nev  against  the  English  army  at  Quatre- 
Bras,  where  he  was  routed  by  Wellington. 
On  the  morning  of  the  17th,  the  latter  fell  back 
upon  Waterloo,  hard  followed  by  Napoleon. 
The  hour  for  the  9nal  battle  had  come;  the 
French  were  thoroughly  cUspersed,  and  the 
Great  Captain  hurried  back  to  Paris.  Once 
more  the  capital  was  occupied  by  foreign  troops ; 
a  war  whicn  had  lasted  for  28  years  was  closed ; 
the  legislature  demanded  a  second  abdication ; 
on  the  22d  June,  just  100  days  after  his  resump- 
tion of  power,  the  second  abdication  was  signed; 
and  Napoleon  was  required  to  embark  instantly 
for  the  United  States.  But  Napoleon,  arrived 
at  Rochefort,  with  a  view  to  fly,  found  that 
there  would  be  little  probability  of  his  escaping 
the  vigilance  of  the  British  cruisers,  and  volun- 
tarilv  surrendered  himself  to  Captain  Maitland, 
of  the  British  war-ship  Bellerophon.  The 
British  government  ordered  his  detention  as  a 
prisoner,  and  fin^y  consigned  him  to  the  Island 
of  St.  Helena  for  life.  Thus  ended  the  public 
career  of  the  greatest  military  genius,  not 
excepting  Julius  Caesar,  which  the  world 
ever  saw.  He  landed  at  his  place  of  impris- 
onment Oct.  16,  1815,  and  remained  therej. 
'alternately  fretting  at  the  restraints  imposed 
upon  him,  and  dictating  memoirs  of  his  extra- 
ordinary career,  until  May  5, 1821,  when  he 
died  of  an  ulcer  of  the  stomach,  the  same  dis- 
ease which  had  carried  off  his  father.  On  the 
8th  of  Hay,  his  remains  were  interred  beneath 
some  weeping  willows^  near  a  fountain  in 
Slane^s  valley ;  but  20  years  afterward,  Oct.  18, 
1840,  the  king  of  the  French,  Louis  Philippe, 
procured  the  removal  of  his  ashes  to  France, 
where  they  now  r^se,  beneath  a  magnificent 
monument,  in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides. — ^Napo- 
leon's marvellous  character  and  career,  on  which 
we  have  here  no  space  to  remark,  will  occupy 
the  pens  of  the  historian  and  the  moralist,  for 
years  yet  to  come ;  and  until  that  distant  day 
when  it  shall  be  clearly  discerned  that  the  true 
greatness  of  man  consists  in  his  superiority  in 
those  qualities  which  distinguish  him  as  man, — 
in  his  disinterested  love  of  goodness  and  truth, 
and  in  the  energy  with  which  he  has  caused 
the  same  to  prevail, — ^it  will  be  in  vain  to  look 
for  a  uniformity  of  judgment  in  regard  to  him ; 
but  we  need  not  await  a  distant  day  to  accord 
to  him  the  possession  of  unsurpassed  military 


ability,  of  indomitable  self-reliance,  of  unsleep- 
ing and  prodigious  energy,  and  of  the  most  lofty 
and  commanding  intellect,  perhaps,  that  was 
ever  given  to  a  human  being. — The  bibliography 
of  Napoleon  may  be  said  to  embrace  almost  the 
entire  literature  of  the  first  part  of  the  19th 
century,  and  therefore  we  can  only  refer  to  a 
few  of  the  leading  works  directly  illustrative  of 
the  principal  events  of  his  life.    The  MSmoirea^ 
by  Bourrienne,  the  Souvenirs  hiitoriques,  by  the 
Ihichess    d'Abrant^    the   MitMrial  de  8U, 
HeUr^  by  Las  Cases,  and  the  "  Voice  from  St. 
Helena,"  by  Barry  CMeara,  are  universally 
known ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Le  eon- 
9ulat  et  Pempirey  by  Thiers,  of  the  "Life  of 
Napoleon  "  by  Sir  Walter  Scott^  and  of  the 
lives  by  Lockhart  and  by  Hazlitt    In  addition 
to  these,  the  student  may  consult  (Euvres  ds 
NapoUat^  6  vols.  8vo,  Stuttgart  and  TtLbingen, 
1853 ;  Beeueil  par  ordre  ehronohffique  de  Mt 
Isttres,  proelamatianB,  Ac.y  2  vols.,  Paris,  1865; 
Sistoire  de  NapoU(m  etde  la  Ihunee,  by  Thib- 
eaudau,  10  vols. ;  Bistaire  de  NapoUon  etde  la 
grande  armSe^  by  S4gnr;  Mllangea  higtoriqveSy 
sous  ea  dieteey  by  Montholon,  4  voK;  ViepoH- 
Uque  et  miUtaire^  by  Jomini,  4  vols.;  Mh- 
moires  Serits   eaue   sa   dietSe^  by  Oonrffand, 
2  vols.;  Doeumene  particuUen  sur  NapMon; 
Coure  diplomatique  et  politique^  extrait   du 
MoniteuTy  7  vols. ;  CarreepoTidance  inidite^  of- 
Jleielle  et  eonfidentUlley  7  vols. ;  Marie  Louiae 
et  NapoUan^  sauvenin  historiqueey  by  Menneval, 
2  vols. ;  Memoiree  pour  eervir  d  tkietoirey  by 
Savary,  4  vols.;    Vontestatien  entre  le  Saint 
Siige  et  I^apoleoriy  by  Schoele,  8  vols,;  Pnfcw 
dee  SverUments  militaireSy  by  Mathien  Dnmaa, 
19  vols. ;  Compendia  etorieo  $u  Pio  VILy  10- 
lauo,  1824 ;  Histovre  de  la  riwlution  iPBspagns^ 
by  Col.  Schepelcr;  Southey's  "History  of  the 
Peninsular  War,"  and  Napier's  "History  of  the 
War  in  the  Peninsula,"  5  vols.;  "Despatches 
of  the  Duke  of  Wellington,"  8  vols. ;  Memoire^ 
sur  la  guerre  de  1809,  by  Gen.  Pelet,  4  vols.; 
La  vSritS  $ur  Vineendie  de  Moscou^  by  Count 
Bostopchin,  Paris,  1828;  Eoch,  Mknotreepour 
eerwr  d  Vhietovre  de  la  eampagne  de  1814;  Bi^ 
toire  de  la  eampagne  de  Varmee  AnglaieOy  et  de 
Varmie  Prumenney  en  1815,  Stuttgart,  1817 ; 
Observations  sur  la  rSlation  de  la  eampagne  ds 
1815,  by  Gen.  Gourgaud,  Philadelphia,  1818; 
"History  of  the  Captivity  of  Napoleon  at  St. 
Helena,  from  the   Letters  and  Jonmah  of 
the   late   Lieut.-gen.    Sir   Hudson  Lowe,"  8 
vols.  1858 ;  MSmoires  et  eorrespondanee  du  r&i 
Joseph  BonapartOy  Paris,  1858-^55 ;  Histoire  de 
la  restaurationy  by  M.  de  Lamartine,  8  vol& ;  Zee 
idSes  NapoUonienneSy  by  Louis  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, Brussels,  1889;  Ifapoleon  im  Jahre  181S, 
politiseh-mUitairiseh  geschilderty  by  Carl  Bade, 
4  vols.,  Altona,  1841 ;    Geschiehte  des  Beut- 
schen  FreiheitshriegSy  by  Dr.  Friedrich  Rioh- 
ter,  4  vols.,  Berlin,  1840 ;  Manuserit  de  1813, 
by  Baron  Fain,  2  vols.,  Paris,  1825;  "The  Fall 
of  Napoleon,"  by  CoL  Mitchell,  London,  1846 ; 
Kartin,  Histoire  de  VexpHition  de  VJBgypte; 
Eist,  de  ^raneej  pendant  le  XVIIL  mJi^  bj 


BONAPARTE 


471 


0.  J.  Laor^telle,  6  rob.,  Paris,  1850;  ^<  His- 
tory of  the  18th  oentorj,  and  of  the  19th  till 
the  overthrow  of  the  French  Empire,"  hy  F.  0. 
Sohloaser  (translated  hy  D.  Davison),  8  vols., 
London,  1848-*53 ;  Thnaignagei  hiatoriquet  au 
munae  ans  ds  hatUe  police  saw  Napoleon^  by  M. 
Deamareta,  Paris,  1888.  The  1st  volume  of  Na- 
poleon's oorrespondenoe  appeared  at  Paris  early 
in  1858,  under  the  auspices  of  the  government 

BONAPARTE,  Napolboxt  FBANgois  Josxph 
Ohablks,  or  Nafouboit  XL,  the  son  of » the  em- 
peror Napoleon,  bom  in  Paris,  March  20, 1811, 
died  at  SohOnbrunn,  July  22,  1882.  He  was 
the  froit  of  the  marriage  between  Napoleon 
and  Maria  Louisa  df  Austria,  and  from  his  buth 
was  styled,  the  king  of  Borne.  When  the  em- 
peror was  compelled  to  abdicate  in  1814,  he 
went  with  his  mother  to  Vienna,  and  was  edu- 
cated there  by  his  grandfather,  the  emperor  of 
Austria.  His  title  there  was  the  duke  of  Reich* 
stadt,  and  he  was  most  carefully  instructed, 
eq»eoiaUy  in  the  military  art.  But  he  appears 
to  liave  inherited  but  little  of  the  aoility 
of  his  father;  his  constitution  was  weak,  and 
early  symptoms  of  consumption  unfitted  him 
for  the  laborious  duties  of  a  military  career. 
On  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba,  in  1816,  an 
attempt  was  made  to  remove  the  young  duke 
to  Paris,  but  frustrated  by  the  Austrian  author- 
ities. He  was  made  a  lieutenant-colonel  in 
1881,  and  commanded  a  battalion  of  Hungarian 
inflantry  in  the  garrison  of  Vienna,  but  his 
death,  when  he  was  but  21  years  old,  cut  him 
off  before  he  had  reached  an  age  in  which  he 
might  have  displayed  any  abilities  he  possessed. 
Daring  his  lifetime  he  never  assumed  the  tiUe 
of  Napoleon  XL,  inasmuch  as  the  abdication  of 
his  fatner,  in  his  favor,  was  never  admitted  bv 
the  allies^  nor  was  it  ever  clumed  by  the  French 
government.  But  in  1862,  when  the  resump- 
tion of  empire  by  Louis  Napoleon  rendered 
some  title  necessary,  he  was  considered  Napo- 
leon XL,  and  the  new  emperor  took  that  of  Na- 
poleon XXL  The  latier  titie,  however,  having 
been  recognized  by  the  several  governments  of 
Earope^  the  recognition  of  the  former  is  implied. 

BONAPARTE,  Ghablbs  Louis  Napoleon,  or 
Napoleoh  XU.,  is  the  youngest  son  of  Louis, 
the  king  of  Holland,  and  Hortense,  daughter  of 
the  empress  Josephine,  who  reappears  on  the 
throne  of  France,  from  which  she  was  expelled 
by  Napoleon  X.,  in  the  person  of  her  grandson. 
He  was  bom  in  Paris,  April  20, 1808.  The  em- 
peror and  empress  were  his  sponsors  at  baptism, 
and  he  was  an  early  favorite  with  Napoleon. 
As  his  &ther  and  mother  soon  came  to  live 
s^Murately  (indeed,  they  had  been  alienated 
before,  and  it  is  said  to  have  been  at  the  im- 
perative command  of  the  emperor  that  King 
Louis  allowed  the  child  to  be  recognized  as  his), 
he  was  ohiefiy  educated  by  his  mother,  who  re- 
sided in  Paris  under  the  title  of  the  queen  of  Hol- 
land. After  the  battie  of  Waterloo,  the  family 
retired  first  to  Augsburg,  where  he  learned  the 
Qerman  language,  and  subsequentiy  to  Switzer- 
land, where  they  passed  their  summers,  while  in 


whiter  they  repaired  to  Rome.  The  principal 
tutor  of  Liouis  Napoleon  was  M.  Lebas,  who, 
being  a  stem  republican,  gave  him  his  first  but 
short-lived  inclinations  to  republican  principles. 
For  a  time,  however,  he  was  at  the  military 
college  of  Thun,  where  he  made  sOme  progress 
in  the  science  of  gunnery,  but  was  not  distin- 
guished as  a  scholar.  When  the  revolution  of 
1880  broke  out,  he  petitioned  Xiouis  Philippe  to 
be  allowed  to  return  to  France,  but  that  adroit 
monarch  refused  the  request.  XiOuis  and  his 
brother.  Napoleon,  then  repaired  to  Xtaly,  where 
they  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolutionary 
movements  of  1831.  But  the  interference  of 
France  and  Austria  in  behalf  of  the  papal  author- 
ities soon  put  an  end  to  these,  and  the  brofhers 
were  banished  from  the  papal  territory.  The 
elder  brother,  Napoleon,  died  at  Pesaro,  a  victim 
to  his  anxieties  and  fatigues,  Mardi  27  of 
that  year,  and  Louis  Napoleon,  also  prostrated 
by  illness  at  Ancona,  was  joined  by  his  mother, 
and  having  in  vain  applied  for  permission  to 
enter  the  French  army,  he  spent  a  short  time 
in  England,  eventually  retiring  to  his  mother^s 
chateau  at  Arenenberg;  in  Thnrgau.  The  duke  of 
Beichstadt  dying  in  1832,  left  him  the  successor 
of  Napoleon  L,  not  by  legitimate  descent,  but 
by  the  imperial  edicts  of  1604  and  1806,  which 
set  aside  the  usual  order  of  descent,  and  fixed 
the  succession  in  the  line  of  the  4th  brother  of 
Napoleon,  XiOuis,  instead  of  in  that  of  the  elder 
brother  Joseph.  This  opened  a  new  career  to 
his  ambition,  and  he  seems  from  that  time  to 
have  set  his  heart  upon  the  recovery  of  the 
imperial  position  and  honors.  Nor  did  he  leave 
any  means  untried  by  which  he  might  hope  to 
win  over  the  French  people  to  an  approval  of 
his  lofty  project.  He  wrote  a  book  called 
Sheries  politiques^  in  which  he  endeavored  to 
demonstrate  the  necessity  of  an  emperor  to  the 
trae  republican  organization  of  France.  This 
was  subsequentiy  expanded  into  a  larger  work, 
called  Idees  I^afolSaniennes,  wherein  tiie  policy 
and  plans  of  the  emperor  were  magnifi^  and 
extolled,  and  eameatiy  commended  to  the 
adoption  of  France.  But  he  did  not  limit  his 
efforts  to  the  publication  of  books ;  he  put  him- 
self in  communication  with  Oolonel  Vaudry, 
and  other  military  officers  of  the  garrison  of 
Strasbourg;  and,  Oct  80,  1886,  he  proclaimed 
a  revolution.  The  soldiers  of  some  regi- 
ments received  him  with  acclamation,  but  tibe 
other  regiments  remained  true  to  their  duty, 
and  the  attempt  resulted  in  a  miserable  failure. 
The  prince,  however,  was  taken  prisoner,  and 
Louis  Philippe,  instead  of  having  him  executed, 
consented,  at  the  earnest  entreaties  of  his 
mother^  merely  to  banish  him.  He  was  sent  to^ 
the  United  States,  where  he  led  a  life  of  idle- 
ness for  a  short  time,  and  then  went  to  South 
America.  The  mortal  illness  of  his  mother 
took  him  back  to  Arenenberg,  in  time  to  see 
her  die  on  Oct.  6, 1887.  As  he  immediately 
set  to  work  defending  his  conduct  at  Strasbourg, 
the  government  of  France  demanded  his  extra- 
dition from  Switzerland,  which  country  at  first 


472 


BONAPABTE 


BONAPARTES  OF  BALTDCOBE 


refdsed  to  comply  with  the  request,  but  after- 
ward was  about  to  assent  to  it,  when  Louis 
Napoleon  voluntarily  withdrew  to  England. 
There  he  occupied  himself  in  preparing  his 
IdieB  NapoUoniienriM^  before  referred  to,  and  in 
getting  up  a  second  revolutionary  expedition. 
Accompanied  by  Count  Jiontholon,  who  had 
been  the  companion  of  his  unde  at  St.  Helena, 
and  a  retinue  of  about  60  person^  he  sailed 
in  a  steamboat  from  Margate  in  August,  1840, 
He  carried  with  him  a  tame  eagle,  which  was 
expected  to  perform  some  exploit  to  awaken 
the  enthusiasm  of  the  French  nation.  He 
landed  at  Boulogne,  marched  with  his  followers 
to  the  barracks,  and  called  upon  the  soldiers  to 
surrender  or  to  join  his  cause.  They  peremp- 
torily refused  to  do  either,  when  a  few  shots 
were  interchanged,  and  the  prince  was  com- 
pelled to  seek  safety  on  a  neighboring  hill. 
The  eagle  did  not  perform,  and  the  prince  was 
arrested  in  an  endeavor  to  get  back  to  the 
steamboat.  He  was  tried  for  treason  before 
the  house  of  peers,  was  defended  by  the  elo- 
quent Berryer,  but  was  sentenced  to  perpetual 
imprisonment  in  the  fortress  of  Ham.  This 
exclusion  from  the  world  gave  him  leisure  for 
the  exercise  of  his  literary  abilities,  and  he 
passed  some  of  his  time  in  writing  ^^  Historical 
Fragments,*'  among  which  is  a  comparison  of 
the  French  revolution  of  1834  and  the  English 
revolution  of  1688;  also,  an  analysis  of  the 
sugar  question,  and  an  essay  on  the  extinction 
of  pauperism,  in  the  last  of  which  a  decidedly 
socialistio  tone  is  assumed.  The  author  pro- 
poses, as  a  remedy  for  the  evils  which  affect  the 
poorer  classes,  the  establishmeut  of  agricultural 
associations  in  those  parts  of  the  country  which 
are  uncultivated,  asserting  his  own  determina- 
tion to  act  always  in  the  "  interests  of  the 
masses,  the  sources  of  all  right  and  of  all 
wealth,  although  destitute  of  the  one,  and  with- 
out guaranty  for  the  other."  He  published,  also, 
CorHideratiom  politique^  et  militaira  tut  la 
Suisse^  and  a  Manuel  sur  VartiUerie.  After 
remaining  in  prison  6  vears,  he  managed 
to  effect  his  escape  by  the  assistance  of  his 
physician,  in  the  dress  of  a  workman,  and 
went  again  to  England.  When  tlie  revolu- 
tion of  1848  broke  out,  he  repaired  to 
Paris,  and  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  the  nation- 
al assembly,  from  the  department  of  the 
Seine  and  8  other  departments.  Lamartine, 
opposing  the  Bonaparte  dynasty,  endeavored 
to  effect  his  banishment  from  France,  but  after 
a  stormy  debate,  Louis  Napoleon  was  admitted 
to  his  seat  He  professed  to  be  a  republican, 
and  as  such  took  the  oath  of  fidelll^  to  tiie  re- 
public. In  May,  1850,  when  the  election  for 
president  came  on,  he  was  found  to  be  the  most 
popular  candidate,  and  was  chosen  by  a  large 
minority  of  votes.  His  government  as  president 
nominally  republican,  was  yet  steadily  ddrected 
to  the  furtherance  of  his  personal  schemes.  In 
the  be^ning  of  1851,  Ohangamier,  who  com- 
manded the  army  of  Paris,  was  dismissed,  and 
the  legislative  assembly,  wMoh  refused  to  pass 


several  bills  urged  by  him,  was  denounced  as 
factious  and  refractory.  All  through  the  sum- 
mer the  breach  between  the  prince  president, 
as  he  was  called,  and  the  representatives  of  the 
people  was  widened,  when  suddenly,  on  the 
night  of  the  2d  December,  the  president  de- 
clared Paris  in  a  state  of  siege ;  a  decree  was 
issued  dissolving  the  assembly,  180  of  the  mem- 
bers were  placed  under  arrest,  the  leading  ones 
being  torn  from  their  beds  and  sent  to  prison, 
and  the  people  who  exhibited  any  diqM^sition 
to  take  their  part  were  shot  down  in  the 
streets  by  the  soldiers.  A  decree  was  put  forth 
at  the  same  time,  ordering  the  establishment 
of  universal  suffrage,  and  the  election  of  a  pres- 
ident for  10  years.  Louis  Napoleon  was  of 
course  elected  under  this  decree ;  and  as  soon  as 
he  found  himself  firmly  reseated  in  his  place, 
he  began  to  prepare  for  the  restoration  of  the 
empire.  In  January,  1852,  the  national  guard 
was  revived,  a  new  constitution  adopted,  and 
new  orders  of  nobUity  issued.  On  Nov.  21  and 
22,  the  people  were  asked  to  vote  upon  a 
plebiscitumy  reviving  the  imperial  dignity  in 
the  person  of  Louis  Napoleon.  The  votes  were 
counted  largely  in  his  favor,  and  he  was  de- 
clared emperor,  under  the  title  of  Napoleon  HI. 
Thus  the  long  and  eager  pursuit  of  the  resusd- 
tation  of  the  Napoleon  dynasty  was  at  last 
crowned  with  success.  In  January,  1858,  Louis 
Napoleon  married  Eugenie,  Ck>unteas  de  Teba, 
a  Spanish  lady  of  remarkable  beauty  and  ao- 
oomplishments,  and  the  result  of  the  union  was 
the  birth  of  a  son,  March  16,  1856.  In  March, 
1854,  Louis  Napoleon,  in  conjunction  with  Eng- 
land, declared  war  against  Russia, — ^a  war  whidi 
was  conducted  by  all  tiie  parties  with  great 
vigor,  until  peace  was  resumed  in  J  856,  on 
terms  agreed  upon  by  a  conference  of  the  great 
powers,  held  in  Paris.  On  a  visit  of  the  em- 
peror and  empress  to  England  in  1855,  they 
were  received  with  great  splendor  and  enthu- 
siasm. The  government  of  Louis  Napoleon  has 
been  demotic,  and  yet  to  a  certain  extent  satis- 
factory to  the  people.  Weary  of  revolutions 
and  civil  wars,  of  which  it  has  had  so  fre- 
quent and  dreadful  an  experience,  the  French 
nation  seems  to  prefer  the  endurance  of  any 
kind  of  government,  which  can  bring  it  tran- 
quillity and  peace,  to  incurring  the  hazards  of 
civil  strife.  Symptoms  of  dissatisfaction,  how- 
ever, showed  themselves  during  the  year  1857, 
and  in  the  elections  for  the  le^slative  assembly 
a  most  decided  expression  of  opposition  was 
given  by  the  city  of  Paris.  The  attempt  upon 
the  emperor^s  life,  Jan.  14, 1858.  has,  moreover, 
produced  greater  stringency  in  the  government, 
and  was  followed  by  serious  complications  with 
England  and  other  powers. 

BONAPABTES  OF  Baltimose.  The  branch 
of  the  family  residing  in  Baltimore,  Maryland, 
was  derived  from  the  marriage  of  Jerome  Bo- 
naparte, brother  of  the  emperor  Napoleon  I., 
with  Elizabeth  Patterson,  daughter  of  William 
Patterson,  an  eminent  merchant  in  the  city  of 
Baltimore.    She  was  scarce  18  years  of  age, 


BONAPARTES  OF  BALTMOEE 


473 


when  Jerome  Bonaparte  in  command  of  aFrenoih 
frigate  landed  in  New  York  in  1808.  She,  at 
that  time,  was  distiDgniahed  hy  uncommon 
personal  beanty,  and  is  said,  moreover,  to 
haye  strikingly  resembled  the  Bonaparte  family. 
The  fame  of  Napoleon  insured  for  his  brother 
Jerome  a  distingoished  reception  in  Amer- 
ica, and  wherever  he  went  he  was  most  hospi- 
tably entertained.  On  visiting  Baltimore  he  saw 
Miss  Patterson,  and  soon  became  much  attached 
to  her,  a  partiality  which  she  readily  returned, 
and  being  ambitious  in  her  views  of  life,  she  at 
once  accepted  his  offers  of  marriage,  and  was 
united  to  him  Dec.  2^  1808.  The  marriage 
ceremony  was  performed  by  the  bishop  of  Bad- 
timore,  John  Carroll,  brother  of  Oharles  Oarroll 
of  OarroUton,  the  signer  of  the  declaration  of 
independence,  and  in  accordance  with  the  ritual 
of  the  Roman  Oatholio  church.  The  marriage 
contract,  considered  of  importance,  was  drawn 
up  by  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  subsequently  secre- 
tary of  the  treasury,  and  witnessed  by  several 
official  personages,  including  the  mayor  of  Bid- 
timore.  Jerome  Bonaparte  remuned  in  Amer- 
ica for  a  full  year,  visiting,  with  his  wife,  various 
parts  of  the  country.  At  length  they  embarked 
for  Europe  in  the  spring  of  1805,  in  the  Amer- 
ican ship  Erin,  ana  arrived  safely  at  Lisbon. 
The  news  of  the  marriage  proved  very  distaste- 
ful to  the  dictator  of  France,  partly  because 
Jerome  had  dared  to  marry  without  his  con- 
sent^ and  partly  on  account  of  his  own  wish  to 
unite  all  his  brothers  to  European  princesses. 
Before  the  newly  wedded  pair  ooald  reach  Eu- 
rope, an  order  went  forth  to  every  port  under 
French  authority,  forbidding  them  to  land. 
The  hopes  of  the  Mv  American  ware  now  for- 
ever blighted,  as  Napoleon  sternly  refused  to 
•recognize  her  marriage.  Jerome  left  her  at 
Lisbon,  and  hastened  to  Paris,  hoping  by  a  per- 
sonal interview  to  soften  the  emperor,  Erecting 
the  vessel  to  proceed  to  Amsterdam,  as  the  state 
of  his  wife^s  health  would  not  admit  of  her 
undergoing  a  long  land  journey,  even  if  a  pass- 

Sort  could  be  obtained  for  her,  which  was  very 
oubtful.  On  the  Erin's  arrival  at  Tezel  roads, 
Madame  Bonaparte  found  that  an  order  had  been 
awaiting  her  coming,  which  prohibited  her  from 
landing.  She  was  obliged  to  sail  at  once  for 
England,  where  she  established  her  abode,  and 
at  Gamberwell,  near  London,  Julv  7,  1805, 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  Jerome  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, now  living  in  Baltimore.  She  never  saw 
her  husband  again,  except  in  a  casual  meeting 
xoauy  years  after  their  separation.  Jerome,  who 
was  originally  much  attached  to  his  wife,  in 
vain  petitioned  the  emperor  to  recognize  her, 
and  was  finally  obliged  to  yield  to  the  despot^s 
iron  will,  and  marry  the  princess  Frederics 
Catharine  of  Wftrtemberg.  Alter  the  downfall  of 
Napc^eon,  Madame  Patterson  (as  she  was  styled 
for  a  long  period)  visited  Europe,  and  is  said  to 
have  encountered  Jerome  Bonaparte  with  his 
princess  in  the  gallery  of  the  Pitti  palace  in 
I*lorenoe.  On  meeting,  Jerome  started  aside, 
and  was  overheard  to  say  to  the  princess,  *'  That 


lady  is  my  former  wife."  He  instantly  left 
the  gallery,  and  next  morning  departed  from 
Florence.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  never  succeeded 
in  indncing  the  pope,  Pius  YIL,  to  declare  Je* 
rome^s  first  marria^  null  and  void.  To  the  pon- 
tiff's honor  be  it  said,  he  invariably  refused,  and 
this  protest  has  of  late  been  brought  forward  in 
a  question  involving  the  rank  of  the  Baltimore 
Bonapartes,  as  princes  of  the  imperial  house- 
hold. Madame  Bonaparte  has^ince  the  birth  of 
her  son,  generally  resided  in  Baltimore,  as  she 
does  at  present,  in  the  possession  of  abun- 
dant wealth.  Notwithstanding  her  treatment  by 
Napoleon,  she  has  always  expressed  the  highest 
admiration  for  him,  and  prophesies  that  her 
grandson  is  eventually  to  succeed  him  as  em- 
peror of  the  French.--JBnOMB  Napoleon,  son  of 
the  preceding,  bom  in  En^and,  July  7,  1806. 
His  mother  returned  to  the  United  States  during 
his  boyhood,  and  he  was  reared  in  Baltimore.  He 
entered  Harvard  college,  and  graduated  from 
that  institution  in  1826.  Mr.  Bonaparte  had  then 
some  intention  of  pursuing  the  legal  profession, 
but,  although  he  studied  for  the  bar,  he  never 
practised  law.  He  was  married  early  in  life  to 
Miss  Susan  Mary  Williams,  daughter  of  Benja- 
min WilUams,  Esq.,  originally  of  Roxbury, 
Mass.  Miss  Williams  was  a  lady  of  very  large 
fortune,  which,  united  with  Mr.  Bonaparte's 
own  property,  has  made  him  one  of  the  wealth- 
iest citizens  of  Baltimore.  Since  his  marriage  he 
has  devoted  his  time  to  the  management  of  a 
large  estate,  and  partly  to  agricultural  pursuits. 
He  has  two  chil^n :  a  son,  Jerome  Napoleon, 
born  in  1882,  now  in  the  French  army,  and  an- 
other son,  Oharles  Joseph,  bom  in  1852.  For 
many  years,  Mr.  Bonaparte  received  a  handsome 
allowance  from  his  &ther,  with  whom  he  was 
on  terms  of  intimacy  in  his  several  visits  to  Eu- 
rope. During  the  reign  of  Louis  Philippe,  Mr. 
Bonaparte  was  permitted  to  sojourn  in  Paris, 
but  for  a  short  period  only,  and  under  his 
mother's  name  of  Patterson.  Although  travel- 
ling incognito^  he  attracted  much  attention  from 
his  singular  likeness  to  the  great  emperor.  He 
has  always  been  thought  to  resemble  him  more 
than  any  of  the  monarch's  own  brothers  did. 
He  is  distinguished  by  tiie  same  shape  of  the  head 
and  perfect  regularity  of  features,  bronze  ooun- 
tenance,  and  SsotIl  eyes  of  pecoliar  tint,  which 
Napoleon  had,  and  which  characterize  the  Oorsi- 
can  people.  His  figore,  too,  is  cast  in  the  same 
square  mould  which  m^  see  in  the  pictures  of  Na- 
poleon. Mr.  Bonaparte  has  long  been  on  good 
terms  with  Louis  Napoleon,  and  since  his  assump- 
tion of  the  imperial  purple,  has  visited  the  French 
court  with  his  son,  by  the  invitation  of  the  em- 
peror. In  regard  to  the  validity  of  his  father's 
first  marriage  with  Miss  Patterson,  which,  if  fully 
recognized  by  the  court  of  France,  would  give 
him  precedence  over  his  half  brotiiers  and  the 
Princess  Mathilde,  the  children  of  Jerome's  sec- 
ond marriage,  nothing  has  as  yet  transpired  of 
a  public  nature.  The  refusal  of  the  pope  Pius  YIL 
to  confirm  the  order  of  Napoleon  I.,  declaring 
the  American  marriage  null  and  void,  is  still 


474 


BONAVENTUEA 


BOND 


nuuntdned  hj  the  pj^ptl  omiii.  Bat  up  to 
thU  time,  all  traDsaotioDS  affecting  the  rank  of 
Mr.  Bonaparte  and  hia  ohildren  are  considered 
of  a  delicate  natore,  in  which  the  faniilv  alone, 
and  not  the  oommanity,  have  the  right  of  in* 

3 airy.  It  is  weU  understood,  however,  that 
erome  Bonaparte  is  violently  opposed  to  the 
recognition  of  precedence  for  the  Baltimore 
Bonapartea,  and,  as  far  as  he  is  himself  oon- 
cemed,  refoses  to  acknowledge  his  son. and 
grandson  bv  any  name  bat  that  of  Patterson. 
— Jbbomv  Napouox,  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  Baltimore,  in  1883.  He  entered  Har- 
vard college,  where  he  remained  2  years,  bat 
was  transferred  to  West  Point  military  aoad« 
emy,  where  he  graduated  high  in  his  class 
in  1862.  He  remained  bat  a  short  time  in 
the  American  army,  for  having  visited  France, 
with  his  father,  he  attracted  the  favorable 
notice  of  Napoleon  HI.,  and  resigning  his 
commission  in  the  service  of  the  United  States, 
entered  that  of  the  French  as  sab*lieatenant  in 
the  army.  He  took  part  in  the  operations 
of  ^e  French  and  English  allies  in  the 
Crimea,  and  served  at  the  seige  of  Bebasto* 

Sol,  in  Glen.  Bosqaet^s  division.  For  his  con- 
act,  which  was  considered  gallant  and  meri- 
torioos,  he  received  a  decoration  from  the  sal- 
tan. He  visited  the  United  States  in  May,  1868. 
His  appearance,  handsome  and  martial,  is  not 
Napoleonic  like  that  of  his  father,  he  being 
tall  and  slender.  He  possesses  fair  abilities, 
and  most  amiable  manners  and  character, 
which  win  for  him  many  friends.  His  destiny 
is,  of  course,  at  present,  mere  matter  of  specula- 
tion, greatly  depending  on  the  will,  as  well  as 
the  continued  power  of  Napoleon  III. 

BONAVENTURA,  Saint  (Giovanki  di  Fi- 
DA2rzA),  a  cardinal  and  doctor  of  the  Roman 
church,  and  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
Bcholastio  philosophers,  bom  at  Bagnarea  in 
Tuscany  in  1221,  died  at  Lyons,  July  16,  1274. 
He  entered  the  order  of  St.  Francis  at  an 
early  age,  studied  in  the  university  oi  Paris, 
was  appointed  professor  of  theology  in  1258, 
and  elected  in  1256  general  of  his  order.  So 
great  was  his  reputation  for  wisdom  that, 
after  the  death  of  Pope  Clement  IV.  in  1268, 
the  cardinals,  unable  to  agree  upon  a  suc- 
cessor, bound  themselves  to  elect  whomsoever 
Bonaventura  should  designate.  Bv  Gregory  X. 
he  was  raised  to  the  episcopal  see  of  Albano,  and 
to  the  dignity  of  cardinal.  He  died  during  the 
session  of  the  second  council  of  Lyons,  to  which 
he  had  been  sent  as  legate  of  the  pope,  and  his 
funeral,  celebrated  with  the  greatest  mumifi- 
oence,  was  attended  by  the  supreme  pontic  ac- 
oompanied  by  a  brilliant  retinue  of  cardinals  and 
kings.  He  was  canonized  by  Slxtus  IV.  in  1482, 
and  b^  Sixtus  V.  in  1587  he  was  declared  the 
sixth  m  rank  among  the  great  doctors  of  the 
church.  The  sublime  and  mystical  thoughts 
which  abound  in  his  writings  gained  him  the  title 
of  doctor  ieraphicui.  The  Franciscans  regard 
him  as  one  of  their  most  learned  theologians,  and 
compare  him  with  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  scholas- 


tic hero  of  the  Dominiesna.  He  is  the  patron 
aaint  of  the  dty  of  Lyona,  where  he  waa 
buried.  His  works,  consisting  of  a  oommen- 
tary  on  the  MaguUr  SeiUmUiarumaiF^at  Loni> 
bard,  and  of  various  songs  and  devotional  and 
exegetical  treatises,  have  been  published  at 
Rome,  1588-'96,  in  8  vols,  folio  (this  editioD 
contains  some  apocrypfaical  pieces) ;  at  Lyooa, 
1688,  in  7  vols,  folio;  and  at  Venice,  1762-^5C, 
in  14  vols.  4to.  The  festival  of  this  saint  is  on 
July  14. 

BONIRATI,  an  islet  about  midway  betweea 
the  south-western  peninsula  of  Cdebes  and  die 
island  of  Flores.  The  .town,  situated  on  the 
strait  that  separates  this  islana  from  Lambegu, 
is  a  noted  entrep6t  of  the  Bagis  traders.  Lying 
directly  in  the  route  between  Papua,  the  idaads 
of  the  Baoda  and  Arroo  sess,  and  the  Europeaa 
emporiums  in  the  west  of  the  arehipelagov  the 
roadstead  is  often  crowded  with  fleeits  of  pade- 
wakana,  or  Bugis  vessels,  as  they  go  and  retani 
with  the  monsoons,  laden  with  tripang,  tutoise 
shell,  massoy,  nutmegS)  birds'  nests,  and  otiwr 
articles  of  interinsular  trade.  The  chief  portioo 
of  the  inhabitants  oi  this  islet  are  Bajans,  or  the 
Malay  sea  gypsies;  and  although  coonniog  their 
occupations  to  fishing  and  piracy,  tbaj  aro  often 
associated  with  the  enterprising  and  trostvor^ 
thy  Bums. 

BOND,  a  central  county  of  Dlinoia,  inter 
seoted  by  Shoal  creek  and  its  branehea,  and 
comprising  an  area  of  about  400  square  mileL 
The  surftioe  ia  moderately  uneven,  a^  ooci^ied 
by  beautiful  prairies  and  woodland  in  c^nal 
proportions.  Ooal  is  found  near  Shoal  ereek. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  prodnctioos  in  1850 
amounted  to  460,085  bushels  of  Indian  com, 
7,665  of  wheat,  84,771  of  oala,  and  114,070 
pounds  of  butter.  Thero  wero  16  ohurdies,  4 
newspaper  establishments,  and  1,500  pnpib 
attending  public  schools.  The  national  road 
passes  through  the  county  capital,  GreenviDe. 
rop.  in  1855,  7,511.  The  county  was  named 
in  honor  of  Shadraoh  Bond,  first  govenwr  of 
Illinois. 

BOND,  in  law,  is  an  instrument  in  writing 
by  which  the  party  exeooting  it,  wlio  is  oaQed 
the  obligor,  binds  himself  to  another  who  is 
called  the  obligee,  to  pay  a  certain  sum  of  rooD^. 
If  this  be  the  wholeL  it  is  oslled  a  *^aniple  bond,"* 
but  the  ordinary  form  has  a  condition  nnder- 
written,  which  is  the  real  contract)  tha  am 
named  in  the  other  part  being  denominsSed 
the  penalty,  and  which  in  common  practice  is 
double  the  amount  expressed  in  the  cooditioi^^ 
that  is,  when  the  condition  is  for  the  payuMOt 
of  money.  The  usual  incidents  of  a  bond  an 
that  by  its  terma,  it  is  expressed  to  bind  the 
obligor,  and  hb  executors  and  administrmtors 
(sometimes  heirs  slso) ;  tiiat  it  is  under  seal,  and 
that  it  is  for  the  payment  of  a  sum  by  wny  of 
penalty ;  but  none  of  these  are,  ui  fiMt,  indis- 
pensable. There  may  be,  as  mentioned  9bay% 
a  direct  obligation  to  pay  the  sum  intended  to 
be  secured ;  a  man  may  also  bind  himsdf  only, 
without  naming  exeoutorsi  administratora^  or 


BOND 


BONDERS 


476 


died  in 

paternal 

genera- 

Snbse- 


heira^  and  this  woald  in  fact  bind  his  personal 
lepresentatlyea  to  the  extent  of  property  of  the 
obligor,  which  should  come  to  them.  The  seal 
is  not  essential  to  the  validity  of  the  bond^  bat 
if  not  nsed,  tihe  obligation  would  be  held  to  be 
of  the  nature  of  a  promissory  note,  not  nego- 
tiable. The  effect  of  the  seal  is  twofold :  1, 
the  limitation  of  time  which  shall  be  a  bar  to 
recovery  is  20  years;  2,  in  the  distribution  of 
estates  of  deceased  persons,  bonds  were  pre- 
ferred to  common  contracts.  In  the  state  of 
New  York  and  other  states,  the  latter  distinc- 
tion is  abrogated,  and  bonds,  notes,  bUls,  &c., 
are  put  upon  the  same  footing.  The  penal  part 
of  a  bond  is  always  for  the  payment  of  |u>ney, 
but  the  condition  may  be  to  perform  any  act, 
and  if  it  be  any  other  act  than  the  payment  of 
money,  the  obligee  does  not  recover  for  the 
non-performance  of  such  condition  the  whole 
penalty  of  the  bond,  but  only  the  actual  damages 
Bostained  by  the  breach. 

BOND,  Thomas  Emcbson,  M.D.,  D.D.,  a 
minister  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  church, 
bom  in  Baltimore  in  Feb.  1782, 
New  York,  March  14,  1856.  His 
ancestors  had  resided  for  several 
tions  in  Harford  county,  Maryland, 
qnendy  bis  father  removed  to  Buckingham 
CO.,  Va.,  and  engaged  in  mercantile  business, 
which  he  continued  for  many  years.  At  this 
place  young  Thomas  received  his  academi- 
cal education,  and  at  the  proper  age,  entered 
upon  the  study  of  medicine,  with  which  he 
connected  that  of  the  Latin  language.  His 
chief  delight,  however,  was  in  the  study  of  the 
English  classics^  which  occupied  all  his  leisure 
time.  He  next  attended  lectures  in  the  medical 
college  at  Philadelphia,  and  subsequently  in  Bal- 
timore, at  the  dose  of  which  he  engaged  in  the 
practice  of  medicine  in  that  city.  He  rose  rapid- 
ly in  public  estimation,  while  his  genial  manners 
and  agreeable  and  witty  conversation  made  him 
a  favorite  among  the  members  of  the  profession. 
In  due  time  he  was  caUed  to  occupy  a  profea- 
nonal  chair  in  the  medical  college  of  Maryland, 
an  office  which  he  filled  until  declining  health 
obliged  him  to  resign,  and  retire  to  Harford 
oo.  ror  a  time,  when  he  returned  to  Baltimore. 
In  early  life  he  became  religious,  and  always 
Bosta&ned  the  reputation  of  a  consistent  Ohrb- 
tian,  in  fdlowship  with  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
dinrch.  The  church  conferred  upon  him  the 
office  of  a  local  preacher,  which  ne  filled  for 
many  years  wiUi  honor  and  usefulness.  During 
what  was  called  the  **  radical  controversy," 
which  resulted  in  a  secession  from  the  church, 
and  the  formation  of  the  Methodist  Protestant 
ohnrcfa,  he  edited  the  "Itinerant,"  and^with 
singular  ability  defended  the  polity  <^  Episcopal 
Methodism.  The  chief  sphere  of  his  usefolness, 
however,  was  his  editorship  of  the  "  Christian 
Advocate  and  Journal,"  the  leading  official  or- 
gan of  the  church,  which  he  conducted  with 
marked  ability  for  a  period  of  12  years,  and  of 
which  he  was  editor  at  the  time  of  bis  death. 
He  was  a  strong  argumentative  and  penpicnous 


writer,  and  none  wielded  a  more  vigorous  pen 
in  all  the  controversies  which  agitated  the  de- 
nomination to  which  he  belonged.  His  various 
writings  on  the  polity  of  Methodism  secured 
for  him  the  appellation  of  ^*  defender  of  the 
church."  In  all  the  enterprises  of  the  church, 
and  in  all  the  benevolent  movements  of  the  day, 
he  took  a  most  lively  interest,  and  was  ever 
found  the  unfailing  advocate  of  whatever  re-  ~ 
lated  to  human  progress,  or  whatever  tended 
to  meliorate  the  condition,  or  enhance  the  hap 
piness  of  man. 

BOND,  William  Ob  akoh,  dureotor  of  the  ob- 
servatory at  Harvard  university,  born  at  Port* 
land,  Me.,  in  Sept.  1789.  Having  gained  a  repu- 
tation as  an  observer  at  his  private  observa- 
tory at  Dorchester,  Mass.,  he  was  in  1889  called 
upon  to  take  charge  of  the  observatory  at 
Cambridge,  1}efore  yet  any  buildings  were  erect- 
ed. Assisted  by  his  sons,  who  are  engaged 
with  him  in  tiie  care  of  chronometers  and 
watches,  and  by  his  son,  Gkobob  Phillips  Bond, 
in  the  observatory,  he  has  used  the  noble  re« 
fractor  there«to  good  purpose  upon  the  fixed 
stars,  the  nebula,  and  the  planet  Saturn.  He 
has  also  invented  an  ingenious  piece  of  mechan- 
iarn  called  a  spring  governor,  m  which  part  of 
a  train  of  clockwork  is  regulated  by  a  pendulum 
with  a  dead-beat  escapement,  and  the  other,  re- 
ceiving its  motion  through  an  elastic  axis,  is 
made  to  run  uniformly  by  a  balance  or  fly  wheel, 
and  thus  time  is  visibly  measured  to  a  small 
fraction  of  a  second.  The  plan  of  recording 
observations  by  electro-magnetism,  known  in 
Europe  as  the  American  method,  was  first 
brought  into  practical  w6rking  by  Sears  0. 
Walker,  through  Mr.  Bond's  assistance.  He  is 
at  present  engaged,  with  the  assistance  of 
Messrs.  Whipple  and  Black,  photographers,  in 
taking  nhotographs  of  the  stars,  by  a  camera 
attached  to  the  great  telescope,  and  the  results 
are  of  microscopic  accuracy.  At  the  time  of  Mr. 
Bond*s  being  oalled  to  Oambridge,  he  was  en- 
gaged, under  the  order  of  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment, in  astronomical  observations,  to  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  South  sea  explor- 
ing expedition.  The  great  tdescope  was 
mounted  June  24. 1847. 

BONDERS,  a  class  of  independent  land-hold- 
ers in  Norway  and  Sweden.  They  are  at  once 
peasants  and  aristocrats,  being  descended  from 
the  old  leaders,  and  sometimes  fh>m  the  princes, 
of  the  nation,  and  yet  being  also  cultivators  of 
the  soil,  and  more  rude  than  the  fiirmers  of 
America,  or  the  yeomen  of  England.  They 
number  }  of  the  whole  population,  and  are 
the  principal  electors  of  representative^  to  the 
national  assembly,  in  whicn  their  power  pre- 
dominates over  that  of  the  nobles  and  clergy. 
Their  ordinary  costume  is  a  close  red  cap,  a 
jacket  with  metal  buttons,  and  breeches.  Their 
blonde  complexion  is  much  reddened  by  ex- 
posure to  the  weather.  Mr.  Brace,  in  his 
book  entitled  the  **  Norse  Folk,"  describes  a 
visit  to  the  estate  of  a  bonder,  who  boasted  his 
descent  from  the  old  Norwegian  Jong,  Harold 


476 


BONDOO 


BOKE 


Haarfager,  and  received  the  •  visitor,  aooord- 
ing  to  the  ancient  custom  of  the  coantrj,  with 
a  welcoming  drink.  Mr.  Brace  was  then  con- 
dncted  through  the  series  of  houses  which  con- 
stitute the  honder's  dwelling.  There  was  an 
immense  number  of  bed-rooms,  some  with  plain 
farmer-like  furnishing,  others  with  elegant  cur- 
tained beds  and  pieces  of  splendid  furniture.  In 
the  store  rooms  and  attic  were  the  winter  coats, 
the  bear  skins  and  furs,  reindeer  boots  and  high 
water  boots,  blankets,  comfortables,  and  dresses, 
little  sleds  and  sleighs  for  the  snow,  piles  of 
round  oatmeal  cakes,  each  1^  foot  in  du&meter, 
kept  for  the  food  of  the  laborers,  spinning- 
wheels,  and  slioe-makers*  tools.  The  kitchen 
was  a  separate  house,  and  there  were  in  succes- 
sion several  log  houses  for  preserving  meats, 
and  for  various  farm  purposes.  One  of  these  had 
a  little  cupola  and  bell,  which  are  often  seen  in 
the  clusters  of  buUdings  which  make  a  Nor- 
wegian home,  and  give  a  oentrality  to  each 
group.  The  oam  was  built  on  the  side  of  a 
hill,  with  easy  entrances  to  each  story,  the 
lower  story  being  the  cattle  stable.  This  ar- 
rangement of  the  farm  houses  is  described  in 
the  old  sagas.  The  ancient  Icelandic  homo- 
steads  had  often  80  or  40  houses.  The  fields  of 
the  estate  are  artificially  irrigated,  and  prodnoe 
oats,  barley,  and  hay.  The  cattle  during  the 
sunmier  graze  in  small  green  pastures  on  the 
heiffhts  of  the  mountains,  where  they  are  tend- 
ed by  a  few  dairymaids  and  men,  who  make 
butter  and  cheese  tor  the  winter.  This  pastor- 
al life  is  famous  in  Norwegian  poetry  and  ro- 
mance. The  bonder  is  aristocratic  in  his  con- 
nections ;  and  a  burger  or  noble  more  frequently 
marries  the  daughter  of  a  bonder,  than  a  bondc»r 
the  daughter  of  a  torpare,  or  farm  servant.  By 
the  Udid  law  the  father  is  obliged  to  distribute 
his  land  equally  among  his  children,  the  conse- 
quence of  which  is  that  the  estates  are  often 
cut  up  into  minute  parcels,  and  the  fields  di- 
vided by  innumerable  lines  of  fences.  (See 
Brace's  "  Norse  Folk,"  New  York,  1867.)       - 

BONDOO,  or  Bondou,  a  kingdom  of  Africa, 
between  the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  The 
surfiioe  of  the  country,  which  is  generally  flat, 
save  in  the  northern  and  central  parts,  where  it 
rises  into  hills  of  no  great  height,  is  covered 
with  vast  forests  and  low  stunted  bushes. 
From  the  hills  innumerable  torrents  descend 
during  the  rainy  season  to  tiie  Senegal  and 
Fal^m^  rivers.  In  the  vicinity  of  .the  towns, 
where  the  forests  have  been  deared^  the  soil  is 
found  to  be  light  and  productive.  Cotton, 
spin,  rice,  indigo,  tobacco,  and  pepper  are  cul- 
tivated with  some  industry,  while  different  va- 
rieties of  fruit  are  scattered  in  great  profusion 
over  all  parts  of  the  country.  The  population, 
consisting  of  Foolahs,  ICandingoes,  and  Serawnl- 
lis,  is  estimatedjit  about  1,600,000.  The  Foolahs 
are  the  dominant  tribe.  The  people  are  profess- 
edly Mohammedans,  but  are  not  very  strict  in 
observing  the  precepts  of  that  faith.  In  every 
town,  however,  there  are  schools  in  which  the 
reading  and  writing  of  Arabic  are  taught    In. 


oomplezion  the  people  of  Bondoo  are  of  a  li^ 
copper  color,  and  in  cast  of  features  they  re- 
semble the  Eur^eans  more  nearly  than  any 
other  tribe  of  W.  Africa,  except  the  Moon. 
The  women  are  finely  formed,  neat  in  perscm 
and  dress,  graceful  and  majestic  in  gait,  and 
always  wear  a  veil  thrown  loosely  over  the 
head.  The  king  possesses  absolute  power,  and 
has  under  his  command  a  body  of  about  8,600 
troops.  The  sources  of  his  revenne  are,  a  tenth 
part  of  the  produce  of  the  limd,  a  tenth  part  of 
all  the  salt  imported,  and  duties  on  goods  pass- 
ing through  his  dominions.  The  capital  town  is 
Bdibani  (pop.  about  8,000),  situated  in  an  ex- 
tensi^plam  at  the  foot  of  a  range  of  rocky  hills. 
It  is  sffrounded  by  a  day  wall  pierced  with  loo^ 
holes.  The  houses  are  small  and  irregular ;  the 
streets  narrow,  crooked,  and  dirty.  The  royal 
palace  is  nothing  more  than  an  enclosure  about 
an  acre  in  extent,  containing  several  cottages^ 
somewhat  larger  than  those  of  the  popnlaoo, 
but  not  a  whit  more  commodious.  The  naefiil 
arts  are  held  in  high  esteem  in  Bondoo,  and  a 
ffood  trade  is  carried  on  with  some  of  the 
Moorish  territories.  One  of  the  towns,  Sam- 
cocolo,  is  fiunous  for  its  skilful  workers  in  iron 
and  gold. 

BONE,  the  substance  which  forms  the  in- 
ternal skeleton  of  man  and  the  vertebrated 
animals;  constituting  the  framework  of  sup- 
port, the  levers  by  which  force  is  exerted  and 
locomotion  performed,  and  the  boxes  or  cages 
in  which  are  enclosed  the  ddicate  vital  organs. 
So  important  are  the  offices  which  bone  per- 
forms, and  so  indestructible  is  it  compared 
with  the  softer  portions  of  the  body,  that  it  is 
popularly  regarded  as  its  most  essential  element ; 
and  we  speak  of  resting  our  weary  bones,  and 
of  laying  them  in  the  grave,  thus  making  them 
stand  for  the  whole  organism.  The  bony  parts 
of  the  vertebrated  animals  are  very  differ- 
ent in  structure  and  composition  from  the 
hard  external  skeletons  of  the  invertebrata ;  in 
the  latter,  whether  we  take  tiie  external  plates 
of  the  ediinoderma,  the  corneous  covering  of 
the  insects,  the  firmer  integuments  of  the 
Crustacea  and  mollusca,  or  the  internal  stem  of 
the  pcdyp,  although  the  parts  perform  analo- 
gous functions,  uie  chemical  constituent  is 
prinoipaUy  carbonate  of  lime,  with  a  little  phos- 
phate of  lime  and  animal  matter.  The  hard- 
ness, density,  color,  and  opadty  of  bone  are 
readily  explained  by  its  physical  constitution. 
Bone  consists  of  an  organic  and  an  inorganio 
material,  which  may  be  obtained  separately  by 
the  following  simple  processes :  steep  a  bone  in 
dilute  muriatic  or  nitric  acid,  the  inorganic  or 
eartl\y  matter  is  dissolved  out,  and  the  organic 
substance  remains,  retaining  the  original  size  of 
the  bone,  and  easily  bent;  in  this  way  is  ob- 
tained the  cartilaginotts  basis  of  the  bone,  on 
which  its  shape  depends ;  on  the  cohtrary,  if  a 
bone  be  subjected  to  a  strong  heat,  the  organic 
or  animal  part  is  burned  out,  and  the  earthy 
part  remains,  retaining  its  form,  but  cmmbling 
to  pieces  at  the  least  tonch.    To  the  earthy 


BONE 


477 


part,  which  is  principally  phosphate  and  car- 
bonate of  lime,  51  per  cent  of  the  former  and 
11  per  cent  of  the  latter^  the  bone  owes  its 
hardness,  density,  slight  flexibility,  and  white 
color ;  to  the  animal  part,  principaJly  cartilage, 
or  some  form  of  gelatine,  about  82  per  cent.,  it 
owes  its  strength  of  cohesion.  These  propor- 
tions vary  at  different  ages :  in  the  child,  the 
animal  matter  forms  nearly  one-half  of  the  bone, 
acconnting  for  its  greater  flexibility  and  the  less 
liability  to  fracture  at  this  age ;  in  the  old,  the 
earthy  matter  is  about  84  per  cent.,  explaining 
the  great  brittleness  and  easy  fracture  of  the 
bones  in  aged  persons.  In  the  disease  called 
rickets,  quite  common  among  the  ill-fed  chil- 
dren of  the  poor  in  Europe,  but  somewhat 
rare  in  America,  there  is  a  deficiency  in  the 
deposit  of  earthy  matter,  rendering  tiie  bones 
so  flexible  that  they  may  be  bent  almost  like 
wax.  The  power  of  bone  to  resist  decomposi- 
tion is  remarkable :  fossil  bones  deposited  in  the 
ground  before  the  appearance  of  man  upon  the 
earth  haye  been  found  by  Ouvier  exhibiting  a 
considerable  cartilaginous  portion;  the  jaw  of 
the  Oambridge  mastodon  was  found  by  Dr.  0. 
T.  Jadcson  to  contain  42.6  per  cent,  of  animal 
matter,  and  cartilage  obtained  from  the  same 
specimen  by  means  of  dilute  acid  was  readily 
oouTerted  into  gelatine,  and  made  a  ^ood  glue ; 
a  portion  of  one  of  the  yertebral  spmes  of  Dr. 
J.  O.  Warren's  mastodon  was  found  to  contain 
80  per  cent,  of  animal  matter ;  from  this  we  see 
that  by  means  of  a  Papin's  digester  a  yery  nu- 
tritious soup  might  be  made  from  the  bones  of 
animals  who  liyed  before  the  creation  of  man. 
The  chemical  constitution  of  bone  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  analyses  by  Be^zelius  and 
Moroband : 


1.  Ornnio  or  animal  matter SaSO  88.86 

'  Phoephate  of  lime 61.04  62.S6 

Carbonate  of  lime. 11^  lasi 

Fluoride  of  calcium 2.00  1.00 

Phoephate  of  magnesia 1.16  1.05 

Boda  and  chloride  of  sodium . . . .  1.S0  117 
Oxide  of  iron  and  manganese, 

andloes 1.05 


SLlnornmio 
or  earth  J 


100.00  loaoo 


Some  recent  authorities  deny  the  existence  of 
fluoride  of  calcium  in  bone.  Bones  are  not  solid : 
make  a  section  of  almost  any  bone,  and  2  kinds 
of  Btmotnre  are  seen;  1  dense,  firm,  and  compact^ 
on  the  exterior  surface,  the  other  loose,  spongr, 
enclosing  cells  or  spaces  communicating  freely 
-with  each  other,  in  the  interior  of  the  bone,  and 
surrounded  by  the  more  compact  tissue.  The 
loose  structure  abounds  in  the  ends  of  bones,  se- 
curing at  the  same  time  greater  lightness  and  suf- 
ficient expansion  to  form  the  Joints,  while  in  the 
shaft  or  central  portion,  where  strength  is  most 
needed,  the  compact  tissue  is  more  deydoped. 
Bones  are  of  different  forms,  according  to  tiie 
uses  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied ;  some  are 
long;  as  in  the  limbs,  and  these  are  the  principal 
leyers  of  the  body ;  others  are  flat  and  thin, 
oompoaed  of  2  layers  of  compact  tissue,  with 
an  interyening  cellular  structure,  destined  to 
endoee  cayities.    Bones  haye  also  a  yariety  of 


eminences  and  depressions,  for  the  attachment 
of  muscles,  the  protection  of  nerves  and  vessels, 
&c. ;  these  eminences,  or  processes,  are  well 
marked  in  proportion  to  the  muscularity  of  the 
subject.  In  females  and  feeble  men  the  bones  are 
light,  thin,  and  smooth,  while  in  the  powerfully 
muscular  frame  the  bone  is  dense  and  heavy, 
and  every  prominence  is  well  developed.  Exer- 
cise is  as  necessary  to  the  strength  of  a  bone  as 
it  is  to  the  strength  of  a  muscle ;  if  a  limb  be 
disused  from  paralysis,  or  the  body  be  prostrated 
by  long  disease,  the  bones  waste  as  well  as  the 
soft  parts.  The  external  surface  is  perforated 
by  numerous  minute  openings,  which  transmit 
the  arteries  and  veins  to  the  interior ;  this  sur- 
face is  covered  by  a  firm  tough  membrane,  the 
perioiteum,  composed  of  densely  interwoyen 
white  fibrous  tissue.  The  cells,  or  eancelli,  of 
the  spongy  portions  of  bone,  are  made  up  of  thin 
and  inosculating  plates  of  osseous  tissue,  enclos- 
ing spaces  between  them  which  are  filled  with 
marrow  or  medulla;  these  are  lined  with  a 
delicate  membrane.  On  a  superficial  observa- 
tion it  appears  as  if  the  plates  of  the  cancellated 
structure  were  arranged  without  definite  plan ; 
but  the  researches  of  Dr.  Jefiries  Wyman  and 
others  show  that  the  cancelli  of  such  bones  as 
aid  in  supporting  the  weight  of  the  body,  are 
arranged  either  in  the  direction  of  that  weighty 
or  in  such  a  manner  as  to  support  and  brace 
those  cancelli  which  are  in  that  direction ;  the 
arrangement  of  these  bony  plates  in  the  lumbar 
yertebrffi,  the  neck  of  the  thigh  bone,  in  the 
tibia,  and  in  the  ankle  and  heel,  is  of  itself 
enough  to  indicate  that  man,  alone  of  animals, 
naturally  assumes  an  erect  position ;  this  rela- 
tion is  most  evident  in  the  above-mentioned 
bones^  and  in  the  adult,  it  being  less  observable 
in  youth  and  old  age.  There  is  no  real  difference 
between  the  compact  and  the  spongy  structure 
of  bone,  the  degree  of  condensation  being  the 
only  distinction.  The  cells  of  the  cancelli  com- 
municate freely  with  each  other.  In  the  long 
bones  the  marrow  is  not  conteined  in  cells,  but 
in  one  central  medullary  canal,  lined  by  a  mem- 
brane. Both  the  periosteum  and  the  medullary 
membrane  are  abundantiy  supplied  with  blood- 
vessels, and  are,  therefore,  intimately  connected 
with  the  nutrition  of  the  bone,  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  either,  to  any  great  extent,  leads  to  the 
death  of  the  part  in  contact  with  them.  Micro- 
scopic examination  can  alone  explain  the  in- 
timate structure  of  bone.  If  a  thin  transverse 
section  of  a  long  bone,  as  the/<»7>ur,  be  exam- 
ined under  the  microscope,  the  compact  tissue 
wil]  present  several  dark  circular  or  oval  spots, 
surrounded  by  numerous  concentric  lines;  in 
these  lines  will  be  perceived  minute  black  spots^ 
with  other  lines  leading  from  them  in  various 
directions.  The  larger  oval  or  circular  spots  are 
the  openings  of  vascular  canals,  called  ^^Haver- 
sian,''  from  theb  discoverer,  Olopton  Havers ; 
these  canals  are  numerous,  toking  a  course  par- 
allel to  the  axis  of  the  bone,  joined  together  by 
free  inosculation  of  short  transverse  branches ; 
they  thus  form  a  net- work  of  tubes  for  the 


478 


BONE 


xninnte  Tessels  which  they  convey  and  protect 
According  to  Todd  and  Bowman,  the  arteries 
and  veins  osnally  occupy  distinct  Haversian 
canals,  a  single  vessel  being  distributed  to  each. 
The  cauals  conveying  the  veins  are  said  to  be 
the  larger,  and  to  present  at  irregular  intervals, 
where  two  or  more  branches  meet,  pouch-like 
sinuses  which  serve  as  reservoirs  to  delay  the 
escape  of  the  blood ;  in  some  of  the  irregular 
bones,  as  in  those  of  the  skull,  the  venous  canals 
are  extremely  tortuous,  running  chiefly  in  the 
cancellated  structure,  there  called  diploi.  The 
Haversian  canals  vary  in  diameter  from  ^j^  to 
Y^fg  of  an  inch,  the  average  being  about  ^^y, 
and  their  ordinary  distance  from  each  other 
about  jl^  of  an  inch.  This  whole  apparatus  of 
canals  is  only  an  involution  of  the  surface  of 
the  bone,  that  the  vessels  may  come  into  a  more 
free  contact  with  it;  as  they  communicate  in- 
temallv  with  the  medullary  cavity,  externally 
with  the  periosteal  surface,  and  also  with  the 
cancellar  medullary  cells,  the  net-work  of  nu- 
trient vessels  is  very  complete.  But,  as  if  this 
arrangement  were  not  enough  to  secure  the 
nourishment  of  such  a  hard  tissue  as  bone,  and 
so  far  removed  from  immediate  contact  with 
bloodvessels,  there  is  a  still  more  curious  and  del- 
icate apparatus  of  microscopic  cavities.  Around 
the  Haversian  canals  will  be  noticed  the  appear- 
ance of  delicate  lamella  of  bone,  more  or  less 
concentric ;  these,  with  the  lacun»  mentioned 
below,  are  the  most  essential  constituents  of 
true  and  fuUy  developed  bone,  the  medullary 
cells  and  Haversian  canals  being  merely  definite 
spaces  existing  between  the  lamellte.  It  is  prin- 
cipallv  by  the  successive  development  of  new 
lamellfla  iJiat  bones  increase  in  diameter,  being 
usually  deposited  in  the  direction  of  the  axis. 
A  transverse  section,  therefore,  under  the  micro- 
scope would  present  the  following  arrangement 
of  iamell89,  as  given  by  Hassall :  1,  several 
layers  passing  entirely  round  the  bone ;  2,  others 
encircling  each  Haversian  canal;  and  lastly, 
irregular  and  incomplete  lamellso  occupying  the 
angular  spaces  between  those  concentrically 
arranged.  The  lamellas  of  the  Haversian  canals, 
however,  are  not  exactly  concentric,  as  com- 
monly described,  but  incomplete  and  running 
into  one  another  at  various  points,  a  necessary 
consequence  of  the  irregular  distribution  of  the 
lacunsd.  The  Haversian  systems  generally  run 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  tissue  requires  the 
greatest  strength.  With  the  previously  men- 
tioned arrazigement  of  the  cancellated  structure, 
the  Haversian  canals  more  fully  display  the 
wonderful  adaptation  of  means  to  enas,  com- 
bining mechanical  advantages  with  the  best 
provisions  for  the  nutrition  of  the  tissue.  The 
number  of  lameUsd  passing  entirely  round  the 
bone  is  generally  less  than  12,  and  those  enciN 
ding  each  Haversian  caual  vary  fh>m  2  or  8  to 
more  than  12,  the  smallest  canals  having  the 
fewest  lamello.  The  lamellsB,  according  to  the 
best  observers,  appear  to  consist  of  a  delicate  net- 
work of  fibres  in  sets,  the  fibres  of  each  set 
running  parallel,  but  crossing  the  others  ob- 


liquely; some  have  supposed  that  they  are 
produced  by  the  union  of  a  number  of  diamond- 
shap^  cells,  and  not  by  the  crossing  of  fibres; 
the  first  opinion  is  prolMibly  the  true  one.  Dis- 
tributed tnrough  the  canoellttted  and  compact 
portions  of  bone  occur  numerous  black  spotka 
m  the  lines  of  the  lamella ;  these  are  the  lacuna, 
or  bone  cells.  Opinions  differ  concerning  the 
structure  of  these  cells:  by  some  they  are  con- 
sidered as  mere  vacuities  in  the  osseous  tissue ; 
by  others  as  hollow  cells,  as  nuclei  of  cells,  and 
as  true  nucleated  corpuscles.  Two  views  are 
entertained  by  histologists  with  regard  to  the 
formation  of  lacunss  :  the  first  is  that  given  In 
the  '^Physiological  Anatomy"  of  Todd  and 
Bowman,  who  maintain  that  the  lacnniB  are 
developed  from  the  nuclei  of  the  cartilage  cells; 
the  other  is  that  of  Mr.  Tomes,  published  in 
^'  Todd^s  Oyclopssdia,"  article  '^  Osseous  Tissae,'* 
who  asserts  that  they  are  mere  cavities  1^  in 
the  newly  formed  bone,  from  which  the  cana- 
liculi  are  afterward  developed.  Mr.  Quekett,  in 
his  *'  Lectures  on  Histolo^,"  in  the  chapter  on 
'*  Enchondroma  and  Ossifying  Cartilage,''  favors 
the  view  of  Todd  and  Bowman.  Mr.  Hmiaallj 
in  his  ^^  Miscroscopic  Anatomy,'^  says  that  it  can- 
not be  doubted  that  the  bone  celis  take  their 
origin  in  nucleated  cells,  and  that  the  passage 
of  fluids  through  them,  th^  infiltration  with 
solid  matter,  and  their  optical  appearances;,  admit 
of  explanation  on  the  supposition  of  their  corpus- 
cular origin.  But,  whatever  their  origin,  seta 
of  minute  pores  from  the  Haversian  canals  open 
into  the  cavities,  or  lacunso ;  from  these,  other 
pores,  which  have  received  the  name  of  canaUcu- 
Zi,  open  into  lacunss  in  the  vicinity ;  the  canaliculi 
inosculate  freely,  penetrating  the  lameDsa,  thus 
establishing  a  free  communication  throughout 
the  substance  of  the  bone ;  communicating  as  they 
do  with  the  bloodvessels  of  the  Haversian  ca- 
nals, and  circulating  by  the  canaliculi  the  nutri- 
tious materials^  each  bone  cell  may  be  consider- 
ed as  a  reservoir  of  nutriment  for  die  bony 
matter  surrounding  it.  These  recesses  in  the 
bone,  or  lacunea,  are  of  very  different  8hi4>e8  in 
the  vertebrated  animals;  but  in  man  and  the 
mammalia  they  present  a  very  constant  form, 
being  oval,  and  as  it  were,  compressed  between 
the  laminn,  and,  on  section,  presenting  an  elon- 
gated fudform  outline.  They  have  an  average 
length  of  tVtt  ^^  ^^  ^^^  <^^  ^^7  ^^  usually 
about  i  as  wide  and  i  as  thick'.  The  diameter  of 
the  pores,  or  canaliculi,  is  from  -fsVirv  ^o  ttvtt  ^^ 
an  inch.  The  size  of  the  bone  cell  in  the  ver- 
tebrata  stands  in  relation  to  that  of  the  red 
blood  disk ;  Mr.  Quekett  believes  that  the  daas 
to  which  any  animal  belongs,  whether  that  of 
beast,  bird,  reptile,  or  fish,  may  be  thus  deter- 
mined— a  means  of  diagnosis  of  the  utmost  im- 
portance in  ascertaining  the  character  of  many 
fossil  bones.  In  moUities  asaium  the  earthy 
constituents  of  the  bone  are  deficient,  and  the 
whole  process  of  nutrition  is  disordered ;  the  la- 
cunas increase  in  size,  several  uniting  to  form 
one  cavity,  which  is  occupied  by  a  kind  of  adi- 
pose tissu^  so  that  Mr.  Quekett  considers  this 


BONE 


479 


disease^  which  reraltB  from  the  disBemiiuition  oi 
cancerous  matter  through  the  system  (according 
to  some  pathologists),  as  an  example  of  the  fat- 
ty degeneration  of  bone.  From  the  researches 
of  Mr.  Tomes  and  Mr.  Quekett  it  appears  that 
the  ultimate  stractnre  of  bone  consists  of  a  con- 
geries of  grannlar,  and  rarely  of  crystalline, 
particles,  deposited  in  an  organized  matrix; 
these  grannies  are  often  distinctly  visible,  with- 
out any  artificial  preparation,  in  the  substance 
of  the  delicate  spicula  of  the  cancelli,  varying  in 
bLeo  fW>m  ^Vt  to  irViTT  ^^  ^n  inch.  Bone  may 
consist  of  a  mere  aggregation  of  these  granules, 
impenetrated  by  any  perceptible  pores,  consti- 
tuting the  simplest  form  of  this  tissue;  in 
many  kinds  of  ossific  deposit,  as  in  the  earlpr 
Btage  of  ossification  of  the  arteries,  and  in  ossi- 
fied fibrous  tumors  and  cTsts  occasionally  met 
with  in  various  parts  of  the  body,  nothing  but 
these  granules  can  be  seen ;  they  are  also  gen- 
erally to  be  found  in  the  pus  which  escapes 
from  necrosed  bones,  this  flmd  seeming  to  have 
a  solvent  power,  decomposing  the  animal  matter, 
while  the  mineral  constituent,  or  phosphate  of 
limes  escapes  in  its  granular  condition.  In  the 
cartilage  of  the  shark  and  skate  the  oesific  mat^ 
ter  is  in  the  form  of  granules,  and  occurs  princi- 
pally in  the  neighborhood  of  the  cells,  and,  in  the 
latter  sometimes  within  the  cell  wall ;  to  the 
latter  Mr.  Quekett  gives  the  name  of  cellular, 
and  to  the  former  that  of  inter-cellular  ossifica^ 
tion.  In  ioints  which  have  been  deprived  of 
their  cartilage  by  disease  there  is  often  found 
what  is  called  the  ivory-like  or  porcela- 
neous  deposit,  presenting  a  highly  polished 
appearance;  Mr.  Quekett  ascertained  that  in 
such  surfaces  there  was  an  almost  total  absence 
of  the  Haversian  canals,  and  has  concluded  that 
the  new  osseous  matter,  prevented  by  friction 
from  being  thrown  out  on  the  sur&ce,  was  em«- 
I^yed  in  filling  up  the  canals,  convertiug  the 
Qswly  porous  bone  into  a  solid  mass,  capable 
of  taking  a  high  polish ;  this  view  corresponds 
with  the  practice  adopted  in  filling  up  the  pores 
of  many  hard  woodsL  in  order  that  a  perfect 

Solish  may  be  obtained.  The  perioBteum^  a 
ense,  fibrous  membrane,  richly  supplied  with 
bloodvessels,  covers  the  external  surface  of  all 
bones,  with  the  exception  of  their  articular  ex- 
tremities. The  medullary  membrane  serves  as 
an  internal  periosteum  of  a  more  delicate  char- 
acter, prolonged  into  the  Haversian  canals  and 
cancelli^  which  are  filled  also  with  marrow  or 
fat-cella,  enclosed  in  a  loose  cellular  tissue.  The 
▼essels  of  bone  are  supplied  from  the  perioste- 
um, and  ramify,  as  has  been  seen,  tiirough  the 
Haversian  caoaJs;  in  the  long  bones  a  large 
artery  penetrates  by  the  nn&tions  foramen 
into  the  medullary  cavity,  sending  branches  to 
the  medullary  cells,  and  inosculating  with  the 
capillaries  from  other  sources.  Nerves  have 
not  yet  been  detected  in  the  interior  of  bones 
supplying  strictly  the  osseous  structure,  but  the 
painfulness  of  many  diseases  of  the  bones  shows 
that  the  external  and  internal  vascular  surface 
must  be  supplied  with  nerves.     Lymphatics, 


most  probably,  also  exist  in  bone.  At  the  ear- 
liest period  d  the  appearance  of  a  skeleton  in 
the  embryo,  it  consists  of  a  series  of  cells ;  these 
increase  in  number  and  density,  and  are  held 
together  by  an  intercellular  substance,  thus 
forming  temporary  cartilage,  which  is  after- 
ward converted  into  bone,  but  not  completely 
until  adult  age.  Ossification  commences  at  de- 
terminate points  or  centres,  the  first  of  which  is 
in  the  clavicle,  and  appears  during  the  4th 
week ;  then  follow  the  lower  jaw.  ribs,  femur, 
humerus,  tibia,  and  upper  jaw ;  tne  spine  and 
pelvis  are  late,  and  the  knee-pan  does  not  begin 
to  ossify  till  after  birth.  There  are  generdly 
several  ossific  centres ;  for  instance,  in  the  long 
bones,  one  for  tiie  shaft,  and  one  ibr  each  ex- 
tremity. The  central  part  of  the  bone  is  the 
diaphysky  and  is  not  united  till  long  after  birth 
to  the  ends  or  epiphy96»;  processes  of  bone  are 
called  opophyMeg*  Ossification  generally  extends 
in  the  intended  direction  of  the  chief  strength 
of  a  bone.  According  to  Todd  and  Bowman, 
the  process  by  which  cartilage  is  converted  into 
bone  is  as  follows :  The  small  nucleated  cells, 
with  comparatively  large  and  granular  nuclei, 
are  uniformly  scattered  through  a  homogeneous 
intercellular  substance ;  at  the  points  of  ossifica- 
tion the  cells  begin  to  assume  a  linear  serieeL 
running  down  toward  the  ossifying  surface,  and 
separated  from  one  another  by  the  intercellular 
substance ;  the  cells  are  closely  applied  to  one 
another,  and  so  compressed  that  even  their  nu- 
clei seem  often  to  touch ;  the  lowest  rows  rest 
in  deep,  narrow  cups  of  bone,  formed  by  the 
ossification  of. the  intercellular  substance;  the 
cups  are  gradually  converted  into  closed  areolm 
of  bone,  with  their  lameUiform  walls.  During 
this  first  stage  of  the  process  there  are  no  blood- 
vessels directly  concerned.  The  lamellea  of  the 
areolflft,  or  cancelli,  become  thicker,  and  include  in 
their  substance  elongated  oval  spaces  of  a  rough- 
ly granular  nature,  in  other  respects  resembling 
lacuniB,  and  considered  by  these  observers  as 
the  nuclei  of  the  cells  of  the  temporary  carti- 
lage; within  the  cancelli  only  a  tew  cells  are 
found,  these  cavities  being  chiefiy  occupied  b^  a 
new  granular  substance,  resembling  a  formative 
lloBtma^  like  that  out  <3i  which  all  the  tissues 
are  evolved:  the  cells  are  in  apposition  with 
the  wall,  and  sometimes  one  seems  half  ossified, 
and  its  nudeus  about  to  become  a  lacuna ;  these 
nuclei  have  now  Uie  same  direction  as  the 
neighboring  lacunsd;  from  the  blastema  the 
vessels  are  probably  developed  and  the  neces- 
sary elements  for  the  growth  of  the  bone.  The 
cancelli,  at  first  closed  cavities,  communicate  at 
asul]«equent  period,  and  go  to  form  the  Haver- 
sian systems,  a  net-work  of  vessels  becoming  de- 
veloped within  them  at  the  same  time.  The 
subsequent  process  of  ossification  consists  essen- 
tially in  the  slow  repetition  of  the  above  on  the 
entire  vascular  surface  of  the  bone.  The  cana- 
Uculi  begin  as  irregularities  in  the  margin  of  the 
lacume,  and  are  converted,  as  the  tissue  becomes 
consolidated,  into  the  branching  tubes  which 
have  been  described  above,  and  are  accordingly 


480 


BONE 


formed  in  tbe  ossified  substance  of  the  oftitilage 
cells.  As  to  tbe  lacnn®,  their  granular  interior 
seems  to  be  gradnallj  remoyed,  and  they  be- 
come yacnities  for  the  conyejanoe  of  the  nutri- 
ent fluids.  Agreeably  to  this  theory  of  the 
formation  of  bone,  Todd  and  Bowman  belieye 
that  it  grows  chiefly  by  layers  formed  in  sno- 
cession  on  its  yascalar  surface,  but  also  in  an 
interstitial  manner  after  being  originally  depos- 
ited. A  most  important  process  of  growth  is 
constantly  going  on  in  cartilage  by  tbe  multi- 
plication of  the  cells  and  the  increase  in  tlieir 
dimensions;  in  the  long  bones  this  growth  is 
most  actiye  in  the  longitudinal  direction.  Bones 
also  increase  by  the  addition  of  new  systems  of 
laminsB  on  their  exterior,  and  by  new  inyoln- 
tions  of  the  yascnlar  surmce  to  form  new  Ha- 
yersian  canals,  as  has  been  proyed  by  experi- 
ments with  madder  mixed  with  the  food  of  ani- 
mals; the  coloring  principle  of  this  substance 
has  a  remarkable  affinity  for  phosphate  of  lime, 
and  it  affects  first  the  portions  of  bone  in  course 
of  formation,  or  those  nearest  to  the  yascular 
surfiioe.  Wherever  there  is  a  yascular  net- work 
in  the  structure  of  bone,  whether  on  the  peri- 
osteal or  internal  surface,  there  growth  takes 
place;  the  exterior  increase  is  strictly  analo- 
gous to  the  exogenous  mode  of  growth  in  plants. 
A  third  mode  in  which  bone  grows  seems  to  be 
by  the  dilatation  of  the  primary  canoelli  and 
central  Hayersian  canals;  by  this  enlargement 
of  the  interior  the  strength  of  the  compact  ex- 
terior is  increased  without  the  disadvantage  of 
an  increase  of  weight.  The  reparative  pow- 
er of  bone  is  of  the  greatest  importance  in 
surgery.  When  a  bone  is  broken,  blood  is 
effused,  with  the  coagulnm  of  which  a  semi- 
transparent  lymph  is  subsequently  mingled, 
covering  the  surfaces  of  the  woundeid  parts;  in 
the  course  of  2  to  8  weeks  this  is  gradually 
condensed  by  an  interstitial  change,  which  con- 
verts it  into  a  substance  resembling  temporary 
cartiktge;  ossification  takes  place  in  this  in  a 
nearly  uniform  manner,  and  the  whole  is  trans- 
formed in  from  4  to  6  weeks  into  a  spongy  os- 
seous mass  which  holds  the  ends  of  the  bone 
together;  this  provisional  ealluB^  as  Dupuy- 
tren  called  it)  is  ffradually  absorbed  during  the 
succeeding  months,  while  the  permanent  cal- 
lus is  bemg  deposited  between  the  contigu- 
ous surfaces  of  the  compact  tissue;  tibe  pef^ 
roanent  callus  has  all  the  characters  of  new 
bone.  When  this  reparative  process  is  inter- 
fered with  by  meddlesome  surgery  or  consti- 
tutional disease,  the  union  takes  place  merely 
by  ligament,  constituting  sometimes  a  false 
joint. — ^This  is  the  usually  received  opinion  as 
to  the  structure  and  growth  of  bone ;  but  accu- 
rate observers  differ  from  this  view  in  several 
important  particulars ;  and  especially  does  Mr. 
Hassall  object  to  some  of  the  above  conclusions. 
This  microscopist  insists  on  what  is  termed 
intra-membranous,  as  distinguished  from  in- 
tra-oartilaffinous  ossification;  the  former  is 
considered  as  belonging  to  certain  flat  bones 
of  the  cranium,  and  to  the  outer  surfaces  of  the 


long  bones;  in  the  i)ariet«l  bone,  for  instance, 
the  first  ossific  deposit  takes  place  in  the  fibres 
of  fibroHcellular  tissue,  intermingled  with  nu- 
merous granular  nucleated  cella,  bone  cells  in  a 
rudimentary  state,  cartilage  not  being  at  ail 
concerned  in  any  one  stage  of  its  developmenL 
Whenever  cartilage  is  present  in  connection 
with  this  and  similar  bones,  he  maintains  that 
it  merely  serves  as  a  support,  without  taking 
any  part  in  the  ossific  pro<)ess.  He  not  only 
does  not  believe  that  the  formation  of  bone  al- 
ways takes  pUce  in  cartilage,  but  says  that  the 
intra-oartilaginous  ossification  does  not  essen- 
tially differ  from  the  intra-membranous  form; 
that  a  bone  grows  in  length  by  the  constant 
development  of  cartilage  ceUs,  and  their  arrange- 
ment in  linear  series,  of  which  the  lowest  dip 
into  the  cancelli  and  are  absorbed,  while  the 
canoelli  are  continually  invading  the  inter-cel- 
lular spaces  of  the  cartilage;  that  bones  in- 
crease in  diameter  chiefly  by  the  expansion  of 
the  external  and  internal  Haversian  canals; 
that  the  new  osseous  deposit  takes  place  in 
fibres,  and  that  a  layer  of  cartilage  is  no  more 
necessary  on  the  external  snrfiices  of  growing 
bones  than  it  is  in  the  medullary  cells  ana 
Haveroan  canals;  that  the  bone  cells,  or  lacu- 
nas, are  not  transformed  nuclei  of  cartilage  cor- 
puscles, but  take  their  origin  in  the  granular 
cells  noticed  among  the  fibres  (two  kinds  of 
granular  cells  seem  to  exist  in  the  meduUaiy 
spaces,  one  the  rudimentary  bone  cells  just  al- 
luded to,  and  the  other,  with  regular,  sharply 
defined,  and  often  yellowish  nucleus,  connected 
with  the  elaboration  of  marrow — the  latter 
probably  the  same  as  tiiose  described  by  H. 
Bobm  in  the  Qaaette  mSdicaU,  Dec  22, 1649, 
under  tbe  name  of  medullary  cells);  and 
that,  as  the  bone-cells  are  to  be  regarded  as 
complete  corpuscles,  the  canaliculi  are  formed 
by  the  prolongations  of  the  cell  walla.  For 
this  author's  opinions  on  the  mode  of  forma- 
tion of  the  medulliuy  cavity  and  Haversian 
canals,  we  must  refer  to  his  "Microscopical 
Anatomy,"  art  15.  Space  will  not  permit 
any  more  details  on  this  intricate  and  interest- 
ing subject,  which  is  fully  discussed  in  tbe 
works  cited  above. — ^In  reptiles  and  fishes  the 
cancellated  structure  usually  extends  through- 
out the  shaft,  which  is  not  so  well  divided  into 
solid  bone  and  medullary  cavity  as  it  is  in  mam- 
malia, lacuna  are  highly  characteristic  of 
true  osseous  structure,  being  never  deficient  in 
the  minutest  parts  of  the  bones  of  the  higher 
vertebrata,  though  those  of  fishes  are  occasion- 
ally destitute  of  them.  The  lacunie  of  birds  are 
longer  and  narrower  than  those  of  mammals, 
and  the  canaliculi  are  remarkably  tortuous; 
in  reptiles  they  are  remarkably  long  and  nar- 
row, and  in  fiahes  very  angular,  with  few  radi- 
ations ;  their  size  is  not  in  relation  to  the  size 
of  the  animal,  since  there  is  no  perceptible  dif- 
ference between  their  size  in  the  lai^  extinct 
iguanodon  and  in  the  smallest  living  lizard.  In 
the  "  Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Sci- 
ence" (London^  for  1857,  is  an  excellent  paper 


BONE 


BONE  ASH 


481 


by  the  Rer.  J.  B.  P.  Dennis^  on  the  microscopic 
characters  of  bone  as  the  means  of  determin- 
ing the  class  of  animals  to  which  fossil  bones 
belong.  After  giving  the  distinguishing  ar- 
rangement throughout  the  yertebrata,  he 
arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  Haversian 
canals  are  intimately  connected  with  the  move- 
ments and  habits  of  life  of  the  animal  in  which 
they  are  found;  that  the  lacunso  obey  the  same 
law,  and  a^ust  themselves  to  the  strains,  pres- 
sure, and  requisite  density  of  any  bone ;  that 
the  canaliculi  serve  it  also,  but  without  any 
confusion  of  the  great  classes  of  the  vertebrata ; 
and  that  all  evince  an  admirable  unity  of  de- 
sign, and  a  harmonious  correspondence  of  the 
bones  with  the  muscles,  tendon^  &c.,  of  organ- 
ized beings.  From  the  emarginated  and  fes- 
tooned outline  often  seen  on  sections  of  bone, 
Dr.  Oarpenter,  in  his  **  Principles  of  Human 
Phynology,"  expresses  the  opinion  that  the  older 

g>rtions  of  the  osseous  substance  are  removed 
om  time  to  time,  and  that  the  irregular  out- 
line thus  presented  by  the  Haversian  spaces  is 
caused  by  the  partial  or  complete  removal  of 
Haversian  systems ;  in  their  stead  newly  formed 
tissue  is  deposited;  this  alternate  absorption 
and  reproduction  takes  place  at  all  times  of 
life,  though  its  energy  diminishes  widi  the  in- 
creasing age  of  the  individual.  The  complete 
development  of  the  osseous  system  characterizes 
the  final  stage  of  the  growth  of  the  organism ; 
the  vertebral  column  does  not  completely  ossi- 
fy in  its  spinous  and  transverse  processes  until 
the  25th  or  80th  year ;  the  ossification  of  the 
head  and  the  tubercle  of  the  ribs,  commencing 
soon  after  puberty,  is  not  continued  to  the 
body  of  the  bone  till  some  years  after;  the  ossi- 
fication of  some  of  the  cartilages  of  the  sternum 
is  often  not  completed  even  in  quite  advanced 
age ;  the  bones  of  the  skull  are  united  within 
a  few  years  after  birth.  As  long  ago  as  Aris- 
toUe^s  time,  the  duration  of  the  life  of  animals 
was  measured  by  their  period  of  growth.  Buf- 
fon  had  the  same  idea,  for  he  says :  "  The  dura- 
tion of  life,  to  some  eztentu  may  be  measured 
by  the  time  of  growtli."  Flourens,  following 
up  this  idea,  divides  life  into  4  periods :  infan- 
cy, from  birth  to  the  20th  year,  at  which  time 
the  development  of  the  bones  is  completed,  and 
the  body  attains  its  fdl  length ;  you^  is  pro- 
longed to  40,  because  it  is  only  at  that  age  that 
the  increase  of  the  body  in  size  terminates; 
manhood  to  70,  and  old  age  to  100  years. 
The  duration  of  ossifio  growUi,  then,  has  been 
made  the  criterion  to  determine  the  physiolo^- 
cal  duration  of  aninml  life.  Animals  and  man 
grow  only  until  union  takes  place  between  the 
shafts  and  the  ends  of  the  bones;  this  union 
occnrs  in  man  at  the  age  of  20  years,  in  the 
camel  at  8,  in  the  horse  at  6,  in  the  ox  and 
lion  at  4,  in  the  dog  at  2,  in  the  cat  at  1^, 
and  in  the  rabbit  at  1  year.  Recent  observap 
tions  go  to  show  that  animals  live  about  6  times 
their  period  of  growth;  this  would  give,  ac- 
cording to  Flourens,  as  the  age  at  which  man 
should  arrive,  if  he  lived  in  accordance  with 
VOL.  m. — 31 


the  laws  of  physiology  and  hygiene,  about  100 
years;  for  the  camel  40,  the  horse  25,  the 
ox  and  the  lion  20,  the  dog  10,  the  cat  about 
8,  the  rabbit  5  years.  In  igi  elephant  which 
died  at  the  age  of  80  years,  the  ends  of  the  bones 
were  not  united  to  the  shafts,  so  that  it  may  be 
confidently  asserted  that  this  animal  lives  more 
than  150  years.  Animals  occasionally  live  be- 
yond these  periods,  and  man  has  been  known 
to  live  160  years;  but  these  are  cases  of  extra- 
ordinary life,  both  in  animals  and  in  man. 

BONE,  Hbnbt,  English  enameller.  born  at 
Truro,  in  Cornwall,  Feb.  6,  1755,  died  in  Lon- 
don, Dec.  1834.  Brought  up  to  the  art  of 
painting  upon  china,  which  he  learned  in  Bris- 
tol, he  removed  to  London  at  the  age  of  24, 
and  was  there  employed  in  enamel  painting  for 
watches  and  jewelry.  Having  conceived  the 
idea  of  raising  enamel  painting  from  the  mere 
hardness  and  dry  effect  of  china  to  the  full 
depth  and  brilliancy  of  oil  pictures,  he  employ- 
ed his  leisure  in  executing  enamel  miniatures 
of  his  wife  and  himself,  which  were  displayed 
and  admired  in  the  royal  academy  exhibitions 
of  1780  and  1782.  Soon  after,  he  commenced 
business  on  his  own  account,  as  a  miniature 
painter  on  ivory,  sometimes  in  enamel.  He 
mcreased  the  size  of  his  plates  beyond  any 
thing  which  had  been  previously  attempted,  and 
among  his  most  eminent  productions  is  a  copy 
of  Titian's  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,  on  a  plate  18 
inches  by  16,  for  which  he  was  paid  2,200 
guineas.  In  1811  he  was  elected  a  royal  acade- 
mician. He  produced  8  collections  of  great  cele- 
brity: 1,  a  series  of  portraits  of  the  Russell 
family,  from  the  time  of  Henry  VII.  to  that  of 
William  IV.,  for  the  duke  of  Bedford,  and  now 
in  Wobum  abbey ;  2,  a  set  of  the  principal  roy- 
alists during  the  civil  war  of  Charles  I.,  exe- 
cuted for  Mr.  Ord.  of  Edgehill,  near  Derby ;  and 
8,  85  portraits  oi  illustrious  characters  in  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth.  This  series,  which  was  un- 
finished at  his  death,  and  had  occupied  25  years 
of  his  leisure,  was  completed  by  his  son  H.  P. 
Bone,  who  had  assisted  him  in  all  his  later 
works. 

BONE  ASH.  Bones,  when  calcined  in  open 
fire,  lose  all  their  organic  mattera  and  part  of  the 
carbonic  acid  gas  Uiey  contain,  by  which  their 
weight  is  diminished  about  }.  The  residue  is  a 
dry,  friable,  and  white  mass,  of  the  original  form 
of  the  bones.  Pulverized,  the  powder  is  grayish 
white.  It  con^sts  of  basic  phosphate  of  lime, 
with  some  lime,  fluoride  of  calcium,  carbonate 
and  sulphate  of  soda,  and  phosphate  of  magnesia. 
The  sulphur  of  the  sulphate  comes  from  the 
cartilage.  Prepared  from  the  bones  of  cattle,  the 
proportion  of  phosphate  of  lime  is  about  90  per 
cent. ;  from  human  bones  about  86  per  cent.  Oth- 
er matters  may  be  removed  by  dissolving  in  hy- 
drochloric acid,  and  precipitating  by  anmionia. 
when  the  phosphate  of  lime  and  a  very  small 
quantity  of  phosphate  of  magnesia  alone  are  left 
in  the  solution.  Bone  ash,  ground  to  powder,  is 
made  into  a  paste  with  gum*water,  or  beer  and 
water,  and  moulded  into  the  form  of  cups,  called 


482 


BONE  BLACK 


capels,  which  are  used  in  the  process  of  cupella- 
tioo.  This  is  separating  silver  or  gold  from 
lead,  by  melting  the  alloy  <^  the  metals  in  the 
capel,  and  subjecting  it  to  the  action  of  a  cur- 
rent of  air,  which  oxidizes  the  lead,  converting 
it  into  litharge.  This  is  absorbed  by  the  bone 
ash  as  fast  as  it  is  produced,  till  the  precious 
tmozidizable  metal  is  at  last  left  pure  and  alone 
in  the  cupel.  The  operation  is  conducted  in  the 
same  manner  on  the  large  scale  and  in  small 
assays.  When  carefully  prepared,  and  freed 
from  foreign  matters  by  levigation,  bone  ash  is 
called  burnt  hartshorn,  and  is  used  for  cleaning 
articles  of  jewelry. 

BONE  BLACK.  When  bones  are  burned  in 
dose  vessels  at  a  red  heat,  a  black  carbona-^ 
ceous  substance  is  left,  of  about  one-half  their 
original  weight ;  that,  when  ground  to  powder, 
is  called  bone  black.  The  name  ivory  black 
should  properly  be  limited  to  the  finer  and 
more  expensive  article  prepared  from  ivory. 
The  volatile  products  of  the  distillation  of  bones 
are  carbonic  acid  and  ammoniacal  vapors.  The 
latter  may  be  collected,  as  they  sometimes  are^ 
in  forming  with  them  salts  of  ammonia.  The 
fixed  products,  which  constitute  animal  char- 
coal, or  bone  black,  consist  of  phosphate  and 
carbonate  of  lime  88  per  cent.,  nitrogenized 
charcoal  10,  and  carburet  or  siliciuret  of  iron 
2  per  cent.  The  powder  resembles  that  of  veg- 
etable charcoal,  out  is  more  dense  and  less 
combustible,  and  its  ashes  are  not  so  readily 
soluble  in  sulphuric  add  as  those  of  charcoal. 
The  process  of  preparing  the  material  varies 
according  as  the  ammoniacal  vapors  are  saved,  or 
allowed  to  go  to  waste.  In  the  former  case  the 
bones,  cleaned  of  their  fatty  matters,  are  carbon- 
ized in  cast-iron  cylinders,  which  connect  by  a 
8-inch  pipe  with  the  condensing  apparatus.  The 
cylinders  are  kept  at  a  red  heat  for  86  hours, 
when  the  charred  bones  are  taken  out,  and  the 
cylinders  are  refilled.  The  bonee  are  then  ground 
in  mills.  The  volatile  nrodncts  are,  in  some 
instances,  discharged  nnder  the  fire,  by  which 
they  are  consumed,  and  their  disagreeable  odor 
destroyed.  In  this  way,  also,  they  afford  some 
heat,  and  save  fuel.  By  the  other  process,  the 
bones  are  put  in  cast-iron  pots,  which  contdn 
each  about  25  pounds,  and  these  are  put  together 
in  pairs,  moutn  to  mouth,  and  luted.  They  are 
then  piled  up  in  an  oven  or  kiln,  the  entrances 
to  which  are  tightly  bricked  np,  except  those 
for  the  admission  of  the  fiame  from  the  fiirnace 
connected  with  the  kiln,  and  the  opening  into 
the  chimney.  The  pots  are  well  heated  for 
16  to  18  hours  by  the  flame  playing  around 
them,  and  this  is  increased  by  the  combustible 
vapors  which  issue  from  the  bones.  Much  of 
the  volatile  matters  passes  off  unconsumed 
through  the  chimney,  and  diffuses  an  intolerable 
odor  around  the  neighborhood.  This  might 
be  remedied  by  conveying  them  through  a 
second  fire,  kept  np  with  dry  wood,  before  al- 
lowing them  to  escape. — ^The*  valuable  property 
possessed  by  bone  black  is  its  absorbing  com- 
pletely the  color  of  organic  solutions,  and  leav- 


ing the  liquid  dear  and  limpid ;  this  is  greatly 
facilitated  by  heating  the  mixture  to  tlie  boiling 
point.  Vegetable  charcoal  possesses  the  same 
property  also,  but  in  a  mndi  less  degree;  nn- 
lesa,  perhaps,  peat  charooal  should  prove,  as 
stated  by  a  French  authority,  to  be  an  exception 
to  the  other  vegetable  charcoals,  and  be  nearly 
as  efficient  a  decoloriser  as  animal  coal.  From 
the  year  1800  wood-coal  continued  to  be  used 
for  decolorizing  crude  simps,  for  which  pnrpose 
it  was  about  this  time  recommended  by  Ldwitz, 
chemist  of  St  Petersburg;  but,  in  1811,  M. 
Figuier,  of  Montpellier,  discovered  the  strong- 
er power  of  animal  charcoal  to  effect  this 
purpose,  and  this  being  put  in  practice  the 
next  year  by  Dcsfosses  and  Payen,  it  has  since 
superseded  the  use  of  v^table  co«d.  Although 
this  property  of  charcoal  has  been  ably  investi- 
gated by  dbtinguished  chemists,  as  Bussy,  Payen, 
and  Desfosses,  it  does  not  yet  clearly  app^  upon 
what  it  is  dependent,  nor  whether  it  aets  me- 
chanically or  chemically.  K.  Bossy  has  shown 
that  bone  black  nsed  for  decoloring  an  indigo 
solution  in  concentrated  sulphuric  acid,  and  this 
diluted  with  water,  does  not  give  the  slightest 
trace  of  sulphate  of  indigo  by  repeated  washing, 
but  does  of  free  sulphuric  acid.  Treated,  how- 
ever, with  an  alkaline  wash,  the  charcoal  gives 
np  the  indigo ;  thus  appearing  as  if  it  acted  as 
B  weak  base,  and  the  coloring  matter  as  an  add. 
There  are  also  other  reasons  for  supposing  that 
coloring  matters  generally  act  as  acids.  The 
efficiency  of  the  charcoal  is  greatly  dependent 
npon  its  being  in  a  minute  state  of  division.  The 
earthy  matters  combined  with  the  carbon  of 
bones,  no  doubt,  have  great  influence  in  effect- 
ing this  condition.  Vegetable  coal  attains  it  to 
some  extent,  and  the  decolorizing  property 
also,  by  being  finely  comminuted  previous  to 
charring,  and  mixed  with  pulverized  pumioe, 
quartz,  or  calcined  bones,  or  with  some  chemi- 
cally acting  ingredient,  as  carbonate  of  potassa. 
The  most  powerful  decolorizer  is  charcoal  ob- 
tained in  the  manufacture  of  Prussian  bine  by 
caldning  animal  matter  with  potassa.  It  is  the 
purest  form  of  charcoal,  freed  by  the  potassa 
from  its  nitrogen,  and  reduced  by  chemical  seg- 
regation to  the  finest  particles.  Carbon  ob- 
tained by  decomposing  carbonate  of  soda  also 
possesses  this  property  in  a  high  degree,  fnun 
the  fine  state  of  division  in  which  its  partides 
are  found,  so  that  it  would  appear  to  be  by  no 
means  peculiar  to  animal  charcoal.  Even  other 
substances  than  carbon  are  observed  to  |)oaBeas 
the  same  property,  as  has  been  shown  by  E. 
Filhol,  such  as  sulphur,  arsenic,  iron  reduced 
by  hydrogen,  ^.  Beside  extracting  the  col- 
or o]^  fluids,  animal  charcoal  takes  away  the 
bitter  principle  from  bitter  infndons,  and  io- 
dine also  from  its  solutions;  and  it  is  fonnd 
by  Graham,  that  various  inorganic  substances 
are  abstracted  from  their  smutions,  as  lime 
from  lime  water,  and  metallic  oxides,  as  lead, 
from  solution  in  water.  Bone  black  that  has 
been  once  used  for  refining  sirups,  may  be  re> 
vived,  80  as  to  answer  the  same  purpose  again. 


BONE  DUST 


488 


The  prooen  oonsists  in  thoroughly  washing  oat 
tiie  saooharine  matters  absor^sd,  and,  in  some 
establishments,  in  dissolving  the  lime,  which  is 
.also  taken  np  hj  the  bone  blsck,  by  long-con* 
tinned  ^Bgestion  in  water  acidulated  with  hy- 
droohlorio  aoid.  The  charcoal  is  then  again  cal- 
eined  in  oracibles,  or,  as  in  France,  in  reverbera- 
tory  famaces.  High  steam  is  said  also  to  restore 
its  property,  bat  this  cannot  remove  the  lime. 
Several  forms  of  famace  have  been  contrived  in 
England  to  eflfeot  this  purpose ;  and  retorts  are 
used  which  hold  60  pounds  of  charcoal,  and  in 
which  the  rebarning  is  completed  in  15  to  20 
minutes. — ^Beside  its  use  for  decoloring  simps, 
bone  black  is  also  applied  to  extract  from  spirits 
distilled  from  grain  the  volatile  poisonoas  oil, 
caUed  fusel  oil,  which  gives  to  the  liquors  a  dis- 
agreeable taste.  It  is  also  a  disinfecting  agent. 
For  chemical  and  pharmaceutical  purposes,  bone 
black  requirea  to  be  purified,  that  is,  freed  from 
the  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime  which 
constitute  its  principal  part.  Dilate  hydro- 
chloric  aoid  is  used  to  dissolve  these  out,  and  the 
reudue,  being  well  washed,  is  pure  animal  car- 
bon. It  is  used  to  absorb  the  active  principles 
of  plants  from  their  boiling  infusions.  The 
charcoal,  after  being  well  wsahed  and  dried,  is 
then  mixed  with  boiling  alcohol,  to  which  it 
imparts  the  priodple  it  absorbed  from  the  vege- 
table iafttsicMi,  and  an  alcoholic  extract  is  ob- 
tained. The  alcohol  then  may  be  distilled  oS, 
and  the  pure  substance  recovered.  Qoinia, 
strychnia,  and  many  other  vegetable  principles, 
are  thus  procured.  The  purified  article  is  found 
to  be  an  antidote  to  vegetable  and  animal  poi- 
sons. Dr.  B.  H.  Band,  of  Philadelphia,  has 
proved  by  experiment,  that  the  strongest  vege- 
taUe  poisons  may  be  taken  with  impunity  if 
mixed  with  it— The  refuse  animal  bhick  of  the 
sugar  refiner  is  largely  used  as  a  manure,  par- 
ticularly in  France.  From  the  investigations 
of  M.  A.  de  Bomanet,  it  appears  that,  in  old 
soils  exhausted  of  humm,  it  produces  no  effect, 
havinff  none  of  this  substance  to  restore  to  the 
soiL  Bat  it  gives  out  the  ammonia  it  had  taken 
up  in  the  sirups,  and  neutralizes  the  bitter  and 
acid  principles  of  healthy  or  new  soUs ;  the 
phosphates,  too,  it  contains  are  rendered  solu* 
Die  in  water,  and  are  thus  famkhed  to  the 
l^ns  that  reqaire  them. 

BONE  DUST.  Bones  are  crushed  and  groand 
to  dust  for  manure.  The  finer  the  dust,  the 
more  rapid  is  its  action;  the  coarser  the  parti* 
dea,  the  longer  is  their  effect  slowly  given  out 
This  substance  is  beneficial  to  the  growth  of 
plants  from  its  affording  them  several  of  the 
ooostitnents  they  require.  The  following  anal- 
yses show  what  these  ingredients  are:  The 
phosphate  of  lime  of  the  solid  bone,  and  the 
ammonia  furnished  by  the  organic  matters  con« 
nected  with  it,  are  particalarly  beneficial.  The 
&st  analysis  is  of  a  fossil  horse  by  Braconot, 

a  noted  by  Johnston  in  his  treatise  on  manures ; 
lie  second  is  an  analysis  of  what  is  called  a 
very  excellent  sample  of  the  prepared  article, 
consisting  mostly  of  the  bones  of  the  horse^ 


given  in  the  article  on  agricultural  chemistry 
in  the  *^  EncyclopsBdia  Britannica;"  and  the 
third  is  of  dry  ox-bones,  by  Berzelius. 

1.  Photphate  of  lime mjB 

y»t«f ILO 

Gelatine 4.5 

Carbonate  of  lime 4.6 

Bitumen 4^ 

BUica 4. 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 1. 

Alumina o.T 

Oxide  of  Iron. Ol6 

lOOO 

ft.  Phosphate  of  Ume 48.95 

J&itor e.20 

drganio  matter flS^ls 

Lime a.6T 

Magnesia 0.80 

Solphnrio  add ai6 

Bllkja aSO 

loaso 

Ammonia  in  the  019U1I0  mattar. 4.80 

a  Phosphate  of  lima,  wtth  a  little  flnorida  of 

calcium 6T.85 

Bonegelatino 88.80 

Carbonate  of  lime 8.65 

Phosphate  of  magnesia 9.05 

Boda,  and  a  Uttle  chloride  of  sodium a45 

loaoo 

So  valuable  is  this  substoooe  regarded  as  a  ma- 
nure in  EngUmd,  that  in  the  report  of  the 
Doncaster  i^cultural  association  it  is  stated 
that  1  wagon-load  of  smidl  drill  bone  dust  is 
equal  to  40  or  50  loads  of  fold  n&anure.  Upon 
thin  and  sandy  land  it  is  particularly  eflfective^ 
and  continues  to  act  for  several  successive 
crops.  It  is  best  applied  when  mixed  with 
earth  and  fermented,  and  at  the  rate  of  26 
bushels  of  fine  bone  dust  and  40  of  broken 
bones  to  the  acre.  It  is  also  nsed  as  a  top 
dressing,  sown  broadcast  and  by  the  drilL  Pas- 
ture and  grass  lands  are  grsfldiy  benefited  by 
it;  white  clover  springs  up  wherever  it  falls; 
and  the  turnip  crop  is  largely  increased  by  its 
application. — In  this  place^  the  use  of  dis- 
solved bones  may  also  be  notloed.  By  treating 
bones  with  i  their  weight  of  sulphuric  aoid 
and  as  much  water,  the  phosphate  of  lime  is 
deprived  of  half  its  base,  and  converted  into 
a  superphosphate,  which  is  wholly  soluble  in 
water.  The  lime  taken  from  the  phosphate 
unites  with  the  sulphuric  add,  and  becomes  a 
sulphate.  The  mixture,  after  undergoing  this 
process,  is  a  dry  mass,  which  is  soM  by  the 
name  of  superphosphate  of  lime.  The  follow- 
ing are  analyses  of  2  of  the  best  varieties  of 
the  English  article : 

Water 10050  MlW 

Organic  matter 86w47  18.18 

Phosphates 84.29  87.18 

Bnlphate  of  lime 18.14  11.89 

finlpharic  acid 1440  18.9S 

AlkaUnesalts aiS  8.64 

Band 1.48  6.81 

100.00        100.00 

Ammonia &17  1.88 

Soluble  phosphates 88.87  19.08 


484 


BONE  EAETH 


BONHEUR 


The  oommercial  snperphospliatea  do  not  often 
ooQt^  60  large  a  proportion  of  soluble  phos- 
phates, but  are  sometimes  nearly  entirely  de- 
ncient  in  them ;  and  as  it  is  this  principally 
which  gives  them  value,  too  great  care  cannot 
be  taken  to  ascertain  their  composition  before 
parchasing,  and  those  particularly  should  be 
regarded  as  of  inferior  quality,  which  contain 
carbonate  of  lime  or  of  magnesia. 

BONE  EARTH.  This  term  is  loosely  an- 
plied,  sometimes  to  bone  ash,  of  which  cupeis 
are  made,  and  sometimes  to  the  earthy  phos- 
phates which  constitute  the  principal  portion 
of  bones.  This  is  its  signification  when  used 
in  animal  chemistry. 

BONELLI,  Fbanobsoo  AimRBA,  an  Italian 
naturalist  and  entomologist,  noted  for  his  pub- 
lication on  Sardinian  birds,  bom  1784,  died 
Nov.  18,  1880,  at  Turin,  where  he  was  for 
many  years  professor  of  zoology  and  director  of 
the  cabinet  of  natural  history. 

BONESET,  or  Thobouoh-Wobt,  the  herb  eu- 
fatorium  perfoUatumy  an  indigenous  perennial 
plant,  growing  in  moist  places,  distinguished  by 
the  perfoliate  character  of  its  leaves,  each  pair 
of  which  are  at  right  angles  to  those  imme- 
diately above  and  below.  It  is  a  bitter  weed 
or  vegetable  tonic,  with  a  faint  odor  and  a 
strong  bitter  taste.  Hot  water  extracts  its 
virtues,  which  are  believed  to  reside  chiefly  in 
a  bitter  principle.  The  cold  infusion  acts  as  a 
mild,  pleasant  tonic ;  the  hot  infusion  as  a  dia- 
phoretic, and,  when  very  strong,  as  an  emetic. 
Strong  infusions  of  boneset  leaves  are  used 
as  a  substitute  for  Peruvian  bark,  in  cases  of 
ague,  and  sometimes  with  success ;  but  it  is  not 
always  to  be  relied  on.  A  pint  of  boiling  water  is 
poured  upon  an  ounce  of  the  dried  leaves,  or  a 
pint  of  cold  water  upon  an  ounce  of  the  fresh 
leaves,  and  allowed  to  stand  2  hours :  it  is  then 
strained  for  use.  A  weak  cold  infusion  is  good 
for  all  cases  of  debility  where  tonics  are  pre- 
scribed. For  ague,  as  much  should  be  taken 
as  the  stomach  will  bear,  and  it  should  be 
drunk  warm. 

BONET,  Juan  Pablo,  a  Spanish  teacher  of 
the  deaf  and  dumb  of  the  17th  century,  distin- 
guished as  one  of  the  first  teachers  of  this  class, 
and  the  author  of  a  remarkable  work,  Bedut- 
eion  de  la$  lepras  y  artes  para  ensenar  a  hablar  a 
las  mtidoSy  which  was  published  in  Madrid,  1620. 
It  explained  his  method  of  instruction,  contain- 
ed the  first  alphabet  for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  and 
was  of  good  service  to  Dalgamo,  Wallis,  and,  a 
century  later,  to  the  Abb4  de  TEp^e,  who  ac- 
knowledged his  indebtment  to  Bonet's  labors. 

BONHEUR,  Rosa,  a  French  painter,  born  at 
Bordeaux,  May  22,  1822.  In  1829  her  father, 
Raymond  Bonheur,  a  painter,  removed  to 
Paris  and  put  his  daughter  in  a  boarding- 
school,  and  also  apprenticed  her  for  some  time 
to  a  seamstress,  but  she  did  not  tske  any 
interest  either  in  books  or  needles;  and  as, 
moreover,  the  sneers  of  ill-bred  children  of 
wealthier  parents  at  the  poverty  of  her  dress 
became  a  constant  source  of  vexation  for  the 


■ensitive  little  girl,  her  father  took  her  home 
and  instructed  her  in  the  art  of  drawing.  From 
her  earliest  childhood  she  displayed  an  intuitive 
love  of  nature,  and  after  having  stadied  for  4^ 
years  the  works  of  the  great  masters  at  the 
Louvre,  she  returned,  when  the  time  came  for 
a  selection  of  the  speciality  of  her  artL  to  the 
predilections  of  her  childhood,  and  uie  first 
works  which  she  presented  at  the  exhibition  of 
1841,  were  taken  from  natural  hiatory,  and 
represented  sheep,  goats,  and  rabbits.  She 
dia  not  content  herself  with  the  ordinary  studies 
of  artists,  but  visited  the  butchers'  shambles  in 
Paris,  in  order  to  observe  the  nature  of  the  ani- 
mals. This  accounted  for  her  success.  Since  that 
time  she  has  continued  to  send  pictures  of  animals 
to  the  annual  exhibition  in  raris,  as  Le  t^^etal 
dvendre^  Checaux  sartasU  de  Vabreuwdr,  Ch^ 
vavx  dans  une  prairie.  Her  most  suocessfnl 
works  of  that  period  were :  Les  trois  fwntsqu^ 
taireSy  Uh  troupeau  eheminanty  La  reneontrej 
Uh  effet  du  matin.  In  1848  she  exhibited  a 
bull  and  a  sheep,  modelled  by  herself  in  bronze^ 
and  received  from  the  hands  of  Horace  Vemet 
the  1st  class  medal  and  a  splendid  Sdvres  vase. 
Her  master-work,  Le  labourage  Nieemai»y 
which  was  produced  in  1850,  attracted  great  at- 
tention at  the  exhibition,  and  received  the  honor 
of  a  place  in  the  Luxembourg.  She  has  since 
exhibited  unfinished  in  Paris,  Vaehes  et  mou' 
tons  dans  un  ehemin  ereux,  and  Le  marehS  aux 
eheoaux.  The  latter  picture  was  much  ad- 
mired at  the  French  exhibition  in  London  of 
1855,  afibrding  to  the  critics  a  field  for  compari- 
son with  Landseer,  and  achieving  wide-spread 
popularity  in  England  under  the  name  of  the 
*' Horse  Fair."  This  remarkable  picture  was 
bought  by  M.  Gambart,  a  French  printseller  of 
London,  for  $8,000^nd  has  since  passed  into  the 
possession  of  Mr.  William  P.  Wright,  of  Wee- 
hawken,  N.  J.  Its  recent  public  exhibition  in 
New  York  was  numerously  attended  and  ^cit- 
ed great  admiration.  She  studied  1 8  months  on 
this  picture,  regularly  attending  Uie  horse  mar- 
ket in  Paris  twice  a  week.  Her  success  extricat- 
ed her  father  from  his  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ments, by  procuring  him  the  post  of  director  of 
the  free  school  of  de»gn  for  girls  in  1847,  but 
he  did  not  live  long  to  eigoy  his  improved  posi- 
tion, and  died  in  1849.  The  title  of  du^ct- 
ress  was  then  conferred  upon  Mile.  Bon- 
heur, but  the  real  head  of  ^e  school  is  her 
sister  Juliette,  now  Madame  Peyrol,  although 
Rosa  goes  there  once  a  week,  and  exerts  a  good 
influence  by  her  cooperation.  Mile.  Rosa  lives 
in  a  little  secluded  cottage,  in  the  Rue  d^Assas, 
near  the  Rue  de  Yaugirard,  and  regularly  works 
18  hours  out  of  the  24,  painting  from  6  in  the 
morning  till  night-fall,  when  she  draws  untU 
past  midnight.  She  possesses  2  horses,  5 
goats,  an  ox,  a  cow,  8  donkeys,  and  sheep,  dogs, 
birds,  and  poultry,  which  she  uses  as  modela. 
She  has  been  of  late  engaged  on  a  work  illus- 
trative of  donkeys.  Beside  the  works  which  have 
appeared  at  exhibitions,  her  portfolios  are  said 
to  contain  a  fine  collection  of  drawings  and 


BONUILL 


BONIFACE 


485 


sketcheB,  which  she  has  hitherto  refused  to 
sell,  ller  great  force  is  in  her  faithfulness  to 
nature.  The  boldness  and  independence  of  her 
own  character  inspire  her  pencil,  and  free  her 
pictures  from  all  conventionality.  Beside  the 
father  and  sister  already  mentioned,  2  brothers 
of  Mile.  Bonheur  have  attained  some  artistic 
distinction,  Auguste  as  a  painter,  and  Isidore 
as  a  sculptor. 

BONUILL,  a  village  and  parish  of  Dum- 
bartonshire, Scotland,  at  the  lower  extrem- 
ity of  Loch  Lomond^  noted  as  the  birth- 
place of  Smollett  In  1851  it  had  a  popula- 
tion of  7,643,  mostly  employed  in  the  bleach 
fields  and  print  works  of  the  Leven  valley. 

BONI,  a  territory  of  the  isknd  of  Celebes, 
and  one  of  the  principal  states  of  the  Bugis  na- 
tion, bounded  N.  by  Wi^oo  territory,  £.  by  the 
bay  of  Boni,  S.  by  Boolekumba  and  Bonthidn,  and 
W.  by  territories  of  Mangkasara  or  Macassar 
tribes ;  area,  2,850  sq.  m. ;  pop.  90,000.  This 
territory  is  mountainoos,  but,  though  contiguous 
to  the  great  volcanic  belt  of  the  archipekgo, 
exhibits  no  traces  of  volcanic  action.  Lompoo- 
Batang  (great  pillar),  its  highest  peak,  and  the 
loftiest  in  Celebes,  attains  an  elevation  of  8,200 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Lake  Labaya, 
or,  9a  called  by  the  natives,  Taparang-Danau, 
in  the  N.  W.  comer  of  this  territory,  is  a  beau- 
tiful sheet  of  water,  24  miles  long  and  13  broad, 
with  an  average  depth  of  6  finthoms,  and  abounds 
in  fish.  It  is  bordered  on  all  sides  by  a  luxuri- 
ant and  richly  diversified  tropical  growth,  ex- 
cept at  the  months  of  the  numerous  little 
streams  that  empty  into  it,  where  clearings,  and 
beaatifnl,  picturesque  little  villages,  attest  the 
industry,  skill,  and  civilized  tastes  of  the  Bugis 
people.  This  lake  is  enlivened  by  an  active  in- 
ternal trade.  More  than  a  hundred  sail  of  pa- 
ddwahatUf  or  Bugis  prahus,  of  an  average  bur* 
den  of  40  tons  each,  have  been  counted  upon 
its  waters  at  one  time,  while  numbers  of  them 
descend  the  Chinrana  river,  the  only  outlet  of 
the  lake,  emptying  into  the  bay  of  Boni,  and 
proceed  theuce  to  the  remotest  points  of  the 
archipelago  to  collect  pearls  in  the  Arroo  group, 
and  tripang  on  the  coast  of  New  Guinea,  or  to 
obtain  European  products  at  Batavia  and  Singa- 
pore. This  state  is  governed  by  a  confederacy 
of  nobles,  who  elect  a  sovereign  from  the  patri- 
dan  order,  and  generally  a  female.  When  An- 
tonio Galvabn,  the  heroic  Portuguese  governor 
of  the  Moluccas,  challenged  the  king  of  Boni  to 
sinftle  combat  to  decide  a  personal  difference, 
and  save  the  blood  of  their  men,  the  native 
prinoe,  when  in  the  field,  quailed  before  the 
European  and  fled;  but  his  sister,  who,  with 
his  seraglio,  accompanied  the  army,  mounted  a 
horse,  and  galloping  forth,  with  lance  in  pod- 
tion,  defied  the  European,  whose  gallantry  was 
80  moved  as  to  retire  at  once  from  the  territo- 
ry of  BonL  This  girl  was  immediately  elevated 
to  the  throne.  The  English,  during  their  occu- 
pation of  the  NeUierluids  possessions  in  the 
archipelago,  met  with  a  spirited  resistance  to 
their  encroachmenta  from  Arong  Datoo,  queen 


of  Boni,  who  also  gave  great  trouble  to  Gen. 
Van  der  Cappellen,  the  first  Dutch  governor- 
general  after  the  British  evacuation. — The  cap- 
ital, Boni,  an  inconsiderable  native  town,  is  near 
the  shores  of  the  bay,  lat  I''  87'  S.,  long.  126^ 
82' £. 

BONIFACE,  the  name  of  9  popes  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church.  I.  The  successor  of 
Pope  Zosimus  in  418.  The  emperor  Houorius 
supported  him  bv  his  aid  in  the  pontifical  chair 
against  the  archdeacon  Eulalius.  St.  Augustine 
dedicated  to  this  pontiff  the  4  books  which 
he  wrote  against  the  Pelagians.  He  died  in  Sept 
422.  II.  Succeeded  Felix  IV.  in  529.  In  the 
EpiMtolm  Bonumorum  Fantifleum  there  is  a  let- 
ter written  by  him  to  St.  Oesarius  of  Aries.  He 
died  in  582.  HI.  Succeeded  Sabinianus  in  607. 
He  convoked  a  council  of  72  bishops,  in  which 
certain  laws  were  passed  agidnst  making  succes- 
sors to  popes  or  bishops  during  their  lifetime.  He 
died  Nov.  10,  in  the  same  year.  lY.  Son  of  a 
physician  of  Valeria  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples, 
succeeded  Boniface  III.    The  emperor  Phocas 

gave  him  the  Pantheon,  which  was  built  in 
onor  of  Jupiter  and  all  the  gods,  by  Marcus 
Agrippa.  Boniface  IV.  changed  it  into  a  church, 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  worship  of  God  under 
the  iuvocation  of  the  blessed  vhrgin  and  all  the 
saints.  He  died  in  615.  V.  A  Neapotitan,  suc- 
ceeded Pope  Deusdedit  in  619.  He  died  625. 
He  forbade  civil  judges  to  take  away  from  the 
churches  by  force  those  who  had  sought  there 
the  right  of  asylum.  VI.  Pope  after  Formo- 
sus  in  896,  occupied  the  throne  only  18 
days.  Having  been  uncanouically  elected,  he 
is  considered  as  one  of  the  anti-popes;  his 
name  is,  however,  left  among  the  list  of  popes,  in 
order  that  no  change  might  be  made  in  the  chro- 
nological computations.  VII.  Also  considered 
as  an  anti-pope,  succeeded,  in  974,  Benedict  VI., ' 
who  died  from  strangulation.  He  was  expelled 
after  a  month,  but  again  occupied  the  see  some 
months  after  the  death  of  John  XIV.,  when 
he  died  suddenly  in  the  month  of  Dec.  984. 
VUI.  Originally  named  Bbnxdbtto  Gabtani 
bom  at  Anagni,  in  the  papal  states,  about  1228, 
died  in  Rome,  Oct  11,  1808.  He  was  one 
of  the  most  prominent  personages  in  medieaval 
history,  and  his  character  and  career  have  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy,  both  within 
and  without  the  Roman  Catholic  church.  He 
finished  his  academic  studies  at  the  university 
of  Paris,  but  is  said  to  have  subsequently  studied 
the  canon  law  at  Bologna.  About  1255  ho 
visited  England ;  in  1280  he  went  to  Germany 
as  secretary  of  a  papal  legate ;  in  1281  he  was 
made  a  cardinal  by  Martin  IV.,  who  allowed 
him  to  receive  the  revenues  of  12  beuefices,  7 
of  them  being  in  France  and  one  in  England. 
The  honors  and  emoluments  which  he  had  re- 
ceived were  accompanied,  on  the  other  hand, 
even  in  that  epoch,  by  grave  accuaations  of  im- 
morality and  irreligion,  which  have  since  been 
set  aside  as  unfounded.  He  was  papal  legate 
in  France  in  1290,  while  Philip  the  Fair,  after- 
ward his  antagonist^  was  yet  young  \  and  he 


486 


BONIFACE 


disoharged  the  same  office  in  SieQT  and  Portu- 
gal. After  the  death  of  Nicholas  IV^  in  1292, 
the  papal  chair  remained  vacant  for  27  months, 
bnt  at  last  the  conclave  fixed  npon  a  hermit  80 
years  old,  of  Sulmona,  who  became  pope,  July 
6,  1294,  under  the  title  of  Celestine  V.  He  was 
incompetent  to  the  office,  and  soon  desired  to 
abdicate,  bnt  doubts  existed  as  to  the  legality 
of  such  a  step.  However,  it  was  taken  Dec.  18, 
1294,  and  11  days  afterward  Cardinal  Gaetani 
was  chosen  as  his  successor  by  the  conclave  as- 
sembled at  Castelnuovo.  near  Naples.  His  entry 
into  Rome  was  attenaed  with  extraordinary 
pomp,  the  king  of  Naples  and  the  king  of  Bohe- 
mia noldlng  tiie  reins  of  his  bridle,  and  serving 
him  at  table  with  their  crowns  on.  His  weak 
predecessor,  Celestine,  having  manifested  a  dis- 
position to  withdraw  his  abdication,  Boniface 
caused  him  to  be  put  in  confinement,  as 
some  have  alleged,  using  great  cruelty  to- 
ward him,  but  as  others  maintain,  and  among 
them  Cardinal  Wiseman  in  his  **  Essays,"  treating 
him  with  kindness,  until  his  death,  May  19, 1296. 
Italv  and  Eorope  were  at  this  time  distracted 
by  rauds  and  wars.  While  fierce  factions  threw 
the  Italian  states  into  confusion,  there  was 
strife  between  Adolphus  of  Nassau  and  Albert  of 
Austria,  in  Germany,  and  between  Philip  the 
Fair  of  France,  and  Edward  I.  of  England. 
Bonifiice  increased  the  tamnlt  of  the  times  by 
publishing,  in  1296^  his  famous  bull,  CUrieU 
MtcM,  by  which  he  forbade  the  dergy,  under 
pain  of  excommunication,  to  pay  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  holy  see  any  subsidy  or  tax  on  any 
ecclesiastical  property,  and  extended  the  ex- 
communication to  the  emperors,  kings,  or  princes 
-  who  should  imi>ose  such  subsidy.  In  France, 
such  imposts  formed  a  considerable  part  of  the 
royal  income,  and  the  vigor  with  which  Philip 
the  Fair,  pressed  by  the  necessities  of  his  war 
with  Eneland,  resisted  the  bull,  and  retaliated 
by  forbidding  any  money  to  be  exported  from 
his  kingdom  to  Rome,  obliged  the  pope  to  re- 
tract, and  to  allow  the  taxes  to  be  rais€Kl  in  France 
as  before.  He  became  soon  after  embroiled 
with  the  Colonna  family,  one  of  the  most  pow- 
erful in  Italy,  who  had  been  dissatbfied  with 
the  abdication  of  Celestine,  and  denied  the 
validity  of  the  election  of  the  new  pope.  Two 
members  of  this  family,  who  were  cardinals, 
were  deprived  of  their  dignities ;  they  were  all 
excommunicated,  their  descendants  were  con- 
demned to  civil  degradation  to  the  4th  genera* 
tlon.  their  castles  and  their  city,  Prseneste,  were 
totally  destroyed,  and  Frederic  of  Aragon,  whom 
they  had  supported,  was  ordered  to  renounce 
the  title  of  king  of  Sicily,  and  to  evacuate  the 
island.  The  Colonnas  took  refage  in  France. 
The  war  between  France  and  England  had  in- 
volved almost  every  European  power,  and 
BoniiSftce  undertook  to  interfere  as  a  superior 
authority.  He  censured  the  king  of  Denmark 
and  his  brother,  forbade  the  king  of  Naples  to 
treat  with  Frederic,  elected  king  of  Sicily,  sum- 
moned to  Rome  Albert  I.,  king  of  Germany, 
whose  election  as  emperor  he  declared  to  be  in- 


valid without  the  papal  sanction,  rebuked  Philip 
the  Fair  for  his  treatment  of  Guido  of  Flanders, 
and  by  special  legates  commanded  the  2  princi- 
pal contending  kings  to  cease  hostilities.   There 
were  new  sources  of  discord  between  Philip  and 
the  pope,  and,  in  Dec  1801,  the  latter  pro- 
claimed the  bull  AuteuUa  Dei,  and  convoked  a 
council  of  the  French  bishoni  at  Rome  to  ex- 
amine the  conduct  of  King  Philip,  at  the  same 
time  affirming  it  to  be  heretical  not  to  believe 
that  the  king  was  subject  to  the  pope  in  sec- 
ular .as  well  as  spiritual  affairs.    The  French 
nation,  however,  barons  and  clergy,  opi>08ed  the 
pretenuons  of  the  pope,  and  supported  thdr 
king;  and  it  was  formally  declared  bv  the  8 
estates,  that  the  king  held  his  power  in  fief  to  no 
one,  and  in  secular  matters  was  subject  to  God 
alone.    The  bishops  were  forbidden  to  attend 
the  council  at  Rome,  which,  therefore,  was  never 
held,  and  in  1802  the  bull  Unam  9<mctam  af- 
firmed the  claims  of  the  pope,  setting  forth  that 
the  church  wields  2  swords,  the  spiritual  and 
the  secular,  but  that  the  secular  is  subordinate 
to  the  spiritual,  and  that  therefore  kings,  who 
hold  the  former,  are  subject  to  the  ])ope,  who 
holds  the  latter.    The  bishops  of  France  were 
again  convoked  under  pain  of  excommunicadon, 
but  Philip  ordered  the  sequestration  of  the 
property  of  every  one  who  shonld  be  absent 
from  his  diocese,  and  in  his  turn  summoned  a 
general  council  at  Lyons  to  judge  the  pope.    To 
this  council  the  university  of  Paris  and  a  1»^ 
number  of  prelates  adhered;  the  excommunica- 
tion of  Philip  followed,  April  18, 1808 ;  and  in 
June  succeeding  tiie  assembled  estates  of  France 
declared  the  pope  a  criminal  and  a  heretic. 
The  king  sent  Nogaret  and  Sciarra  Colonna,  one 
of  the  proscribed  family,  to  Rome,  with  full 
power  to  seize  the  pope  and  bring  him  befi>re 
the  council  of  Lyons.    They  armed  about  800 
malcontent  Italian  nobles,  surprised  Anagni, 
the  residence  of  Boniface,  forced  the  palace, 
and  seized  the  person,  diamonds,  and  papers  of 
the  pope,  and  guarded  hun  as  a  prisoner.    Co- 
lonna is  said  to  have  struck  the  supreme  pontaff 
a  blow  on  this  occasion,  bnt  the  statement  is 
disputed.    After  8  days  Boniface  was  rescued 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Anagni  and  taken  to 
Rome,  where  he  was  protected  in  the  Vatican 
by  the  Orsini ;   but  the  violent  commotion  he 
had  gone  through  caused  his  death  $5  days  after 
his  captivity.    It  was  the  lot  of  Boniface  to 
count  Dante  among  his  enemies,  and  the  fierce 
Ghibelline  poet  writes  with  partisan  severity 
against  the  chief  of  the  Guelphs.    IX.    Pietso 
ToMAOEixi,  born  in  Naples,  became  snooessor 
of  Urban  VL,  at  Rome,  Nov.  2,  1889,  wlale 
the  anti-pope  Clement  VII.  resided  at  Avignon, 
died  in  Rome  Oct  1, 1404.    He  was  a  very 
handsome  and  accomplished  man  of  the  workl 
at  the  time  of  his  elevation,  bnt  not  much 
skilled  in  the  administration  or  laws  of  the 
church.     He  recognized  Ladislas  of  Hungary 
as  king  of  Naples  in  1890,  and  celebrated  % 
jubilees,  in  1890  and  1400.    The  annates,  or 
pecuniary  oontributiona  to  the  see  of  Rcom^ 


BONIFACE 


BONIN  ISLANDS 


487 


whioh  had  before  been  ocoasionel,  he  made  per- 
petual, and  decreed  that  archbiabops  and  biehopa 
nominated  to  benefices  should  pay  to  Rome  one- 
half  of  their  first  yearns  revenue.  He  was  twice 
expelled  from  Rome  by  the  mnnicipal  author- 
ities, and  when,  in  1400,  his  presence  became 
necessary  for  the  celebration  of  the  jubilee,  he 
refused  to  return  till  the  Romans  consented  to 
the  overthrow  of  the  municipal  government^ 

Promised  obedience  to  a  senate  appointed  by 
imself,  and  paid  him  a  sum  of  money.    From 
that  time  he  ruled  the  city  absolutely. 

BONIFACE,  a  saint  or  the  Roman  Cath<dio 
church,  born  in  Devonshire,  England,  about 
680,  died  in  Friesland,  June  6,  755.  His  bap- 
tismal naoie  waa  Winifrid  or  Winfreth.  He  is 
usually  called  the  apostle  of  Germany,  although 
centuries  before  him  Christianity  reached  sev- 
eral branches  of  the  Germans,  as  the  Goths, 
Vandals,  Burgundians,  Longobards,  and  Ge- 
pidea,  from  Byzantium.  In  fact,  he  had  fore- 
runners in  Kilian,  Gallus,  Oolumban,  Fridolin^ 
Emmeras,  Swidvert,  and  Siegfried,  among  the 
western  and  northern  tribes  of  Germany. 
At  an  early  age  he  entered  the  monastery 
of  Exeter,  where  he  remained  for  many 
years,  devoting  his  time  to  study  and  re- 
ligions exercises ;  he  then  became  professor  of 
theology,  history,  and  rhetoric*  at  the  monastery 
of  Nnteell.  After  having  already  on  a  pre- 
vious occasion  visited  the  continent  as  mission- 
ary, he  repaired  in  716  to  Friesland  with  the 
purpose  of  preaching  the  gospel  tiiere.  Unable 
to  accomplish  his  object  on  account  of  a  war 
betweeo  the  Frisians  and  the  Franks,  he  re- 
turned to  England  and  became  abbot  of  his  mon- 
astery. In  718  he  went  to  Rome,  and  received 
from  pope  Gregory  II«  an  apostolic  mission  to 
Germany.  He  now  entered  Friesland,  where 
he  preached  during  8  years,  then  passed  into 
Hesse  (now  the  electorate)  and  founded  there  a 
monastery,  'yrhich  in  the  course  of  time  became 
the  city  of  Marburg  and  now  remains  as  a  nni- 
versity.  In  728  Gregory  II.  called  the  apostle 
to  Rome  and  consecrated  him  as  a  bishop,  and 
on  this  occasion  the  name  of  Winifrid  was 
ohaDged  for  that  of  Boniface.  In  732  Gregory 
III.  bestowed  on  him  the  archiepiscopal  dig- 
nity. In  788  he  made  a  third  journey  to  Rome, 
and  waa  created  legate  of  the  holy  see  for  Ger- 
many, over  the  whole  of  which  country  his 
apostolic  jurisdiction  was  thus  extended.  He 
BOW  erected  various  bishoprics,  as  Saltzburg, 
Frdsing,  Katisbon,  Passau,  Erfurt,  Buraburg 
(subsequently  removed  to  Paderborn),  WUrz- 
bnrg,  Eichstadt,  and  several  others.  He  also 
exercised  a  great  influence  over  the  last  Hero- 
Tingiaiu^  and  over  Carloman  and  Pepin,  the 
founders  of  the  new  dynasty,  but  was  opposed  to 
the  decisions  of  Pope  Zacbarias,  which  oon« 
firmed  the  Carloviogian  usurpation.  He,  how- 
ever, was  named  archbishop  of  Mentz  by  repin, 
and  the  bishoprics  of  Tongers,  Utrecht,  Colosne, 
Worms^  Spire,  with  others  previously  founded, 
came  under  his  jurisdiction.  He  fonnded  the 
celebrated    abbey   of    Fulda,   and  those  of 


Fidislar,  Hammelburg,  and  Ordorf.  Boniface 
finally  gave  up  his  see  of  Mentz,  in  order  to  be 
better  able  to  preach  the  gospel  to  the  heathen 
Frisians.  In  one  of  his  peregrinations  across  the 
savage  and  uncultivated  country  where  now  is 
Dokkum,  near  Leeuwarden,  he  was  attacked 
by  the  barbarian  natives  and  slain,  together  with 
some  50  of  his  converted  companions,  whom  he 
forbade  to  use  any  means  of  defence.   BunifiBioe 

Sarticipated  in  8  councils,  himself  called  several 
iocesan  synods,  and  there  remain  89  letters 
written  by  him.  His  body  was  buried  in  Utrecht, 
afterward  in  Hentz,  and  finally  in  Fulda,  where 
a  copy  of  the  Gospels  in  his  handwriting  ia 
atili  preserved.  Christianity  had  been  intro- 
duced among  the  Germans  before  him ;  but  he 
is  believed  to  have  been  the  first  to  bring  in  the 
organization  of  the  church  of  Rome.  He  ia 
said  to  have  departed  from  the  example  of  pre- 
ceding missionaries  by  asking  for  Roman  aa« 
thority  to  become  a  missionary  among  the  hea- 
then; and  also  to  have  been  the  first  of  German 
or  Prankish  bishops  to  swear  fealty  to  the  pope. 
He  preached  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
pontiff  over  the  civil  power  of  the  state. 
The  right  to  establish  bishoprics  and  to  nom- 
inate bishops,  which  the  Koman  emperors 
had  exercised  since  Constantine,  was  likewise 
enjoyed  by  the  kings  of  various  northern 
tribes  after  theur  conversion  to  Christianity. 
The  Merovingians  used  this  right,  and  after 
them  the  Oarlovingians.  Bonimce,  however, 
transferred  it  from  the  kings  to  the  popes, 
instead  of  restoring  it  to  the  free  election  of 
the  diocesans,  or  the  chapters.  He  was  also 
the  first  to  set  on  foot  the  contest  for  papal 
investiture  which,  about  4  centuries  afterward, 
under  the  Prankish  emperors  and  the  popes, 
and  especially  under  Gregory  YII.,  occasioned 
so  mucn  bloodshed.  In  his  hands,  however,  it 
produced  no  such  result,  as  he  oonducted  it  with 
success  in  the  exclusive  interest  of  the  hierarchy. 
The  most  complete  edition  of  his  Epiatola  ap- 
peared at  Mentz,  in  1789.  Amonnmentwaa 
erected  to  him  in  1611,  on  the  q>ot  (near  the 
present  viUage  of  Altenberga,  in  Thuringia) 
where  the  first  Christian  church  had  been  built 
by  him  in  724.  Another  monument  was  erected 
in  his  honor  at  Fulda,  in  1842. 

BONIFACIO,  Stbait  of,  between  Corsica 
and  Sardinia,  is  named  fh>m  the  Corsican  town 
of  Bonifacio,  about  7  miles  wide  in  the  narrow- 
est  part.  The  land  is  mountainous  and  the 
shores  steep  on  either  hand.  Several  small 
islands  stana  at  the  eastern  entrance.  The  strait 
is  difiScult  of  navigation.    Corals  abound  here. 

BONIN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  70  ialanda 
and  19  rocks  in  the  north  Pacific,  composed  of 
8  small  dusters,  named  by  Capt  Beecney,  the 
arctic  traveller,  in  1827,  Parry  s  group  (north- 
em),  Baily's  group  (southern),  while  to  the 
islands  of  the  midale  cluster  he  gave  separate 
names,  viz..  Peel,  Bnckland,  and  St^>leton. 
These  islands  have  long  been  visited,  or  at 
least  Peel  (the  only  one  inhabited),  bv  whalers 
for  supplies.    From  1675  to  1725  they  were 


486 


BONINGTOK 


BONJOUE 


Vied  hy  the  Japanese  as  penal  colonies.  In 
1826  the  first  settlement  was  made  by  2  sail- 
ors, and  in  the  same  year  Oapt.  Beechey  ar- 
rived to  take  possession  of  the  islands  for  the 
En^^ish  orown.  In  1868  Commodore  Perry, 
of  the  United  States  navy,  recommended  the 

Sorohaae  of  Port  Lloyd,  on  Peel  island,  as  a 
epot  for  steamers  between  China  and  Oali- 
fomia.  By  the  treaty  of  1854,  Port  Uoyd, 
and  a  port  on  the  Loo  Ohoo  group,  about  1,000 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  Bonin  group,  and  400 
miles  from  the  China  coast,  are  open  for  Ameri- 
can and  British  shipping.  The  treaty  was  ef- 
fected on  the  part  of  this  government,  March 
81, 1854^  and  on  the  part  of  the  British,  Oct 
14  following.  Until  that  time  Japanese  ports 
were  only  open  to  Datch  and  Chinese  vessels. 
The  Bonin  islands  are  volcanic;  the  water 
around  them  is  very  deep,  and  the  shores  pre- 
cipitous. Timber  is  scarce.  The  few  inhabit- 
ants, chiefly  natives  of  the  Sandwich  islands, 
adopted  a  constitution,  Aug.  28,  1853,  and  are 
nded  by  a  magistrate,  who  is  elected  for  2  years. 
They  were  supplied  with  seeds  by  Commodore 
Perry  for  agricultural  purposes,  in  1858,  and 
have  abomt  180  acres  of  land  under  cultivation. 
Peel  island  contains  a  good  harbor,  and  the 
only  village  of  the  whole  group,  called  Boyd. 

BONINGTON,  Riohabd  Pabkks,  an  English 
painter,  bom  at  Arnold,  near  Nottingham,  Oct 
26, 1801,  died  in  London,  Sept  28, 1828.  His 
finther,  who  was  an  artist,  observed  and  en- 
couraged his  desire  to  become  a  painter.  At 
the  age  of  15,  his  parents  having  removed  to 
Paris,  he  became  a  student  of  the  institute,  and 
made  several  beautiful  copies  of  the  best  Flem- 
ish and  Italian  landscapes  in  the  Louvre.  His 
chief  productions  were  representations  of  coast 
scenery,  and  fish  markets.  The  first  drawing 
of  his  exhibited  at  Paris,  was  sold  as  soon  as 
seen  when  the  exhibition  opened;  for  the  sec- 
ond, a  marine  subject,  he  received  the  gold 
medal.  Thus  distinguished,  he  went  to  Yen- 
ice.  The  picturesque  beau^  and  grandeur  of 
that  city  fascinated  him,  and  he  made  many 
sketches.  He  chiefly  painted  in  water-colors. 
He  went  to  England  in  1827,  but  he  speedily 
returned  to  Paris,  where  he  passed  the  winter. 
Early  in  1828  he  again  went  to  London,  and 
several  of  his  paintings  were  in  the  royal 
academy  exhibition  of  thai  year.  Though 
badly  placed  there,  they  were  much  admired. 
He  has  the  merit  of  having  revived  Uie  estima- 
tion for  water-colors  in  France,  after  they  had 
been  neglected  for  20  years. 

BONITO,  a  name  given  to  several  scombe- 
roid  fishes  of  the  genera  UtynnuSy  otmt,  and 
pelamy».  The  bonito  of  the  tropics,  so  cele- 
brated for  its  pursuit  of  the  flying-fish,  is  the 
thynnvM  pelamyi  (Linn.).  Its  range  is  exten- 
sive in  the  tropical  Atlantic,  and  it  probably  ex- 
tends to  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans.  It  has 
the  graceful  form,  habits,  and  activity  of  the 
common  tunny,  but  it  is  much  smaller,  rarely 
attaining  a  greater  length  than  2i  feet;  the 
color  of  the  back  and  sides  is  a  brilliant  steel 


bine,  witti  green  and  pink  reflectioiis;  thebdlj 
is  silvery,  with  8  brown  longitudinal  bands,  4 
on  each  side,  extending  firom  the  tfaroit  to  the 
tail.  Its  food  is  principally  small  fish,  the 
higher  moUusks,  and  sometimes  marine  plaoti; 
it  is  readily  taken  by  the  hook,  and  its  fle&b, 
though  dry  and  occasionally  injarions,  is  con- 
sidered by  mariners  as  a  luxury.  The  T.  wretU 
(Onv.)  is  also  called  bonito  in  the  West  Indies. 
The  bonito  of  the  Mediterranean  is  the  am 
vulfforu  (Cnv.),  resembling  the  mackerel  in 
the  separation  of  the  doreal  fins;  the  color  of 
the  back  is  blue,  with  irregular  lines  and  spots 
of  a  blackish  blue  on  the  ndes;  tiie  sTenge 
length  is  15  inches,  and  the  weight  rarelj  ex- 
ceeds 6  lbs.  The  bonito  of  the  New  Eogkod 
fishermen  is  the  pelamy$  tarda  f  Bloch.),  csBed 
also  skip-lack ;  its  genus  differs  from  the  tonoy 
only  in  having  separate,  pointed,  and  strong 
teeth ;  the  color  of  the  head  and  upper  psrts 
is  a  greenish  brown,  the  sides  lighter,  and  the 
belly  silvery  white;  10 or  12  dark-coloredbmds 
pass  obliquely  downward  and  forward  from  the 
back  toward  the  sidee^  sometimes  as  low  as  the 
abdomen ;  the  lateral  line  is  rather  undnlatiog; 
it  is  rarely  more  than  2  feet  long;  it  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean,  and  in  the  temperate  regioiB 
of  the  Atlantic,  from  the  Cape  Yerd  isUcds 
to  the  American  coast ;  it  is  considered  good 
eating  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  P.  dUieMi 
(Cuv.)  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America  is 
also  called  bonito.  This  term*  is  Spanish,  meai- 
inff  '^  pretty,"  and  is  doubtless  applied  to  manf 
other  species  of  fish. 

B0NJOUR,two  brothers  of  this  name,  natires 
of  Pont  d'Ain,  department  of  Ain,  in  fmst, 
and  the  founders  of  a  new  sect  somewhat  simi- 
lar to  the  Flagellants  of  the  18th  centerj, 
flourished  in  the  last  half  of  the  18th  oentniy. 
They  were  educated  for  the  church,  and  the 
elder  held  at  first  a  curacy  in  the  andent  pror* 
ince  of  Foure.  In  1 775,  being  censured  by  his  par* 
ish  and  bishop  for  his  opinions^  he  resigned  this 
curacy,  and  was  appointed  to  that  of  Fareios, 
of  which  his  brother  was  made  vicar.  Bght 
years  afterward,  the  elder  brother  resigned  the 
curacy  to  the  younger,  alleging  himsdf  to  be 
unworthy  of  the  office.  He  soon  «c(jn^"Jj 
reputation  for  working  miracles,  and  attached 
to  himself  a  number  of  followers,  mostly  wo- 
men and  young  girls,  who  called  him  th^ 
petit  papa.  They  held  to  communis  « 
goods,  which  excited  a  very  strong  popow 
sentiment  against  them.  One  of  ^eir  mffit 
prominent  opponents  being  found  dead  in  his 
bed,  by  the  prick  of  a  needle,  the  elder  Bon- 
jour  was  exiled,  and  his  brother  impriBonedffl 
the  convent  of  Touhy,  from  which  he  escaped, 
as  he  alleged,  by  the  intervention  of  an  angel. 
The  revolution  of  1789  encouraged  Bonjonr  w 
return  to  Fareins,  and  in  the  absence  of  the 
curate  and  vicar  he  took  possesMon  of  h« 
church,  and  issued  orders  to  his  followers,  vw> 
rallied  around  him.  He  was,  however,  soon 
dislodged  from  his  occupancy,  and  «»^«|"  "^ 
consulate  exiled  to  Laosanne  with  his  brotber, 


BONN 


BONNER 


480 


wliere  they  both  died  in  extreme  poyerty; 
their  sect  perished  with  thetn. 

BONN  (ano.  Bonna\  a  oitj  of  Rhenish  Profh 
sia,  15  miles  from  Cologne,  well  known  to  the 
literary  world  by  its  university,  and  to  tourists 
by  its  picturesque  situation;  pop.  in  1855, 
18,200.  Bonn  was  fortified  by  the  Romans. 
In  the  first  centuries  after  Ohrist,  it  was  fre- 
quently laid  waste  by  wars.  RebuUt  in  the  4th 
oentury  by  the  emperor  Julian,  it  was  iiyared 
in  subsequent  contests  with  the  Huns^  the 
Franks,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Normans.  In 
1673  it  was  the  theatre  of  the  victory  of  the 
French  over  the  combined  Dutch,  Spanish,  and 
Austrian  forces.  In  1689  the  town  was  bom- 
barded and  captured  by  Frederic  III.  of  Bran- 
denburg. In  1708  it  fell  into  the  power  of 
Holland,  and  was  not  recovered  until  1715. 
By  the  treaty  of  Luneville  it  was  annexed  to 
France  in  1802,  but  was  allotted  to  Prussia  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna  in  1814. — ^The  university 
was  founded  in  1786,  but  suspended  during  the 
French  dominion,  used  as  a  lyceum  in  1802, 
and  received  its  charter  as  |k  universitv  at  Aix 
la  OhapeUe,  Oct  18, 1818.  It  receives  from  the 
government  an  annual  grant  of  100,000  thalers, 
and  in  addition  derives  from  its  own  resources 
an  income  of  about  8,000  thalers.  The  annual 
salary  of  the  professors  absorbs  60,000,  and 
the  support  of  the  scientific  institution  25,000 
thalers.  The  university  buildings  are,  perhaps, 
the  finest  and  most  extensive  in  Europe ;  they 
were  formerly  used  as  a  palace  by  the  elector^ 
princes  of  Cologne,  and  were  presented  by  Fred- 
eric William  III.  to  the  faculty.  They  contain 
the  lecture-rooms,  the  library  of  more  than 
140,000  vols.,  the  cabinet  of  antiquities,  the 
archfloological  collection,  the  cabinet  of  natural 
history,  the  clinical  institutions,  and  a  riding 
academy  in  the  basement  The  university  pos- 
sesses also  a  distinct  building  for  anatomy, 
while  the  zoological  and  minenuogical  galleries, 
the  botanical  gardens,  and  the  new  agricultural 
academy,  are  at  Poppelsdor^  a  mile  distant 
The  observatory  is  hau  way  between  Poppels- 
doif  and  Bonn.  A  Sanscrit  printin^press 
was  establbhed  in  connection  with  the  univer- 
sity: under  the  auspices  and  the  du*ection  of 
A.  W.  von  SchlegeL  Catholic  and  Protestant 
students  have  separate  divinity  schools.  The 
number  of  students,  of  whom  about  i  are  for- 
eigners, was  831  in  1849,  1,026  in  1851,  and 
852  in  the  winter  session  of  1857-58.  The 
number  of  professors  and  teachers  is  about  100. 
Bonn  exhibits  more  refinement  of  tone  than 
many  other  Grerman  universities.  In  the  ceme- 
tery of  Bonn  is  a  monument  of  Niebuhr,  who 
died  here  in  1831;  to  Beethoven,  who  was 
born  here,  a  monument  was  erected  on  the 
Monster  place  in  1845. 

BONNARD,  Jean  Loma,  a  French  mission- 
ary, born  Mardi  1, 1824,  died  in  Tonquin,  April 
80, 1852.  He  reached  Tonquin  in  March,  1850 ; 
learned  the  language  while  rendering  assistance 
to  tho  natives  during  the  ravages  of  the  chol- 
era, bat  had  hardly  begun  to  preach  when  he 


was  arrested,  together  with  his  associates.  At 
his  trial  he  succeed  in  obtaining  the  acquit- 
tal of  2  young  Christians,  but  was  himself 
executed. 

BONNER,  Edmund,  an  English  prelate,  born 
at  Hanley,  in  Worcestershire,  about  the  end  of 
the  15th  century,  died  in  the  Marshalsea  prison, 
Sept  5, 1569.  He  was  the  son  of  a  peasant,  and 
was,  by  what  circumstance  it  is  not  known, 
educated  at  Pembroke  college,  Oxford,  where, 
in  the  year  1525,  he  was  made  a  doctor  of  the 
canon  and  the  civU  law.  Owing  to  his  business 
talents,  he  was  patronized  by  Wolsey,  who  gave 
him  several  clerical  appointments ;  and,  after  the 
fSall  of  that  remarkable  man,  he  obtained  the 
favor  of  Henry  in  a  high  degree,  and  was  sent 
b^^  him  to  Rome,  to  advocate  with  the  pope  his 
divorce  from  the  queen,  and  afterward  person- 
ally to  preset  his  appeal,  and  read  it  aloud  in 
the  presence  of  the  pontiff.  In  performing  these 
duties,  he  conducted  himself  with  so  much  zeal 
and  intemperance  as  to  provoke  the  indignation 
and  even  the  personal  anger  of  the  pope  to  such 
an  extent  that,  as  common  report  goes,  proba- 
bly without  any  foundation,  he  was  threatened 
with  being  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  lead, 
on  which  he  prudently  returned  to  England. 
In  1538  he  was  appointed  bishop  of  Hereford, 
while  he  was  on  an  embassy  to  Paris,  by  a 
commission  which  caused  him  to  receive  the 
title,  as  if  in  derision,  of  tho  king^s  bishop,  as 
he,  in  fact,  by  accepting  it,  acknowledged  that 
he  was  a  prelate  only  during  the  pleasure  of 
the  king,  and  that  his  power  of  consecrating 
priests  should  terminate  whenever  called  on 
by  him  to  resign  it  His  consenting  to  this 
degradation,  as  it  was  considered,  of  his  epis- 
copal dignity,  while  it  secured  to  him  the 
highest  approbation  of  the  king,  gave  great 
scandal  to  the  ultramontane  churchmen.  At 
the  time  of  his  nomination  to  this  see,  he 
was  ambassador  at  Paris ;  and  previous  to  his 
consecration,  was  translated  to  the  more  im- 
portant see  of  London.  He  was  subsequently 
sent  to  Madrid  as  ambassador  to  Charles  V., 
which  high  office  he  was  filling  with  ability 
at  the  time  of  Henry's  death.  The  important 
change  made,  in  that  reign,  by  the  reformation, 
was  transferring  the  papal  power  from  the  pope 
of  Rome  to  the  king  of  En^^nd,  who,  by  the  su- 
premacy act,  intended  to  become,  and  did,  in  ef- 
fect, actually  become,  for  the  term  of  his  own  life, 
the  pope  of  England,  and,  by  virtue  of  his  office, 
burned  Protestants  for  denying  the  real  presence, 
while  he  only  hanged  the  Roman  Catholics  who 
denied  his  supremacy  and  infallibility.  On  the 
accession  of  Edward  YL,  however,  the  matter 
was  altered,  his  uncle,  the  earl  of  Hertford,  who 
procured  himself  to  be  appointed  protector,  and 
created  duke  of  Somerset,  as  well  as  the  marquis 
of  Essex,  brother  to  Henry's  last  wife,  Catharine 
Parr,  being  boUi  ardently  attached  to  the  doc- 
trines of  the  new  learning,  as  it  was  called,  and 
zealous  to  render  it  the  established  religion.  In 
this  they  were  strenuously  aided  by  Cranmer, 
Holgate,  bishop  of  York,  Holbeaoh  of  Lincoln, 


490 


BONNER 


Goodrio  of  Ely,  and^  above  all,  RSdley  of  Bo* 
cheater,  who  proceeded  to  create  visitors,  who 
should  go  over  all  England  with  articles  and 
injanctioQS  prescribing  the  forms  x>f  worship, 
the  articles  of  faith,  and  every  thing  relating  to 
church  discipline,  and,  among  other  things^ 
commanding  the  removal  of  images  from 
churches,  and  absolutely  prohibiting  their  use. 
'^  Bonner  and  Gardiner  showed  some  dislike  of 
these  injunctions,  and  Bonner  received  them 
only  under  protestation  that  he  would  observe 
them,  if  they  were  not  contrary  to  God^s  law 
and  the  ordinances  of  the  church.  Upon  which 
Sir  Antony  Cook,  and  the  other  visitors,  com- 
plained to  the  council.  So  Bonner  was  sent 
for,  where  he  offered  a  submission,  but  full  of 
vain  quiddities — so  it  is  expressed  in  the  council 
book.  But  they  not  accepting  of  that,  he  made 
such  a  full  one  as  they  desirM,  which  is  in  the 
coUectioa.  Yet,  for  giving  terror  to  others,  he 
was  sent  to  lie  for  some  time  in  the  prison  called 
the  Fleet."  Such  is  Burnetts  account  of  his 
first  imbroglio  with  the  council  of  Edward  VI., 
which  has  been  represented  as  if  it  were  incon- 
sistent with  his  strenuous,  and  even  intemperate, 
advocacy  of  the  measures  of  the  late  reign.  It 
was,  however,  clearly  not  so ;  since  the  only 
important  change  Iq  Henry's  church  was  the 
miucing  it  dependent  on  himself,  and  not  on  the 
bishop  of  Rome.  Some  time  after  this,  he  was 
cited  before  a  commission,  appointed  to  examine 
into  certMU  points  of  his  preaching,  especially 
into  his  alleged  denial  of  the  supremacy  of  the 
king,  during  the  sitting  of  which  he  conducted 
himself  with  singular  violence  and  intemperance 
of  language,  in  which,  says  Burnet,  he  called 
the  witnesses  ^*  geese  and  woodcocks,  dunces 
and  fools,  and  behaved  himself  more  like  a  mad- 
man than  a  bishop."  For  this  conduct,  and  fo)r 
the  matter  of  which  he  stood  accused,  whereof 
he  was  found  guilty  as  by  contumacy,  he  waa 
deposed  from  his  sacred  office,  and  committed 
to  the  Marshalsea.  His  conduct  during  his  confine- 
ment was  so  wild  and  furious,  that  it  seems  to 
Justify  a  suspicion  of  his  insanity.  There  is  an 
extraordinary  letter  of  his,  written  to  his  dearly 
beloved  friend,  the  worshipful  Richard  Lech- 
more,  from  the  Marshalsea  prison,  preserved  in 
Burnet's  collection  of  records,  in  which  he  says, 
^^  But  if  amongst  you  I  have  no  puddings" — to 
request  a  supply  of  which  dainties,  and  of  pears, 
is  the  gist  of  the  letter— ^^  then  must  I  say,  as 
Messer,  our  priest  of  the  hospital,  said  to  his  mad 
horse,  ^  Aldicmolo,  al  diavolo^  ai  tutti  diatolV  " 
The  commission  consisted  of  Oranmer,  Ridley, 
the  2  secretaries  of  state,  and  Dr.  May,  dean  of 
St.  Paul's,  and  it  tells  ill  for  Bonner,  that  the  2 
former  suffered  martyrdom  under  his  jurisdic* 
tion,  and  that,  when  called  upon  to  degrade  Oran- 
mer,  he  did  so  with  such  insolence  and  exulta- 
tion, as  to  elicit  the  remonstrances  of  his  col- 
league Thirleby.  He  lay  in  prison,  constantly 
refusing  to  make  submiseion,  until  the  accession 
of  Mary,  1558,  when  he  was  released  from 
durance,  and  reinstated  in  his  bishopric,  by 
special  commission.    On  the  revival  of  the  cere- 


monies and  ritaal  at  tJie  old  ohnrdi,  and  the 
reestablishment  of  the  papal  authority,  he  was 
extremely  active  in  bringing  about  both  meas- 
ures. At  various  times  he  fell  into  such 
fits  of  fury,  and  conducted  himself  with  such 
outrageous  violence,  that  one  might  almost  sup- 
pose that  persecution  had  made  him  mad.  In 
one  instance,  at  a  visitation  at  Hadbam,  having 
arrived  somewhat  une^>ectedly  before  the  bells 
had  begun  to  ring,  and  finding  that  there  was 
no  sacrament  hanging  np,  nw  any  rood  set  up^ 
not  content  with  abusing  the  priest  most  nn- 
clerically,  reaching  ^'atDr.  Bricket-^thatvastbe 
parson's  name,"  says  Burnet — ^^to  beat  him,  he 
misguided  the  stroke,  which  fell  on  Sir  WilUam 
Joflselyn's  ear,  with  great  force.  Fedcnam, 
then  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  in  Dr.  May's  room, 
studied  to  appease  Josselyn,  and  said  to  him, 
that  the  bishop's  being  so  long  in  the  Marshal- 
sea had  so  disordered  him,  that  in  his  paanon  he 
knew  not  what  he  did;  but  when  he  came  to 
himself  he  would  be  sorry  for  what  he  had  done. 
Josselyn  answered,  he  thought,  now  that  he 
was  taken  out  of  the  Marshalsea,  he  should 
be  carried  to  Bedlam."  In  the  perseootions 
which  foUowed,  he  assuredly  took  a  prominent 
and  leading  part,  and  his  metropolitan  diocese 
was  the  scene  of  most  of  the  acts  which 
render  the  memory  of  Mary  so  odious.  It  has 
been  assumed  and  asserted,  that  B<Miner  was 
the  instigator  of  these  acts;  that  he  was  vol- 
untarily, unnecessarily,  and  obtrusively  inso- 
lent and  cruel  in  his  cruel  office ;  that  he  de- 
lighted in  witnessing,  and  some  even  say,  in 
infficting  torture,  whipping  persons  with  his 
own  hand,  and,  in  one  instanee,  burning  a 
wretched  prisoner  with  a  candle,  in  order,  as  he 
is  reported  to  have  sud,  to  give  him  a  taste  of 
what  he  would  come  to.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  for  the 
sake  of  human  nature,  that  these  are  exagger* 
ated  accusations  of  men  maddened  by  oppres- 
sion and  suffering;  and,  whUe  the  general  tone 
and  temper  of  Bonner's  mind  do  not  seem  averse 
to  the  charge,  it  may  be  said  that  the  excessive 
odium  in  which  he  was  held,  in  his  own  time^ 
leads  to  the  belief  that  his  cruelties  would,  at 
least,  lose  nothing  by  report ;  and  it  certainly 
does  appear  in  his  fiivor,  that  he  was  repri* 
manded  by  his  mistress,  and  by  the  Spanish 
tyrant  whom  she  had  married,  because,  as  Bur- 
net admits,  ^^  Bonner  himself  became  averse  to 
the  severities,  and  complained  that  the  matter 
was  turned  over  upon  him,  the  rest  looking  on, 
and  leaving  the  execution  of  these  laws  wholly 
to  him ;"  which  does  not  look  like  the  fiendish 
exultation  in  blood-shedding  which  is  ascribed 
to  him.  On  the  accession  of  Elixabeth,  he  went 
with  the  other  bishops  to  meet  the  queen  at  High- 
gate,  but  she  averted  her  head,  in  unconcealed 
disgust,  at  his  approach,  although  he  continued 
unmolested,  and  even  retained  his  office,  until 
on  refhsing  the  oath  of  supremacy  he  was  de- 
I>osed,  and  shortly  afterward  returned  ta  hui 
old  lodgings  in  the  Marshalsea,  where  he  re- 
mained a  prisoner  until  the  day  of  his  death,  in 
1569.    It  was  alleged  against  him,  "*  that  hehad 


BONNET 


491 


in  many  things,  in  the  proseeution  of  those  that 
were  presented  for  hereejr,  exceeded  what  the 
law  allowed;  so  that  it  was  much  desired  to 
have  him  made  an  example.'*  But  Elizabeth 
firmly  refused  to  agree  to  any  act  which  conld 
either  savor  of  revenge,  or  tend  to  impair  the 
aathority  of  ds  facto  govemmenta  and  princes^ 
by  the  infliction  of  ponishment  on  the  executors 
of  the  laws,  which,  however  barbarous  and  un- 
holy, were  laws  duly  enacted  by  the  houses  of 
]>arliament,  and  sanctioned  by  the  crown.  At 
the  period  of  his  death,  so  bitter  was  the  hatred 
against  him,  on  the  part  of  the  London  popu- 
lace, before  whose  eyes  his  cruelties  had  been 
in  the  main  enacted,  that  it  was  found  neces- 
sary to  bury  him  at  midnight,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  danger  of  a  tummt,  or  of  violence  to 
his  remains. 

BONNET,  in  fortification,  a  transverse 
elevation  of  the  parapet^  or  traverse  and  par- 
v^\  used  either  to  prevent  the  enemy  from 
seeing  the  interior  of  a  work  from  some 
elevated  point,  or,  in  barbette  batteries,  to 
protect  men  and  guns  from  fianking  fire» 
tn  these  latter  batteries,  the  guns  firing  over 
the  crest  of  the  parapet  have  to  be  placed 
on  high  traversing  platforms,  on  whi<ui  the 
ffnn«earriage  rests,  recoils,  and  is  run  forward. 
The  men  are,  therefore,  partly  exposed  to 
the  fire  of  the  enemy  whue  they  serve  the 
gon;  and  fianking  or  ricocheting  fire  is  espe* 
cially  dangerous,  the  object  to  be  hit  being 
nearly  twice  as.  high  as  in  batteries  with  em- 
brasures and  low  gun-carriagea  To  prevent 
this,  traverses  or  cross  parapets  are  placed 
between  the  guns,  and  have  to  be  construct- 
ed BO  much  higher  than  the  parapet,  that  they 
fiilly  cover  the  gunners  while  mounted  on  the 
platform.  This  superstructure  ia  continued 
from  the  traverse  across  the  whole  thickness  of 
the  parapet.  It  confines  the  sweep  of  the  guns 
(o  an  angle  (tf  from  90"*  to  120'',  if  a  gun  has 
a  bonnet  on  either  side. — ^BoNNET-l-PBftrBX,  or 
QuBim  n'HxBONBBUJB  (swallow  tail),  in  field 
fortification,  is  an  intreuchment  having  2  sali- 
ent angles,  and  a  reentering  angle  between 
them.  The  latter  is  always  90°,  the  2  salient 
angles  mostly  60"",  so  that  the  2  outer  faces, 
which  are  longer  than  the  inner  ones,  diverge 
to  the  rear.  This  work  is  sometimes  used  for 
small  bridge  heads,  or  in  other  situations  where 
the  entiBnce  to  a  defile  has  to  be  defended. 

BONNET,  Ohablbs,  a  Swiss  naturalist  and 
philosopher,  born  at  Geneva,  March  18,  1720, 
died  there  June  20,  1798.  His  ancestors 
were  driven  out  of  France  by  the  religious  per- 
secution of  Protestants  in  1572,  and  emigrated 
to  Geneva,  whero  they  held  high  places  in  the 
magistracy.  He  was  destined  to  pursue  the 
same  career,  had  his  inclinations  not  been  drawn 
in  another  and  a  different  direction,  by  reading 
tile  works  of  B^aumur  and  of  Pluche  on  the 
natural  sciences.  The  results  of  his  first  ob- 
swraslooa  and  experiments  were  published  in 
•hb  20th  year,  and  were  deemed  worthy  of  a 
man  of  seienoe.    The  experiments  of  Trembley 


on  the  reproduction  of  obtain  polyps  by  means 
of  incision  and  bisection,  induced  Bonnet  to 
make  similar  experiments  on  other  types  of  or- 
ganization, and  he  found  that  certain  so-called 
worms  could  be  multiplied  by  the  same  process. 
He  also  discovered  that  several  generations  of 
aphides  are  produced  by  a  viviparous  succes- 
sion of  females,  without  males.  He  thoughti 
even,  that  the  aphides  are  always  viviparous, 
and  never  lay  ^gs ;  what  are  commonly  called 
eggs,  produced  in  autumn,  after  the  appearance 
of  both  males  and  females,  being  a  sort  of  co- 
coon, consisting  of  the  young  aphis  enclosed  in 
an  envelope ;  and  other  naturalists,  on  observing 
the  habits  and  characteristics  of  the  aphuq'wr* 
C1M,  agree  with  Bonnet  in  this  view.  He  made 
some  curious  experiments  on  the  respiratory 
organs  of  caterpillars,  and  described  the  struc- 
ture of  the  tape-worm.  These  and  other  im- 
portant studies  of  a  kindred  nature,  were  pub- 
lished in  his  Traits  cTinsectologiey  which  ap- 
peared in  1745.  Nine  years  later,  in  1754,  he 
published  a  second  work  of  some  importance, 
in  which  he  treats  of  vegetable  physiology,  and 
particularly  of  the  functions  <n  the  leaves  of 
plants.  His  studies  on  organized  bodies  (  Con- 
Hdirations  iur  lea  corps  organicSs)  were  pub- 
lished between  the  years  1762  and  1768,  in 
which  he  collects  together  and  compares  all 
the  best-ascertained  &cts  and  opinions  on 
their  ori^  and  modes  of  reproduction. 
He  endeavors  to  refute  the  ideas  of  Bufibn, 
and  the  so-called  epigenesistay  and  to  estab- 
lish an  opinion  of  his  own,  with  regard  to 
the  oririn  and  reproduction  of  organic  forms  of 
life.  Uis  opinions  on  these  secrets  of  nature 
have  been  deemed,  however,  not  less  vague  and 
problematical  than  those  which  he  rejected, 
by  the  failure  of  his  sight  from  excessive  appli- 
cation, he  was,  in  some  measure,  driven  fh>m 
the  field  of  observation,  where  he  had  been 
successful^  to  that  of  speculative  contemplation* 
His  Eaaai  do  paychologi^  published  in  1754^ 
and  his  Enai  analytiquo  dc$  faculUc  do 
rdmo,  1760,  are  nevertheless  remarkable  pro- 
ductions. He  believes  the  soul  to  be  inuna- 
terial  and  immortal,  and,  while  in  the  body, 
to  occupy  the  brain  alone,  influencing  the 
whole  organism  through  the  nervous  system. 
The  same  ideas  are  pursued  still  further  in  his 
Contemplation  de  la  nature^  published  in  1764- 
'66,  wherein  he  endeavors  to  construct  a  chain  of 
nature,  beginning  with  the  lowest  atom  of  or- 
ganic being,  and  gradually  rising  through  suc- 
oassive  types  of  organism,  from  the  vegetable 
to  the  lowest  forms  of  animal,  and  from  these 
again  to  man,  and  so  onto  superior  beings, 
angels  and  archangels,  ad  inftnitium^  ending 
only  in  theDei^,  as  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  all  things.  His  Palingcnids  philoeopkiqtto 
was  published  in  1770.  In  this  work  he  puts 
forth  the  idea  that  the  souls  of  animals  are  im« 
mortal,  as  well  as  those  of  men ;  but  that  they 
undergo  some  transformation  at  the  handb  oi 
the  Creator,  which  causes  them  to  rise  progres- 
sively in  tiie  scale  of  being.    In  1778  he  pub- 


492 


BONNEVAL 


BONOMI 


lishecl  a  work  on  religion,  entitled  Secherehsi 
philosophiqti€8  9ur  lespreueeidu  Ghristianume, 
in  which  he  defends  revelation  against  those 
who  impugn  its  veracity  and  anthenddty.  The 
complete  works  of  Bonnet  were  pnhlished 
in  8  vols.  4to,  at  Neufoh&tel,  in  1779-1788; 
and  again,  with  illostrations,  in  18  vols.  12mo, 
in  1788. 

BONNEVAL,  Clauds  Albzandbb,  oomte 
de,  an  adventurons  French  officer  of  noble 
descent^  born  at  Ooossao  (Limoasin),  July 
14,  1675,  died  in  Constantinople,  March  27, 
1747.  He  bought  a  commission  in  the 
French  guards,  1701,  became  a  colonel  of 
infantry,  and  served  with  Venddrae ;  quarrelled 
with  the  accounting  officers  and  the  minister  of 
war ;  and  in  1705  and  1706  travelled  in  Italy, 
and  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor  of  Aus- 
tria as  a  m^jor-general.  In  the  attack  on  Turin, 
he  saved  the  life  of  his  own  elder  brother,  who 
had  been  made  a  prisoner.  He  accompanied 
Prince  Eugene  in  his  campaigns  in  Flanders, 
and  fought  2  strange  duels  during  the  negotia- 
tions at  Utrecht,  one  with  a  Frenchman,  for 
saying  that  Louis  XIY.  aspired  to  universal 
monarchy,  and  the  other  with  a  Prussian  for  say- 
ing the  contrary.  Having  gone  to  Paris  in  1717 
to  sue  out  his  pardon  before  the  parliament,  his 
mother  married  him  to  Mile,  de  Biron,  whom 
he  left  10  days  after  the  ceremony,  and  never 
saw  again.  He  returned  to  Eugene^s  army, 
and  obtained  an  important  command  in  Sardi- 
nia and  Sicily  in  1719,  but  got  into  difficulty, 
was  sent  to  his  regiment  at  Brussels,  fought 
several  duels,  and  fled  into  Holland,  where 
he  was  imprisoned  in  the  citadel  of  Ant- 
werp. Thence  he  went  to  Vienna,  where 
he  was  stripped  of  his  rank  and  exiled.  He 
went  subsequently  to  Venice,  to  Bosnia,  and 
finally  turned  Turk,  in  1724.  Subsequently, 
acquiring  fame  under  the  name  of  Achmet 
Pasha,  he  attempted  to  organize  the  Turkish 
army  after  the  European  system,  fought  with 
distinction  against  Russia  and  Persia,  and  final- 
ly was  appointed  by  the  government  to  impor- 
tant offices.  But  his  rapid  advancement  excited 
much  jealousy,  and  the  sultan  sent  him  into 
exile;  when  the  pope  offered  him  a  refuge 
at  Rome,  and  the  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies  a 
pension.  A  galley  was  sent  for  him,  but  he 
died  before  he  could  escape.  Many  memoirs 
were  written  of  his  life ;  those  published  by  the 
prince  de  Ligne,  in  1817,  are  considered  the 
most  authentic. 

BONNEVILLE,  BknjamtoL.  E.,  a  colonel  in 
the  United  States  armv,  bom  in  France,  a  cadet 
at  West  Point  in  April,  1818,  a  brevet  2d  lieu- 
tenant of  light  artillery,  Deo.  11,  1815,  was 
transferred  with  the  same  rank  to  the  8th  infant- 
ry, March  12,  1819.  Oct.  4,  1825,  he  became  a 
captain,  but  was  dropped  from  the  roUs^  May 
SI,  1884,  having,  while  on  furlough,  gone  on  an 
expedition  in  the  prairies,  and  not  been  heard 
from  for  a  longer  time  than  the  regulations  al- 
lowed. Having  returned,  however,  he  was 
made  a  major   by   brevet^  July   15,   1845; 


brevet  lient.^)olonel,  Aug.  80,  1847,  for  gal- 
lant conduct  at  Ohurubusco  and  at  Oontreras, 
in  Mexico;  and  lieut-colonel  of  the  7th 
infantry.  May  7, 1849.  He  is  the  author  of  a 
*'  Journal  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains," from  the  materials  of  which  Washing- 
ton Irving  has  written  a  most  interesting  book 
of  ivestern  lifis 

BONNIVARD,  FRAKgois  db,  a  Genevan 
chronicler  and  politician,  bom  1497,  died  about 
1 571 .  An  incorruptible  opponent  of  the  schemes 
of  the  duke  of  Savoy  for  conquering  Geneva, 
he  was,  in  1580,  arrested  by  the  agents  of 
Savoy,  and  imprisoned  in  the  dungeons  of  the 
castle  of  Chillon.  This  event  is  the  subject  of 
Lord  Byron^s  poem,  entitled  the  ^^  Prisoner  of 
Chillon."  He  was  restored  to  liberty  6  years 
later,  Geneva  having  become  free  and  reform- 
ed. He  was  employed  from  1546  to  1562  in 
writing  the  chronicles  of  Geneva,  from  the 
time  of  the  Romans  to  1580.  He  was  versed 
in  Latin  literature,  in  theology,  and  history,  and 
left  several  works,  which  have  remained  in 
manuscript.    

BONNY  RIVER,  one  of  the  arms  of  the 
Niger,  enters  tiie  bight  of  Biafra  at  its  d^ta 
between  the  Old  and  New  Oalabar  rivers. 
Near  its  mouth  is  Bonnytown,  which  was  a 
place  of  great  resort  for  slavers  some  years  ago, 
and  it  is  estimated  that  at  one  time  as  many  as 
20,000  slaves  were  annnally  sold  there*  Of 
late  the  traffic  has  greatly  decreased,  but  it  is 
supposed  that  2,000  slaves  are  still  exported 
from  Bonny  river  every  year.  The  British 
procure  here  large  quantities  of  palm  oil,  and 
the  trade  in  this  conmiodity  has  increased  in 
proportion  to  the  diminution  of  the  slave  trade. 
The  country  around  Bonny  river  is  low,  flat^ 
swampy,  and  very  unhealthy. 

BONNYOASTLE,  John,  an  English  madie- 
matician,  died  at  Woolwich,  May  15, 1821.  He 
was  for  more  than  40  years  one  of  the  mathe- 
matical masters  at  Woolwich,  and  published 
*  introductions  to  arithmetic,  algebra,  astronomy, 
geometry,  and  trigonometry,  an  edition  of 
Euclid's  ^'Elemente,"  and  a  general  history 
of  mathematics  from  the  French  of  Boesat — 
Chablbb,  son  of  the  preceding,  first  professor 
of  natural  philosophy  in  the  university  of  Vir- 
ginia, bom  at  Woolwich,  in  England,  died  at 
Charlottesville,  Va.,  in  Oct.  1840.  Hetravelled 
with  Lord  Pomfret,  assisted  his  father  in  pre- 
paring mathematical  text-books,  wrote  various 
articles  for  cyclopaedias,  and  when  the  univer- 
sity of  Virginia  was  founded  was  selected  to 
occupy  in  it  the  chair  of  natural  philoaophy. 
He  arrived  in  this  country  in  1895,  was  trana- 
ferred  to  the  professorship  of  mathematics  in 
1827,  and  was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  '*  In- 
ductive Geometry"  and  of  several  memoin  on 
sdentific  subjects. 

BONOMI,  GnrsBPPB,  an  Italian  architect, 
born  at  Rome  in  1789,  died  in  England,  March 
9,  1808.  He  went  to  England  in  1767,  and, 
with  the  exception  of  1  year  in  Italy,  passed  the 
rest  of  his  life  there.    He  was  deoted  an  aaso- 


BONONOINI 


BONTHAIN 


493 


date  of  the  royal  academy,  but,  notwithstand- 
ing the  exertions  of  Sir  Joshoa  Reynolds,  conld 
not  sncceed  in  becoming  an  academician.  The 
mansion  at  Boseneatli,  in  Dumbartonshire,  for 
the  dake  of  Argyle,  is  his  masterpiece. 

BONONOINI,  or  Buononoini,  Giovanni 
Battista,  an  Italian  composer,  bom  at  Modena 
in  1672,  died  about  1750.  His  proficiency 
on  the  violoncello  gained  him  admittance  into 
the  band  of  the  emperor  Leopold  at  Vienna, 
where,  at  the  age  of  18,  in  emulation  of  Scar- 
latti^ he  wrote  an  opera  called  GimiiUa^  which 
was  favorably  received.  In  England,  for  seve- 
ral years,  scarcely  any  opera  was  tolerated 
which  did  not  contain  some  of   Bononcini's 

nand  upon  the  almost  simultaneous  arrival 
imself  and  Handel  in  London,  notwith- 
standing the  superiority  of  the  latter,  2  parties, 
the  one  for  Bononcini  and  the  other  for  Han- 
del, were  formed,  between  whom  an  exciting 
contest  was  waged  for  several  years.  Gradual- 
ly, however,  Bononcini's  popularity  waned, 
and  having  been  detected  in  an  act  of  musical 
plagiarism,  he  left  England  in  1788,  found  his 
way  to  Paris  and  Vienna,  and  finally  went  to 
Venice,  where  all  traces  of  him  are  lost 

BONPLAND,  Amt,  a  French  traveller  and 
nataialist,  bom  at  La  Boohelle,  Aug.  22, 1778. 
His  father  was  a  physician,  and  the  son  studied 
the  same  profession,  but  before  he  had  com- 
pleted his  studies  he  was  called  by  the  revolu- 
ticMiary  authorities  into  the  naval  service,  and 
acted  as  surgeon  on  a  man-of-war.  When 
peace  was  restored  he  went  to  Paris,  and  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Oorvisart,  and  a  mend  of 
Alexander  von  Humboldt,  who  was  his  fellow- 
student,  to  whom  he  taught  botany  and  anato- 
my, receiving  in  return  instructions  in  physics 
and  mineralo^.  Bonpland  was  the  companion 
of  Humboldt  in  the  long  and  famous  scientific 
joamey  described  in  Humboldt's  **  Voyage  to 
the  Equinoctial  Regions  of  the  New  World." 
On  his  return,  after  an  absence  of  5  years, 
Bonpland  presented  his  collections  to  the 
government  and  the  emperor  granted  him 
a  penaion.  Having  presented  to  the  em- 
press Josephine  a  collection  of  flower  seeds 
from  the  West  Indies,  they  were  planted  at 
Malnuason,  and  as  IBonpland  went  thither 
weekly  to  attend  to  them,  the  empress  became 
acquainted  with  him,  and  conferred  on  him  the 
place  of  intendant  of  Malmaison,  which  then 
was  vacant  Made  more  comfortable  in  his 
cironmatancea,  he  devoted  himself  to  the  publi- 
cation of  his  travels^  and  became  intimate  with 
Gay-Lussao,  Arago,  and  the  leading  scientific 
men  of  his  day.  When  Napoleon  was  de- 
throned, Bonpland  advised  him  to  retire  to 
Mexico,  and  there  watch  the  course  of  events. 
He  was  at  the  bedside  of  Josephine  when  she 
died.  He  then  returned  to  America,  sailing 
from  Havre  in  1816  for  Buenos  Ayres,  where 
he  was  for  a  time  warmly  welcomed.  Soon, 
however,  the  new  government  became  jealous 
of  him,  and  he  again  set  out  on  his  travels,  in- 
tending to  cross  the  pampas,  the  province  of 


Santa  F^  Ohaoo,  and  Bolivia.  On  this  expedi- 
tion he  visited  the  old  missions  of  the  Jesuits 
in  Paraguay,  where  he  was  arrested  by  the 
agents  of  the  dictator  Francia  in  1821,  who  de- 
tained him  in  the  country,  forbidding  him  to 
visit  Assumption,  and  forcing  him  to  support 
himself  by  the  practice  of  medicine  in  an  In- 
dian village.  In  this  condition  he  refliained  for 
10  years,  until  Feb.  2,  1881,  when  he  returned 
to  Buenos  Ayres.  He  afterward  married  an 
Indian  woman,  and  retired  to  a  plantation  near 
Borja,  in  Uruguay.  Bonpland  has  written  volu- 
minously and  delightfully  on  the  natural  history 
of  the  Antilles  and  South  America.  One  of  the 
most  beautiful  works  ever  printed  is  his  Nova 
Genera  et  Species  Flantarum,  12  vols,  folio,  with 
700  colored  plates  (Paris,  1815-1829).' 

BONSTETT£N,  Chablbs  Victor  de,  a  Swiss 
author,  bom  at  Bern,  Sept  8,  1746,  died  in 
Geneva,  Feb.  8,  1882.  Previous  to  the  revolu- 
tion he  held  various  public  offices,  and  was  cele- 
brated for  hospitality  to  literary  meu.  Subse- 
quently he  resided  in  Italy,  and  for  several 
years  at  Oopenhagen  with  his  fnend  Frederica 
Brun.  The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  mostly 
spent  in  Geneva.  He  was  personally  acquaint* 
ed  with  Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  whose  writings 
and  conversation  had  a  powerful  effect  in 
stimulating  Bonstetten's  enthusiasm  for  social 
questions.  Some  of  his  writings  are  in  the 
German,  and  others  in  the  French  knguage. 
His  principal  works  are  Becherehes  sur  la  nature 
et  let  hie  de  Vimagination  (Geneva,  1807),  and 
Etudee  de  VJumme  (Geneva,  1821). 

BONTEKOE,  Willkm  Isbrand,  a  Dutch  nav- 
igator, noted  for  his  miraculous  escape  from  a 
fire  which  destroyed  the  Nieie  Eoarn^  a  vessel 
under  his  command,  bound,  in  1618,  from  Hol- 
land to  the  East  Indies.  While  striving  to  ex- 
tinguish the  fire,  which  broke  out  on  Sie  ves- 
sel's arrival  at  Batavia,  66  of  his  crew  deserted 
hun.  the  other  184  perished,  and  the  captain 
seizing  a  spar  which  was  floating  in  the  water, 
reached  the  long-boat,  upon  which  tiie  desert- 
ing crew  had  made  their  escape.  They  arrived 
at  Sumatra  in  14  days,  were  driven  off  by  the 
natives,  put  to  sea  again,  and  finally  returned 
in  safety  to  Batavia.  The  captain,  who  subse- 
quently took  a  part  in  the  war  in  China,  under 
Uomelis,  in  1681,  wrote  an  account  of  his  ad- 
venturous voyage,  which  was  published  at  Am- 
Bterdam. 

BONTHAIN,  a  state  of  the  Macassar  nation, 
in  the  S.  W.  peninsula  of  Celebes;  separated  on 
the  N.  by  Mt.  Lampoo-Batang  from  Boni, 
bounded  E.  by  Boolekumba,  W.  by  Tooratea, 
and  S.  by  the  Java  sea.  ThetownofBonthain,in 
lat.  S''  82'  S.,  long.  121^  52'  E.,  is  the  residence  of 
a  Dutch  genaghMer^  or  superintendent  This 
territory,  along  with  that  of  Boolekumba,  was 
wrested  fh>m  the  Macassar  nation,  after  a  spirit- 
ed resistance,  in  1824-'25.  The  country  is  very 
mountainous.  On  the  table  lands  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Lampoo-Batang,  and  at  elevations  of 
8,000  and  4,000  feet,  there  is  a  cool,  invigorat- 
ing, temperate  dimate ;  and  in  the  soil  of  this  re- 


494 


BONVIOINO 


BOODROOH 


gion  tbe  conimon  potato,  tamipa,  cabbages,  and 
other  prodacts  of  oar  kitchen  gardens,  have 
been  cultivated  in  oerfection.  The  town  of 
Bonthain  is  oonnectea  with  the  free  port  of  Ma* 
cassar  by  an  excellent  post  road  50  miles  long. 

BON  VIOINO,  A1.ES8AKDB0,  called  II  Mobbt- 
TO,  an  Italian  painter,  bom  at  Brescia  about 
the  comnfonoement  of  the  16  th  century,  died  in 
1564.  He  studied  with  Titian  at  Venice,  and 
was  among  the  first  to  introduce  the  style  of 
that  master  into  Brescia.  He  caught  witii 
great  success  the  colorinff  and  expression  of 
Titian's  works,  particularly  in  his  portraits. 
Subsequently  he  adopted  an  entirely  new  style, 
very  much  after  the  manner  of  Raphael,  which 
IB  so  rich  and  attractive  that,  according  to 
Lanzi,  many  dilettanti  have  gone  out  of  their 
way  to  visit  Brescia  and  see  his  pictures. 
While  in  brilliancy  and  freshness  of  coloring,  in 
the  arrangement  of  his  draperies  and  other  ac- 
cessories, he  shows  the  influences  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  his  noble  and  expressive  figures 
have  much  of  the  fire  and  grace  which  may  be 
seen  in  Raphael. 

BONZES  (from  the  Japanese,  term  for  the 
pious),  generally  applied  to  the  priests  of  Fo  or 
Buddha,  in  China,  Japan,  Cochin  China,  Burmah, 
&c.,  without  r^ard  to  the  sectarian  distinctions 
existing  among  them.  Though  differing  in  many 
minor  points  of  doctrine,  they  may  l^  said  to 
teach  one  fundamental  creed.  The  various  sects 
hate  each  other  cordially,  but  have  many  cus- 
toms in  conunon.  They  profess  celibacy,  practise 
austerities  of  various  kinds,  and  dwell  together 
in  monasteries.  They  shave  the  head  and 
beard,  never  cover  the  former,  even  in  the  se- 
verest weather,  preserve  a  profound  silence  in 
public,  and  are  supposed  to  lead  a  life  of  con- 
tinual prayer  and  contemplation.  They  fre- 
quently have  idols  of  hideous  form,  which  they 
honor  with  many  superstitious  rites.  To  in- 
struct or  improve  the  masses  forms  no  part  of 
their  occupation,  and  would,  doubtless,  be  be- 
yond their  ability.  Their  avarice  is  equal  to 
their  ignorance.  No  opportunity  for  extorting 
money  from  the  people  by  the  i^e  of  charms, 
trifles  of  various  sorts^  and  paper  robes,  which 
are  worn  by  the  dying,  and  supposed  to  secure 
admission  to  paradise,  is  ever  neglected.  They 
sell  even  their  prayers,  and  their  sermons  usu- 
ally dose  with  an  earnest  exhortation  to  the 
multitude  to  make  their  peace  with  God  by  be- 
ing liberal  to  his  ministers.  The  religion  of  Fo 
does  not  admit  priestesses,  but  there  are  female 
devotees  called  biamU  or  horusies,  who  live  in 
communities  under  a  superior  of  Uieir  own  sex, 
and  profess  the  same  virtues  and  way  of  life  as 
the  priests.  The  education  of  females  is  often  in- 
trusted to  them.  There  are  some  monasteries 
in  which  the  devotees  of  both  sexes  reside,  and 
temples  in  which  they  chant  their  prayers  to- 
gether, the  men  on  one  side,  the'  women  on  the 
other. 

BOOBT,  the  English  name  for  a  genus  of 
peleeanidcB;dyspartisoflVi\^T,  fn<?rt«of  Vieillot, 
les/ous  of  the  French ;  separated  from  the  true 


pelicans  by  Brisson,  under  the  name  d  wltk 
The  term  booby  is  applied  by  navigators  to  that 
roecies  {mla  fiiMca  of  Brisson)  which  inhabits 
the  desoUte  islands  and  coasts  of  warm  cli* 
mates  in  almost  every  part  of  the  globe.  All 
the  old  voyagers  have  left  account^  perfectly 
consentaneous^  concerning  the  stupidity  of  Uiese 
birds.  Bligh,  Dampier,  De  Gennea,  tiie  vi- 
comte  de  Querhoent,  and  many  others,  testify 
to  the  passive  immobUity  with  which  they 
sit  in  rows,  2  and  2,  along  the  shores,  and  suf- 
fer themselves  to  be  beaten  to  death  with  dobs^ 
attempting  only  a  weak  defence  by  pecking  at 
their  aggressors,  and  never  making  so  much  as 
an  effort  to  take  wing.  Dampier  says  that  in 
the  Alaerane  islands,  on  the  coast  of  Yacatan, 
the  crowds  of  these  birds  were  so  great  that  he 
could  not  pass  their  haunts  without  b^ng  in- 
convenienced by  their  pecking.  He  also  states 
that  he  succeeded  in  making  some  fly  away  by 
the  blows  which  he  bestowed  on  them;  bnt 
the  greater  part  remained,  in  spite  of  all  his  ef- 
forts to  compel  them  to  take  flight  The  boobies 
seldom  swim  and  never  dive,  but  take  the 
fish,  which  is  their  prey,  by  darting  down  from 
on  high,  with  unerring  aim,  npon  such  kinds  as 
swim  near  the  sur&oe,  and  hkstantly  rising  again 
into  the  air  with  thdr  booty.  In  the  perflwm- 
ance  of  this  exploit  they  are  cnielly  haiaased 
and  persecuted  by  the  frigates,  or  man-of-war 
birds  (albatrosses),  which  give  chaae  to  them 
the  instant  they  see  them  rising  laden  with 
their  prey,  and  force  them  to  disgorge  it,  when 
they  themselves  appropriate  the  meal,  deterred 
by  no  delicacy  of  appetite.  This  story  has  been 
denied,  but  the  weight  of  evidence  confirms  it; 
and,  recognizing  the  sunilar  habit  of  the  white- 
headed  eagle  toward  the  osprey,  of  the  great 
arctic  gull  toward  the  filing  terns,  and  of 
other  predatory  birds  toward  their  more  indus- 
trious and  peaceful  congeners,  there  is  no  cause 
for  doubting  its  truth.  They  walk  with  extreme 
difficulty,  and  while  at  rest  on  land  stand  near- 
ly erect,  propped,  like  the  pengains,  on  the 
stiff  feathers  of  the  talL  It  is  suggested  by 
naturalists  that  the  absence  of  the  common  in- 
stinct of  self-preservation  in  this  bird  is  to  be 
attributed  not  to  stupidity,  but  to  inability  to 
get  away,  tbe  extreme  length  of  its  wings  and 
eomparative  shortness  of  its  legs  rendering  it 
difficult  for  the  bird  to  rise  at  all  off  a  level  sur- 
fEuse,  and  almost  impossible  to  do  so  in  a  hnrrv. 
They  ordinarily  lay  their  eggs,  each  female 
bird  2  or  8  in  number,  in  rude  nests  on  ledges 
of  rock  covered  with  herbage;  but  Dampier 
states  that,  in  the  isle  of  Aves,  they  bnild  nests 
in  trees,  though  they  have  been  always  ob- 
served in  other  places  to  nest  on  the  ground, 
which  is  a  circumstance  very  unusual  in  birds, 
since,  above  all  other  particulars,  they  are  in- 
variable in  their  manner  of  nidification. 

BOODROOM,  BounnouM,  Baudruk,  or  Bo- 
DSUK  (probably  the  ancient  jS^a^ieanutaMtt),  a 
seaport  town  of  Asia  Mmor,  on  the  N.  shore  of 
the  gulf  of  Cos;  pop.  about  11,000,  consisting 
chiefly  of  Greeks  and  Turks.    It  has  a  small  bat 


BOOK 


495 


good  barbor,  frequented  by  Turkish  craisers, 
and  its  inhabitants  are  partially  engaged  in 
building  ships  of  war.  The  streets  are  narrow 
and  dirty  ;  the  houses,  of  stone,  generally  have 
gardens  attached.  A  castle  bnilt  by  the 
knights  of  Rhodes,  a  govemor^s  residence,  and 
some  mosqnes,  are  among  the  principal  edifices. 
There  Is  also  a  rained  amphitheatre,  and  other 
remains  of  antiquity. 

BOOK,  bv  the  law  of  England,  is  '^constnxed 
to  mean  and  indade  every  volume,  part  or  di- 
Tision  of  a  volume,  pamphlet,  sheet  of  letter- 
press, sheet  of  music,  map,  chart,  or  plan  sep- 
arately published;"  a  definition  sustained  by 
etymology,  but  more  comprehensive  than  the 
ordinary  acceptation,  which  includes,  primarily, 
only  a  printed  literary  composition,  but  permits 
a  secondary  application,  as  in  case  of  books  of 
account,  to  a  bound  volume  of  blank  printing 
or  writing  matetiaL  -The  word  is  derived,  not 
from  the  form,  but  from  the  material,  Infe  being 
the  Saxon  equivalent  of  lU>er^  the  inner  rind  of 
a  tree,  which  was  once  employed  for  writing 
upon.  It  has,  however,  received  an  application 
anterior  to  its  own  origin,  and  is  used  with 
reference  to  written  tablets  of  stone  and  metal 
which  preceded  the  introduction  of  more  flexi- 
ble material.  In  its  widest  sense,  it  dates  from 
the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  ten  com- 
mandments were  written  on  slabs  of  stone; 
the  Babyk>ntans  and  Egyptians  traced  inscrip- 
tions on  bricks  and  rocks ;  sheets  of  wood,  ivory, 
and  various  metals,  and,  subsequently,  a  great 
yariety  of  pliable  substances,  animal  and  vege- 
table, crude  and  prepared,  have  been  used  for 
the  purpose.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
books  of  wood  were  common;  part  of  one 
which  had  contained  the  laws  of  Solon  was 
preserved  at  Athens  until  the  Ist  century.  For 
the  more  important  purposes,  the  laws  and 
edicts^  tllfey  also  employed  ivory,  bronze,  and 
other  metals,  and  for  the  common  needs  of 
business,  such  as  the  recording  of  contracts  and 
the  making  of  wills,  for  the  courtesies  of  social 
life,  the  letters  of  love  or  friendship,  they  had 
the  diptyeha  and  tabtdof^  or  pugiUaria^  sheets 
covered  with  wax,  to  be  written  upon  with  a 
ftilus^  and  protected  from  contact  by  a  raised 
margin,  or  opposite  projections  in  the  centres. 
Two  of  these  tablets,  of  the  date  of  169,  were 
discovered,  not  many  years  since,  in  Transyl- 
vania, and  one  of  the  year  1301  is  preserved  in 
the  Florentine  museum.  Many  specimens  of 
ancient  books  still  exist,  which  prove,  without 
historical  evidence,  how  various  are  the  mate- 
rials which  sujQSce  for  the  wants  of  man  in  an 
nnlettered  age.  The  antiquary  Montfaucon, 
in  1699,  purchased  at  Rome  a  leaden  book  of  6 
thin  leaves  about  4  inches  long  by  3  wide,  with 
covers  and  hinges  of  the  same  metal.  The  vol- 
nme  contained  Egyptian  gnostic  figures  and 
other  unintelligible  writing.  In  the  university 
of  Gdttingen  is  a  Bible  of  palm  leaves,  contain- 
ing 6.376  leaves,  and  other  similar  books  are 
elsewhere  preserved.  Among  the  Oalmuck  Tar- 
tars was  found  a  cdlection  of  books  that  were 


long  and  narrow,  the  leaves  very  thick  and 
made  of  bark  covered  with  varnish,  the  ink 
being  white  on  a  black  ground.  M.  Santander 
possessed  a  beautiful  Hebrew  Pentateuch,  writ- 
ten on  57  skins  of  oriental  leather,  sewed  to- 
gether with  threads  or  strips  of  the  same 
material :  it  formed  a  roll  of  113  French  feet  in 
length.  The  shape  of  wooden  and  metal  books 
was  square,  but,  when  more  convenient  mate- 
rial, such  as  parchment  and  papyrus,  was  intro- 
duced^ the  cylindrical  form  was  adopted.  The 
-sheets,  fastened  together  at  the  edges,  were  at- 
tached to  a  cylindruB  or  staff,  round  which 
they  were  rolled;  whence  volume,  from  fioho^ 
to  roll.  At  each  end  of  the  eylindrua  was  the 
nmbilieus  or  eamuty  a  boss  by  which  it  could 
be  turned,  and  the  volume  was  read  by  unroll- 
ing the  scroll  so  as  to  expose  successively  its 
several  sheets  or  pctginm.  The  title  was  writ- 
ten generally  in  red,  on  fine  vellum,  and  pasted 
on  the  outside,  which  was  dyed  with  cedrm  or 
saffron.  Mucn  labor  and  expense  was  often 
involved  in  the  ornamentation  of  books,  and 
pleasant  conceits  were  sometimes  conveyed  by 
their  color.  The  practice  of  perfuming  the 
pages  to  which  Martial  alludes. 

When  the  page  of  cedar  smelb, 
And  with  royal  purple  sweU^ 

was  not  abandoned  until  within  a  quite  recent 
period.  Lord  Treasurer  Burleigh,  instructing 
the  vice-chancellor  of  Oambridge  concerning 
the  proper  presentation  of  some  volumes  to 
Elizabeth,  cautions  him  to  ^^  regard  that  the 
book  had  no  savor  of  spike,  which  commonly 
bookbinders  did  seek  to  add  to  make  their 
books  savor  well."  Scrolls  were  superseded 
by  codices^  or  square  books,  the  advantages  of 
which  are  alluded  to  by  Martial,  in  whose 
time  they  seem  to  have  been  getting  into  gen- 
eral use.  Modifications  in  form  accompanied 
the  various  changes  made  in  material,  until  the 
shape  and  general  proportions  which  now  ob- 
tain were  adopted,  thou^  important  differ- 
ences in  bulk,  arising  as  well  from  the  condition 
of  art  as  the  fashion  of  the  times,  distinguish 
books  made  up  till  a  not  very  remote  period 
from  those  of  the  present  day.  The  slow  and 
laborious  method  of  transcribing,  which,  until 
the  invention  of  printing,  was  the  only  mode 
by  which  literary  compositions  could  be  mul- 
tiplied, secured  to  the  body  a  practical  rev- 
erence in  which  the  spirit  it  contained  did  not 
alwavs  participate.  The  value  of  books,  de- 
pending not  only  upon  beauty  of  chirography, 
accuracy  of  transcription,  and  elaborateness  of 
ornamentation,  but  upon  the  favor  in  which 
particular  authors  happened  to  be  held,  seems 
to  have  gone  to  each  extreme ;  instances  of  ex- 
traordinary cheapness  standing  side  by  side 
^th  others  of  almost  incredible  dearness. 
According  to  Boeckh,  in  Athens,  ^'a  small 
book  for  the  purpose  of  recording  a  contract 
(ypafifiandioy),  that  is,  a  small,  commonly  wood* 
en  diptychon,  consisting  of  2  wax  tablets,  waa 
estimated  by  Demosthenes  at  2  chalci  (i  of  an 
oboluB»  less  than  1  cent).     Wooden   tablets 


496 


BOOK 


Scrayi^r),  on  which  acoonntB  were  written,  cost, 
Myinp.  98,  2  (B.  0.  407),  a  drachma  Cabout  18 
cenU)  apiece.  These  must  have  been  pretty 
large  and  well  made.  Two  pieces  of  papyms 
for  copying  an  account  cost,  at  the  same  time, 
2  dr.  4  ob.  (45.6  cts.).  Paper  appears  from  this 
to  have  been  very  dear,  olthougn  written  books 
were  cheap ;  since  the  books  of  Anazagoras, 
even  when  dear,  were  to  be  had  for  a  drachma; 
or  else  the  paper  upon  which  public  acconnts 
were  written  was  uncommonly  good."  It  is 
also  stated  that  Plato,  who  was  not  rich,  bought 
three  books  of  Philolaus  the  Pythagorean,  for 
10,000  denarii  (about  $1,600),  and  it  is  further 
said  that  Aristotle  psid  three  Attic  talents 
(nearly  $3,000)  for  a  few  books  which  had  be- 
longed to  the  philosopher  Spensippus.  But 
these  apparent  contradictions  may  be  easily 
reconcilea  by  a  consideration  of  the  probable 
conditions  that  occasionally  existed ;  the  num- 
ber of  certain  works  reducing  them  to  the  value 
merely  of  the  transcriber's  labor,  or  less,  when 
supply  exceeded  demand,  while  the  rarity  of 
others  gave  a  practical  monopoly  to  their  pos- 
Bcssors.  The  manufacture  of  books,  which, 
under  the  early  emperors,  had  been  constantly 
increasing,  diminished  during  the  growing  trou- 
bles of  the  state,  and  upon  its  fall  was  for  a  long 
time  entirely  extinguished ;  to  revive  a^ain  after 
many  years,  but  under  greatly  altered  circum- 
stances. Leaving  the  liSrarii  and  scribal  whose 
labor  was  compulsory  either  from  the  necessities 
of  power  or  want,  we  come,  after  a  long  interval, 
to  the  monk  scribes,  in  whom  the  important 
conditions  of  skill,  leisure,  love,  and  patience 
were  all  fulfilled.  Learning  had  become  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  a  class,  a  privilege  of 
which  they  were  at  once  proud  and  jealous;  and 
they  surrounded  the  means  of  its  acquisition 
with  a  pomp  and  circumstance  that  precluded 
familiarity  with  the  multitude.  In  the  earliest 
times  books  had  received  the  adorning  aid  of 
ornamental  art;  but  in  the  middle  ages  they 
reached  the  acme,  if  not  of  beauty  and  con- 
venience, at  least  of  cost  The  favored  works 
of  the  time,  principally  of  the  Christian  writers, 
were  laboriously  transcribed  by  patient  penmen, 
in  icriptoria  liberally  maintained  in  the  monas- 
teries, and  specially  devoted  to  that  purpose. 
In  the  process  of  preparation  their  books  received 
the  most  careful  attention  in  regard  to  accuracy, 
elegance,  and  solidity.  In  the  monasteries,  also, 
the  work  was  completed ;  for  the  monks  were 
not  only  transcribers,  illuminators,  and  binders, 
but  the  same  individual  frequently  combined  the 
triple  function  in  his  own  person.  From  the  hands 
of  the  sorib&  whose  solemn  adjuration  at  the 
conclusion  oi  his  task  was  evidence  not  only  of 
his  own  care  but  of  his  desire  that  others  shoidd 
imitate  his  example,  the  book  passed  to  the  illu- 
minator, whose  gorgeous  colors  still  delight  the 
bibliophile,  and  from  him  to  the  binder,  by  whom 
its  ponderous  proportions  were  encased  in  mas- 
sive covers  of  wood  and  leather,  studded  with 
knobs  and  bands,  often  of  gold  and  silver,  and 
closed  with  broad  clasps,  to  unfasten  which, 


letting  the  oovers  swing  open  on  their  stout 
hinges,  was  a  privilege  to  which  not  every  one 
was  permitted  to  aspire.  For,  as  said  Richard 
Be  Bury,  ^^  laymen,  to  whom  it  matters  not 
whether  they  look  at  a  book  turned  wrong  side 
upward  or  spread  before  them  in  Its  natural 
order,  are  altogether  unworthy  of  any  com- 
munion with  books."  Precious  metals  and  the 
less  crude  but  equally  costly  productions  of  art 
contributed  to  swell  their  value,  in  re^MOt  of 
which  they  stood  at  times  on  an  equality  with 
houses  and  lands.  When  publidy  exposed,  Uiey 
were  frequently  secured  by  chains ;  they  were 
protected  by  special  statutes;  were  subjects  of 
grave  negotiation ;  solemnly  bequeathed  by  will, 
and  lent  only  to  the  higher  orders,  who  were 
compelled  to  deposit  ample  pledges  for  their  re- 
turn. Even  so  late  as  1471  Louis  XI.  was  compel- 
led by  the  faculty  of  medicine  at  Paris  to  depoat 
a  valuable  security,  and  give  a  responsible  en- 
dorser, in  order  to  obtain  the  loan  of  the  works 
of  Rhasis,  an  Arabian  physician.  Among  the 
illustrations  of  cost  which  the  industry  of  bibli- 
ographers has  collected,  we  find  that  6t.  Jerome, 
to  procure  the  works  of  Origen,  impoverished 
his  estate ;  that  King  Alfred,  for  one  book,  gave 
eight  hides  of  land ;  that  the  countess  of  A^ou 
paid  for  a  copy  of  the  homilies  of  Bishop 
Euiman,  beside  other  articles  of  barter,  200 
sheep.  Stowe  says  that,  in  1274,  a  Bible  findy 
written  sold  for  50  marks,  about  £84,  at  a  time 
when  wheat  was  ds.  4d.  a  quarter,  and  labor 
Id.  a  day ;  in  1400  a  copy  of  Jean  De  Mehun^s 
"Romance  of  the  Rose^'  was  publicly  sold  at 
Paris  for  40  crowns,  more  than  $150  (a  copy  of 
the  same  work  in  MS.  was  sold  at  auction  in 
London,  1857,  for  £42,  and  another  at  Paris, 
1858,  for  i  of  that  sum).  But,  according  to  a 
document  in  the  monastery  of  6t  Stephen,  at 
Oaen,  the  works  of  Peter  Lombard  were  bought, 
in  1431,  for  7  francs.  It  is  thus  difficult  to 
ascertain  the  prices  of  books  as  determined  by 
the  value  of  material  and  labor  at  remote  periods ; 
for  the  peculiar  instances  which  have  been 
placed  on  record  are  more  likely  to  refer  to  ex- 
ceptional and  accidental  conditions  than  to  the  or- 
dinary and  usual  rates  affixed  by  the  understood 
laws  of  trade. — ^Printing,  which,  like  many  other 
inventions,  owed,  if  not  its  discovery,  at  least 
its  application^  to  the  more  sordid  incJinations, 
and  was  not  originally  intended  to  efiect  any  con- 
siderable results,  except  in  the  fortunes  of  a  few 
individuals,  made  no  immediate  or  violent  inno- 
vation upon  the  then  existing  order  of  things. 
Types  were  made  to  imitate  the  slower  process 
of  writing,  and  the  general  appearance  of  MS. 
volumes  was  carefully  imitated,  so  that  for  some 
time  books  still  continued  inaccessible  to,  even 
had  they  been  coveted  by,  the  people.  But  the 
desire  was  surely,  though  almost  imperc^tibly, 
growing ;  the  gradually  widening  demand  keep- 
ing pace  with  and  encouraging  the  development 
of  mechanic  skill.  Copies  were  multiplied  with 
increasing  rapidity  and  diminishing  cost,  and 
their  sale  becoming  larger,  while  it  reduced  the 
proportionate  expense,  enlarged  the  aggregate 


BOOKBINDING 


4d7 


profits  of  the  maker.  Nerertheleaa,  as  we  Jiave 
observed,  they  were  long  beyond  the  common 
reach.  Their  early  history  discloses  how  much 
importance  was  conferred  by  their  possession, 
and  what  solicitade  was  awakened  for  their 
oare.  We  may  yet  trace  in  the  solemn  injunction 
which  was  then  often  written  on  the  fly  leaf, 
^  Cursed  be  he  who  shall  steal,  or  tear  out  the 
leaves,  or  in  any  way  injure  this  book,"  the 
more  &miliar  school-boy  couplet  of  the  present 
day,  "  Steal  not  this  book,  my  honest  friend," 
&C.  If  the  progress  of  improvement  has  some- 
what lessened  reverence,  it  has  been  only  upon 
better  acquiuntance,  and  fulfils  the  adage. 
Paper  was  made  thinner  and  stronger,  types 
smaller  and  clearer,  and  the  pompous  folios  and 
quartos  save  way,  reluctantly  indeed,  to  octavos 
and  duodecimos,  while  the  art  of  book  manu- 
facture has  constantly  tended  to  that  lowest 
limit  of  expense  and  smallest  magnitude  of  bulk, 
comporting  with  comfort  and  convenience,  as 
well  as  a  proper  regard  for  the  beautiful,  which, 
if  not  yet  attained,  is,  nevertheless,  the  object 
still  pursued.  The  manu&cture  of  a  book  now 
demands  the  assistanoe  of  various  branches  of 
mechanical  skill.  Beside  the  paper-maker,  the 
type-founder,  and  the  printer,  to  whom  it  gives 
a  large  proportion  of  employment,  it  engages, 
exclusively,  the  bookbinder.  Its  material  form 
has,  till  the  present  era  of  cheap  publications, 
always  borne  a  commercial  value  extravagantly 
disproportionate  to  its  matter,  or  that  which  alone 
constitutes  its  real  worth,  and,  were  argument  re- 
quired, a  statement  of  these  proportions  would 
sufficiently  demonstrate  the  reasonableness  of  a 
great  reduction  from  f(M*mer  prices  of  books  in- 
tended for  public  sale.  In  the  ordinary  class  of 
books  sold  in  the  United  States,  in  a  permanent 
form,  of  the  four  principal  interests  represented, 
the  most  important,  intrinsically,  has  the  least 
commercial  value.  Every  purchaser  of  a  book, 
as  a  rule,  pays  more  to  the  paper  maker,  the 
printer,  and  the  binder,  respectively,  than  to 
the  author;  and,  although  peculiar  circum- 
stances may  compensate  him,  t^e  reader  has  no 
redress.  He  is  obliged  to  pay  the  several 
principal  manu^Msturers  more  than  he  is  required 
to  pay  the  real  maker ;  and  so  far  as  he  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  obvious  that  the  privilege  of  deter^ 
mining  for  himself  the  extent  of  material  ex- 
pense, is  not  only  desirable  for  his  own  sake, 
but  also  favorable  to  the  reputation,  if  not  to 
the  gun  of  the  writer. 

BOOKBINDING  is  that  art  by  which  the 
material  parts  of  a  book  are  connected  for  con- 
venience in  use  and  protection  from  iiyury.  It 
involves,  in  addition  to  skWl  in  securing  the 
sheets,  no  little  knowledge  of  decorative  art 
for  from  its  commencement  it  has  gone  beyond 
the  mere  necessities  of  utility,  often  to  heights 
of  notable  extravagance.  In  respect  of  ex- 
pense the  limits  have  never  been  defined,  ostein 
tation  of  display  having  at  times  superseded 
the  binder  proper  by  the  soldsmith  and  lapi- 
dary. The  art  was  probably  first  exercised  in 
fastening  together  sheets  of  wood  or  metal, 
VOL.  III. — 32 


which  were  secured  at  the  back  by  means  of 
hinges ;  afterward,  when  more  pliable  sub- 
stances were  substituted,  the  sheets  were  sewed 
together  at  the  edges  and  fixed  at  one  end  to  a 
scroll  round  which  they  were  rolled.  For  the 
invention  of  a  glue  to  attach  the  edges,  PhaUa- 
rius,  it  is  said,  had  a  statue  erected  in  his  honor. 
The  bookbinder  then,  as  now,  prepared  the 
volume  after  the  sheets  had  been  impressed 
with  their  characters.  He  made  the  staff,  affixed 
the  bosses,  the  bands,  and  the  title,  and  em- 
bellished the  outside  as  his  own  or  his  custom- 
er's taste  might  suggest  Upon  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  square-^ped  book,  up  to  and  be- 
yond the  invention  of  printing,  greater  oppor- 
tunities of  ornamentation  were  obtained  and 
employed.  Jewels  and  precious  metals,  the 
finest  stuffs,  and  the  most  gorgeous  colors^ 
united  to  give  a  material  value,  frequently 
without  any  elegance  of  design  or  chasteness 
of  taste.  Skelton's  description,  though  purely 
fanciful,  will  convey  an  idea  of  what  was  in  his 
time  acceptable  as  the  perfection  of  book  deco- 
ration: 


With  that  of  the  boke  loMnde  w«re  th«  olaspl* 
The  mATf^eat  was  illamvnld  all  with  golden  n 

And  bjse,  enplctarld  with  greesoppes  and  waspls, 
*"lth  batterflyla  and  fr«aihe  pe(   '         " 


It  wolde  hane  made  a  man  hole  that  had  be  irgbt  Bekely, 
To  boholde  how  It  waa  garnraohyd  and  boundei 

Eneoneide  ouer  with  golde  of  tiaeea  fVno ; 
"Hie  claspis  and  bnllyona  were  worth  a  thooaande  noniide ; 

With  balaaats  and  charbnnclea  the  bordexa  did  Bhjne ; 


The  claspis  and  bnllyona  were  worth  a  thooaande  nonnde ; 

With  balassts  and  charbnnclea  the  bordexr  "' 

With  avrum  muHeum  every  other  \jn% 
Was  wry  tin. 

A  much  better  taste  distinguishes  the  book- 
binding of  later  years,  more  attention  being  paid 
to  harmony  and  appropriateness  than  formerly, 
and  gaudy  adornments  almost  entirely  discard- 
ed. The  present  tendency  of  the  art  is  toward 
neatness  in  general  effect,  and,  where  ornament 
is  at  sll  conspicuous,  to  emblematic  truth.  The 
introduction  of  doth  binding  has  had  the  effect 
of  combining  considerable  durability  with  econ- 
omy, and  a  large  proportion  of  books  now 
made  are  bound  m  that  style.  Leather,  moroc- 
co, velvet,  occasionally  ivory  and  mother-of- 
p^l,  and  sometimes  highly  polished  wood,  are 
used  for  the  more  expensive  bindings,  while  with 
books  intended  for  presentation,  much  latitude 
is  allowed  in  respect  of  extrinsio  adornments. 
At  the  crystal  palaoe  exhibition  held  in  New 
York,  1858,  the  first  premium  for  bookbinding 
was  awarded  to  Wm.  Matthews,  for  a  copy  of 
Owen  Jones's  ^^Alhambra,"  the  bookbinder^s 
work  on  which  was  estimated  to  be  worth  $600. 
The  material  and  decoration  of  the  binding  were 
solely  such  as  properly  belongs  to  the  i^  in- 
cluding no  jewels  or  precious  metals,  and  its 
value  consisted  almost  entirely  in  the  manual 
labor  consumed  in  its  production.  As  another, 
but  opposite  instance,  may  be  mentioned  a 
Bible  bound  for  a  gentleman  of  New  York  a 
few  years  since,  in  solid  gold,  at  an  expense  of 
about  $400.— There  are  2  kinds  of  binding,  a 
description  of  which  will  sufSoe  to  give  a  gen- 
eral idea  of  the  mechanical  processes  through 


498 


BOOKBINDING 


which  a  book  goes  after  leaTiim  the  printer,  be- 
fore it  is  completed  for  sale.  The  first  is  oloth 
biading,  the  cheapest,  and  that  in  which  ma- 
chinery is  most  employed ;  the  other  is  known 
by  many  particular  names,  sach  as  calf,  half- 
calf^  morocco,  &c^  all  involving  the  same  gen- 
eral principles,  the  work  on  which  is  nrincipally 
performed  by  hand.  In  the  United  states,  ma- 
chinery is  employed  to  a  far  greater  extent  in 
binderies  than  in  other  countries,  and  its  pub- 
lished resnlts  would  cause  surprise,  if  they  did 
not  excite  doubt.  In  a  bindery  of  New  York, 
one  book  of  nearly  200  pages,  which  has  an 
enormous  circulation,  is  bound  at  the  rate  of 
8,000  per  day,  with  facilities  for  binding  at  least 
10  per  minute,  and  that  without  interfering 
witn  the  ordinary  operations  of  a  large  estab- 
lishment Taking  the  volume  in  which  this 
article  appears  as  an  example,  we  shall  first 
describe  tne  manner  in  which  it  is  bound  in 
cloth.  Books  derive  a  technical  name  descrip- 
tive of  size  from  the  leaves  into  which  each 
printed  sheet  is  folded,  such  as  folio,  quarto,  oc- 
tavo, duodecimo,  dec.  At  the  foot  of  the  first 
page  of  each  sheet  is  a  number  or  letter,  called 
the  signature,  by  which  the  order  is  designated. 
This  volume  is  called  a  royal  8vo,  being  printed 
on  paper  a  size  larger  than  the  ordinary  8vo, 
and  is  printed  on  nearly  50  sheets,  each  con- 
taining 8  leaves  or  16  pages.  These  sheets  go 
to  the  binder  in  quires,  and  are  first  taken  to 
the  sheet  room,  where  the  work  of  folding, 
gathering,  collating,  and  sewing  is  done  by  fe- 
males. The  whole  edition  of  each  sheet  is 
folded  by  one  girl  with  astonishing  rapidity  and 
accuracy.  The  most  expert  will  fold  about  400 
an  hour,  but  the  average  is  perhaps  i  less. 
A  folding  machine  has  been  lately  invented 
which  is  expected,  with  the  aid  of  2  girls,  to  do 
the  work  of  16.  It  has,  Ifbwever,  not  yet  been 
generally  introduced.  After  having  been  fold- 
ed, the  sheets  are  laid  in  piles,  according  to  the 
order  of  the  signatures,  on  the  gathering  table, 
from  which  they  are  taken  one  by  one  by  the 
gatherer  with  the  riffht  hand,  and  then  placed  in 
Uie  left,  until  a  whole  set  is  collected.  This  pro- 
cess, as  well  as  that  of  folding,  is  performed  with 
wonderful  quickness,  the  gathering  of  25,000 
sheets  per  day  being  not  unusual  for  an  active  girl. 
After  this  the  sheets  are  knocked  up  evenly  and 
.pressed  in  a  smashing  machine,  by  which  the  de- 
Jay  of  the  screw  or  hydraulic  press  formerly  em- 
ployed is  avoided.  The  book  is  now  examined 
ny  the  collator,  who  looks  at  each  signature  to 
insure  that  the  volume  is  complete,  each  sheet 
l)eing  in  its  proper  order  without  duplicates  or 
deficiencies.  Beins  found  perfect,  the  book  goes 
to  the  sawing  machine,  preparatory  to  sewing. 
Several  volumes  are  taken  together,  and  in  an 
instant  5  revolving  saws  make  as  many  cuts  in 
the  backs,  of  a  size  sufficient  to  admit  the  bands 
of  twine  to  which  the  sheets  are  sewed.  The 
sewer  has  a  wooden  frame,  which  consists  of  a 
table  with  2  upright  screws  supporting  a  hor- 
izontal and  adjustable  rod,  to  which  3  strong 
bands  fastened  on  the  table  are  attached,  at 


distances  eorreaponffiiig  to  the  8  inner  saw- 
marks.  She  then  places  the  first  sheet  againsl 
the  bands  and  passes  her  needle  from  the  first 
cut  or  kettle  stitch  to  the  inside  of  the  sheet, 
then  out  and  in  at  every  band,  embradng  each 
with  the  thread  until  the  bottom  is  reached, 
then  sews  the  next  sheet  in  the  same  manner 
but  in  an  opposite  direction,  and  so  on  alterna- 
ting until  the  last  End  papers  are  now  pasted 
on  the  book,  which  then  leaves  the  sheet  room, 
where  about  1,000  are  so  prepared  per  day. 
In  the  forwarding  room,  whidi  it  enters  next, 
its  further  progress  is  effected  mainly  by  the 
aid  of  machinery.  It  is  first  prepaid  ibr  the 
cutting  machine,  and,  after  its  foredge  has 
been  cut,  is  glued  and  rounded  by  the  woric- 
man,  then  returns  to  be  cot  on  the  ends,  after 
which  a  piece  of  muslin  is  pasted  over  the 
back,  nearly  as  long  as  the  book,  but  extending 
about  an  inch  over  its  sides  to  give  strength  to 
the  ioints.  A  backing  machine  then  spreads 
the  back  and  forms  a  groove  for  the  boards; 
2  paper  linings  are  now  glued  to  the  back, 
and  the  book  is  ready  for  its  cover,  which  has 
in  the  mean  time  been  prepared  in  another  de- 
partment. The  case  is  simply  and  expeditions- 
iy  made,  and  is  composed  of  millboards  cat  a 
little  larger  than  the  side  of  the  book,  strips 
of  paper  the  exact  length  and  width  g(  tbe 
back,  and  the  cloth  cut  sufllciently  large  to 
turn  over  all.  The  doth  is  glued  and  one 
board  placed  upon  it,  then  the  paper  at  a  short 
distance  to  allow  for  the  joints  then  the  other 
board,  after  which  the  corners  of  the  doth  are 
cut,  the  edges  turned  over,  and  it  is  rubbed 
smoothly  down.  When  dry,  it  is  given  to  the 
stamper,  who  letters  it  in  goldTand  embosses 
the  sides.  The  letters  are  engraved  on  a  metal 
stamp,  and  the  impression  is  made  in  an  em- 
bossing press  heated  by  steam.  Gold  leaf  is 
laid  on  the  cover,  and  the  heated  stamp  causes 
it  to  adhere  where  desired,  the  unnaed  gold  be- 
ing afterward  wiped  oft  with  a  robber.  Tbca 
the  book  is  pasted  on  the  sides,  placed  in  tbe 
cover  and  pressed  till  dry.  This  completes  the 
process  of  case  binding,  which  is  distinffuished 
more  particularly  from  extra  binding  in  haviag 
the  book  forwu*ded  separate  from  itscov^-; 
and  it  may  be  useful  to  learn  that  some  book- 
binders pursue  the  same  plan  with  morocco 
as  with  cloth,  produdng  inferior  work,  not 
readily  detected  by  the  purchaser  until  aft» 
the  volume  has  been  some  time  in  use. — Mo- 
rocco or  other  extra  binding  will  now  be  de- 
scribed. Though  folded  and  gathered  the  same 
as  the  cloth  copy,  greater  care  is  taken  in  press- 
ing, and  it  is  sewed  in  a  difiTerent  manner.  The 
back  is  not  sawed,  but  the  bands^  to  the  num- 
ber of  6  in  this  volume,  have  their  positions 
indicated  by  pencil  marks.  Instead  cf  pass- 
ing the  needle  out  at  the  upper  and  in  ai  the 
lower  side,  merely  drawing  them  to  the  book, 
it  is  passed  out  at  the  lower  and  in  at  the  d{> 
per,  completely  encircling  the  band,  and  form- 
ing a  fiexible  binge  for  the  sheet  This  is  called 
flexible  or  raised  band  sewing,  and  oonstitnfies 


BOOKBINDING 


BOOKKEEPING 


499 


<me  of  the  distingaishing  feattires  of  strong 
binding,  being  not  only  important  but  indis- 
pensable. The  forwarder  now  receives  the 
volame,  pastes  on  and  breaks  up  the  end  pa- 
pers, glaes  the  back,  and  when  drj  rounds  it ; 
after  which  the  backing  boards  are  placed  on 
the  sides  a  short  distance  from  the  back,  and  it 
is  then  screwed  up  in  the  laying  press,  and 
the  back  hammered  very  carefully,  so  as  to 
spread  the  sheets  on  each  side  of  the  backing 
boards,  at  the  same  time  not  wrinkling  the  in- 
side. By,  this  process  grooves  are  formed  for 
the  millboards,  which,  being  cut  of  the  desired 
size,  are  placed  on  the  sides,  and  the  book  is 
sabject^d  to  a  powerful  pressure,  during  which 
the  refuse  glue  is  soaked  off  with  paste,  tlie 
back  is  rubbed  smooth  and  left  to  harden.  It 
is  now  in  shape,  but  with  all  the  leaves  uncut. 
No  new  machine  has  yet  been  made  to  super- 
sede the  old  press  and  plough  for  cutting  a 
book  ^m  boards.'^  The  mifiboards  are  put 
close  in  the  joints  and  even  with  the  head  of 
the  book,  the  front  board  placed  as  much  be- 
low the  head  as  may  be  desired;  the  book  is 
fixed  tightly  in  the  press,  tlie  head  of  the  front 
board  being  on  a  level  with  it,  and  the  head 
is  cut ;  the  same  operation  being  repeated  for 
the  foot  or  tail,  the  boards  being  left  larger  than 
the  book  in  order  to  overlay  and  protect  the 
edges.  The  foredge  is  formed  differently.  A 
cord  is  wound  tightly  round  the  volume  paral- 
lel with  and  close  to  the  back,  which  is  then 
beaten  flat  the  foredge  cut  straight,  and, 
upon  the  release  of  the  book  from  the  cord  by 
which  it  is  bound,  the  back  resumes  its  round, 
and  the  foredge  becomes  grooved.  Hie  edges  are 
now  gilded,  for  which  purpose,  the  books  being 
pressed,  they  are  scraped  smooth,  and  covered 
with  a  preparation  of  red  chalk,  as  a  ground- 
work for  the  size,  a  mixture  of  the  white  of  egg 
and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  1  egg  to  about  i 

{)int  of  water.  The  gold  is  laid  on  the  size,  sl- 
owed to  dry,  and  then  burnished  with  an 
agate  or  bloodstone.  Before  being  covered, 
headbands  of  silk  are  fixed  to  each  end  of  tiie 
back  projecting  a  little  beyond  tJie  sheets,  mak- 
ing the  back  the  same  length  as  the  boards. 
The  boards  are  bevelled  at  the  edges,  by  means 
of  a  machine  which  grinds  them  with  emery 
dust.  The  cover,  pared  thin,  is  now  pasted  on 
and  drawn  tightly  over,  but  is  afterward  taken 
off  for  oonvenienoe  in  turning  in  the  edges.  The 
back,  which  has  no  lining,  is  well  pasted,  the  cover 
drawn  on  ag£dn,  the  bands  well  nipped  up,  and 
great  care  is  taken  to  make  the  leather  adhere 
firmly  to  the  back,  and  to  set  the  boards  closely 
and  well  forward  in  the  joints.  A  book  thus 
sewed  and  covered  possesses  the  primary  essen- 
tials of  strong  binding.  The  ornamenting  or 
finishing  is  much  a  matter  of  taste  within  cer- 
tain limits.  The  process  by  which  decorative 
impressions  are  made  on  the  outside  of  a  book 
is  called  tooling,  and  usually  blind  tooling  when 
plain.  A  beautiful  effect  is  produced  on  mo- 
rocco by  the  latter,  making  those  glossy  black 
indentations  which  so  tastefully  contrast  with 


the  rich  color  of  the  leather.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  tools  or  stamps  are  heated  and  ap- 
plied repeatedly  to  the  morocco,  which  has 
been  made  thoroughly  wet^  End  papers  be- 
ing neatly  pasted  to  the  boards,  the  book  is 
finished.  The  foregoing  will  serve  to  point  out 
the  several  processes  through  which  the  sheets 
pass  before  the  book  is  completed,  as  well  as  to 
exhibit  the  distinguishing  characteristics  of  the 
2  principal  styles  of  binding.  The  hollow  or 
spring  back,  which  is  in  much  favor,  and  adapt- 
ed in  a  superior  degree  to  books  in  calf,  is  yet 
subject  to  rupture,  and  demands  the  binder's 
best  attention.  By  securing  the  back  always 
with  muslin  instead  of  paper,  its  strength  will 
be  greatly  increased.  India  rubber  binding,  by 
which  the  leaves  are  fastened  together  wiUi  a 
cement  of  caoutchouc,  is  admirably  adapted  for 
certain  purposes,  particularly  for  music-books, 
engravings,  atlases,  and  ledgers,  as  it  admits 
of  the  book  being  opened  to  its  full  extent 
without  the  risk  of  dislocation. — The  following 
books  on  bookbinding  may  be  consulted  with 
advantage :  Peignot's  Essai  historique  et  archA- 
ologique  sur  la  reliure  des  litres  (Dijon,  1834); 
Grove's  Hand-und  Lehrhuch  der  Buchhinder- 
hunst  (2d  ed.,  Berlin,  1882,  2  vols.) ;  Arnett's 
Biblicpegia^  and  Reiffenberg's  Be  la  reliure^  in 
his  Annuaire  de  la  hiblioSUque  royale  de  la 
Belgique  (Brussels,  1850). 

BOOKKEEPING,  the  method  of  exhibiting 
in  a  clear,  concise,  and  intelligible  manner,  the 
primary,  progressive,  and  present  state  of  a 
man's  pecuniaiy  affairs.  The  system  of  book- 
keeping in  general  use  among  merchants  and 
men  of  business,  called  the  **  Italian  method," 
from  the  country  of  its  invention,  and  "  double- 
entry,"  from  the  construction  of  its  ledger,  is  of 
great  antiquity.  The  celebrated  Fuggers,  whose 
commerical  transactions  extended  ail  over  Eu- . 
rope,  kept  their  books  and  accounts  by  this 
method,  and  there  is,  in  a  private  library  at 
Augsburg,  a  ledger  of  Anton  Fugger,  bear- 
ing date  1492,  which  does  not  differ  in  principle 
from  those  now  in  use.  The  first  treatise  on 
the  subject  was  written  by  Luca  Pacciolo,  better 
known  by  his  local  name,  Luca  de  Burao,  and 
published  at  Venice,  in  1495.  The  first  German 
treatise  on  bookkeeping  was  written  by  Johann 
Gottlieb,  and  published  at  Nuremberg,  in  1581. 
In  1548,  Hugh  Oldcastle  produced,  at  London, 
"  A  profitable  Treatyce  to  learn  to  knowe  the 
good  order  of  the  kepying  of  tlie  famouse  re- 
coynge,  called  in  Latin,  Bare  et  habere^  and  in 
Englysne,  Debitour  and  Greditour."  In  1602, 
a  work  in  French,  on  double  entry,  appeared  at 
Ley  den,  followed  in  1662  by  Colllns's  ^' An  in- 
troduction to  Merchants'  accounts,"  Mair's 
^'Bookkeeping  modernized"  the  most  elaborate 
exposition  of  the  old  Italian  school  published, 
appeared  the  following  century,  and  passed 
through  many  editions.  In  1789,  Benjamin 
Booth  modified  the  system,  introduced  many 
valuable  improvement,  and  gave  to  the  world 
the  first  and  best  work  extant  on  the  modern 
practice  of  monthly  journalizing,  under  the  title 


500 


BOOKKEEPING 


of  "A  complete  system  of  Bookkeeping;"  an 
improved  mode  df  donbly  entry,  comprising 
a  regular  series  of  transactions,  as  they 
have  occurred  in  actual  business;  Degrange^s 
La  tenue  des  livres  en  parties  doubles^  pub- 
lished in  Paris;  and  in  Germany,  Schiebe'a 
Die  Lehre  wm  der  Buehhaltung  (8d  ed., 
Grimma,  1847) ;  and  Langhenic's  Die  doppelte 
haufindnnieche  Buehjuhrang  (2d  ed.,  Ham- 
burg, 1847).  The  following  are  the  funda- 
mental principles  upon  which  the  science 
of  double  entry  is  based:  The  object  of  book- 
keeping is  everywhere  the  same;  and,  al- 
though the  plans  adopted  may  vary  in  number 
and  form,  the  essentials  of  this  art  consist  in  the 
classification  and  arrangement  of  data  in  a  book 
called  the  ledger.  Each  collection  of  data  is 
called  an  account  An  account,  whether  of  per- 
sons or  things,  in  the  bookkeeping  sense  of  the 
term,  is  a  statement  of  all  the  transactions 
whereby  the  property  of  the  concern  has  been 
lESected  by  the  person  or  thin^  in  question.  The 
accounts  are  designated  by  distinct  and  appro- 
priate titles,  and  articles  of  opposite  kinos  are 
placed  in  opposite  columns,  l^o  result  could  be 
satisfactory  if  data  of  a  similar  character  were 
collected  nnder  different  heads,  or  data  of  a 
dissimilar  character  under  the  same  head ;  in 
the  one  case  there  would  be  confusion,  in  the 
other  diffuseness,  and  in  both  a  liability  to  error. 
Hence  receipts  should  not  be  blended  with  pay- 
ments ;  purchases  with  sales ;  gains  with  losses, 
and  the  like  :  they  are  distinct  facts,  and  must 
occupy  distinct  portions.  The  space  which  an 
account  occupies  in  the  ledger  being  vertically 
divided,  the  left  hand  side  is  denominated  debtor 
and  the  right  hand  side  creditor.  These  terms, 
when  applied  to  the  personal  accounts,  are  used 
in  tiieir  ordinary  sense ;  but  when  applied  to  an 
impersonal  account,  they  have  a  more  extended 
signification.  All  debit  items  are  not  sums  owing 
to  the  concern,  nor  are  all  credit  items  sums 
owing  by  the  concern;  in  short,  the  terms  Dr. 
and  Cr.  serve  merely  to  distinguish  the  left  from 
the  right  hand  side  of  an  account,  and  the  arith- 
metical signs  plus  and  minue  would  equally 
answer  this  purpose.  The  nature  and  object  of 
the  principal  accounts  in  a  merchant's  ledger 
are  briefiy  as  follows :  1.  The  receipts  and  pay- 
ments of  money  are  recorded  under  the  title  of 
cash.  All  receipts  are  entered  in  the  left  or 
debtor  money  column,  and  all  payments  in  the 
right  hand  or  creditor  money  column.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  2  sides,  technically  called 
the  balance,  represents  the  cash  in  hand.  2.  Writ- 
ten securities,  such  as  drafts,  notes,  or  accept- 
ances, received  by  the  merchant,  and  for  the  pay- 
ment of  which  other  parties  are  responsible,  are 
recorded  under  the  title  of  bills  receivable,  and 
those  issued  or  accepted  by  the  merchant,  for  the 
payment  of  whidi  he  is  responsible,  are  recorded 
xmder  the  title  of  bills  payable ;  tne  former  ac- 
count invariably  represents  assets,  and  the  lat- 
ter liabilities,  in  the  shape  of  bills.  8.  An  ao- 
eount  must  be  opened  for  each  person  or  firm 
with  whom  the  merchant  has  dealings  on  trust 


under  their  respective  names,  or  the  name  of 
the  firm  with  which  they  are  connected.  The 
design  of  a  personal  account  is  to  show  what  is 
owing  to  or  by  the  person  in  question.  The 
terms  debtor  and  creditor  are  here  used  in  their 
ordinary  sense;  since  each  person  is  made 
debtor  for  what  he  owes,  and  creditor  for 
what  is  owinff  to  him.  4.  Purchases  and 
sales  are  recorded  under  the  name  of  the  spe- 
dfio  property  bought  or  sold;  the  cost  or 
outlay  being  entered  on  the  debtor  side,  and 
the  sales,  or  returns,  as  well  as  the  value  unsold, 
at  the  time  the  accounts  are  adjusted,  on  the 
credit  side.  The  result  is  gain  or  loss  as  the 
case  may  be.  6.  The  capital  invested  in  business, 
in  the  outset,  is  recorded  under  the  title  of 
stock,  or  capital  stock,  and  the  gains  and  losses 
under  the  double  title  of  profit  and  loss.  Com* 
mission,  charges,  interest,  and  the  like,  are 
merely  subdivisions  of  the  profit  and  loss,  and 
the  latter  is  simply  a  branch  of  the  stock  ac- 
count It  is  a  primary  axiom  of  science  that 
*'  the  whole  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  its  parts,'* 
and  bookkeeping  is  based  upon  this  foundation. 
It  considers  property  as  a  whole  composed  of 
various  parts:  the  stock  account  exhibits  the 
capital  collectively,  that  is,  in  one  mass;  the 
other  accounts  exhibit  its  component  parta. 
The  component  parts  of  property  are  in  a  state 
of  continual  change,  but  whatever  variations  the  j 
undergo,  and  whether  the  capital  increase,  di- 
minish, or  remain  stationary,  it  must  be  con- 
stantly equal  to  the  sum  of  its  parts;  gains 
increase,  while  losses  decrease  the  canital ;  thej 
also  increase  or  decrease  the  assets,  of  which  the 
capital  is  composed,  in  the  same  ratio;  henoe 
the  whole  and  the  parts  mutually  check  and 
verify  each  other,  and  an  equilibrium  is  main- 
tained nnder  every  variation  that  can  occur. 
Bnt  without  dednciug  it  from  the  connection  of 
the  accounts,  this  eonidity  is  obvious  from  the 
very  signification  or  the  terms  debtor  and 
creditor.  These  terms  being  correlative,  the 
one  implies  and  involves  the  other,  and  cannot 
exist  without  it.  If,  therefore,  for  every  debtor 
there  must  be  a  corresponding  creditor,  and  for 
every  creditor  a  corresponding  debtor,  the  re- 
spective sums  of  these  equalities  must  also  be 
equal  In  short,  the  fundamental  and  immu- 
table law  of  double  entry  is  this:  eveiy 
transaction  which  affects  or  modifies  the  capital, 
or  its  component  parts,  must  be  twice  entered ; 
that  is,  to  the  debit  of  one  or  more  accounts, 
and  tics  vena.  The  whole  scheme  of  book- 
keeping is  but  the  means  of  collecting  and 
classifying  business  transactions  in  the  ledger. 
The  ledger  represents  concentrated  and  not  dif- 
fuse accounts;  it  is,  in  fact,  a  tabular  centrali- 
zation of  the  subordinate  books,  and  the  final 
instrument  of  the  balance-sheet  •  When  the  ac- 
counts are  completed,  there  remains  the  last 
process,  which  consists  in  balancing  the  books ; 
that  is,  in  closing  and  equilibrating  the  several 
accounts,  and  in  collecting  the  results,  so  as  to 
exhibit,  in  a  concise  form,  the  gains  and  losses, 
the  assets  and  debts,  and  the  present  capital.  The 


BOOKKEEPING 


BOOKSELLING 


601 


Increase  or  decrease  of  the  capital  must  obvi- 
ously keep  pace  with  the  gain  or  loss  resalting 
from  the  business,  and  the  original  capital,  in- 
creased by  the  gain  or  decreased  by  the  losses, 
most,  in  all  cases,  equal  the  difference  between 
the  assets  and  debts.  Every  transaction  in 
business  being  virtually  a  transfer  between  2 
accounts,  it  must  be  entered  to  the  debit  of  the 
one,  and  to  the  credit  of  the  other ;  these 
2  balancing'  entries  are  made  in  the  ledger, 
and  comprise  all  that  is  scientific  in  the 
system  of  double  entry.  The  entries  in  the 
primary  books  are  merely  preparatory  ar» 
ningementa,  totally  unconnected  with  the  prin« 
ciple  and  proof  of  accounts.  The  most  indis- 
pensable preliminary  in  the  pzpcess  of  book- 
keeping is  the  re^tration  of  all  the  data  of 
which  the  accounts  are  composed  in  chronolo* 
gioal  order,  and  in  language  as  dear  and  con- 
cise as  possible.  In  the  infancy  of  commerce, 
all  the  transactions  were  recorded  in  one  book, 
cdled  the  waste  book ;  but  as  mercantile  affairs 
took  a  wider  range,  this  practice  was  foond  to 
be  impracticable,  and  separate  books  were  re- 
quired for  each  department  of  businefls.  The 
subsidiary  books  in  general  use  are :  The  cash- 
book,  which  contains  a  daily  record  of  the  re- 
ceipts and  payments  of  money.  The  bill-book, 
which  contains  a  daily  record  of  the  bills,  notes, 
or  acceptances  received  and  issued*  The  in- 
Toice-book,  which  contains  the  particulars  of 
goods  purchased,  and  is  simply  a  transcript  of 
tiie  invoices  or  bills  of  parcels.  The  sales-book, 
which  contains  the  particulars  of  goods  sold  on 
credit,  or  shipped  abroad  on  consignment.  The 
day-book,  which  is  used  to  record  such  trans- 
actions as  do  not  properly  belong  to  either  of 
the  other  subsidiary  books.  The  journal  is  a 
record  of  the  transactions  compiled  from  the 
subsidiary  books,  daily,  weekly,  or  monthly,  as 
may  be  expedient  The  rules  for  distinguish- 
ing the  accounts  which  are  to  be  debited  and 
credited,  are  inferred  firom  the  arrangement  of 
the  ledger.  The  following  embraces  all  that 
can  be  said  upon  the  subject,  viz. :  The  thing 
received,  or  the  person  accountable  to  you,  is 
debtor ;  the  thing  delivered,  or  the  person  to 
whom  you  are  accountable,  is  creditor,  thus: 
1.  The  person  to  whom  anything  is  delivered  is 
debtor  to  the  thing  delivered  when  nothing  is 
received  in  return.  Therefore,  when  monev  is 
paid,  the  receiver  is  debtor  to  cash;  when 
goods  are  sold  upon  credit,  the  purchaser  is 
debtor  to  goods.  2.  The  thing  received  is 
debtor  to  the  person  from  whom  it  is  received 
when  nothing  is  delivered  in  return.  Therefore, 
when  money  is  received,  cash  is  debtor  to  the 
payer;  when  goods  are  bought  on  credit,  goods 
are  debtor  to  tiie  seller.  8.  The  thing  received 
is  debtor  to  the  thing  given  for  it.  Therefore, 
goods  bought  for  ready  money  are  debtor  to 
cash;  when  goods  are  sold  for  ready  money, 
cash  is  debtor  to  goods.  4.  When  one  person 
delivers  any  thing  to  another  on  your  account, 
the  person  who  receives  the  value  is  debtor, 
and  the  person  who  gives  it  creditor.  Therefore, 


if  A  pays  B  $100  on  your  account,  the  jour- 
nal entry  is  B  debtor  to  A;  the  meaning  of 
which  is  not  that  B  owes  A ;  but  that  B  is  in- 
debted to  you,  and  you  are  indebted  to  A. 

BOOKS,  Oataloques  of.    See  Oataloguies. 

BOOKS,  Censorship  of.    See  Censorship. 

BOOKSELLING  is  distinguished  from  most 
other  commercial  pursuits  by  the  adventitious 
interest  it  has  derived  from  association.  Its 
history  is  closely  and  to  some  extent  insepa- 
rably connected  with  the  history  of  literature, 
for,  though  the  bookseller  cannot  claim,  what 
Dr.  Johnson  conceded,  to  be  the  patron,  he  is 
nevertheless  the  paymaster,  of  authors,  and  up 
to  the  still  recent  period  of  journalism  and  the 
periodical  press,  he  was  almost  the  sole  medium 
between  them  and  the  public.  Such  reflected 
interest  entails  a  due  proportion  of  odium,  and 
the  trade  has  been,  and  still  is,  held  accountable 
for  the  moral  rectitude,  independent  of  the 
legal  and  conunercial  propriety,  of  its  transac- 
tions with  writers.  That  desire  which  seeks  to 
disclose  the  secrets  of  the  publisher's  ledger,  is 
prompted  by  higher  motives  than  mere  curios- 
ity. Did  the  Sosii  pay,  and  liberally,  for  a 
satire  of  Horace  ?  and  how  much  got  Martial  for 
an  epigram,  and  Quintiliaa  for  his  "  Institutes^' 
from  Tnrpho?  are  questions  which  may  well 
be  asked,  though  not  to  be  answered.  There  is 
perhaps  no  other  calling  which  can  show  so 
many  generous  relinquishments  in  behalf  of 
those  from  a  contract  with  whom  they  have 
gained  unexpected  profit.  The  £5  which  Sim- 
mons  gave  for 'Taradise  Lost,''  secured,  as  well 
as  a  good  bargain,  no  little  obloquy;  yet  it 
may  be  doubted  whether,  on  a  full  exhibition 
of  all  the  facts,  it  would  not  be  seen  that  the 
price  was  quite  as  liberal  as  the  £4,275  which 
Byron  received  for  '^Childe  Harold."  The 
slirewdest  members  of  the  trade  have  all  along 
sought  to  relieve  their  business  from  its  too 
speculative  character;  they  have  striven  to 
bring  it  within  the  operation  of  the  ordinary 
laws  of  trade  as  far  as  it  is  possible,  and  we 
find  an  almost  universal  custom  obtaining 
among  publishers  of  paying  authors  a  certain 
fixed  percentage  instead  of  buying  their  works 
outright.  Whether  the  ancient  writers  received 
any  remuneration  from  publishers  is  not  clear. 
The  first  correspondence  .between  men  of  letters 
and  the  public  was  oral ;  all  the  great  literary 
productions  of  the  earliest  historic  period,  being 
prepared  for  other  purposes  than  those  of  pub- 
lication, fulfilled  their  immediate  object  in  the 
forum,  the  academy,  and  the  theatre.  That 
written  works  had  a  value  beyond  the  material 
part  was  indeed  sufficiently  recognized,  but  it 
is  by  no  means  settled  that  such  special  value 
had,  until  our  own  era,  any  practical  acknowl- 
edgment The  younger  Pliny,  writing  of  his 
nnde,  says  that  he  himself  ^^  used  to  relate  that 
when  he  was  procurator  in  Spain,  he  might 
have  parted  with  his  commonplace  book 
(Eleotorum  CommentaHi)  to  Largms  Lioinius 
for  400,000  sesterces"  (about  $16^000);  but  as 
licinins  was  not  a  bookseller,  this  instance  is  of 


602 


BOOKSELLING 


little  force.  Martial  says  the  "Hospitolians" 
oonld  be  bought  for  4  sesterces,  but  he  clearly 
recognized  the  greater  valae  his  books  really 
possessed,  as  one  of  his  epigrams  proves : 

Oire  tbeo  mj  boolu,  indoed  f  thoa  ffreedy  fop  I 
1  hare  th«m  not;  thoalt  flad  them  in  the  shop ; 

and  Horace  alludes  to  the  likelihood  of  one 
work  making  a  fortune  for  the  bookseller.  It 
is  argued  from  such  premises  as  these  that  au- 
thors, and  especially  liie  needy,  as  Martial  was, 
would  not  have  neglected  to  detect  and  avail 
themselves  of  such  an  obvious  source  of  income. 
It  has  been  determined  that  the  purchase  of 
copyrights  originated  with  the  Roman  bibluh 
poUSy  but  we  have  very  little  knowledge  of  the 
exact  pecuniary  relations  between  booksellers 
and  authors  previous  to  the  last  few  hundred 
years,  since  which  time  the  public  began  to 
supersede  the  patron.  The  writer  of  an  accept- 
able ode  to  Augustus  or  Mescenas  might  well 
afford  to  despise  tlie  **  sweaty  hands  of  the  vul- 
var'' who  frequented  the  bookstalls,  and  to  re- 
nise  a  participation  of  profits  with  the  librarii. 
The  same  holds  good  till  almost  within  the 
memory  of  the  living ;  Mfficenas,  with  Virgil, 
Horace,  and  Propertius,  had  in  England,  not  a 
hundred  years  since,  most  faithful  though  hum- 
ble imitators.  The  literature  of  dedications  is 
identified  with  the  days  of  patrons  and  sub- 
scribers, classes  which,  happily  for  letters,  are 
now  extinct.  In  course  of  time  the  bookseller 
began  to  find  a^market  among  the  masses ;  he 
learned  some  of  the  marvellous  effects  of  num- 
bers, found  how  easUy  shillings  became  pounds, 
and  pence  shillings ;  and  when  the  results  be- 
came known,  when  a  publisher  like  Lintot  could 
afford  to  pay  a  poet  like  Pope  more  than  £4,000, 
the  old  feeling  which  disd!uned  the  pecuniary 
rewards  of  literature  was  in  course  of  modifi- 
cation. For  labor  in  any  practical  direction 
had  always  been  considered  slightly  offensive 
to  a  certain  pride,  and  payment  for  authorship 
was  too  direct  an  acknowledgment  of  work 
and  its  value  to  be  for  a  moment  tolerated ;  at 
least,  when  that  payment  was  inconsiderable. 
Ulterior  objects  and  indirect  rewards  might, 
indeed,  be  hoped  for ;  but  as  the  Roman  advo- 
cates had  a  moral  fiction  which  denied  fees 
though  it  permitted  gratuities,  so  literary  men, 
from  the  earliest  times  until  a  period  not  very 
far  removed,  diisdained,  or  affected  to  disdmn, 
the  gold  of  the  bookseller.  As  a  distinct  pur- 
suit, the  selling  of  books  must  have  shortly  fol- 
lowed upon  the  demand  for  them.  Transcribing 
is  an  art  acquired  only  after  long  study,  and 
when  scribes  began  to  be  employed,  it  is  reason- 
able to  suppose  that  their  leisure  time  was  en- 
gaged in  preparing  volumes  for  which  they 
knew  by  experience  there  would  be  a  sale. 
Thus,  as  scribes  increased  (and  they  were  numer- 
ous in  early  tim^  books  would,  no  doubt, 
accumulate,  and  differences  in  the  workers'  ex- 
pertness  creating  corresponding  differences  in 
value,  buyers  would  have  opportunities  for 
selection,  which  they  would  not  be  apt  to  over- 
look ;  thus  stocks  would  of  necessity  be  collected, 


and  the  book  shop  instituted.  From  a  passage 
in  Xenophon  it  is  inferred  that  books  were 
articles  of  traffic  in  his  time  (about  400  B.  €.)- 
According  to  the  best  rendering,  it  is  stated  in 
the  ^*  Anabasis*'  that  at  Salmydessna,  on  the 
Euxine,  they  found  ^  couches,  written  books, 
and  many  other  things  such  as  seamen  carry  in 
their  wooden  chests ;"  and  in  the  **  Memora- 
bilia," mention  is  made  of  one  Euthydemns  who 
had  collected  many  writings  of  the  most  cele- 
brated poets  and  sophists.  Dion  was  urged  by 
Plato  to  purchase  the  books  of  Pythagoras,  and 
Hermodorus,  a  disciple  of  Plato,  is  stated  to 
have  copied  his  master's  works  and  taken  them 
to  Sicily  for  sale.  Lycon,  the  philosopher,  says 
Diogenes  Laertius,  bequeathed  to  a  relative, 
Lycon  also  by  name,  all  his  books  that  were 
published ;  but  those  which  were  not  published 
to  Oallinus,  that  he  might  publish  them  with 
due  care.  From  these  incidental  allusions  it  may 
be  reasonably  concluded  that  books  were  <x)m- 
mon  articles  of  sale  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Socrates,  though  by  some  commentators  the 
evidence  is  not  considered  snflcient  Diogenes 
Laertius,  in  his  life  of  Zeno,  establishes  the 
existence  of  booksellers'  shops  or  stalls  about 
250  B.  0.  *'  When  he  (Zeno)  had  made  his  way 
from  the  coast  as  far  as  Athens,  he  sat  down  by 
a  bookseller's  stall,  being  now  about  thirty  years 
of  age.  And  as  he  took  up  the  second  book  of 
Xenophon's  *  Memorabilia'  and  began  to  read 
it,  he  was  delighted  with  it,  and  asked  where 
such  men  as  were  described  in  that  book  lived ; 
and  as  Orates  happened  very  seasonabl v  to  pass 
at  the  moment,  the  bookseller  pointed  him  out, 
and  said,  ^  Follow  that  man.' "  As  we  approach 
the  Christian  era  there  is  abundance  of  testimony 
relative  to  the  number  of  booksellers,  their 
location,  and  customs.  Catullus  speaks  of  look- 
ing into  all  the  bookshops,  and  Pollux  says  thej 
were  common  in  all  the  seaport  towns.  Martiid 
makes  frequent  and  familiar  allusions  to  them ; 
one  passage  gives  a  lively  description.  As  ren- 
dered by  Elphinstone,  it  runs : 

Tou  aeo  a  shop  with  tUlod  posti, 
And  read  whatever  Pamaasus  boasts. 
Thence  snmnson  mc.  nor  ask  the  dweller; 
Honest  Atrectus  is  the  seller. 
From  out  the  first  or  seoond  nest 
He*Il  hand  me,  ras*d,  in  purple  vest, 
Fire  humble  tenpenoes  the  price : 
A  bard  so  noted  and  so  nice. 

And  Horace,  before  Martial,  apostrophizing  his 
book,  writes :  '*  You  seem,  my  book,  to  look 
wistfully  at  Janus  and  Yertnmnus,  to  the  end 
that  you  may  be  set  out  for  sale,  neatly  polished 
by  the  pumice  stone  of  the  Sosii.  You  hate 
keys  ana  seals,  which  are  agreeable  to  a  modest 
volume ;  you  grieve  that  you  are  shown  to  bat 
a  few,  and  extol  public  places,  though  educated 
in  another  manner."  Similar  allusions  are  found 
in  many  other  writers  of  that  period,  such  as 
Pliny,  Cicero,  and  Btrabo,  the  latter  of  whom, 
complaining  of  the  inaccuracy  of  books  exposed 
for  sale  in  Alexandria,  proves  how  mere  a  matter 
of  trade  they  had  become.  In  Rome,  at  that 
time,  booksellers  were  men  of  repnte,  many  of 


BOOKSELLING 


603 


wboee  names  have  been  transmitted  to  ns. 
Several  had  obtained  creditable  distinction  for 
accuracy  and  taste,  and  their  relations  with 
authors  were  of  the  most  friendly  and  familiar 
character.  ^^  Yon  have  prevailed  upon  me ;" 
writes  Qointilian  to  his  publisher,  Trypho,  "  by 
your  daily  importunity,  to  proceed  at  once  to 
publish  the  books  on  the  education  of  an  orator  ;'* 
and,  after  giving  some  cogent  reasons  for  delay, 
proceeds,  ^'  yet  if  they  are  so  much  demanded,  as 
you  say,  let  us  give  our  sails  to  the  wind."  The 
book  business  in  Rome  was  divided  among  the 
librarii  or  scribm^  who  transcribed  MSS.,  the 
librarioliy  who.illuminated  the  title-pages,  mar- 
gins, dec.,  the  hibliophagiy  answeriog  to  the 
modern  binder,  and  the  hibUopolm  or  sellers, 
whose  shops  were  called  libraria.  These  stalls 
were  principally  in  the  streets  near  the  Forum, 
the  Palladium,  theSigillarii,  the  Argilettum,  and 
the  ViaSandalinaria.  They  were  the  daily  resort 
of  the  men  of  letters,  the  wits,  and  the  quidnuncs, 
who  communicated  the  news  of  the  day,  dis- 
cussed the  merits  of  a  satire  of  Horace  or 
Martial^s  last  epigram,  argued  upon  points  of 
philological  intricacy,  and  tested  each  other's 
learning ;  as  in  the  days  of  Shakespeare  and  Ben 
Jonsoo,  the  men  of  letters  and  lebure  gathered 
at  the  Mermaid ;  or  further  on,  in  the  time  of 
Queen  Anne,  the  wits  resorted  to  Will's  and 
Whitens,  to  cut  up  the  last  comedy  of  Oongreve. 
or  cross  lances  with  Addison  or  Steele.  *^I  ana 
Julius  Paulus,  the  poet,"  says  the  gossiping 
Aulus  Gellius,  ^'  were  sitting  in  a  shop  at  the 
Sigillaria.  Here  lay  for  sale  the  ^  Annals  of 
Fabius,' books  of  good  and  undisputed  antiquity, 
which  the  seller  asserted  were  perfect ;"  and  he 
proceeds  to  state  how  an  acute  grammarian  de- 
tected a  misspelled  word.  The  same  writer,  at 
another  time,  speaks  of  a  "foolish  fellow  boast- 
ing in  a  bookseller's  shop." — After  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire,  and  until  the  revival  of  learning, 
bookselling,  as  a  trade,  seems  to  have  been  en- 
tirely abandoned.  The  limited  demand  for  books 
was  mostly  confined  to  the  clergy,  and  included 
only  religious  works,  which  they  themselves  sup- 
plied. Booksellers  were  again  called  into  being  on 
the  founding  of  the  universities,  and  they  became 
established  at  Paris,  Bolc^na,  Vienna,  Palermo, 
Padua,  Salamanca,  and  Oxford,  supplying  the 
students  who  flocked  to  those  seats  of  learning 
from  all  parts  of  Europe.  Sustained  by  the 
universities,  they  became  subject  to  their  con- 
trol, and  stringent  regulations  were  enacted  for 
the  government  of  the  trade.  At  Paris  only  a 
limited  number  was  permitted,  and  they  were 

Srohibited  from  selling  their  volumes  above  a 
etermined  price,  being  also  obliged  to  make  a 
deduction  in  behalf  of  students.  By  the  statutes 
of  1342,  they  were  strictly  enjoined  to  observe 
certain  rules  as  to  price,  correctness,  and 
mode  of  displav.  They  were  to  keep  on  view 
lists  of  all  booKs,  with  prices  affixed,  and  were 
compelled  by  statute  of  ld28  to  lend  copies  for 
the  purpose  of  transcription,  the  hire  of  a  Bible 
being  10  sous.  These  statutes  of  the  Paris  uni- 
versity were  frequent  and  numerous;  the  first 


bear  the  dates  of  1359  and  1275,  and  in  1292 
we  learn  that  there  were  in  Paris  24  profession- 
al copyists,  17  binders,  and  8  boojcsellers.  The 
latter  were  called  stationarii,  from  the  fact  of 
their  places  being  fixed.  Most  of  tlie  regula- 
tions enforced  at  Paris  were,  in  1884,  adopted 
by  the  university  of  Vienna.  The  strict  and 
despotic  control  exercised  was  amply  compen- 
sated by  privileges  conferred.  Remuneration 
was  assured  by  the  limited  number  of  vendors, 
and  the  profession  was  dignified  by  a  participa- 
tion in  the  honors  and  immunities  which  at- 
tached to  masters  and  students  of  the  universi- 
ty. Indeed,  no  little  learning  and  critical  acu- 
men were  required  to  constitute  a  competent 
bookseller.  It  was  necessary  to  be  familiar 
with  the  works  transcribed,  to  know  the  com- 
parative integrity  and  value  of  various  MBS. ; 
to  have  scholastic  erudition  sufficient  for  the 
intelligent  revision  of  books,  and  taste  to  direct 
their  embellishment  To  obtain  a  license,  he 
was  obliged  to  demonstrate  his  capacity,  moral 
and  mental,  and  to  retain  it  he  had  to  obey  the 
laws  enacted  for  his  government.  These  con- 
ditions promoted  the  prosperity  of  the  calling ; 
its  members  acquired  distinction,  and  accumu'^ 
lated  wealth,  and,  until  long  after  the  invention 
of  printing,  their  ranks  were  recruited  by  men 
eminent  for  talent  and  learning.  The  early 
printers  were  booksellers  as  well,  nor  did  the 
2  professions  separate  until  it  became  advisable 
from  considerations  of  commercial  convenience 
and  economy.  John  Faust  disposed  of  the  first 
edition  of  the  printed  Bible  among  the  various 
universities,  carefuUv  preserving  his  secret  un- 
til compelled  to  disclose  iL  He  sold  a  consid- 
erable number  in  Paris  at  the  current  rates,  but 
finding  it  difficult  to  procure  purchasers  for  all 
he  had,  reduced  the  price  from  60  to,  at  the 
last,  20  crowns.  This  exciting  surprise,  led  to 
investigation,  and  it  was  discovered  that  all  his 
books  were  exact  copies  of  one  another,  a  mar- 
vel at  once  explained  on  the  supernatural  hy- 
pothesis. Faust  preferred  to  resolve  the  mys- 
tery rather  than  submit  to  the  usual  process  of 
exorcism.  Before  the  close  of  the  century  the 
trade  had  greatly  expanded.  Anthony  Kober, 
of  Nuremberg,  printer  and  bookseller  (1473- 
1518)  had  24  presses  and  about  100  workmen 
in  his  employ,  and  kept  shops  at  Leipsic,  Frank- 
fort, Amsterdam,  and  Venice.  John  Otto,  also 
of  Nuremberg,  born  1610,  is  the  first  on  record 
who,  since  the  invention  of  printing,  not  being 
a  printer,  bought  copyrights.  In  Germany  the 
trade  first  became  established  and  methodized 
in  the  manner  which  still  obtains,  and  we  shall 
further  treat  the  subject  under  its  national  di- 
visions. Sellers  of  books,  as  the  sellers  of  other 
wares,  found  in  those  times  their  best  opportu- 
nities at  the  periodical  fairs.  The  first  regular 
congregation  of  booksellers  assembled  at  the 
Frankfort  fairs,  and  that  city  for  some  time  was 
the  chief  resort  of  the  book  trade.  In  1478 
Kober  of  Nuremberg,  PlanUn  of  Antwerp,  and 
Etienne  of  Paris,  noted  printers,  were  in  attend- 
ance.    In  1626  Christopher  Froschauer  writes 


504 


BOOESELLDTG 


to  Ulrioh  Zwingli,  of  Base],  oonoerning  the  ez- 
oellent  sale  of  his  books,  and  in  1549  Operin  of 
Basel  visited  ^e  fair  with  maoh  profit.  Owing 
to  peculiar  causes,  Leiosio  grew  into  favor  with 
the  booksellers,  and  finally  became  the  centre 
of  the  trade  throughout  Germany.  Steiger  and 
Boskopf^  of  Kuremberg,  attended  the  fiEur  in 
1545 ;  in  1556  Clement^  of  Paris,  and  in  1560 
Valgrisi,  of  Venice,  visited  it  with  their  publi- 
cations.  The  number  of  new  works  brought  to 
Leipsic  in  1589  was  862,  of  which  246  were  in 
Latin,  200  were  on  theological  subiects,  48  on 
law  and  jurisprudence,  and  45  on  philology  and 
philosophy.  In  1616, 14  booksellers  had  estab- 
lished tnemselves  in  that  city,  and  contributed 
to  the  fiiir  the  same  year  158  new  works.  From 
the  commencement  of  the  present  century  book- 
selling and  publishing  have  been  carried  on  sep- 
arately in  Germany,  and  within  that  time  the 
hnsiness  has  been  much  modified.  Formerly 
booksellers  were  accustomed  to  meet  at  Leipsio 
twice  a  year,  at  Easter  and  Michaelmas,  for  the 
purpose  of  exchanging  their  respective  publica* 
tions,  and  balances  were  generally  carried  over 
till  the  next  meeting.  Afterward,  differences 
were  settled  in  cash,  and  it  was  customary  to 
sell  new  books  with  the  privilege  of  returning 
unsold  copies.  At  present  business  is  done  at 
Leipsic  through  a  system  of  agencies,  by  *^  com- 
missioners^' there  established,  who  act  on  be- 
half of  the  principal  booksellers  throughout  Ger- 
many and  Europe  as  well.  These  commission- 
era  buy  and  sell  on  behalf  of  their  principals,  to 
whom  accounts  are  remitted  for  final  settle- 
ment. By  such  an  arrangement  buyers  and 
sellers  are  brought  into  one  common  focus,  and 
the  system  is  in  much  favor.  At  Leipsic  there 
are  82  commissioners,  representing  2,275  firms, 
including  dealers  in  books,  music,  maps,  and 
charts,  of  whom  1,826  are  retail  booksellers,  lo- 
cated at  538  different  places.  At  this  great 
centre  of  trade  there  are  represented,  of  ^ok- 
sellersin  Switzerland,  87;  Kussia,  72;  Ameri- 
ca, 22 ;  Netherlands,  25  ;  France,  21 ;  Denmark, 
24;  Great  Britain,  16 ;  Sweden  and  Norway. 
21 ;  Belgium,  15 ;  Spain,  2 ;  Turkey,  8  ;  and 
in  Borne,  Naples,  Sardinia,  and  AustraUa,  1 
each.  Beside  Leipsic,  there  are  other  centres  of 
the  book  trade  in  which  the  same  system  is 
pursued.  The  following  are  the  most  import- 
ant, and  the  numbers  appended  to  each  signify 
respectively  the  commissioners  at  each  place 
and  the  different  houses  they  represent :  Ber- 
lin, 28—185 ;  Frankfort,  15—289 ;  Vienna,  26 
—245;  Stuttgart,  15—500;  Augsburg,  10— 
135  ;  Nuremberg,  7—165  ;  and  zarich,  5—50, 
Publishing  in  Germany  compares  very  fa- 
vorably with  that  of  any  other  country.  Of  all 
works,  including  pamphlets,  and  ephemeral  is- 
sues, tnere  are  about  10,000  annually,  but  the  av- 
erage number  of  copies  is  small,  the  usual  edition 
of  ordinary  works  of  fiction  being  from  800  to 
1,200,  a  large  part  of  which  is  ts^en  by  circu- 
lating libraries.  The  rule  has  exceptions,  as  an 
instance  of  which  a  late  publication  may  be 
cited.  In  1856  Justus  Perthes  of  Gotha  paid  for 


the  copyright  of  Bartli^s  ^*  Travels  in  Africa,'* 
5  voU  8vo,  20,000  thalers  ($15,000).  During 
the  first  half  of  the  year  1856,  3,879  worics 
appeared  in  Germany:  in  Leipeio  698,  Ber- 
Im  671,  Stuttgart  197,  Hamburg  96,  Mimidi 
93;  of  the  8,879,  1,242  were  pabliabed  in 
Prussia,  724  in  Saxony,  716  in  Austria,  897  in 
Bavaria,  270  in  Wbrtembeig,  and  109  in  Han- 
over. During  the  same  period  236  works  in 
the  German  language  were  published  in  otfasr 
European  countries,  viz.:  Switz^iand  166, 
Russia  81,  Hungary  16,  France  12,  Belghmi 
10,  Denmaric  6,  Holland  8,  and  in  En^and 
1.  German  publishers  advertise  little,  are  in- 
nocent of  ^^  sensation"  books,  and  have  no 
Jobbing  houses  as  with  us. — ^From  the  time 
of  Oaxton  and  Wynkyn  de  Worde  publiriiing 
and  bookselling  in  England  went  alowly,  hand 
in  hand,  through  a  long  and  disconraging  period. 
The  unsettled  state  of  government  absorbed 

gublic  attention  to  the  exclusion  of  literatere. 
till,  there  is  much  interest  in  the  history  of 
the  trade  even  then ;  its  vitality  was  never  ex- 
tinguished ;  its  progress,  although  impended,  was 
never  stopped.  Until  1600,  up  to  which  tune 
there  had  been  850  printers,  10,000  different 
works  are  recorded,  an  average  of  75  per  an- 
num. In  the  publication  of  certain  Yohmus 
there  was  considerable  activity,  826  editioDB 
of  the  Bible  printed  between  1626  and  1609 
being  still  extant.  Evelyn  states  that  at  the 
great  fire  in  London,  1666,  the  booksellers  lost 
as  much  as  £200,000  in  stock,  bat  the  state- 
ment is  not  muc^  to  be  relied  on.  It  took 
from  1628  to  1664  to  sell  2  editions  of  Shake- 
speare. A  catalogue  of  books  pnblisbed  in 
England  from  1666  to  the  end  of  Trinity  tacni, 
1680,  gives  the  whole  number  at  8,550;  of 
which  947  were  divinity,  420  law,  and  168 
physic;  897  were  school  books,  and  858  <m 
subjects  of  geography  and  navigation,  iadnd- 
ing  maps.  About  half  of  these  books  wen 
single  sermons  and  tracts.  Dednctuig  the  re- 
prints, pamphlets,  single  s^ mens,  and  maps, 
iir.  Knight  estimates  the  annual  average  of 
new  books  at  100.  John  Dnnton,  a  boolaeJlff 
of  the  lime,  who  afterward  visited  America, 
says  of  his  own  undertaking :  ^*  Printing  was 
now  uppermost  in  my  thoughts ;  and  hackn^ 
authors  began  to  ply  me  with  specimens  ss 
earnestly,  and  with  as  much  paadon  and  con- 
cern, as  the  watermen  do  oassengers  with  oars 
and  sculls."  Roger  North  describes  the  **  denu- 
booksellers,'^  who  deal  in  the  ^' fresh  eemnof 
the  press,"  as  those  who  **  crack  their  brains  to 
find  out  selling  subjects,  and  keep  birdings  in 
garrets,  at  hard  meat,  to  write  and  oorreet  by 
the  great;  and  so  puff  up  an  octavo  to  a  suf- 
ficient thickness,  and  there  is  six  shillings  cur- 
rent for  an  hoar  and  a  half  s  reading;  a»l  pei^ 
haps  never  to  be  read  or  looked  npon  after/ 
At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century  the  price 
of  a  folio  or  quarto  volume  ranged  from  Ids.  to 
12s.,  an  octavo  from  6a.  to  6s.,  and  a  duodeei* 
mo  from  2s.  6d.  to  Ss.  From  1700  to  175€ 
about  6,280  new  works,  exclusive  of  tracts  and 


BOOKSELLING 


505 


pamphkts,  were  iflsned,  or  ftbont  08  per  annum ; 
while  from  1766  to  1808  the  average  was  nearlj 
doubled.  The  cireolation  of  hoolkB  up  to  the  bo- 
ginning  of  the  19th  oentnry  was  comparatively 
nmited.  Popular  works  were  hawked  about  in 
the  pack  of  the  peddler,  and  sold  along  with  tape 
and  ribbons ;  and  productions  of  more  pretension 
were  published  only  bj  the  aid  of  patrons. 
From  this  thraldom  the  better  class  of  litera- 
ture was  emancipated  on  the  increase  of  the 
reading  pnUio.  The  establishment  of  journals 
and  periodicals  created,  and  to  some  extent  di- 
rected, public  demand ;  the  custom  of  re- 
viewing books,  which  was  then  introduced, 
elevated  new  publications  into  events,  ana 
booksellers,  profiting  by  the  opportunity  of 
making  money  by  the  legitimate  operation  of 
bargain  and  sale,  soon  entered  into  the  specu- 
lative purchase  of  M8S.  The  business,  how- 
ever, wL  not,  for  a  long  time,  assume  such 
proportions  as  now  distinguish  it.  In  the  case 
of  expensive  works  publishers  were  in  the  habit 
of  assodating  to  defray  the  cost  of  production. 
The  plan  of  selling  important  works  in  parts, 
thereby  dividing  the  payments  into  small  in- 
stalments, was  originated  by  Henry  Fisher 
about  1800.  This  system  was  very  successful, 
and  has  continned  as  a  prosperous  branch  of 
bookselling  until  the  present  day.  Many  great 
works  have  been  thus  issued;  among  them 
Ohambers's  **  Oydopsadia,"  Smollett's  *'  History 
of  England,"  and  Scott's  *'  Family  Bible,"  The 
prudent  and  intelligent  cottager  might  thus 
possess,  without  serious  and  sudden  encroach- 
ment on  his  means,  works  which  a  few  hun- 
dred years  before  a  king  would  have  envied. 
On  the  introduction  of  this  system,  which  had 
cheapneas  for  its  leading  object,  we  find  that 
the  ordinary  trafiSc  had  enhanced  prices  in- 
stead of  having  reduced  them.  Books  had 
risra  greatly  in  cost,  and  averaged,  the  folio 
and  quarto  £1  Is.,  the  octavo  10s.,  the  12mo 
4s. ;  which  were  subsequently  still  further  in- 
'  creiksed,  until,  within  a  few  years  past,  cheap- 
ness has  been  discovered  to  be  not  incom- 
patible with  profit.  According  to  the  ^^  London 
Gatalogue,"  there  were  published  between  1800 
and  1827, 19,860  books,  including  reprints;  for 
which  deducting  one-fifth,  there  would  be  an 
annual  average  of  588.  From  1816  to  1861  there 
were  pnbhshed  45,072  books,  giving  an  average 
of  1,252  for  each  year.  In  1858  there  were  2,580 
books  published,  and  since  that  time  the  aver- 
age has,  as  far  as  may  be  ascertained  without 
liiwriong  calculation,  steadily  increased.  In  a 
consideration  of  the  amount  of  capital  invested 
in  book  manufacturing,  and  the  extent  of  its 
operations  with  the  public,  a  very  important 
element  is  likely  to  be  generally  neglected.  It 
was  in  evidence  before  the  house  of  commons 
in  1851,  that  the  sale  of  immoral  and  infidel 
pablieations  amounted  to  29,000,000  annually; 
more  than  the  tptal  issue  of  the  society  for  the 
promotion  of  Christian  Imowledge,  the  religious 
tract  society,  the  British  and  foreign  Bible  so- 
ciety»  the  Scottish  Bible  society,  the  Trinitarian 


Bible  society,  and  some  70  religious  magazines, 
combined.  There  were  sold,  of  the  last  dying 
speech  of  Grood,  1,650,000 ;  of  OonrvoiBier, 
1,666,000 ;  of  the  Mannings,  2,000,000 ;  of 
Rush,  2,700,000;  and  of  Greenacre,  2,666,000. 
Tl^is  revelation  led  to  an  attempt  under  influ- 
ential patronage,  to  bring  within  the  means 
and  reach  of  the  humbler  classes  reading  of  a 
better  character,  and  it  has  thus  fiEur  been  at- 
tended with  gratifying  success.  The  London 
'^  Times"  remarks  upon  this  subject :  ^^  It  is  in- 
teresting to  see  the  nature  of  the  books  which 
are  most  popular.  Bmiyan's  'Pilgrim's  Pro- 
gress* and  Bogatzky's  *  Golden  Treasury'  always 
find  a  ready  sale.    Milton  has  many  admirers, 

*  Johnson's  Dictionary '  more.  Ohurch  services, 
well  got  up,  are  in  great  request  among  do- 
mestic servants.  Cheap  books  on  the  war,  pub- 
lished by  Routledge,  were  eagerly  purchased. 
Richmond's  *  Annals  of  the  Poor,'  a  history  of 
the  county,  '  Robinson  Orusoe,'  and  Paxton's 

*  Cottage  Gardener's  Calendar,'  ore  all  most 
popular.  Pictures  published  by  Herring,  Bax- 
ter, and  the  society  for  the  promotion  of  Chris- 
tian knowledge,  are  gradually  superseding  the 

*  Epistle  to  Abgarus.'  Half-penny  and  farthing 
books  are  sold  by  the  gross."  The  trade  in 
England  may  be  conveniently  divided  into 
booksellers  and  publishers,  both  branches,  as 
with  us,  being  often  combined.  There  are  also 
jobbing  houses,  which  supply  retailers,  and 
buy  in  considerable  quantities  from  the  nub- 
lisliers.  There  are  also  many  societies  wnich 
issue  books  in  large  numbers,  and  which  possess 
extensive  and  active  establishments.  Retail 
bookselling  in  London  possesses  many  features 
of  interest,  and  is  remarkable  in  respect  of  the 
nicety  to  which  classification  has  been  brought. 
In  this  storehouse  of  bibliographical  treasures, 
the  greatest  in  the  world,  every  department  of 
bookselling,  ancient  and  modern,  is  represented. 
There  are  shops  wherein  are  sold  only  those 
books  relating  to  one  particular  department  of 
science  or  art,  and  they  embrace  nearly  every 
department ;  so  olso  of  religious  sects ;  of 
books  in  diflFerent  languages;  shops  where  are 
sold  only  books  on  chess ;  others  where  they 
keep  only  those  on  astrology  and  occult  sci- 
ences ;  others  again  that  have  only  genealogy 
and  heraldry,  and,  most  curious  of  all,  book- 
sellers exclusively  of  odd  volumes.  The  ma- 
diinery  employed  for  bringing  books  before 
the  public  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  United 
States,  demand  being  incited  and  stimulated 
through  the  press.  The  most  peculiar  custom 
is  a  species  of  trade  sales,  technically  called 
"Albion"  sales,  from  the  place  in  which  they 
are  held.  These  sales  are  regularly  got  up 
only  by  8  great  publishers,  the  Longmans, 
Murray,  and  Bohn ;  others,  either  singly  or 
associated,  occasionally  hold  them.  The  book- 
sellers of  London  and  Westminster  only  are 
permitted  to  attend,  and  the  meeting  com- 
mences with  the  inevitable  English  preliminary 
of  a  dinner,  after  which  the  auctioneer  pre- 
sides.   The  numbers  sold  are  often  very  large^ 


506 


BOOKSELLING 


as,  for  example,  10,000  of  LiTingstone^a  "  Trav- 
els in  South  Africa,"  and  80,000  of  Brock's 
"Life  of  Gen.  Havelock ;"  other  works  have 
great  circulation.  The  serials  of  Dickens  are 
estimated  to  have  a  sale  of  85,000,  and  Mao- 
aulay's  history  as  many  as  40,000.  By  the 
oensos  of  1851  there  were  in  England  and 
Wales  6,905  booksellers  and  publishers;  in 
Scotland,  1,486;  and,  according  to  good  author- 
ity, there  were  168  in  Ireland. — ^In  France, 
booksellinff  centres  in  Paris,  where  there  are 
about  400  Dookstores.  In  the  sale  of  books  but 
little  machinery  is  employed^  neither  trade 
sales  nor  furs  being  held.  The  usages  between 
publishers  and  auQiors  are  somewhat  peculiar, 
for  the  more  popular  writers  rarely  dispose  en- 
tirely of  their  copyrights  either  for  a  fixed 
sum  or  a  percentage.  They  often  sell  the 
right  to  print  a  certain  number  in  a  certain 
style,  which  are  to  be  sold  at  a  price  deter- 
mined by  themselves,  and  it  not  infreauently 
happens  that  2  or  more  publishers  wiU  issue 
editions  of  the  same  work.  The  "Edinburgh 
Review"  remarks  upon  a  phase  of  French  litera- 
ture analogous  to  that  which  has  been  referred 
to  in  the  account  given  of  bookselling  in  Eng- 
land :  '^Few  even  among  the  best  informed 
readers  of  the  literature  of  the  day  will  be  pre- 
pared for  the  fact  that,  side  by  side  with  the 
known  productions  of  the  press  of  Paris,  there 
has  existed  froqpi  time  immemorial  in  France 
another,  and,  in  its  own  sphere,  hardly  less 
influential  literature,  addressing  a  totally  differ- 
ent Dublic,  enjoying  a  separate  and  peculiar 
circulation,  and  possessing  an  organization, 
both  for  production  and  distribution,  almost 
entirely  independent  of  the  ordinary  machinery 
of  literary  commerce.  Still  less  will  they  be 
prepared  to  learn  that  the  number  of  volumes 
thus  annually  put  into  circulation  throughout 
the  length  and  breadth  of  France  amounts  to 
nearly  10,000,000,  at  prices  ranging  from  a 
franc  down  to  a  sou ;  or  for  the  still  more  ex- 
traordinary fact,  that  among  this  enormous 
number,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  of  th^ 
modern  novels,  hardly  a  single  volume — at 
least  in  the  form  in  which  it  is  circulated  by 
the  hawkers — is  the  production  of  any  writer 
whose  works  have  ever  attracted  the  attention 
of  our  readers.  So  that  we  are  led  to  the  sin-, 
gular  conclusion,  that  a  substratum  of  publica- 
tions of  enormous  extent  supplies  the  demand 
and  feeds  the  curiosity  of  the  lower  orders, 
utterly  unconnected  with  the  higher  creations 
of  French  genius,  coarser  in  form  and  in  sub- 
stance, and  very  slightly  affected  by  the  vicis- 
situdes of  taste  and  opinion."  The  Journal  de 
la  Librairie  of  Paris  has  prepared  some  statis- 
tics of  the  book  trade  in  France,  from  which  it 
appears  that,  from  Nov.  1,  1811,  to  Dec.  81, 
1855,  or  44  years  and  2  months,  no  less  than 
271,994  books  have  been  published  in  France. 
This  number  includes  books  written  in  for- 
eign languages,  as  well  as  Greek  and  Latin 
authors.  The  number  of  engravings,  draw- 
ings, lithographs,  maps,  and  plans,  reaches  47,- 


425,  and  to  this  number  must  be  added  17,449 
musical  compositions — ^making  altogeth^  336,- 
868  publications.  In  the  year  1855  alone, 
8,235  literary  works  were  published  in  France, 
with  1,105  musical  compositions.  The  engrav- 
ings, maps,  lithographs,  issued  within  the  same 
period,  amount  to  2,857  issues — ^the  total  being 
12,217.  Of  the  44  years  included  in  the  statistics 
of  the  Journal  de  la  Librairie,  it  appears  that 
1855,  with  the  exception  of  1825,  was  the 
most  productive*  In  1825,  the  number  of  issoes 
amounted  to  8,265.  Thefiguresfrom  1851  to  1854 
run  thus :  in  1851, 7,350 ;  in  1852, 8.264;  in  1853, 
8,060 ;  in  1854,  8,336.  In  1854, 1855,  and  1856, 
the  value  ^of  books  imported  into  France 
amounted  to  $1,175,000,  of  books  exported  dur- 
ing the  same  time,  $7,900,000.  "With  regard  to 
the  countries  to  which  the  exports  of  books 
were  made,  Belgium  ranks  by  tisr  the  highest, 
and  England  next ;  then  follow  in  order  a3 
named~-Switzerland,  Sardinia,  United  States, 
Germany  and  Spain  (equal),  Mexico,  Portngal, 
Tuscany,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Turkey  and  Egjpt, 
Russia,  and  the  Papal  States.  For  impomi 
Belgium  still  stands  highest ;  then  GermanT, 
Enghind,  Spain,  Sardinia,  United  States,  Hd- 
land. — ^During  the  year  1854^  861  works  in  the 
Bussian  language,  and  451  in  foreign  languages, 
were  printed  in  Bussia,  beside  2,940  scientific 
and  literary  treatises  in  the  different  periodi- 
cals. The  number  of  authors  was  1,239,  that 
of  printing  offices,  for  works  in  the  RoaaiaB 
language,  85,  of  which  45  were  in  Si.  Pe- 
tersburg, and  16  in  Moscow.  In  the  same 
year  886,425  volumes  were  imported.  In 
1855,  1,148  original  works  and  91  trans- 
lations were  published,  and  the  imports  were 
1,191,745  vdumea.  In  Poland,  in  1855,  22,608 
works  were  imported. — Some  statistics  upon 
publishing  in  Austria,  prepared  by  Dr.  Wnrz- 
bach,  show  that,  for  the  year  1854,  the  totsl 
number  of  publications  was  24,039 — ^12,9^ 
German,  6,136  Italian,  1,482  Hungarian,  815 
Polish,  757  Gechic,  453  Slavic,  363  Croa- 
tian, 244  Russniak,  214  Servian,  171  Boa- 
manian.  Vienna  and  Milan  are  the  prixi- 
cipal  places  of  publication,  alter  whic^  oomes 
Hungary.  During  this  period  500  books  have 
been  issued  in  Hungary,  the  smallest  nom- 
ber  in  the  Cechic  language.  Trieste  and  its 
vicinity  have  published  221,  the  Tjxol  ITO, 
and  Poland  169.  In  Croatia  have  been  pub- 
lished 25,  Carinthia  18,  Dalmatia  15,  Aus- 
trian Silesia  14^  Banat  8,  the  Military  Cirde 
4,  Bukowina  2.  In  Bohemia  there  are  7,874 
inhabitants  for  one  publication,  in  Hungaiy 
9,555,  and  in  southern  Austria  979.  Of  the 
24,000  publications,  1,388  were  theological,  813 
sermons  and  morals,  1,806  educational,  3,579 
on  law,  5,647  on  commerce,  792  natural  sci- 
enoe,  667  history,  222  geography,  155  poetrj, 
146  plays,  546  romances,  beside  jounuus. — in 
the  7  years  from  1847  to  1854  the  followi^ 
numbers  of  books  are  stated  to  have  appeared  in 
Norway:  in  philology  87,  metaphysics  23, 
pedagogical  soience  65,  theology  18,  law  63, 


BOOKSELLING 


607 


pditios  And  national  economy  46,  nedical 
Boience  26,  natural  philosophj  89,  rural  econ- 
omy 48,  technology  12,  liistorj  123,  nau- 
tical and  commercial  science  88,  military 
science  28,  mathematics  28,  belles-lettres  187, 
miscellaneous  writings  6— a  total,  during  the 
7  yeara,  of  1,027  volumes,  or,  on  an  aver- 
age, 146  every  year.  Of  these,  870  were  origi- 
nal works,  189  translations,  and  the  remaining 
18  reprints  of  older  books.  More  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  number,  viz.,  791  volumes,  were 
printed  at  Ohristiania  (the  seat  of  the  nniver- 
sity),  whereas  only  100  appeared  at  Bergen 
(the  principal  commercial  town),  27  at  Dront- 
heiro,  26  at  Stavanger,  19  at  Skien,  11  at  Chris- 
tiansand,  &o.  In  order  to  buy  a  copy  of  every 
book  appearing  in  Norway,  a  sum  of  90  to  100 
roecies  ($100  to  $126)  per  annum  would  suffice. 
The  whole  literature  of  the  country  since  1814 
may  be  purchased  for  a  little  more  than  2,500 
species. — In  the  0  years  from  1848  to  1856, 
1,709  printed  works,  on  an  average,  have  appear- 
ed annually  in  Holland;  a  figure  which,  when 
compared  with  a  population  of  only  about  8,000,- 
000,  is  by  no  means  unimportant.  Beside,  it 
has  been  regularly  increasing  ever  since  1861 ; 
in  1866  the  sum  total  of  new  works  amounted 
to  1,859.  Of  these,  849  were  devoted  to  theol- 
ogy, 265  to  philology  and  literary  history,  and 
188  were  school  books.  Political  economy  was 
represented  by  188  works,  history  by  112,  na- 
tural philosophy  by  52,  mathematics  by  25, 
jurisprudence  by  48,  metaphysics  by  only  17. 
Belles-lettres  mustered  142  works,  of  which 
57  were  novels.  The  number  of  publish- 
ers and  booksellers  amounts  to  900,  that  of 
printers  to  287,  and  that  of  paper  factories  to 
184. — ^In  Greece,  the  Ionian  islands,  and  Tur- 
key, there  were  188  books  published  in  1851, 
and  in  1852,  164:  120  in  Greece;  29,  Ionian 
Islands;  7,  Turkey;  107,  Athens;  8,  Syra;  8, 
Patras;  1,  Nauplia;  1,  Tripolitza;  14,  Corfu; 
8,0ephalonia;  7,  Zante;  2,  Constantinople ;  4, 
Smyrna ;  and  1,  Bucharest. — ^Durinff  6  months 
of  1856  it  is  stated  that  over  400  books  were 
published  in  Piedmont,  of  which  a  large  pro- 
portion were  polemical  essays;  the  number  in- 
clades  12  volumes  of  poetry,  7  romances,  5 
dramas,  80  histories,  and  12  historical  memoirs. 
—Bookselling  in  America  presents  no  very 
notable  historical  incidents.  The  first  of  the 
profession  mentioned  by  Thomas  in  his  ^^  His- 
tory of  Printing,"  isHezekiah  Usher,  of  Boston, 
known  to  have  been  in  the  business  as  early  as 
1652.  His  son,  John  Usher,  succeeded  him, 
and  is  thus  spoken  of  by  Dunton,  who  visited 
Boston  in  1686 :  *'  This  trader  makes  the  best 
figure  in  Boston;  he's  verv  rich,  adventures 
mnoh  to  sea,  but  has  got  his  estate  by  book- 
selling." Of  books  at  that  time  offered  for  sale 
the  great  minority  were,  of  course,  imported, 
and  were  kept  in  shops  with  other  goods,  as 
Benedict  Arnold  combined  the  business  of  drug- 
gist and  bookseller ;  but,  more  frequentlv,  the 
association  was  of  nearer  kin — ^printer,  bmder, 
and  bookseller,  a  natural  connection,  whidi 


continued  as  a  rule  for  many  years,  and  is  illus- 
trated by  the  familiar  instance  of  Franklin.  In 
1732,  Bichard  Fry,  an  Englishman  and  book- 
seller of  Boston,  advertised  :  ^^  Whereas,  it  has 
been  the  common  method  of  the  most  curious 
merchants  of  Boston  to  procure  their  books 
from  London,  this  is  to  acquaint  those  gentle- 
men that  I,  the  said  Fry,  will  sell  all  sorts  of 
accompt  books,  done  after  the  most  acute  man- 
ner, for  20  per  cent,  cheaper  than  they  can 
have  them  from  London.  *  *  *  For  the  pleas- 
ing entertainment  of  the  polite  parts  of  man- 
kind, I  have  printed  the  most  beautiful  poems 
of  Mr.  Stephen  Duck,  the  famous  Wiltshire 
poet.  It  is  a  full  demonstration  to  me  that  tlie 
people  of  New  England  have  a  fine  taste  for 
good  sense  and  polite  learning,  having  already 
sold  1,200  of  those  poems."  The  first  conven- 
tion of  booksellers  for  the  regulation  of  trade 
seems  to  have  been  held  in  Boston,  1724;  it 
was  for  the  special  purpose  of  increasing  the 
prices  of  certain  works.  Toward  the  close  of 
the  last  century  bookselling  began  to  take  rank 
among  the  most  considerable  commercial  pur- 
suits, though  it  then  only  foreshadowed  its 
present  comparative  importance.  Works  of 
standard  character,  involving  large  expendi- 
tures, were  undertaken  by  publishers,  who,  in 
such  cases,  usually  subscribed  together,  as  a 
guarantee  for  the  printer^s  outlay.  The  trade 
was  conducted  upon  established  principles,  and 
innovators  were  held  in  poor  esteem.  All 
these  usages  were,  however,  disturbed  by  com- 
petition, and  after  the  publication  of  the  Wa- 
verley  novels,  of  which  rival  editions  were 
issued,  the  individual  members  of  the  trade 
acted  more  independently  of  each  other,  and 
their  customs  afterward  partook  of  a  less  narrow 
spirit  The  American  company  of  booksellers 
was  founded  in  1801,  Books  were  formerly 
sold  in  sheets,  to  be  bound  as  purchasers  might 
desire,  a  practice  which  no  longer  obtains.  Ilie 
universal  diffusion  of  education  in  America,  and 
the  inquiring  mental  character  of  its  people,  not 
only  increased  the  circulation  of  books  bat  re- 
duced their  price,  and  the  old-fashioned  venera- 
tion which  literary  works  had  once  inspired  ex- 
perienced no  little  modification.  Externab 
became  of  small  consequence  to  the  great  body 
of  readei^  and  works  were  purchased  not  so 
much  for  preservation  as  for  immediate  read- 
ing. This  is  not  peculiar  to  America,  for  in  all 
the  principal  publishing  countries  it  appears  to 
be  now  understood  that  the  proportion  of  ex- 
pense for  mere  externals  should,  within  the 
limits  of  good  taste  and  sufficient  perspicuity 
and  durability,  be  reduced  to  the  lowest  stand- 
ard. The  practical  advantages  of  cheapness 
were  at  first  demonstrated  by  the  absence  of 
international  copyright,  which  brought  compe- 
tition to  the  basis  solely  of  mechanical  excellence 
and  lowness  of  price ;  and  although,  for  a  time, 
there  was  a  tendency  to  consult  cheapness 
to  the  sacrifice  of  other  quite  as  essential 
qualities,  a  reaction,  experienced  within  the 
last  few  years,  promises  to  correct  that  which 


508 


BOOKSELLING 


the  popular  appreciation  of  the  traest  economy 
had  agreed  to  condemn.  The  namber  of  different 
publisners  of  American  books  in  the  years  1856 
and  1857  was  865,  principally  of  ^ew  York, 
Boston,  and  Philadelphia.  Many  books  ema- 
nate from  Cincinnati,  and  the  indications  are 
that  a  large  independent  trade  will,  before  many 
years,  be  established  in  the  West.  There  are  2 
departments  of  the  book  publishing  business  in 
the  United  States  pretty  clearly  separated: 
those  who  sell  books  through  the  retail  stores, 
and  those  who  sell  by  personal  application — 
the  makers  of  what  are  technically  called  trade, 
and  the  makers  of  subscription  books — books 
which  buyers  are  expected  to  come  for,  and 
books  which  go  to  them.  The  regular  trade  is 
divided  into  publidiers,  jobbers,  and  retailers. 
Jobbers  purchase  of  publishers  in  large  quanti- 
ties, and,  consequently,  on  favorable  terms, 
which  enables  them  to  supply  retailers  at  the 
publishers'  rates.  Betailers  are  scattered  all 
over  the  country,  in  the  cities  and  smallest  vil- 
li^es;  in  the  latter  often  connecting  with  their 
stock  of  literature  the  miscellaneous  assortment 
of  the  country  store.  Increase  of  bookselling 
has  led  to  classification,  and  the  trade  has  been 
gradually  separating  into  several  divisions  or 
specialities,  tiie  principal  of  which  are  miscel- 
laneous, religious,  scientific,  educational,  musi- 
cal, legal,  medical,  appricultural,  and  foreign 
booksellers ;  but  the  distinction  is  by  no  means 
fixed  or  complete.  Assuming  them  for  the  sake 
of  convenience,  we  may  designate  still  further 
subdivisions:  tho  miscellaneous,  inclining  to- 
ward particular  classes,  as  poetry,  novels,  &c, 
and  the  religions,  representing  the  different 
churches.  Beside  these,  publishers  of  subscrip- 
tion books  may  be  also  divided  into  those  who 
issue  books  in  small  parts,  and  tibose  who  issue 
in  complete  volumes.  The  style  in  which  busi- 
ness is  done  also  varies  greatly.  Many  publish- 
ers get  out  a  rather  regular  succession  of  works, 
each  of  which  is  advertised  to  a  certain  extent, 
and  then  abandoned  to  its  own  merits  and  for- 
tune. Others  publish  few  books,  but  *'push" 
them  with  great  energy.  The  pnshing  process 
is  performed  through  the  facilities  afforded  by 
the  press,  and  the  publisher  seeks  by  every  in- 
genious expedient  to  arouse  public  curiosity. 
Among  the  greatest  successes  may  be  mentioned, 
"  Uncle  Tom's  Oabin,"  of  which  810,000  copies 
have  been  sold;  "The  Lamplighter,"  90,000; 
"  Shady  Side,"  43,000 ;  **  Fern  Leaves,"  70,000 ; 
"  Buth  Hall,"  65,000 ;  "  Alone,"  "  The  Hidden 
Path,"  "  Moss  Side,"  each  25,000;  Longfellow's 
"Hiawatha,"  43 000 ;  "  Life  of  Bamum,"  46,- 
000;  "Life  of  Amos  Lawrence,"  23,000; 
Hugh  idler's  works,  50,000 ;  Sears's  "  Wonders 
of  the  World,"  100,000;  of  larger  works, 
"Benton's  80  Years'  View,"  2  vols.  8vo, 
55,000;  Kane's  "Arctic  Explorations,"  2  vols. 
8vo,  65,000,  paying  $65,000  copyright ;  Har- 
pers' "Pictorial  Bible,"  $20  a  copy,  25,000; 
and  Goodrich's  "History  of  All  Nations," 
2  vols.  8vo  ($7),  30,000.  School  books  oc- 
casionally attain  aa  enormous  and  permanent 


circulation,  and  their  publishers  compete  en« 
orgetically  for  the  market  Agents  are  often 
employed  at  great  expense  to  visit  the  various 
schools  for  the  purpose  of  substituting  new 
books  for  old,  receiving  little  or  nothing  for  the 
difference  in  value ;  though  this  ruinous  prac- 
tice is  becoming  discontinued.  Of  Mitchell's  geo> 
graphical  bool^  there  is  a  probable  issue  of 
1,000  per  day,  and  of  Davies's  mathematical 
series,  800,000  were  circulated  in  1857 ;  of  San- 
ders's "Readers"  about  the  same;  and  many 
other  school-books  have  an  annual  sale  of  from 
20,000  to  50,000.  The  books  of  Noah  Webster 
have,  however,  reached  the  greatest  circulation. 
Of  the  "  Elementary  Spelling  Book,"  35,000,000 
have  been  sold,  and  its  annival  issue  is  over 
1,000,000.  Webster's  dictionaries,  of  which 
there  are  8  abridgments,  have  had  an  aggregate 
sale  of  nearly  2,000,000,  and  about  100,000  are 
sold  annually  of  the  "  Primary."  The  publication 
of  music  books  has  been  very  snccc»sful,  more 
especially  collections  of  church  music,  or  psalm 
and  hymn  tunes,  glee  books.  Juvenile  musical 
books,  and  instrumental  instrnctors  of  all  kinds. 
"The  Handel  and  Havdn  Collection,"  by  Dr. 
Lowell  Mason,  published  30  years  since,  has 
passed  through  nearly  40  editions,  and  ^^  The 
Carmina  Sacra,"  by  the  same  author,  has  had  a 
circulation  of  about  500,000  copies,  yielding 
a  copyright  of  about  $50,000.  Of  late  there 
has  been  a  steady  and  rapid  increase  in  the 
issues  of  books  in  the  more  advanced  depart- 
ments, such  as  works  on  the  science  of  music, 
harmony,  counterpoint,  and  the  like,  but  there 
seems  to  be  little  demand  for  musical  belle»- 
lettres.  In  law  and  medical  bookselling^  the 
United  States  holds  a  high  rank  as  compared 
with  other  countries.  The  circulation  of  these 
books  is  very  large.  A  peculiar  feature  in 
American  bookselling  is  to  be  found  in  agri- 
cultural publications.  One  house  in  New 
York  is  devoted  to  this  department  exclu- 
sively. It  has  a  list  of  100  different  woi:^ 
by  63  authors,  of  whom  about  50  are  Ameri* 
can.  The  books  are  in  good  demand,  especially 
those  on  horses  and  stock ;  5,000  of  I^nsley's 
"  Morgan  Horse"  were  sold  in  the  first  6  months 
of  publication;  Allen's  "Domestic  Animals** 
has  had  an  issue  of  12,000,  and  Dadd's  "Mod- 
ern Horse  Doctor,"  14,000.  The  interest  tak&k 
in  the  introduction  of  the  new  sugar-canes  has 
exhausted  4,000  of  Olcott's  "Sorgho  andlm- 
phee,"  and  8,000  of  2  pamphlets  on  the  same 
subject.  A  class  of  books  which  «re  occasion- 
ally overlooked  in  connection  with  this  sul^ject 
are  those  called  cheap  publications.  These  Iuitb 
a  very  large  circulation,  frequendy  as  great  aa 
200,000  copies,  "  The  Widow's  Walk,'»  by  Sue^ 
and  "  The  Dancing  Feather,"  bv  J.  H.  Ingra- 
ham,  with,  no  doubt,  many  others,  have  ex* 
oeeded  that  numbw.  At  26  cents  per  copy, 
these  books  are  sometimes  bought  by  the  pub- 
lic to  the  extent  of  $50,000  each,  an  amount 
much  beyond  that  paid  for  works  of  higher 
literary  pretensions,  published  in  more  elegant 
style.    In  addition  to  aU  these,  we  haye  the 


BOOES£U.ING 


BOOLEKUMBA 


609 


publications  of  numerous  societies,  one  of  which 
aioue,  the  American  Bible  Society,  issued  in 
the  year  ending  April,  1858,  712,114  copies  of 
the  Bible.  In  Trabner's  *^  Bibliographical  Guide 
to  American  Literature,^*  the  following  table 
is  given  of  the  issue  of  books  in  the  United 
States  in  the  12  years  preceding  1842 : 

OrigliMl  AiMHeu.  lUptlBte. 

Biographj 106  122 

Amerioao  History  and  Oeognphj. 118  190 

Htstorrand  GMgnpby  of  Foreign  Conntrtes.  91  190 

Literary  UUtory —  12 

Ethics 19  81 

Poetry  (In  separate  yolames) 108  70 

Noreb  end  Tales 116  • 

Classies 71  80 

In  the  preface  to  the  '*  American  Catalogue  of 
Books,*^by  Sampson  Low,  Son  &  Co.,  of  London, 
it  is  stated  that  ^  during  1862,  unavoidably 
indudinjg  many  really  published  in  the  pre* 
ceding  6  montiis,  we  find  there  were  966  new 
books  and  new  editions,  812  of  which  were 
reprints  of  English  bookB,  and  56  translations 
from  other  countries.  During  1858,  870  new 
books  and  new  editions,  including  298  reprints 
of  Englisih  books,  and  87  translations.  During 
1854, 765  new  books  and  new  editions,  of  which 
277  were  reprints  of  English  books,  and  41 
translations.  During  1855, 1,092  new  booksand 
new  editions,  including  250  reprints  of  English 
bookfl^  and  88  translations.  And  during  the  6 
months  to  July,  1856,  751  new  books  and  new 
editions,  of  which  but  102  were  reprints  of  Eng* 
lish  books,  and  26  translations."  From  a  careful 
computation  and  anslysis  of  '^Norton's  Annual 
Book  List  for  1855,"  we  have  the  following : 

Works.  Tob. 

EdvcttUcifial. 189  154 

Nat.  HIat,  Nat  Sciences.  Agrlc,  Ac 85  67 

Biography 124  IW 

Sflsaya,  roetry,  Plotlon,  fto 770  808 

Theolocy 681  607 

History 70  92 

JaTanfies 92  117 

Mosla 42  43 

Yoyagos  and  TraTala 29  •  81 

Medldiie 79  84 

law 79  81 

Classics 18  18 

Meohaaical  Bclenoes. 28  24 

IfiseeUaiieoiis 94  90 

Total 2,102       2,888 

Of  these^  which  include  old  and  new,  649  were 
reprints.  The  foregoing  table  is  confirmed 
by  an  analysis  of  the  ^Addenda"  to  Boor- 
bach's  ^^Bibliotheca  Americana,"  which  includes 
all  the  books  published  in  the  United  States, 
from  January  1,  1856,  to  March,  1858 : 

Wcrka.  y«lt. 

Sdncattonal 748  701 

NatHlat,Nat8clenoea,Agrio.,Ae...  100  108 

Blogtaphy. 218  247 

Essays,  Poetry,  and  Fletloa 1,007  1,914 

Theology..... 842  877 

History 281  270 

Juveniles 117  151 

Music 154  154 

Toyages  and  Travels 157  100 

Medldne 188  147 

Iaw 28  28 

Classics 01  02 

If  eebanteal  Sciences 80  91 

HlMellaneoas 290  817 

Total. 4,880        o'jsn 

•  Not  ascerti^ined] 


Of  the  4,886, 1,492,  or  about  80  per  cent,  were 
reprints,  about  the  same  proportion  as  in  1855. 
From  the  '*  Recollections  of  a  Lifetime,"  by 
Mr.S.  G.  (Goodrich,  a  work  which  contains  much 
yaluable  information  and  some  curious  statistics 
on  bookselling  in  this  country,  we  extract  the 
following  table  of  the  value  of  books  manufac- 
tured and  sold  in  the  United  States  in  the  years 
1820,  1880,  1840,  1850 : 


School 

Claasf  cal . . . . 
Thooloslcal. 

Low 

Medical.... 
All  other..., 


Total, 


18S0. 

$750,0001 
250,000 
150,000 
200,000 
150,000 

1,000,000 


1830. 

$1,100,000 
850,000 
250,000 
800,000 
200,000 
1,800,000 


$2,500,OOOi$8.500.0QO 


1840. 

$2,000,000 
650,000 
800,000 
400,000 
250,000 
2,000,000 


♦5.50a000 


$5,500,000 

1,000,000 

500,000 

700,000 

400,000 

4,400,000 


$12.500,000 


The  same  writer  estimates  the  amount  of  the 
production  of  the  American  book  trade  for  the 
year  1856  at  about  $16,000,000,  which  he  di* 
Tides  as  follows :  city  of  New  York,  $6,000,000 ; 
rest  of  the  state  of  New  York,  $600,000 ;  Boston, 
$2,500,000;  New  England  states,  $600,000; 
Philadelphia,  $8,400,000;  Cincinnati,  $1,800- 
000 ;  north-western  states,  $100,000 ;  District  of 
Columbia,  by  the  government,  $750,000,  and 
the  southern  aixL  south-western  states  $760,000, 
The  amounts  of  annual  importations  of  books 
from  1851  to  1857  inclusive,  are : 


18B1 $494,158 

1852 507,715 

1858 728,221 

1854.  910,889 


1855 $898,871 

1850 767,808 

1857 874,404 


A  peculiarity  of  the  book  business  in  the  United 
States,  is  the  holding  of  trade  sales — semi-annual 
auctions,  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Cin- 
cinnati— ^to  which  publishers  contribute,  and 
which  are  attended  by  retailers.  These  sales 
have  been  in  successful  operation  for  f^bout  80 
years,  and  annually  dispose  of  books  to  the 
amount  of  from  $600,000  to  $1,000,000. 

BOOLAK,  BouLASL  or  Bulak,  an  Egyptian 
town  on  the  Nile,  ana  the  port  of  Cairo;  pop. 
5,000.  Its  site  wss  once  an  island,  but  that 
part  of  the  river  which  separated  it  from  Cairo 
has  been  filled  up.  In  1799  Boolak  wss  burned 
by  the  French.  Mehemet  Ali  rebuilt  it^  and 
established  eztennve  cotton-spinning,  weaving, 
and  printing  works,  a  school  of  engineering, 
and  a  printing  establishment,  from  which  is^ 
issued  a  weekly  newspaper  in  Arabic.  The* 
town  contains  a  naval  arsenal,  a  dockyard,  and 
a  custom-house,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  coun- 
try residences  of  numerous  Egyptian  grandees. 

BOOLEKUMBA,  a  territory  of  the  Macassar 
nation,  in  the  B.  W,  peninsula  of  Celebes,  bound- 
ed N.  by  Boni,  E.  by  the  bay  of  Boni,  8.  by  the 
Java  sea,  and  W.  by  Bonthain ;  area  190  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  15,000.  It  was  the  scene  in  1824  of  many 
severe  conflicts  between  the  Dutch  and  the 
Bngis  and  Macassar  tribes.    The  natives  re- 

Sulsed  the  Europeans  with  severe  losses  in  4 
ifferent  engagements;  but  were  finally  sub- 
dued by  an  overwhelming  military  and  naval 
force  commanded  by  Gen.  Van  Geen.  Boole- 
kumba,  chief  town  of  this  territory,  situated  on 
the  coast,  opposite  Saleyer^  lat.  5"^  83'  &,  long. 


I 


610 


BOOLUNDSHAHUR 


BOONDEE 


120^  13'  E.,  is  the  residence  of  a  Dutch  gezag- 
Jubber,  or  superintendeDt 

BOOLUNDSHAHUR,  a  British  district  of 
Hindostan,  under  the  lieutenant-governorship 
of  the  N.  W.  provinces,  between  lat.  28°  8' 
and  28*'  48'  N.,  long.  77**  28'  and  78°  82'  E.; 
bounded  N.  by:  Heerut,  S.  bj  Alighur,  E. 
by  Moradabad  and  Budaon,  W.  by  GU>orga- 
on  and  Delhi ;  length  from  N.  W.  to  S.  E. 
80  miles ;  breadth  from  N.  E.  to  S.  W.  67 
miles.  It  has  a  remarkably  level  surface,  with 
scarcely  an  inequality,  except  a  ridge  rising 
gradually  between  the  courses  of  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges,  which,  with  the  Hindon  and 
the  East  Kali  Nuddee,  are  the  principal  rivers 
of  the  district.  The  climate  is  subject  to  ex- 
tremes unusual  in  that  latitude.  In  the  latter 
part  of  spring  and  the  beginning  of  summer  the 
heat  is  oppressive,  but  in  winter  the  temperature 
frequently  falls  below  the  freezing  point,  and  ice 
forms  even  under  shelter  of  a  tent.  Domestic 
quadrupeds  attain  scarcely  half  the  size  of  those 
in  Bengal  and  Bahar,  Cotton,  however,  grows 
well,  and  constitutes  the  staple  production  of 
the  soil,  but  the  commercial  advantages  which 
this  is  supposed  to  oflfer  are  almost  wholly  neg- 
lected. The  other  products  art  indigo,  sugar, 
tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  millet,  and  several  kinds 
of  pulse.  The  pop.  is  778,842,  of  whom  688,696 
are  Hindoos,  the  remainder  Mussulmans  and 
others.  Boolnndshahur  formed  part  of  the 
territory  acquired  by  Perron,  a  French  ad- 
venturer, who  went  to  India  as  a  common 
sailor,  entered  the  service  of  the  Mahratta 
chief  Sindia,  and  by  the  exercise  of  abilities 
of  no  ordinary  stamp,  rose  gradually  to  the 
highest  offices  in  the  gift  of  his  patron,  and 
finally  became  the  sovereign  of  a  petty  state, 
and  the  commander  of  a  body  of  well  disci- 
plined soldiers.  With  his  assistance  Sindia 
was  enabled  to  make  war  upon  the  peishwa, 
and  drive  him  from  his  capital,  Poonah.  This 
circumstance  gave  the.  British  a  long-coveted 
opportunity  to  break  up  the  power  of  the  vic- 
torious adventurer,  whose  rapid  rise  and  ambi- 
tious plans  they  could  not  view  without  alarm. 
They  willingly  granted  the  peishwa^s  request 
for  assistance,  and  several  battles  were  fought 
in  1808 J  in  which  the  British  were  almost  al- 
ways victorious.  The  last  victory,  gained  by 
Jx)rd  Lake  near  Delhi,  Sept.  14,  gave  the 
death-blow  to  the  French  state,  though  the 
war  was  not  concluded  for  some  time  after- 
-ward.  Perron  made  tenns  with  the  English, 
and  retired  into  private  life  at  Lucknow  with 
his  family  and  effects.  A  treaty  was  concluded 
with  Sindia,  at  Serjee  Angengaum,  Dec.  80, 
1808,  by  which  Boolundshahur  and  other  pos- 
sessions were  ceded  to  the  East  India  company. 
— BooLUNDSHAHUB,  or  BuRRUN,  a  towu  of  the 
above  district,  situated  on  the  Kali  Nuddee,  40 
miles  S.  E.  of  Delhi,  was  the  scene  of  a  revolt 
of  native  troops,  May  20,  1857.  A  spy  having 
been  seized  by  the  troops  was  given  up  to  the  au- 
thorities, and  on  proof  of  his  guilt  was  hanged. 
But  unfortunately  the  man  was  a  Bramin,  and 


his  Ignominious  death  so  excited  the  very  sol- 
diers who  had  apprehended  him,  that  they 
marched  off  to  Alighur  and  incited  their  com- 
rades there  to  mutiny.  The  English  officers 
fled  to  Agra.  About  Oct.  1,  Col.  Great- 
head  attacked  the  mutineers  near  here,  silenoed 
their  artillery,  drove  them  from  a  strong  por- 
tion, and  charged  and  pursued  them  through 
the  town  with  considerable  loss  on  both  sides. 

BOOM  (Dutch,  bo<nn^  a  beam),  in  sea  lan- 
guage, a  long  spar  for  spreading  out  the  dew 
or  corner  of  certain  sails,  as  the  jib  boom,  stud- 
ding-sail boom,  main  boom,  &o. — ^Also,  an  iron 
cable  or  barricade  of  spars  Joined  together  and 
stretched  across  a  river  or  harbor,  to  prevent 
the  passage  of  the  enemy^s  ships. 

BOOMERANG,  Bomkrang,  and  Womera, 
are  different  modes  of  spellhig  the  Australian 
name  of  a  native  weapon  of  war,  used  also  in 
the  chase.  It  consists  of  a  heavy  wooden  dnb, 
about  80  inches  long,  8  wide,  and  1  inch  thidk ; 
flat  on  one  side,  and  convex  on  the  o^er; 
bent,  without  moving  the  flat  side  out  of  its 
own  plane,  either  into  an  arc  or  into  an  obtuse 
angle.  This  club  is  thrown,  flat  side  down, 
spinning  with  great  velocity,  and  it  will  either 
return  to  its  owner,  or  turn  to  tlie  right  or  left^ 
according  to  its  first  position.  It  skims  upon 
the  air,  like  a  bird  with  the  wings  expanded ; 
the  rotation  causing  the  plane  of  rotation  to 
resist  change  of  direction,  and  thus  avoiding 
those  sudden  and  capricious  movements  ob- 
served in  fiat  stones  or  plates  of  metal  when 
thrown  edgewise  through  the  air.  Kaval  archi- 
tects have  attempted  to  apply  the  principle  of 
the  bomerang  to  screw  steamships,  but  so  far 
the  idea  has  not  found  favor  with  ship-builds^ 

BOOMING,  in  sea  language,  is  the  applloa- 
tion  of  the  boom  to  the  sails  in  order  to  catch 
more  of  the  breeze,  and  quicken  the  speed  of 
the  ship. 

BOOKDEE,  a  small  territory  in  Bajpootana, 
Hindostan,  under  the  political  superintendence 
of  the  governor  general,  between  lat.  24"*  58^ 
and  26''  65'  N.,  and  long.  76^  23'  and  76°  80'  K; 
bounded  N.  by  Jeypoor,  E.  by  Eotah,  S.  by 
Sindia's  territory,  W.  by  Odeypoor.  Length, 
86  miles;  breadth,  60  miles;  area,  2,291  sq. 
m.  Pop.  estimated  at  229,l(fo,  or  100  to  the  sq. 
m.,  which  is  the  average  density  of  popular 
tion  in  British  Rf^  poo  tan  a.  A  range  of  moun- 
tains traverses  it  from  N.  E.  to  S,W.,  on  each  side 
of  which  the  surface  is  level.  There  are  no  large 
rivers  within  the  territory,  but  the  Ghumbul,  a 
navigable  affluent  of  the  Jumna,  forms  part 
of  its  E.  boundary.  The  climate  is  unhealthy, 
fevers,  rheumatism,  ophthalmia,  and  bronchial 
affections  being  very  prevalent.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Meenas,  a  lawless  preda- 
tory tribe,  dwelling  chiefly  among  the  moun- 
tains, and  supposed  to  be  the  early  possessors 
of  the  district.  The  dominant  tribe,  however, 
to  which  the  sovereign  belongs,  is  that  of  the 
Haras,  which  has  given  birth  to  many  famous 
men.  The  military  force  at  the  disposal  of  the 
monarch,  including  feudatories  and  the  police, 


BOONE 


511 


is  6,170  men.  The  revenne,  derived  obieflj 
fjroni  taxes  oa  land  and  transit  duties,  kmoants  to 
about  £50,000.  There  b  no  fortress  of  any  im- 
portance except  that  of  Nynwah,  which  Bui- 
wnnt  Sing  obtained  by  bribery  in  1806,  and  de- 
fended fur  several  months.  The  territory  sub- 
ject to  the  nyah  of  Boondee  was  anciently  of 
much  greater  extent  than  at  present  and  was 
called  Uaraoti,  from  its  dominant  tribe.  It  is 
said  to  liave  been  wrested  from  the  Meenas  by 
Bao  Dewa,  in  1842.  It  was  dismembered  by 
Jehangir,  about  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
and  the  territory  of  Kotah  set  apart  for  a  de- 
scendant of  a  former  ngah.  In  1804,  during 
the  war  between  the  British  and  Mahrattas, 
in  which  Col.  Monson  was  defeated  with  so 
much  loss  by  Holkar,  the  ngah  of  Boondee  at- 
tached himself  warmly  to  the  British  cause, 
gave  the  retreating  army  free  passage  through 
h\a  territories,  and  assisted  it  as  foir  as  possi- 
ble. This  conduct  naturally  aroused  the  resent-' 
ment  of  the  Mahratta  chief,  who  seized  upon 
his  capital,  and  exacted  of  him  a  tribute.  Not- 
withstanding no  return  had  been  made  for 
his  former  services,  he  espoused  the  British 
cause  agdn  in  1817  during  the  Mahratta  and 
Pindaree  wars,  at  the  conclusion  of  which  the 
East  India  company  rewarded  him  by  remitting 
the  tribute  which  Holkar^s  defeat  v  had  now 
placed  at  their  disposal,  and  restoring  the  lands 
which  had  been  wrested  from  him  in  1804.  A 
tribute  formerly  paid  by  Boondee  to  Sindia 
was  transferred  at  the  same  time  to  the  British. 
The  ruler  who  had  proved  so  true  an  ally  died 
in  1821,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  then 
about  1 1  years  of  age.  During  his  minority  the 
regency  was  exercised  by  his  mother,  under 
whose  government  the.  education  of  the  prince 
and  the  welfare  of  the  state  were  alike  neglected. 
By  the  treaty  of  Gwalior,  Jan.  1844,  the  man- 
agement of  about  two-thirds  of  Patun,  a  part  of 
Boondee  which  had  been  in  the  possession  of 
Sindia  for  many  years,  was  made  over  to  the 
i^  India  company. — ^Bookdes,  the  capital,  is 
situated  in  a  valley  surrounded  by  rocky  hills, 
22  miles  N.  W.  of  Xotah,  and  246  miles  S. 
W.  of  Delhi.  It  is  encompassed  by  walls  with 
8  massive  gates,  and  inhabited  chiefly  by  na- 
tive Haras.  Its  advantages  as  a  commercial 
town  are  very  few,  but  the  beautv  of  its  situa- 
tion, its  antiquity,  numerous  temples,  handsome 
fountains,  and  palaces,  invest  it  with  comdder- 
able  interest.  The  residence  of  the  r^jah,  which 
is  not  one  edifice  merely,  but  a  collection  of 
splendid  structures  reared  by  different '  sover- 
eigns, and  each  bearing  the  name  of  its  founder, 
stands  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  overlooking  the 
town.  The  town  is  divided  into  old  and  new 
Boondeow  the  first  of  which  is  in  a  state  of  decay. 
BOONE,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of  the 
United  States.  I.  A  county  of  Virginia,  named 
from  the  pioneer  Daniel  Boone,  near  the  western 
border  of  the  state,  was  set  off  from  Eanawha, 
Cabell,  and  Logan  counties,  in  1847.  lu  area 
is  525  sq.  m.  Its  surface,  which  is  drained  by 
the  head  waters  of  little  Coal  creek,  a  tribu- 


tary of  the  Great  Kanawha,  is  hilly,  and  to  a 
great  extent  covered  with  forests.  The  soil, 
which  is  very  fertile  in  some  places,  is  largely 
devoted  to  the  raising  of  live  stock,  and  the 
culture  of  wheat.  Its  real  estate  was  assessed, 
in  1850,  at  $228,288 ;  in  1855,  at  $425,441, 
showing  an  increase  of  86  per  cent.  Pop.  in 
1850,  8,287,  of  whom  188  were  slaves.  II.  A 
northern  county  of  Kentucky,  with  an  area 
of  800  sq.  m.,  separated  from  Ohio  and  Indiana 
by  the  Ohio  river,  which  flows  along  its  north- 
ern and  western  Dorder  for  a  distance  of  about 
40  miles.  The  surface  is  hilly,  and  the  soil, 
resting  upon  a  basis  of  blue  limestone,  pro- 
duces abundant  crops.  The  harvest,  in  1850, 
amounted  to  1,056,650  bushels  of  corn,  71,749 
of  wheat,  62,719  of  oats,  298,152  lbs.  of  to- 
bacco, 85,027  of  wool,  and  19,074  of  flax. 
There  were  28  churches,  and  650  pupils  at- 
tending public  schools.  The  county  was  or- 
ganized in  1798.  Capital,  Burlington.  Pop.  in 
1850,  11,185,  of  whom  2,104  were  slaves.  III. 
A  central  county  of  Indiana,  containing  408  sq. 
m.,  and  drained  by  Eagle  and  Sugar  creeks.  The 
surface,  which  is  either  level  or  moderately  un- 
even, was  originally  covered  by  dense  forests  of 
oak,  beech,  sugar  maple,  ash,  and  walnut,  much 
of  which  has  been  cleared  away  during  the  past 
10  or  15  years.  The  soil  is  deep  and  fertile. 
In  1850,  it  produced  488,045  bushels  of  corn, 
76,289  of  wheat,  46,187  of  oats,  and  4,259 
tons  of  hay.  Capital,  Lebanon.  Pop.  in  1850, 
11,681.  IV.  A  northern  county  of  Illinois, 
bordering  on  Wisconsin,  intersected  by  Kish- 
waukee  river,  and  comprising  an  area  of  270 
sq.  m.  It  has  a  rolling  surface,  diversified  by 
fertile  prairie  lands  and  forests.  The  produc- 
tions, in  1850,  were  248,107  bushels  of  wheat, 
159,114  of  corn,  141,825  of  oats,  12,676  tons 
of  hay,  and  173,966  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were 
6  churches,  and  1,848  pupils  attending  public 
schools.  Pop.  in  1855,  11,994.  Capital,  Bel- 
videre.  Y.  A  northern  central  county  of  Mis- 
souri, containing  648  sq.  m.,  bounded  on  the 
S.  W.  by  the  Missouri  river,  and  intersected  by 
2  of  its  tributaries.  The  surface  is  slightly  un- 
even, and  consists  mainly  of  prairies  interspersed 
with  forests  of  considerable  extent.  The  soil  is 
uniformly  productive,  and  well  tilled;  Stone 
coal  and  limestone  are  the  chief  minerals.  In 
1850,  the  county  produced  1,001,983  bushels  of 
corn,  70,168  of  wheat,  80,543  of  oats,  584,949 
lbs.  of  tobacco,  and  51  tons  of  hemp.  Capital, 
Columbia.  Pop.  in  1856,  17,248,  of  whom 
4,712  were  slaves.  YI.  A  western  central  county 
of  Iowa,  bisected  by  the  Des  Moines  river,  and 
having  an  area  of  576  sq.  ro.  Forests  occupy  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  surface;  beds  of 
cool  are  found  in  several  places,  and  tlie  soil  is 
highly  productive.  In  1856,  it  yielded  2,865 
tons  of  hay,  16,646  bushels  of  wheat,  18,907 
of  oats,  and  244,025  of  corn.  Capital,  Boone- 
viUe.    Pop.  in  1856, 8,518. 

BOONE,  a  village  situated  in  a  moun- 
tainous district  of  North  Carolina,  Watauga 
CO.,  200  miles  W.  from  Baleigb.    The  cele- 


512 


DANIEL  BOONE 


brated  Daniel  Boone,  from  whom  the  place  de- 
rived its  name,  once  resided  io  this  vicinity. 

BOONE,  Danikl,  the  pioneer  of  Kentucky, 
bom  in  Bucks  co.,  Penn.,  Feb.  1785,  died  Sept 
26, 1822.  He  was  one  of  11  children.  His 
father,  whose  name  was  Squire  Boone,  emigrat- 
ed from  England,  and  when  Daniel  was  a  very 
small  boy  removed  with  his  family  from  Bucks 
into  Berks  co.,  not  far  from  Reading.  This 
was  then  a  frontier  settlement,  exposed  to  Indi- 
an assaults.  It  abomided  with  giune,  and  thu^ 
from  his  earliest  years,  Daniel  was  aocnstomea 
to  a  life  in  the  woods,  and  formed  an  intense 
love  for  unoaltivated  nature.  His  education 
was  confined  to  a  knowledge  of  reading,  writ- 
ing, and  arithmetic.  When  he  was  about  18  his 
faUier  removed  to  North  Carolina,  and  settled  on 
the  waters  of  the  Tadkin.  Here  Daniel  married 
Rebecca  Bryan,  and  for  some  years  followed  the 
occupation  of  a  farmer,  but  about  1761  we  find 
that  his  passion  for  nunting  led  him,  with  a 
company  of  explorers,  along  the  wilderness  at 
the  head  waters  of  the  Tennessee  river.  In 
1764  he  Joined  another  company  of  hunters  on 
the  Rock  Castle,  a  branch  of  the  Cumberland 
river.  He  now  became  dissatisfied  with  his  mode 
of  life  in  N.  C.  The  customs  and  fashions  of 
the  colony  were  n^idly  becoming  luxurious; 
the  rich  were  exempt  fixMn  the  necessity  of  labor, 
the  industrious  but  poor  farmer  came  to  be 
looked  upon  with  contempt,  and  the  people 
were  much  oppressed  by  taxes.  Boone  had 
probably  imbibed  that  chronic  hatred  of  law 
forms  which  lasted  through  life,  and  the  neglect 
of  which,  in  securing  his  titles  to  land,  reduced 
him  to  poverty  on  more  than  one  occasion.  In 
1767  a  backwoodsman  named  John  Finley  made 
an  excursion  further  west  than  had  before  been 
attempted,  and  returned  with  the  most  glowing 
accounts  of  the  border  region  of  Kentucky, 
which,  as  it  abounded  with  game,  he  represent* 
ed  as  a  hunter's  paradise.  Boone  became  at 
once  anxious  to  visit  it,  but  it  was  many  months 
before  he  could  make  his  arrangements  to  do 
so.  At  length  a  party  of  6  was  formed,  of 
which  he  was  the  leader.  In  his  own  words : 
"  It  was  on  the  1st  of  Hay,  in  the  year  1769, 
that  I  resigned  my  domestic  happiness  for  a 
time,  and  left  my  family  and  peaceable  habita- 
tion on  the  Yadkin  river,  to  wander  through 
the  wilderness  of  America  in  quest  of  the 
country  of  Kentucky."  June  7,  m  the  same 
year,  they  reached  an  elevation  from  which 
they  beheld  the  whole  region  watered  by  the 
Kentucky  river  and  its  tributaries.  At  this 
point  they  halted  and  resolved  to  hunt  the  buf- 
falo and  reconnoitre  the  country.  Their  site 
was  on  the  waters  of  the  Bed  river,  a  branch  of 
the  Kentucky,  and,  as  well  as  can  now  be  as- 
certained, was  within  the  present  limits  of  Mor- 
gan CO.  They  hunted  imtil  December  without 
seeing  a  single  Indian,  although  they  were 
continually  on  the  alert  for  them.  They  then 
separated  into  parties,  Boone  and  a  man  named 
Stewart  keeping  company,  and,  on  Dec.  22, 
these  2  were  surprised  and  captured  by  Indi- 


ana, who  robbed  them  and  kept  them  ivriaoDen 
for  7  days,  when  they  managed  st  nif^t  to 
make  good  their  escape.  Early  in  the  net 
month  Boone  and  Stewart  were  gratified  by 
the  arrival  in  the  wilderness  of  Daniel'i  braUur 
Squire  and  another  hunter,  from  N.  C,  bring- 
ing tidings  of  the  family  at  home  and  a  modh 
needed  supply  of  powder  and  lead.  Soon  ifter 
this  event  Stewart  and  Boone  were  agais  at- 
tacked by  Indians.  Boone  escaped,  bathisooB- 
panion  was  shot  and  scalped,  and  the  man  vbo 
came  with  Squire  having  perished  in  the  woods 
from  some  unknown  cause,  the  2  brothen  ven 
left  alone  together  in  the  vast  wildenie»  Oi 
Kay  1,  it  was  decided  that  Squire,  the  jeooier 
brother,  should  return  for  supplies,  whikDaa- 
iel  should  remain  to  take  care  of  and  iacRaN 
the  store  of  peltry.  They  Wted,  and  mtil 
July  27,  when  Squire  returned,  Daniel  remuB- 
ed  in  utter  solitude,  without  bread,  aalt,  orn- 
gar.  The  brothers  then  continued  thor  eiplo- 
rations  over  otiier  parts  of  Kentoekj,  md 
Karch,  1771,  when,  taking  as  much  peltiyM 
their  horses  could  capy,  they  retained  to  their 
families  on  the  Tadkin,  Daniel  having  been  ab- 
sent about  2  years,  daring  which  time  be  bad 
seen  no  human  beings  but  his  hunting  oompiB- 
ions  and  the  hostile  Indians.  He  was  sow  tti* 
ions  to  remove  to  Kentucky,  an^  slthooghba 
wife  and  children  were  easily  peraosded  to  do 
BO,  2  years  elapsed  before  he  could  make  the 
necessary  arrangements.  He  sold  his  fann.  and, 
on  Sept  26, 1778,  the2  brothers,  withtheirfcin. 
ilies,  set  out  for  Kentucky.  At  Powell^sTaUej, 
through  which  thdr  route  lay,  they  wen  joia- 
ed  by  5  families  and  40  men  wdl  armed,  botoa 
approaching  Cumberland  gap,  near  the  JnDdNB 
of  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  Tennessee,  tb^ 
were  attacked  by  Indians,  and  were  fowed  to 
retreat  40  miles  to  Clinch  river,  kaving  6  of 
their  party  slain,  among  whom  was  Boodoi 
eldest  son,  Jamea.  The  mnigrants  were  maohdv- 
heartened,  and  Boone  remained  at  CSincb  rinr 
until  June,  1774^  when  Gov.  Dunmore  aeat  bin 
a  message  to  proceed  to  the  wilderoeGS  of  Eeo- 
tucky,  and  conduct  thence  a  party  of  wrvejoo 
who  were  believed  to  be  in  danger  from  tbeln- 
dians.  This  undertaking  was  succesBfol,  but  no 
incidents  of  it  have  been  preserved,  exoeptiag 
that  Boone  was  absent  62  days,  in  wMch  be 
travelled  on  foot  800  miles.  While  he  was 
gone  to  Kentucky  the  Shawnees  and  otber  u^ 
dians  N.  W.  of  the  Ohio  river  became  Ikam 
Boone  was  appointed  to  the  command  of  3  cod- 
tiguous  garrisons,  with  the  commission  of  c^ 
tain,  and,  having  fought  several  !«»»•» 
defeated  the  Indians,  he  returned  to  hiBtm 
on  Clinch  river  and  spent  the  next  wiwj 
in  hunting.  He  was  shortly  after  ^ff^ 
by  the  Transylvania  company,  establisbedw 
purchase  lands  in  Kentucky,  to  explore,  nOT 
and  open  a  road  from  settlements  on  the  d^- 
ston  to  the  Kentucky  river.  I**  *^"JJ^ 
great  dangers  this  was  accomplished,  and  oa 
April  1,  1775,  a  site  having  been  selected  « 
the  bank  of  the  Kentucky  river,  the  paiv 


DANIEL  BOONE 


513 


erected  a  stockade  fort,  and  called  it  Boones- 
borongh.  On  his  return  to  Clinch  river  Boone 
soon  removed  his  family  to  the  new  settlements, 
and  says :  '*  We  arrived  safe,  without  any  other 
diffioolty  than  such  as  are  common  to  this  pas- 
sage, my  wife  and  daughters  being  the  first 
white  women  that  ever  stood  on  the  banks  of 
Eentacky  river."  The  winter  and  spring  of  1776 
wore  away  without  any  particular  incident,  as 
the  Indians,  though  by  no  means  friendly,  made 
no  direct  attack  on  the  stations.  July  14,  a 
danfffater  of  Boone,  with  2  female  companions, 
eareiessly  wandered  out  of  the  stockade  fort 
and  crossed  the  river  in  a  canoe  opposite 
Boonesborough  at  a  late  hour  in  the  afternoon. 
Unconsdous  of  their  danger,  they  were  splash* 
ing  the  water  wit^  pad£es,  nor  perceived  in 
their  play  that  the  canoe  was  drifting  close  to 
the  opposite  shore.  Five  Indians  were  there 
Ivkiog  in  the  bushes,  and  one  of  them  crawled 
down  the  bank,  seized  the  rope  hanging  from 
the  bow,  and  turned  the  canoe  instantly  up 
stream  out  of  sight  of  the  fort.  The  shrieks  of 
the  captured  gins  aroijsed  the  garrison,  but  no 
attempt  could  be  made  to  rescue  them,  as  their 
only-  boat  was  gone,  and  night  came  before 
Gapl  Boone  and  his  companion  Callaway,  whose 
daughters  had  been  seized,  returned  and  made 
arrangements  for  pursuit.  The  next  morning 
Boone  and  his  companions  followed  upon  the 
trail  of  the  Indians,  and  in  the  course  of  the  day 
discovered  them  as  they  were  about  building  a 
fire  to  cook,  surprising  them  so  suddenly  that 
they  had  not  time  to  murder  their  captives,  as 
they  doubtless  would  otherwise  have  done,  and 
the  8  girls  were  restored  to  their  families. 
Dmring  the  whole  of  tlie  year  1777  Boone  was 
onployed  with  his  command  in  repelling  the 
attacks  of  the  Indians,  who  were  incited  to  the 
most  savage  deeds  of  cruelty  by  the  British  dur- 
ing the  revolutionary  war.  Hi^  services  were 
of  incalculable  advantage  to  the  new  settle- 
ments. Jan.  1,  1778,  the  people  suffering 
greatly  for  want  of  salt,  he  headed  a  party  for 
the  lower  Blue  Licks  to  manufacture  it,  and,  on 
Feb.  7,  while  at  some  distance  from  the  camp, 
be  was  surprised  and  made  prisoner  by  a  party 
of  100  Indians.  Again  in  this  instance  his  con- 
summate knowledge  of  the  red  man's  character 
saved  him  and  his  mends.  He  ingratiated  him- 
self in  their  regard,  and  obtained  favorable 
terms  for  his  party  at  the  licks,  who  became 
prisoners  of  war  under  the  promise  of  good 
treatment  He  knew  that  the  Indians  would 
march  to  attack  Boonesborough,  and  that  if  he 
and  his  party  resisted  they  would  all  be  mur- 
dered and  those  at  the  fort  massacred,  as  no 
warning  could  reach  them.  He  was  conduct* 
ed  to  old  ChiUicothe,  and  thence  to  Detroit, 
where  he  was  kindly  received  by  the  Engli^ 
commander.  Gov.  Hamilton.  In  order  to  baf- 
fle his  captors,  he  pretended  to  be  very  much 
pleased  with  his  mode  of  life  among  the  Indi- 
ana, went  throjogh  the  form  of  adoption  by 
them,  having  his  hair  pulled  out  excepting  the 
Bcalp  lock,.  *'  his  white  blood  washed  out''  in  the 
VOL.  in. — 33 


river,  and  his  face  painted.  Being  allowed  un- 
der certain  restrictions  to  hunt,  on  June  16, 
he  went  forth  as  usual,  and  when  out  of  view 
started  direct  for  Boonesborough,  more  than 
160  miles  distant,  which  he  travelled  in  less 
than  5  days,  during  which  time  he  ate  but  one 
regular  meal,  on  a  turkey  which  he  shot  after 
crossing  the  Ohio.  He  anticipated  great  diffi- 
culty at  the  river,  as  he  was  a  poor  swimmer, 
but  accident  threw  in  his  way  an  old  canoe, 
which  bore  him  safe  to  the  Kentucky  shore,  and 
he  reached  Boonesborough  to  warn  the  garri- 
son. All  supposed  him  to  be  dead,  and  his 
wife,  under  that  impression,  had  returned  with 
her  children  to  North  Carolina.  The  fort  was 
at  once  put  in  complete  order  for  defence,  and 
on  Aug.  8  it  was  besieged  by  444  Indians,  led 
by  Capt  Duquesne  and  11  other  Canadians, 
having  French  and  British  colors.  Summoned 
to  surrender,  Boone  replied  with  defiance,  and 
f^er  a  savage  attack  upon  the  fort  the  assailants, 
6  times  greater  in  number  than  the  garrison, 
raised  the  siege,  leaving  87  of  their  party  killed 
and  many  more  wounded.  For  Boone's  sur- 
render of  his  party  at  the  Licks  and  for  taking 
his  officers  outside  the  fort  at  Boonesborough, 
to  make,  if  possible,  before  the  attack  com- 
menced, a  treaty,  by  the  invitation  of  the  Indi- 
ans, he  was  court-martialled.  Boone  conducted 
his  own  defence,  was  triumphantly  acquitted, 
and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  mf^or.  In  1778 
he  went  to  North  Carolina  to  see  his  family. 
The  next  year,  having  invested  nearly  all  his 
little  property  in  paper  money  to  buy  land  war- 
rants, ana  having,  beside  his  own,  large  sums  of 
money  to  invest  for  other  people,  he  was  rob- 
bed of  the  whole,  about  $20,000,  on  his  way 
from  Kentucky  to  Richmond,  where  the  court 
of  commissioners  was  held  to  decide  on  Ken- 
tucky land  daims.  In  1780  he  returned  with 
his  family  to  Boonesborough,  and  in  October  of 
that  year  his  brother,  on  a  hunting  excursion 
with  him,  was  killed  and  scalped  by  the  Indi- 
ans, and  Boone  himself  narrowly  escaped.  The 
Lidians  being  exceedingly  troublesome,  a  large 
party  of  militia  was  formed  to  follow  and  pun- 
ish them,  who,  against  Boone^s  counsel,  suffer- 
ed themselves  to  be  drawn  into  an  ambuscade, 
and  the  disastrous  battle  of  the  Blue  Licks  fol- 
lowed, in  which  Boone  lost  another  son  and  had 
a  brother  wounded.  At  the  close  of  the  revo- 
lutionary war  Col.  Boone  returned  to  the  quiet 
life  of  his  farm,  and  to  his  passion  for  hunting. 
In  1792  Kentucky  was  admitted  into  the  union 
as  a  sovereign  state,  and  as  courts  of  justice 
were  established,  litigation  in  regard  to  land  ti- 
tles commenced,  and  was  finally  carried  to  great 
lengths.  From  defective  titles,  Boone,  with 
hundreds  of  others,  lost  the  lands  he  possessed, 
with  their  valuable  improvements,  and  thus, 
after  the  vigor  of  his  life  was  spent,  he  found 
himself  without  a  single  acre  of  the  vast  do- 
main he  had  explored  and  fought  to  defend 
from  savage  invaders.  IMsgusted  with  his 
treatment,  he  resolved,  from  his  hatred  of  law 
and  laivyers,  to  abandon  Kentucky  and  move 


514 


BOONESBOROUGH 


BOORHAl^OOR 


to  the  far  west,  which  he  did  in  1795.  He  set- 
tled first  on  the  Femme  Osage,  about  45  miles 
W.  of  St.  Louis,  where  he  remained  until  1804 ; 
he  then  removed  to  the  home  of  his  youngest 
son  until  1810,  and  finally  went  to  live  with  his 
son-in-law,  Flanders  Callaway.  As  the  conn* 
try,  at  the  time  of  his  removal,  was  under  the 
dominion  of  Spain,  on  July  11, 1800,  he  was 
appointed  commandant  of  the  Femme  Osage 
district;  and  as  his  fame  had  preceded  him,  10,- 
000  arpents,  or  about  8,500  acres,  of  choice  land 
were  marked  out  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Missouri 
river,  and  given  to  him  for  his  official  services. 
This  princely  estate  he  also  subsequently  lost, 
because  he  would  not  take  the  trouble  to  go  to 
New  Orleans  to  complete  his-  title  before  the 
immediate  representative  of  the  Spanish  crown. 
Having  left  Kentuckv  in  debt,  he  was  much 
troubled  for  a  while  by  ill  success  in  hunting, 
but  at  length  he  obtained  a  valuable  store  of 
peltry,  turned  it  into  cash,  went  to  Kentucky, 
without  book  account,  paid  every  one  whatever 
was  demanded,  and  on  his  return  to  upper  Lou- 
isiana with  but  half  a  dollar  lefb,  said  that  he 
was  ready  to  die  content  In  1812  he  petition- 
ed congress  to  confirm  the  title  to  his  claim  of 
1,000  arpents  of  land,  which  he  had  neglected 
to  have  done  in  proper  form,  and  was  in  dan- 
ger of  losing,  as  he  had  every  thing  else.  He 
sought  the  aid  of  the  legislature  of  Kentucky, 
and  his  petition  was  successfully  urged  in  con- 
gress, in  requital  for  his  eminent  services.  He 
continued  to  hunt  occasionally  as  long  as  his 
stren^h  remained,  but  was  obliged  to  give  up 
his  rifle  several  years  before  his  deat£.  Mr. 
Chester  Harding,  the  eminent  Americau  artist, 
who  painted,  in  Boone^s  last  days,  in  1820,  the 
only  portrait  of  him  ever  taken,  informs  us 
that  his  first  sight  of  the  old  pioneer  found  him 
lying  in  his  bunk  in  the  cabin,  engaged  in  cook- 
ing a  venison  steak  on  a  ramrod.  His  memory 
of  immediate  events  was  very  defective,  but  of 
>a8t  years  as  keen  as  ever.  He  was  quite  fee- 
ble, but  able  to  walk  out  with  Mr.  Harding 
every  day.  This  portrait  now  hangs  in  the  state 
house  of  Kentucky.  He  died  surrounded  by 
bis  children  and  descendants,  some  of  the  5th 
generation,  in  the  88th  year  of  his  age,  and  was 
buried  by  the  side  of  his  wife,  who  had  been 
dead  7  years,  in  a  coffin  which  he  had  provided 
and  kept  for  a  long  time  beneath  his  bed. 
Aug.  20,  1845,  the  remains  of  both,  having 
been  exhumed,  were  deposited  with  appropriate 
ceremonies  in  the  cemetery  of  Frankfort,  Ken- 
tucky. In  all  the  relations  of  private  life  Boone 
was  a  model  for  imitation.  In  spite  of  his 
many  Indian  encounters,  he  was  a  lover  of 
peace,  modest  in  disposition,  of  incorruptible 
integrity,  moral,  temperate,  and  chaste.  Of 
no  professed  creed,  his  nature  was  sincerely  re- 
ligious, and  in  the  vast  solitudes  of  the  west  he 
humbly  reverenced  a  bounteous  Creator. 

BOONESBOROUGH,  a  decayed  viUage  of 
Madison  co.,  Kentucky.  In  1775  the  first  fort 
erected  in  the  state  was  built  here  by  Daniel 
Boone.   In  Boonesborough  was  convened,  tow- 


S 


ard  the  end  of  last  century,  the  fi^Bt  legislative 
assembly  of  the  western  states. 

BOONEVILLE,  a  flourishing  city,  and 
capital  of  Cooper  co.,  Mo.,  situated  on  the 
right  bank  of  tlie  Missouri  river,  48  miles 
N.  W.  of  Jefierson  City,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
farming  region,  and  in  the  vicinty  of  iron,  lead, 
and  coal  miues,  and  of  marble  and  limestone 
quarries.  The  grape  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  promises  to  become  an  important  article  of 
export.  The  advantages  of  Booneville  as  a  com- 
mercial place  have  drawn  to  it  the  greater  part 
of  the  trade  of  S.  W.  Missouri,  of  a  portion  of 
Arkansas,  and  of  the  Cherokee  nation.  It  has 
a  handsome  court-house,  8  churches,  8  or  4new8- 
paper  offices,  2  ropewalks,  and  a  number  of 
stores.  For  health,  it  is  unsurpassed  by  any 
city  of  the  union.  It  was  settled  by  Daniel 
Boone;  pop.  in  1850,  2,886. 

BOONTON,  an  important  town  of  Morris  co., 
N.  J.  It  contains  a  large  iron  manufactory, 
which  consists  of  a  blast  furnace,  rolling  mill, 
and  nail  factory,  forming  a  most' complete  and 
extensive  establishment « 

BOO-REGREB,  Bou-reobicb,  or  Bu-bbobbb, 
(anc.  Sala)^  a  river  of  Morocco,  emptying  into 
the  Atlantic  at  Rabatt  It  is  500  yards  wide 
at  its  mouth,  and  has  an  imperial  dock  yard. 

BOORGHAS,  BouROHAS,  Bouboab,  or  Bns- 
OHAZ,  a  town  of  European^urkey.  it  is  situ- 
ated on  a  promontory  in  the  gulf  of  Boorghas, 
in  the  Black  sea,  is  neat  and  clean,  has  an  ex- 
tensive manufactory  of  clay  pipes  and  bowls, 
and  a  good  trade  in  iron  and  provisions.  The 
gulf  of  Boorghas  is  14  miles  long  and  from  5  to 
12  fathoms  in  depth.    Pop.  of  the  town,  6,000. 

BOORH  ANPOOR,  or  Boobhaunpoor,  a  town 
of  India,  and  ihe  former  capital  of  Candeish, 
in  the  territory  of  Gwalior,  180  miles  S.  S.  K 
of  Oojein  ;  pop.  about  80,000.  It  is  built  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Taptee,  and  when  seen 
from  the  other  side  of  the  stream  presents 
quite  an  imposing  appearance.  A  brick  ram- 
part, of  no  great  strength,  extends  around 
it  in  the  form  of  a  semicircle,  the  diameter 
stretching  along  the  river  bank,  which  is 
here  60  or  70  feet  high.  About  the  centre  of 
this  wall  stands  a  palace  of  brick,  called  from 
its  color  the  Red  Fort.  It  was  built  by 
Akbar,  in  a  style  of  regal  magnificence,  with 
pleasure  gardens^  halls  of  white  marble,  and  a 
mosque ;  but  most  of  its  grandeur  has  departed, 
and  it  is  fast  falling  to  ruin.  The  town  itself 
contains  but  one  edifice  of  much  pretension, 
which  is  a  mosque  raised  by  Aurungzebe.  The 
houses  of  some  of  the  wealthy  merchants,  how- 
ever, are  good  and  commodious.  The  streets 
are  wide  and  regular,  water  is  supplied  in  abun- 
dance, and  the  town  has  the  reputation  of  being 
one  of  the  best  constructed,  as  well  as  one  of 
the  largest,  in  the  Deccan.  The  po[»ulation  is 
of  mixed  character,  embracing  Mohammedans, 
Bramins,  and  others.  The  trade  is  almost 
monopolized  by  a  Mohammedan  tribe  called 
the  Borahs,  who  came  originally  from  Arabia^ 
and  still  retain  the  dress  and  many  of  the 


BOORLOS 


BOOTAK 


515 


castoms  of  that  conntry.  They  oconpy  a  par- 
ticalar  quarter  of  the  town  which  at  night  is 
dosed  to  all  other  persons,  and  worship  in  a 
mosqae  of  their  own.  They  manofactare  mus- 
lins, flowered  silks,  and  brocades,  and  in  the 
time  of  Tavernier  (about  1665)  used  to  export 
considerable  quantities  of  their  fabrics  to  Persia, 
Egypt,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Poland,  though  even 
then  Boorhanpoor  had  passed  the  meridian  of 
its  prosperity.  The  vicmity  is  noted  for  excel- 
lent crapes.  This  town  was  founded  in  1414 
by  Malik  Nasir,  ruler  of  Oandeish,  and  for  a 
long  time  was  the  capital  of  the  country.  In 
1599  it  was  besieged  and  taken  by  Akbaf,  king 
of  Delhi,  who  reduced  Gandeish  to  the  level  of 
a  province  of  his  empire,  and  chose  for  govern- 
or of  :  Boorhanpoor  either  one  of  .his  near 
relatives,  or  some  high  officer  of  the  court  It 
was  plundered  by  the  Mahrattas  in  the  reign  of 
Aurungzebe  in  1685,  and  in  1720  was  wrested 
from  tl)e  empire  of  Delhi  by  Azof  Jah  or  I^izam- 
ul-muik,  viceroy  of  the  Deccan.  •  It  was  sub- 
jugated by  Madhijee  Sindia  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  18th  century;  was  occupied  by  the 
British  under  Ool.  Stevenson,  in  1808,  restored 
the  same  year,  and  finally  with  the  whole  of 
Sindia^s  territory,  or  Gwalior,  passed  under 
British  protection  in  1844. 

BOORLOS,  or  Bouelos,  a  lagoon  of  lower 
Egypt,  in  the  delta  of  the  Nile.  Its  length  is 
88  miles,  its  average  breadth  17  miles.  It  is  very 
shallow,  and  navigable  only  along  its  nortii 
shore.  Several  canals  connect  it  with  the  Nile, 
and  a  single  channel  with  the  Mediterranean. 

BOORNABAT,  or  Boubnabat,  a  town  of 
Asia  Minor,  about  4  miles  from  Smyrna,  and  at. 
the  head  of  the  gulf  of  that  name.  It  contains 
the  country  houses  of  many  of  the  merchants 
and  consuls  of  Smyrna. 

BOORO,  BouRO,  or  Boebos,  an  isknd  of  the 
Malay  archipelago;  area  about  1,970  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
60,000.  The  surface  is  mountainous ;  the  soil 
Is  fertile  and  well  suited  to  the  production  of 
rice,  sago,  fruits,  and. dye- woods.  The  island  is 
well  watered,  and  abounds  with  deer  and  baby- 
roussa  hogs.  Fort  Defence,  on  the  E.  side,  is  a 
Dutch  station ;  on  the  north  is  Osydi  bay,  where 
plentiful  supplies  of  provisions  are  procurable. 

BOOROOGIRD,  Bueuoibd,  Boobojbbd,  or 
Boobojird,  a  Persian  town,  in  a  fertile  valley 
of  Irak-Ajemee;  pop.  12,000. 

BOOT,  a  leathern  covering  for  the  leg,  termi- 
nating in  a  shoe;  originally  so  called  from  its 
resemblance  to  a  sort  of  leathern  bottle  for 
carrying  liquors,  called  in  Spanish  hota^  and  in 
old  French  Ixmts. — Also  an  instrument  of  torture 
made  of  boards  lashed  round  the  leg,  «o  as  to 
crush  it :  or  a  buskin  drawn  tight  on  the  leg  when 
wet,  and  then  dried  by  the  fire  so  as  to  contract 
and  pinch  the  victim.  The  boot  was  a  favorite 
mode  of  punishment  in  Scotland  during  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries. — ^Also  a  box  covered  with 
leather  in  the  fore  part  of  a  stage  or  mail  coach. 

BOOT  AN,  or  Bhotan,  an  independent  terri- 
tory of  Hindostan,  situated  on  the  N.  £.  frontier 
of  Bengal,   among  the  Himalaya  mountains, 


which  separate  it  from  Thibet  on  the  N.,  and 
branch  out  over  a  great  part  of  its  surface.  It 
is  boanded  E.  by  the  territories  of  savage 
mountain  tribes,  S.  by  the  British  districts  of 
Assam  and  Ooalpara,  and  the  native  state  of 
Cooch-Bahar,  and  W.  by  the  native  state  of 
Sikkim ;  area,  - 19,000  sq.  m. ;  greatest  leneth 
from  E.  to  W.  230  miles;  breadth,  120  miles. 
Some  of  the  highest  summits  of  the  Himalaya 
chain  lie  on  its  N.  border,  from  which  the 
surface  sinks  by  steps  to  the  Bramapootra. 
The  rivers  are  all  rapid,  and  have  numerous 
cataracts.  The  most  important  stream  is  the 
Tchin-tchoo,  which  traverses  the  country  firom 
north  to  south,  and  falls  into  the  Brama- 
pootra after  a  course  of  150  miles.  In  the 
lower  part  of  the  country  the  vegetation  pre- 
sents the  usual  features  of  the  tropics;  Higher 
up  occur  noble  forests  of  pine,  birch,  maple,  and 
yew,  while  the  hills  are  covered  with  fruits 
common  .to  Europe,  such  as  apples,  apricots, 
and  berries.  The  .soil  is  usually  .well  tilled  and 
irrigated  with  considerable  skill.  Every  plot 
of  arable  land  is  improved,  and  rice,  wheat, 
barley,  turnipe^  gourds,  and  melons  are  raised 
in  large  quantities.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with 
Bengal  and  Thibet;  the  exports  comprise 
rice,  wheat,  flour,  horses,  linen,  musk,  and 
fruits ;  and  the  imports,  cattle,  hogs,  dried  fish, 
tobacco,  cotton,  woollen,  indigo,  tea,  gold, 
silver,  and  embroideries.  The  inhabitants  are 
tall,  with  smooth,  dark  skins,  high  cheek-bones, 
and  the  broad  faces  common  to  the  Chinese 
and  Tartars.  Though  courageous  when  at- 
tacked, they  are  by  no  means'  a  warlike  people, 
have  little  knowledge  of  military  art,  and  de- 
vote their  energies  chiefly  to  agriculture.  Those 
living  near  streams  which  are  much  subject  to 
overflows  are  often  afflicted  with  eoitre.  The 
ordinary  dress  is  of  woollen  cloth.  The  re- 
ligion is  Buddhism ;  the  country  has  abundance 
of  priests,  and  supports  multitudes  of.  monas- 
teries. Morality,  nowever,  is  at  a  very  low  ebb. 
Polyandry  and  polygamy  are  both  general,  and 
no  religious  ceremony  is  observed  in  marriage. 
The  sovereign,  in  secular  as  well  as  in  ecclesi- 
astical matters,  is  a  personage  called-the  dhar- 
ma  r%jah.  He  is  believed  to  be  sfn  incarnation 
of  the  divinity,  and  being  consequently  above 
the  consideration  of  mundane  affairs,  leaves 
the  government  of  the  state  to  an  official  known 
as  Sie  deb  ri^ah,  reserving,  however,  the 
right  to  appoint  1  member  of  the  council  of  8, 
whom  the  deb  rigah  is  obliged  to  consult  in 
aU  matters  of  consequence.  The  passes  from 
the  mountains  to  the  low  countries  are  com- 
manded by  fortresses  under  the  charge  of 
officers  termed  soobahs,  who.  occasionally  vary 
the  monotony  .of  their  solitude  by  inroads  upon 
neighboring  states.  The  frequent  incursions 
made  upon  British  territory  occasioned  the 
sending  out  of  a  mission  under  Oapt  Pem- 
berton  in .  1887,  on  the  failure  of  which  to 
effect  a  cessation  of  the  grievances,  the  passes 
were  attacked  and  brought  under  British  con- 
trol.   The  low  countries  are  divided  into  small 


616 


BOOTES 


BOOTHAUK 


police  and  rerenne  diBtriotB,  each  under  a 
soperiDtendent,  and  the  whole  system  of  goY- 
ernment  is  said  to  be  thoronghlj  bad  and 
corrupt.  Bootan  is  noted  for  the  number  of 
its  wooden  and  iron  bridges,  and  for  the  inge- 
nnity  displayed  in  their  construction.  &e 
houses  are  seldom  more  than  1  story  high,  and 
the  aqueducts  are  simply  trunks  of  trees  hol- 
lowed out.  The  chief  towns  are  Tassisudon, 
Wandipoor,  Poonakha,  Ghassa,  Paro,  and  Mu- 
ricfaom.  In  ancient  Braminical  legends  Boo- 
tan is  called  Madra.  Up  to  the  last  century, 
however,  little  is  known  with  regard  to  its 
political  condition.  In  1772  the  Booteaha 
ravaged  the  territory  of  Oooch-Bahar,  where- 
npon  the  latter  state  applied  to  the  British  for 
assistance,  which  being  granted,  the  r^ah  of 
Bootan  was  attacked  within  his  own  dominions, 
defeated,  and  forced  to  solicit  aid  from  Thibet 
By  the  mediation  of  the  latter  state,  a  treaty 
01  peace  was  concluded  in  1774. 

BOOTES,  in  astronomy,  a  constellation  in 
the  northern  hemisphere,  from  the  Greek  /Sovr, 
an  ox.  Bootes  means  an  ox-driver.  The 
modem  figures  represwt  Bootes  as  a  man  with 
a  dub  in  the  right  hand,  and  in  the  left  the 
leash  which  holds  2  hunting  dogs. 

BOOTH,  Babiv>n,  an  English  actor,  bom  in 
Lancashire  in  1681,  died  May  10,  1738.  He 
was  of  an  ancient  &mily,  being  allied  to  Henry 
Booth,  earl  of  Warrington,  and  was  educated 
at  Westminster,  where  the  applause  which  his 
performance  of  the  part  of  ramphilius  in  the 
Andria  of  Terence  called  forth,  nrst  suggested 
to  him  the  idea  of  making  the  stage  a  profes- 
ffion.  Upon  being  removed  to  Cambridge,  where 
he  was  to  be  educated  for  the  church,  he  ran 
away  and  joined  a  company  of  strolling  players. 
He  was  persuaded  to  return  to  his  family,  who 
forgave  him,  but  agun  found  means  to  escape 
their  vigiUmce,  and  made  his  debut  with  great 
success  at  Bartholomew  Fair.  His  first  ap- 
pearance upon  the  legitimate  atage  was  at  Dub- 
lin in  1698,  where  his  performance  of  tiie  part 
of  Oronoko  at  once  stamped  him  as  a  great 
tragic  actor.  An  engagement  at  Drary  Lane, 
then  under  the  management  of  Betterton,  suc- 
ceeded in  1701,  and  for  25  years  Booth  was  a 
reigning  star  on  the  London  boards.  He  took 
the  part  of  Oato  at  the  first  performance  of 
Addison's  tragedy  of  that  name,  and  by  his 
admirable  acting  added  much  to  the  success  of 
the  play.  One  of  his  most  famous  parts  was 
that  of  the  ghost  in  Hamlet,  which  he  ren- 
dered with  an  efiect  almost  appalling.  No 
actor  on  ^e  British  stage  has  been  more  popu- 
lar, or  more  courted  by  the  rich  and  noble  for 
his  virtues  or  his  talents.  He  retired  from  the 
stage  in  1729 ;  the  last  4  years  of  his  life  were 
passed  in  alienation  of  mind  caused  by  a  fever. 

BOOTH,  Sib  Feux,  a  public-spirited  English- 
man, bora  1776,  died  1860.  He  was  head 
of  the  firm  of  Booth  and  company,  distillers 
in  London,  and  for  his  munificent  donation 
of  £20,000  in  1827,  for  promoting  the  arctic 
expedition  under  Sir  John  Boss,  was  raised 


to  a  baronetcy  in  1884.  That  expedition, 
which  lasted  frx>m  1829  to  1838,  resulted  in 
the  discovery  of  the  trae  position  of  the  north 
magnetic  pole,  and  of  the  large  tract  of  country 
called  Boothia  Felix,  from  the  liberal  donor  of 
the  requisite  funds. 

BOOTH,  Junius  Brutus,  an  English  trage- 
dian, born  in  London,  May  1, 1796,  died  on  Uie 
passage  from  New  Orleans  to  Cincinnati,  Dec. 
1862.  After  fulfilling  engagements  at  Deptford, 
near  London,  and  other  puu^and  even  perform- 
ing at  Brussels,  in  1814  he  made  his  debut  at 
Covent  Garden  theatre,  in  London,  as  Bichard 
UI.  His  personal  resemblance  to  the  crookbacked 
tyrant  conformed  exactly  to  the  traditions  of 
the  stage,  and  his  personification  of  the  charac- 
ter was  in  other  respects  so  striking  that  he 
competed  successfully  with  Edmund  Eean^  then 
just  rising  into  fkme.  The  managers  of  Brurj 
Lane  induced  him  to  act  there  in  the  same 

Elays  with  Eean ;  but  when,  after  a  few  nights, 
e  was  again  announced  at  Covent  Garden,  hia 
appearance  was  the  signal  for  a  serious  theatri- 
cal riot,  which  resulted  in  driving  him  for  a 
time  from  the  London  stage.  In  1821  he  made 
his  first  appearance  in  the  United  States,  at 
Petersburg,  Ya.,  and  in  Few  York,  at  the 
Park  theatre,  in  the  succeeding  year,  on  both 
of  which  occasions  he  assumed  his  favorite 
character  of  Richard  III.  From  that  time  un- 
til the  close  of  his  life  he  acted  repeatedly  in 
every  theatre  in  the  United  States,  and  in  spite 
of  certain  irregular  habits,  which  sometimes 
interfered  with  the  performance  of  his  engage- 
ments, enjoyed  a  popularity  which  a  less  gifted 
actor  would  have  forfeited.  During  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  he  resided  with  his  family  at 
Baltimore,  making  occasional  professional  ex- 
cursions to  other  cities.  He  had  just  returned 
from  a  lucrative  tour  to  California  when  he 
died.  The  range  of  characters  which  Booth 
assumed  was  limited,  and  was  confined  almost 
exclusively  to  those  which  he  had  studied  in 
the  beginning  of  his  career.  He  is  meet  closely 
identified  with  that  of  Richard,  in  which,  after 
the  death  of  Edmund  Eean,  he  had  no  rivaL 
Among  his  other  most  familiar  personations 
were  lago,  Shylock,  Hamlet,  Sir  Giles  Over- 
reach, and  Sir  Edmund  Mortimer.  In  his  po- 
cidiar  sphere— the  sudden  and  nervons  expres- 
sion of  concentrated  passion — as  also  in  the 
more  quiet  and  subtle  passages  of  his  delinea- 
tions, he  exercised  a  wonderful  sway  over  his 
audience,  and  his  appearance  npon  the  stage 
has  been  known  to  awe  a  crowded  and  tumult- 
uous house  into  instant  silence.  His  presence 
and  acti6n,  notwithstanding  his  short  stature, 
were  impoeing,  and  his  face,  originally  moulded 
after  the  antique  type,  was  capable  of  wonder- 
fhl  expression  under  the  infiuence  of  excitement 
Several  of  his  children  have  inherited  a  portion 
of  his  dramatic  talent,  and  are  now  prominent 
actors  on  the  American  stage. 

BOOTHAUE,  a  fortified  village  of  Afghan- 
istan, at  the  commencement  of  a  series  of  defiles 
between  Cabool  and  Jelalabad.    It  was  here 


BOOTHBAY 


BORAOIO  ACID 


617 


that  the  Afghans  began  their  attack  tipon  the 
British  army,  in  1842,  during  the  disastrous 
retreat  from  Oabool.  Concealed  amid  the  rooks 
and  woods  which  shut  in  these  defiles,  the  na- 
tives poured  down  a  deadly  fire  upon  the  Eng- 
lish troops  which  literally  annihilated  them* 
The  pass  of  Boothauk  is  5  miles  long,  and  in  its 
narrowest  parts,  where  it  is  but  50  feet  wide, 
IS  hemmed  in  by  perpendicular  clifi&  500  feet 
lugh. 

BOOTHBAY,  a  township  of  Lincoln  co.,  Me., 
between  the  Damariscotta  and  Sheepscot  rivers, 
and  having  the  ocean  on  the  south.  Its  harbor  is 
one  of  the  best  on  the  coast,  and  is  never  frozen 
ovei^  in  the  winter.  The  inhabitants  are  ex- 
tensively engaged  in  ship  building,  the  foreign 
and  coasting  trad&  and  the  fisheries.  About 
100  vessels  are,  either  wholly  or  in  part,  owned 
here.  Ferries  connect  the  town  with  Bristol 
and  with  Southport,  an  island  in  the  bay.  Be« 
side  a  Congregational  church  and  several  stores, 
Boothbav  has  several  tide-mills  for  grinding 
and  sawmg.    Pop,  in  1854  about  8,000. 

BOOTHIA  FELIX,  an  insular  portion  of 
British  North  America,  between  lat  69^  and 
75^  K,  and  long.  92<>  and  97°  W.  It  was 
discovered  by  Capt.  James  Ross,  and  named  by 
him  in  honor  of  Sir  Felix  Booth.  Capt.  Boas 
here  determined  the  position  of  the  magnetic 
I>ole. 

BOOTHIA  GULF,  a  continuation  of  Prince 
Begent  inlet,  in  British  America.  It  separates 
Boothia  Felix  from  Cookburn  island  and  Mel- 
ville peninsula,  is  about  810  miles  in  length, 
and  from  60  to  100  miles  broad. 

BOOTON ,  an  island  in  the  eastern  archipel- 
ago, S.  E.  of  Celebes,  kt  5**  S.,  long.  128**  E.  It 
is  governed  by  its  own  prince ;  the  inhabitants 
are  Mohammedans.  There  is  a  bay  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  island,  into  which,  in  calm  weather, 
vessels  are  liable  to  be  drawn  by  the  current, 
which  is  so  strong  that  once  fairly  in,  it  is  said, 
they  can  only  escape  in  the  western  monsoon. 

BOPP,  Fbanz,  the  founder  of  the  science 
of  comparative  philology,  born  at  Mentz, 
Sept.  14,  1791,  studied  in  Paris,  London,  and 
Gottingen,  has  been,  since  UB20,  professor  of 
orients  languages  at  Berlin.  His  earliest  writ- 
ings are  grammatical  works  on  the  Sanscrit 
language,  and  editions  of  Sanscrit  poem& 
Chief  among  these  are  his  Au^hrlichM  LehX' 
gebdude  der  SanshriUprache  (Berl.  1827),  and 
Glassarium  Sanshritum  (Berl.  1880,  2d  ed. 
1847).  These  works  have  done  much  toward 
facilitating  the  study  of  this  most  difficult  of  all 
languages.  As  a  mere  orientalist^  however,  he 
is  only  one  of  the  many  great  scholars  in  En- 
rope;  but  his  Verglewiende  Orammatik  de$ 
Sanskrit^  Zend^  Chiiehisehen^  Lateinuchen^it- 
thaumhen,  Altslaeiieher^  Oothucher^undVeut" 
9chm  (5  vols.  BerL  18dd-'52,  2d  ed.  1856);  his 
books  on  the  Celtic  (BerL  1839,  2d  ed.  1858)  and 
Malay  languages  (Berl.  1841),  and  others,  give 
him  the  highest  rank  as  a  comparative  linguist ;  in- 
deed, only  Dr.  Edw.Rdth,  of  Heidelberg,  can  be 
named  with  him.   Cardinal  Angelo  }£Bd  spoke 


and  understood  many  more  languages;  "W.  von 
Humboldt,  Hammer,  and  R6tit,  and  many  others^ 
knew  and  know  fundamentally,  perhaps,  as 
many  as  he;  but  he,  first  of  all,  contrived  to 
trace  the  origin  of  the  diflferent  families  of  lan- 
guages back  to  their  common  source,  and  to* 
&0W,  not  only  by  the  similarity  of  single  words, 
as  had  been  done  in  many  cases  long  before 
him,  but  by  their  spirit  and  grammatical  con- 
struction, how  languages  are  related  with  each 
other,  and  how  they  originated.  It  is  clear 
that  history  thus  receives  an  entirely  new  light; 
while  anthropology  and  ethnology  gain  either 
trustworthy  connrmation,  or,  at  least,  new 
hints ;  and  the  origin  of  the  difilarent  races,  na- 
tions, religions,  states,  and  institutions,  is  mora 
and  more  cleared  np.  The  languages  most  in<> 
debted  to  Bopp  are  the  Sanscrit,  Zend,  Malay, 
Semitic,  Slavonic,  Celtic,  and  the  ancient  and 
modern  Germanic  tongues.  His  more  recent  pro^ 
ductions  are  on  the  ancient  Prussian  language 
(1868),  and  on  the  Albanian  hmgnage  (1855). 

BOPPABD,  or  Boppart  (anc.  Bandobriea  or 
BantcMea)^  a  walled  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Rhine;  pop.  about  4,200.  It  owed  its  origin  to  a 
fort  supposed  to  have  been  built  by  Drusus.  Its 
streets  are  narrow  and  antiquated,  and  it  contains 
2  fine  Grothic  churches,  a  fema^  seminary,  and 
2  hydropathic  establiE^ments,  1  of  which  oc- 
cupies the  former  abbey  of  Marienberg.  The 
town  has  some  trade  and  manufactories  of  cot- 
ton, tobacco,  and  leather. 

BOBA,  Kathaeina  ton,  the  wife  of  Martin 
Luther,  supposed  to  have  descended  from  a 
&mily  of  rank,  born  in  Ldben,  in  the  circle  of 
Merseburg,  Prussia,  Jan.  29, 1499,  died  at  Tor- 
gan,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  Dec.  20,  1652.  In 
her  youth  she  was  placed  in  a  Cistercian  con- 
vent, near  Grimma,  in  Saz6ny.  Here  she  read 
some  of  the  works  of  Luther,  which  inspired 
her  and  8  other  nuns  with  great  enthusiasm. 
Through  the  instrumentality  of  LeonhardEoppe, 
a  native  of  Torgau,  Luther  succeeded  in  secuHng 
tiie  escape  of  Eatharina  and  of  her  companions 
in  the  convent,  on  the  night  of  April  4, 1523. 
They  fled  first  to  Torgau,  then  to  Wittenberg^ 
Luther  exonerated  Koppe  from  all  responsibility 
in  the  matter,  by  taking  it  publicly  upon  himseli^ 
and  by  calling  upon  the  young  ladies  to  return 
to  their  parents.  As  this,  however,  was  not 
feasible,  he  provided  for  them  as  best  he  could. 
Some  of  them  found  employment  as  teachers, 
others  married.  Eatharina  alone  was  left,  and 
became  an  inmate  in  the  house  of  the  mayor  of 
Wittenberg.  Luther,  struck  with  her  amiable 
qualities,  as  well  as  with  her  talents,  married  her, 
June  18,  1525,  although  much  her  senior  in 
vears.  The  union  was  happy.  Left  a  widow 
by  his  death,  she  had  the  friendship  and  aid  of 
Christian  III.,  king  of  Denmark,  and  John 
Frederic  of  Saxony.  She  lived  successively  at 
Magdeburg,  Brunswick,  Wittenberg,  and  Tor- 
gau, and  left  8  sons  and  2  daughters. 

BORACIC  ACID,  a  compound  of  the  met- 
al boron  or  borium  and  oxygen,  in  the  pro- 
portion of  1  equivalent  of  the  former  to  8 


618 


BORAOIO  ACID 


of  the  latter;  or  in  100  pnrts,  81.48  of  boriam 
and  68.67  of  oxygen.  In  its  common  form  of  a 
crystallized  hydrate,  1  eqnivalent  of  boraoio 
acid  is  united  to  8  equivalents  of  water,  and 
the  componnd  consists  of  56.45  of  boracic  acid 
and  43.55  of  water.  It  is  the  only  known  com- 
ponnd of  bdrinm  and  oxygen.  It  was  discovered 
in  1702,  by  Homberg,  who  called  it  sedative 
salt.^  The  crystals  are  white,  pearly,  and  scaly, 
nnctnons  to  the  touch,  and  exposed  to  a  temper- 
ature of  212°  F.  lose  half  their  water  of  crystalli- 
zation, and  at  a  higher  temperature  the  whole. 
The  mass  fuses  into  a  hard  transparent  glass, 
but  will  not  sublime,  except  at  a  white  beat. 
This  is  anhydrous  boracic  acid.  Unless  pro- 
tected from  the  inr  it  absorbs  water,  and  loses  - 
its  transparency.  Its  specific  gravity  is  1.8; 
that  of  the  hydrate  is  1.48.  Boiling  water  dis- 
solves I  of  its  weight  of  the  crystals ;  cold  water 
only  about  ^,  They  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  and 
when  this  is  ignited,^the  acid  gives  to  the 
flame  a  beautiful  green  color.  This  is  employed 
as  a  characteristic  test  of  its  presence.  The 
acid  properties  of  this  substance  at  ordinary 
temperatures  are  very  feeble.  It  scarcely  red- 
dens vegetable  blues,  and  turmeric  paper  is 
rendered  brown  by  it  as  by  an  alkali.  It  is  ex- 
pelled from  its^ombinations  almost  as  readily, 
by  stronger  acids,  as  carbonic  acid  is.  But  at 
high  temperatures,  as  when  exposed  to  a  red  heat 
in  a  crucible,  boracic  acid  mixed  with  sulphate  of 
soda  expels  the  sulphuric  acid,  and  combines 
with  the  soda ;  when  cold,  the  process  may  be 
reversed.  In  boiling  the  aqueous  solution,  the 
acid  is  taken  up  by  the  steam ;  much  more, 
however,  is  this  the  case  with  the  alcoholic  so- 
lution. It  is  to  this  property  we  owe  the  sup- 
plies of  boracic  acid,  which  are  furnished 
from  the  interior  of  the**  earth  by  jets  of  steam 
that  issue  through  fissures,  and  come  up  more  or 
less  laden  with  this  material,  and  other  sub- 
stances, as  sulphur,  sal-ammoniac,  clay,  and  gyp- 
sum. The  acid  is  deposited  in  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  solid  efflorescences,  or-  is  collected  in 
pools  of  water,  through  wliich  the  jets  are  made 
to  pass.  In  South  America  it  is  collected  upon 
the  surface  of  the  ^und.  At  an  island  of  the 
Lipari  group,  called  Vulcano,  12  miles  north  of 
Sicily,  it  rises  in  vapor  at  the  bottom  of  the 
crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  700  feet  below 
its  summit.  The  vapor  condenses  here  upon 
the  bottom  and  sides,  like  frost  after  a  heavy 
dew;  but  it  goes  on  accumulating,  till  it  re- 
sembles more  a  bed  of  clean  snow;  beneath  it 
is  found  a  layer  of  red-hot  sal-ammoniac, 
through  which  come  up  sulphurous  vapors.  The 
boracic  acid  is  gathered  up  as  it  collects,  and 
with  the  sulphur  and  sal-ammoniac  is  a  source 
of  no  little  profit  to  the  proprietors  of  the  vol- 
cano. It  is  also  found  at  Sasso,  in  Italy,  and  has 
hen  ce  been  called  Sassolin.  But  the  great  supplies 
of  it  are  obtained  from  the  volcanic  districts  of 
Tuscany.  Here,  over  an  area  of  some  80  miles 
of  wild  mountain  land,  issue  through  beds  of 
calcareous  rocks,  black  marl,  and  sand,  numer- 
ous jets  of  steam,  which  rise  in  white  clouds 


among  the  hills,  and  spread  around  offensive 
sulphurous  smells  and  vapors,  that  drench  those 
passing  by  the  spot.  The  ground  itself  is  hot 
and  undermined.  It  shakes  beneath  the  feet^ 
and  is  sometimes  so  treacherous  as  to  let  man 
or  beast,  that  walks  upon  it,  fall  through  into  its 
heated  recesses.  Its  surface  is  covered  with 
incrustations  of  sulphur  and  saline  substances. 
The  waters  beneath  are  heard  boiling  with 
strange  noises,  and  are  seen  to  break  out  upon 
the  surface.  Of  old  it  was  regarded  as  the  en- 
trance to  hell.  The  peasants  pass  by  in 
terror,  counting  their  beads,  and  imploring 
the  protection  of  the  Virgin.  The  name 
Monte  Oerboli — mans  Cerleri — ^is  still  retained 
by  a  neighboring  volcano,  and  the  principid 
lagoon  or  pool  from  which  the  acid  is  obtained. 
It  is  not  many  years  since  the  great  value  of 
these  natural  exhalations,  or  soffioni,  as  they  are 
called,  was  discovered;  but  now,  in  the  posses- 
sion of  Count  Larderel,they  are  by  the  applica- 
tion of  skill  and  ingenuity  made  very  profitable. 
Wherever  up  the  slopes  of  the  hills  the  ground 
is  observed  to  be  hotter  than  usual,  and  sulphur- 
ous vapors  are  seen  to  arise  from  it,  and  the 
surface  is  felt  to  tremble,  a  pit  is  dug,  from 
which  soon  issues  a  column  of  steam.  A  tem- 
porary wooden  chimney  is  put  up  for  this  to 
pass  through,  so  that  the  workmen  may  con- 
tinue the  excavation,  and  construct  a  basin  with 
stone  wall  lining,  to  contain  the  water  intended 
to  receive  and  collect  the  boracic  acid  brought 
up  by  the  steam.  The  water  is  introduced 
from  some  supply  at  the  surface,  and  the  chim- 
ney is  removed.  The  heat  soon  causes  the 
water  to  reach  nearly  the  boiling  point.  It 
penetrates  into  the  fissure,  and  is  rejected  by  the 
steam,  bringing  up  with  it  a  portion  of  boracic 
acid.  As  it  is  found  that  the  quantity  which 
the  water  is  capable  of  absorbing  is  very  small, 
fresh  supplies  are  introduced  everyday;  and 
the  pits  are  so  arranged  down  the  slope  of  the 
hill  that  the  water  entering  at  the  top  passes 
from  an  upper  basin  into  a  lower  one,  and  so 
on,  till  at  the  foot  it  is  received  into  large  eva- 
porating pans.  The  basins  or  ^'  lagoons"  are  of 
rough  shapes,  rudely  constructed,  from  6  to  8 
feet  deep,  and  from  13  to  60  feet  in  diameter ; 
they  continue  to  receive  the  vapors  for  years ;  but 
the  jets  are  liable  at  auy  time  to  cease  and  break 
out  in  a  new  place.  The  pans  are  very  numer- 
ous, and  present  a  great  evaporating  surface. 
They  are  heated  by  the  vapors  of  some  of  the 
soffioni,  which  are  conveyed  under  them  in 
flues.  After  the  liquor  has  passed  through  a 
series  of  the  pans  and  been  greatly  concentrated, 
it  is  baled  out  and  drained  through  baskets,  and 
the  precipitated  salt  is  taken  to  the  drying 
rooms.  These  are  of  brick,  and  warmed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  pans  are  heated.  Thus  the 
operations  are  carried  on  with  no  expense  of 
fuel,  and  boracic  acid  is  obtained  to  the  amount 
of  8,000,000  Tuscan  pounds  or  more  per  annum. 
To  produce  this  amount,  as  was  done  in  1846, 
there  were  400  evaporating  pans  in  operation,  of 
10  feet  square  each,  with  several  owers  of  800 


BORAOITE 


BORDA 


519 


feet  in  length,  divided  into  oompartmente, 
through  which  the  water  flowed  slowly  from 
one  to  another,  heing  thus  much  concentrated 
by  evaporation.  These  works  appear  to  have 
been  established  about  the  year  1818.  For  the 
first  10  years  they  produced  only  1,500,000 
pounds,  and  in  the  next  10  years,  14,000,000 
pounds.  From  that  time  their  yield  has  slowly 
increased  from  2,152,000  pounds  in  1839  to 
about  8,000,000  in  1846.  The  product  is  of  late 
years  more  impure  than  formerly,  tbe  foreign 
matters  having  increased  from  8  per  cent,  to  25 
per  cent ;  which  appears  to  have  excited  some 
apprehension  lest  the  supply  may  give  out  An 
analysis  made  by  Wittstein  of  the  crude  acid  is 
interesting,  as  showing  the  very  great  variety 
of  the  associated  substances.    It  is  as  follows : 

Bonetesdd  crTstaUlzed 70.494 

Water 6.557 

Salphnrle  acid 1.322 

BlUdc  acid 1.900 

Sulphate  of  ammonia 8.503 

Bulphate  of  manganese traces 

Bulpbate  of  magnesia 2.689 

Bulphate  of  lime I.OIS 

Balphateofsoda 0.917 

Bulphate  of  potassa 0.869 

Besquisulphaee  of  Iron 0.865 

Beequlsalphate  of  alumina 0.890 

Chloride  of  ammonium 0.298 

Organic  substances traces 

Our  knowledge  of  the  Tuscan  locality,  and 
the  process  as  there  conducted,  is  derived  from 
the  treatise  of  Payen,  who  describes  it  in  detail. 
Sir  John  Bowring  also  has  furnished  some  in- 
teresting data  concerning  it  Boracio  acid  is  of 
value  principally  for  the  preparation  from  it  of 
borax.  It  is  used  in  manufacturing  a  paste  for 
artificial  gems,  and  also  in  making  enamel.  It 
is  not  used  in  medicine.  Its  price  in  Liverpool 
is  about  £88  per  ton. 

BORAGITE,  the  mineral  substance  borate 
of  magnesia,  consisting  of  boracic  acid  62.8  and 
magnesia  87.2  per  cent  It  is  found  only  in 
lower  Saxony  and  Holstein. 

BORAX,  BiBOB  ATE  OF  Soda  (Arabic  haurak, 
the  nitrum  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans),  is  first 
mentioned  by  the  alchemist  Geber,  in  the  10th 
century;  and  its  chemical  nature  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Geoffrey  in  1732.  It  is  largely  pre- 
pared from  the  natural  product,  boracio  acid ; 
and  is  itself  found  native  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  It  was  known  to  the  ancients  as  occur- 
ring in  concrete  lumps  on  the  borders  of  several 
lakes  in  Thibet  and  Persia,  and  the  waters  of 
these  lakes  also  afford  it  by  evaporation.  The 
lumps  dug  out  of  the  ground  are  sold  under  the 
name  of  tincal  or  crude  borax.  It  is  abundant 
in  Peru  an^  in  Ecuador,  in  the  great  sandy 
desert,  which  extends  back  from  the  Pacific 
coast  to  the  Andes.  Iquique  is  the  port  from 
which  it  is  shipped.  The  borax  found  here  is 
much  mixed  with  borate  of  lime.  All  the  crude 
borax  requires  refining  to  prepare  it  for  most  of 
the, uses  to  which  it  is  adapted.  But  borax  pre- 
pared from  boracic  acid  almost  wholly  supplies 
the  demands  of  commerce.  Pure  anhydrous 
borax  consists  of  1  equivalent  of  soda  and  8  of 
boracic  acid— in  100  parts,  80.69  of  soda  and 


69.81  of  boracic  acid.  The  crystallized  borax 
contains  different  proportions  of  water,  according 
to  the  form  of  the  crystal.  The  common  hex- 
agonal variety  consists  of  10  equivalents  of 
water,  1  of  soda,  and  1  of  boracic  acid ;  or  per 
cent  47.18  of  water,  16.23  of  soda,  and  86.64  of 
acid.  But  when.it  crystallizes  in  octohedrons 
it  contains  only  5  equivalents  of  water.  Borax 
is  a  white  salt  of  sweet  taste,  soluble  in  twice 
its  weight  of  boiling  water.  It  melts  by  heat 
into  a  porous  mass,  which  at  a  temperature  in- 
creased to  redness  runs  together  into  a  trans- 
parent glass,  called  glass  of  borax,  the  specific 
gravity  of  which  is  2.86.  Exposed  to  the  air, 
borax  slowly  attracts  moisture,  and  its  sur&ce 
becomes  coated  with  a  white  powder.  It  has 
the  reaction  of  an  alkali  upon  turmeric  paper.— 
The  refining  of  crude  borax  has  been  conaucted 
in  the  seaport  towns  of  the  Mediterranean  from 
remote  times,  and  particularly  at  Venice.  The 
name  Venetian  borax  has  thus  been  synonymous 
with  the  refined  article.  Various  processes  have 
been  adopted  for  this  purpose.  Artificial  borax 
is  prepared  from  boracic  acid  by  boiling  this 
with  carbonate  of  soda;  the  carbonic  acid  is 
expelled  by  the  boracic  acid,  and  borax  crystal- 
lizes on  cooling.  The  operation,  however,  must 
be  conducted  on  a  large  scale  and  very  slowly, 
in  order  to  obtain  large  crystals.  When  the 
article  was  first  introduced,  in  order  to  meet  the 
prejudice  in  favor  of  the  old  quality,  the  crystals 
of  which  were  worn  and  rubbed  by  long  trans- 
port, it  was  found  necessary  to  give  the  same 
appearance  by  turning  them  in  a  cask  which 
revolved  upon  an  axis.  Borax  is  adulterated 
with  common  salt,  alum,  and  phosphate  of  soda; 
with  alum  to  such  an  extent  that  it  may  be  de- 
tected by  the  taste,  and  when  in  solution  and 
ammonia  is  added,  the  whole  may  be  converted 
into  a  thick  jeUy  by  precipitation  of  the  alumina. 
Litmus  paper  also  detects  it  by  the  acid  re- 
action of  alum,  in  turning  the  blue  color  to  red. 
Phosphate  of  soda  has  been  found  in  English 
borax  to  the  extent  of  20  per  cent  The  uses 
of  borax  are  as  a  fiux  for  producing  fusible  sili- 
cates in  assaying.  In  brazing  and  welding 
it  forms  a  thin  fusible  protection  to  the  bright 
metal  surface,  preventing  oxidation  and  dissolv- 
ing any  oxide  that  may  have  formed.  In  the 
use  of  the  blowpipe  it  is  a  very  useful  fiux,  from 
its  property  of  dissolving  the  metallic  ^xides 
and  forming  colored  glasses  with  them,  by  which 
their  presence  is  detected.  In  medicine  it  is 
employed  for  many  diseases  connected  with  the 
bladder  and  the  uterus,  and  also  as  a  wash  for 
cutaneous  eruptions,  canker  in  the  mouth,  and 
ringworm.  It  has  the  property  of  making 
cream  of  tartar,  when  boued  together  with  it, 
very  soluble  in  water,  and  this  soluble  cream  of 
tartar  is  often  found  a  convenient  prepara- 
tion when  large  doses  of  this  medicine  are 
required.  The  manufacture  of  borax  in  England 
is  confined  to  one  firm  in  Liverpool.  This  firm 
produces  about  2,000  tons  per  annum,  worth 
£48  per  ton. 
BORDA,  JsAN  Ohablbs,  a  French  mathema- 


620 


BORDE 


BORDEAUX 


tioian,  born  at  Dax,  department  of  Landes,  Kay 
4, 1788,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  20, 1799.  Early  ap- 
pointed a  teacher  of  mathematios  in  the  light 
cavalry,  and  afterward  an  engineer,  and  finaily 
a  captain  in  the  navy,  he  was  naturally  led  to 
consider  the  practical  questions  of  gnnnery, 
navigation^  and  hydraalics.  Chosen  a  member 
of  l^e  academy  in  1756,  he  furnished  to  it  sev* 
eral  valuable  contributions  on  these  subjects. 
He  was  employed  by  the  government  in  1771 
on  ohronometrio  expeditions,  to  ascertain  the 
value  of  chronometers  in  determining  longitudes. 
He  was  engaged  in  the  revision  of  weights  and 
measures  in  France,  and  calculated  logarithnuo 
tables  for  a  centesinial  division  of  the  quadrant, 
sacrificing  much  of  his  private  property  in  the 
expensive  work  of  perfecting  them.  His  name 
is  in  modem  days  connected  with  the  reflecting 
circle,  or  repeating  circle,  a  valuable  astronom* 
leal  instrument  for  measuring  angles  with  great 
accuracy,  invented  by  him. 

BORDE,  AiTDRBW,  an  English  physician,  bom 
at  Pevensey,  Sussex,  about  1500,  died  in  the 
Fleet  prison,  London,  April,  1549.  He  wrote 
several  works  of  a  humorous  character ;  and  is 
said  to  have  given  rise  to  the  phrase,  *'  Merrv 
Andrew,"  from  his  practice  of  making  droU 
speeches  at  fairs  and  public  gatherings,  to  at- 
tract the  people. 

BORDEAUX  (anc.  Burdigdla),  a  large  com* 
mercial  city  and  seaport  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Gironde,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Garonne,  55  miles  from  its  mouth, 
807  miles  S.  W.  of  Paris.  Several  centuries 
before  Ohrist,  it  was  a  commercial  emporium, 
and  the  chief  town  of  the  Bituriges  Vwiaei,  a 
Celtic  nation  of  southern  Gaul.  In  the  2d  cen- 
tury, Hadrian  made  it  the  metropolis  of  Aqui- 
tania  tecunda.  Many  monuments  were  erected 
bv  the  Romans,  among  the  number  Uie  temples 
of  Tutela  and  of  Diana,  the  fountain  of  Divona, 
and  the  amphitheatre.  On  the  fall  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  Burdigala  was  held  for  less  than  a 
century  oy  the  Visigoths,  who  were  driven  from 
it  in  509  by  Clovis.  For  a  few  years  during 
the  8th  century  it  was  possessed  by  the  Sara- 
cens fh>m  Spain,  but  after  the  battle  of  Poitiers 
they  were  expelled,  and  Bordeaux,  under  Char- 
lemagne, was  governed  by  counts  of  its  own. 
On  the  final  dissolution  of  the  Oarlovingian 
empire,  Bordeaux  became  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Aquitaine,  but  was  for  a  time  united 
to  France  by  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of  Aqui* 
tdne  with  Louis  YII. ;  this  princess,  however, 
being  divorced,  brought  all  her  rich  inheritance 
to  Henry  Plantagenet,  afterward  king  of  Eng^ 
land.  fVom  that  period  until  ihe  middle  of  the 
15th  century,  Bordeaux  remained  in  the  posses- 
sion of  the  English,  and  in  the  14th  century 
the  Black  Prince  made  Bordeaux  the  seat  of 
his  court.  The  city  was  the  last  to  submit  to 
Charles  YE.  of  France,  in  1453.  This  prince 
added  to  its  already  strong  fortifications  the 
castle  of  Ha  and  the  chAteau  Trompette,  for 
centuries  the  strongholds  of  Bordeaux.  Mate- 
rial in^tfovements  began  under  the  reign  of 


Henry  IV.;  they  continued  during  that  of  Louis 
XIV.,  when  several  Roman  stractures  were 
taken  down  to  make  room  for  new  buildings, 
and  after  1748,  they  were  conducted  on  a  regu- 
lar plan.  A  new  city  rose  at  the  north  of  the 
old  one,  with  fine  avenues,  promenades,  and 
squares,  adorned  b^  handsome  edifices.  In  Bor- 
deaux and  its  vicimty  were  bom  Ausoninss  Mon- 
taigne, Montesquieu,  the  Black  Prince,  Richard 
II.  of  England,  and  Charles  Vemet.  Dur- 
ing the  first  revolution,  Bordeaux  was  the  head- 
Snarters  of  the  Girondists,  and  sufifered  much 
uring  the  reign  of  terror.  Under  Napdeon, 
the  town  was  unured  by  the  oontinental  Uock- 
ade,  and,  thus  alienated  from  the  imperial  rule, 
became  noted  for  iHk  loyalty  to  Louis  XVIH., 
who  manifested  his  gratitude  by  conferring 
the  title  of  duke  of  l^rdeaux  upon  the  post- 
humous son  of  the  duke  de  Beny. — Beside 
Hxe  palace  or  amphitheatre  of  Gallienns,  veiy 
few  remains  of  the  Roman  monuments  are 
to  be  seen.  Those  of  the  middle  ages  have 
been  better  preserved ;  among  these  are  the  ca- 
thedral, an  irregular  though  imponng  Gothic 
edifice,  undertaken  in  the  11th  century,  and 
completed  in  the  15th;  the  church  of  St 
Michel,  built  toward  the  12th  century;  the 
church  of  St.  Croix,  built  before  the  middle  of 
the  7th  century,  and'  restored  by  Charlemagne ; 
the  imperial  college  and  other  ancient  builduigB. 
The  modem  edifices  are  inferior  neither  in 
number  nor  in  bean^:  the  imperial  palace, 
fbrmerly  the  residence  of  the  arohbislK^;  the 
Bourse,  and  the  ffrand  thSdtr&f  built  in  the 
reign  of  Louis  XVI.,  at  an  expense  of  about 
$800^0,  and  presenting,  without  exception, 
tiie  mmdsomest  exterior  in  Europe.  The 
thedtre  dei  tariitSa,  which  was  also  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  in  France,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  on  the  night  of  Dec  1,  1855.  The  fiunons 
bridge  which  maintains  the  oommnnication  be- 
tween the  city  and  the  suburb  La  Baatide,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Garonne,  was  commenced 
in  1810  and  completed  in  1821.  at  a  cost  of 
$1,800,000.  The  view  presented  by  the  city 
from  the  opposite  bank  is  unrivalled;  soperb 
onays,  lined  with  handsome  buildings,  skirt  the 
Garonne,  which  forms  here  a  large  half  circle, 
about  8  miles  on  the  outer  nde,  and  is  more  than 
700  yards  wide.  The  port  is  capable  of  aoorai- 
modating  1,200  ships,  and  such  as  do  not  ex- 
ceed 500  or  600  tons  may  enter  it  at  aU  times 
of  the  tide.  Some  of  the  acoommodationB  for 
commercial  or  manu£M^ring  purposes  are  on  a 
gigantic  scale,  such  as  the  dock  for  colonial 
produce ;  the  snuff  manufactory  near  Fort  dn 
Ha,  the  war^ouse  of  which  is  capable  of  hold- 
ing more  than  80,000  cwt  of  tobacco;  and 
some  of  the  cellars  in  the  qttartierdei  GhaHnm^ 
immense  caves,  where  1,000  tuns  of  wine 
or  millions  of  bottles  can  be  laid  up  at  once. 
Manufactures  are  extensively  carried  on.  Be- 
mde  ship  yards,  there  are  numerous  brandy  dis- 
tilleries, sugar  refineries,  vinegar,  glass  bottle, 
shot  and  cordage  factories,  manufactures  of  cot- 
ton, woollen,  kid  c^oves^  oorks,  musical  instru- 


BORDEAUX 


BORDEN 


521 


ments,  &o.,  &o.  There  is  trade  in  grain,  oattle, 
and  timber,  but  tlie  chief  exports  consist  of  the 
red  -wines  produced  in  the  vidnity,  of  which 
50,000  to  60,000  tuns  are  yearly  sent  to  every 
oonntry,  especially  to  England,  Russia,  and  the 
United  States.  Brandies,  which  come  mostly 
from  the  region  north  of  the  city,  form  the 
next  branch  of  exports.  About  400  yessels, 
of  the  burden  of  Y0,000  tons,  belong  to  the 
port  In  1853,  1,481  vessels,  tonnage  190,000, 
of  which  1,080,  tonnage  116,141,  were  French, 
entered  the  port,  and  946  vessels,  tonnage  168,- 
592,  of  which  546  French,  tonnage  87,880,  left 
it.  In  the  ooastlDg  trade  of  the  same  year,  the 
arrivals  were  8,881  vessels  with  428,277  tons, 
and  the  clearances  7,807  vessels  with  406,419 
tons.  The  value  of  goods  placed  in  bond  in  1858, 
was  abont  $10,000,000.  In  the  first  8  months  of 
1855  the  arrivUls  of  vessels  were  266  (of  which 
196  were  French),  and  the  clearances  160  (of 
which  120  were  French).  A  newly  con- 
structed railroad  facilitates  intercourse  with 
Paris  and  the  intervening  towns  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  Loire.  Bende  a  joint-stock  bank, 
with  a  capital  of  $600,000,  which  has  been 
long  in  existence,  the  bank  of  France  has 
established  here  within,  the  last  10  years 
a  branch,  which  transacts  a  large  amount 
of  business.  The  oustom-house  duties  bring 
in  yearly  between  $2,000,000  and  $2,500,000. 
The  mnnicipal  receipts  are  over  $600,000,  and 
this  income  enables  the  city  to  maintain  estab- 
lishments of  instruction  and  charity.  Among 
the  latter,  the  new  hospital  deserves  special  no- 
tice. The  museum  contains  the  public  libruy 
with  110,000  volumes,  cabinet  of  natural  his- 
tory and  antiquities,  a  picture  gallery  with  good 
paintings  of  the  French,  Italian,  and  Flemish 
schools,  classes  in  design  and  painting,  and  an 
observatory.  There  is  also  a  botanic  garden, 
with  courses  of  lectures  upon  natural  philoso- 
phy, an  academic  faculty  and  the  imperial  col- 
lege dependent  on  the  university  of  France,  an 
imperial  academy  of  arts,  sciences,  and  belles- 
lettres,  and  several  other  learned  societies  and 
flcientific  establishments.  Twenty-five  Journals 
and  periodicals  are  published  in  Bordeaux,  of 
whioQ  7  are  political.  Bordeaux  is  the  seat 
of  an  archbishopric  and  an  imperial  court,  has 
tribunals  of  primary  jurisdiction  and  of  com- 
merce, and  47  Catholic  churches,  1  Protestant 
church,  and  1  synagogue.  In  point  of  wealth, 
instruction^  and  Tenement,  it  holds,  next  to 
Paris,  the  let  rank  among  the  cities  of  fVance, 
-while  in  point  of  population  it  is  the  4th,  con- 
taining, in  1856,  140,601  inhabitants. 

BORDEAUX,  HxNBi  Ghaslxs  FBBnnrAND 
Haria  DiEunoNNfi,  duke  of.   See  Orahbobd. 

BORDEAUX  WINES,  a  general  name  ap^ 
plied  to  the  wines  produced  in  the  French  de- 
partment of  Gironde.  The  average  annual 
produce  is  48,400,000  gallons,  of  which  80,800,- 
000  are  exported,  8,800,t)00  token  for  home 
consumption,  and  8,800,000  employed  in  the 
manu&cture  of  cognac  There  are  6  classes 
of  Bordeaux  wines,   M6doo,   Graves^   Palus, 


Coast^  Torres  Fortes,  and  Entre-deux-Mers. 
M6doc  is  red,  and  comes  from  the  district  of 
the  same  name ;  Graves  is  white,  and  is  pro- 
duced south  of  Bordeaux;  Palus  is  red  and 
white,  from  the  Garonne  and  Bordogne,  the 
Montferrat  being  the  best  of  the  kind;  the 
coast  wines  are  also  from  the  Garonne  and  the 
Dordogne,  between  Langon  and  Blaye;  the 
Entre-deux-Mers  are  produced  in  the  north-east 
of  M^doc.  In  respect  to  quality  the  wines  are 
divided  into  6  classes.  The  1st  class  contains  4 
crtUj  which  are  25  per  cent,  higher  in  value 
than  other  wines  of  the  same  district.  These 
are,  Lafite,  Latour,  Ch&teau-Margaux,  and 
Hant-Brion.  The  2d  class  comprises  the  wines 
of  Rozan,  Gorce,  Berille,  Larose,  Brane-Mouton, 
Pichon-Longueville,  and  Oalon.  The  other 
classes  are  composed  of  inferior  qualities.  The 
2  principal  classes  of  white  Bordeaux  wines  are 
those  of  Graves  and  those  of  the  left  bank  of 
the  Garonne.  The  best  wines  among  the  latter 
are  the  Sautemes,  Barsao,  Preignac,  and  Lan- 
gon. The  best. Bordeaux  wines  are  popularly 
known  in  America  and  in  England  as  claret. 
They  are  noted  for  delicate  flavor,  and  a  per- 
fume which  seems  to  combine  the  violet  and 
the  raspberry;  rich  in  color,  grateful  to  the 
sense,  and  wholesome  in  their  effects. 

BORDEN,  SiM£02!r,  an  American  civil  engi- 
neer and  scientific  mechanic,  born  at  Free- 
town, now  Fall  River,  Mass.,  Jan.  29,  1798, 
died  at  the  same  place,  Oct  28,  1856.  His 
early  years  were  spent  at  Tiverton,  R.  I., 
where  he  acquired  such  imperfect  rudiments 
of  education  as  the  district  schools  afford- 
ed. He  developed  great  perceptive  pow- 
er and  mechanical  ability.  Mathematics  and 
geometry,  as  applied  to  mechanical  combina- 
tions, were  his  especial  studies,  and  he  taught 
himself  with  the  aid  of  such  books  as  accident 
threw  in  his  way.  Without  serving  any  ap- 
prenticeship he  made  himself  a  thorough  work- 
man in  wood  and  metal,  and  became  one  of  the 
ablest  practical  mechanics  of  his  day.  Early  in 
life  he  practised  surveying  with  success,  and 
made  his  own  surveving  compass,  which  is  still 
extant,  and  an  excellent  instrument.  With  tiiie 
first  fruits  of  his  labors  he  purchased  Rees^s 
OydopaBdia,  which  opened  to  him  a  mine  of  in- 
formation, and  contributed  greatly  to  his  fhtnre 
success.  In  1828  he  took  charge  of  a  machine 
shop  in  Fall  River,  Mass.,  and  in  1880  devised 
and  constructed  for  the  state  of  Massachusetts, 
an  apparatus  for  measuring  the  hose  line  of  the 
trigonometrical  survey  of  tiiat  state.  The  appa- 
ratus was  50  feet  long,  was  enclosed  in  a  tube, 
and  was  of  an  invariaole  length  in  all  tempera- 
tures. Four  compound  microscopes  accompa- 
nied it,  and  both  tube  and  microscopes  were 
mounted  upon  trestles,  having  motion  in  every 
direction.  At  that  time  it  was  the  most  accu- 
rate and  convenient  Instrument  of  the  kind  ex- 
tant, and  it  is  now  only  surpassed  by  that  of 
the  U.  S.  coast  survey.  Mr.  Borden  assisted  in 
the  measure  of  the  base  and  in  the  subsequent 
triangnlation.    In  1884  he  took  charge  of  the 


522 


BORDENTOWlf 


BORGHESE 


I 


work,  and  completed  it  in  1841.  In  its  progrefls 
his  genius  and  resources  were  tried  to  the  ut- 
most. With  limited  means  and  imperfect  in- 
struments he  proved  his  ability  by  *'  doing  good 
work  with  poor  tools."  An  account  of  this 
survey  and  its  results  may  be  found  in  the 
"  American  Philosophical  Transactions,"  vol.  ix. 
p.  84.  Its  precision  has  since  been  satisfactori- 
ly proved  by  the  coast  survey,  Mr,  Borden 
was  next  employed  as  surveyor  in  the  case 
"  Rhode  Island  c«.  Massachusetts,"  ai^ned  in  the 
IT.  S,  supreme  court  in  1844.  After  its  decision 
he  traced  and  marked  the  boundary  lines  be- 
tween those  states.  He  also  constructed  several 
railroads,  and  publi^ed,  in  1851,  **  Formulss  for 
constructing  Railroads,"  in  one  octavo  volume. 
In  1861  he  accomplished  a  difficult  feat  in  engi- 
neering, by  suspending  a  telegraph  wire,  over  a 
mile  long,  upon  masts  220  feet  high,  across  the 
Hudson,  rrom  the  Palisades  to  Fort  Washington. 
But  his  reputation  as  a  scientific  man  rests 
chiefly  upon  his  successful  conduct  of  the  first 
geodetic  survey  ever  completed  in  this  country. 
At  his  death  he  was  a  member  of  the  American 
philosophic^  society,  of  the  American  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  and  other  learned  bodies. 
L\  his  private  character  he  was  a  model  of  in- 
tegrity and  honor, 

BORDENTOWN,  a  village,  pop.  8,000,  in 
Burlington  co.,  N.  J.,  on  tlie  Oamden  and 
Amboy  railroad,  80  miles  from  Phikdelphia, 
67  from  New  York,  and  6  from .  Trenton, 
It  lies  pleasantly  on  an  elevated  plain  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Delaware  river,  and  con- 
tains several  public  and  private  schools.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  the  Delaware  and  Raritan 
canal,  is  connected,  by  railroad  with  Trenton, 
and  is  a  favorite  place  for  excursions  by  steam- 
boat from  Philadelphia,  The  mansion  built 
and  long  inhabited  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  is  in 
tiie  neifimborhood. 

BORDLEY,  John  Bbalb,  an  American  agri- 
culturist, born  in  1728,  died  at  Philadelphia, 
Jan.  26,  1804.  Though  of  the  legal  profession, 
his  habitual  employment  was  husbandry,  and  he 
cultivated  an  estate  on  Wye  island  in  Chesa- 
pei^e  bay.  He  published  many  essays  and  short 
treatises  on  agricultural  topics. 

BORDONE,  Pabide,  a  painter  of  theYenedan 
school,  born  at  Treviso  m  1600,  died  in  Yen- 
ice  in  1670.  He  studied  under  Titian  at  Yenice, 
and  sabseqoently  devoting  himself  to  the  study 
of  Giorgione's  works,  originated  a  style  of  his 
own,  ftdl  of  fire  and  grace,  and  di^guished 
by  all  the  force  of  coloring  then  peculiar  to 
the  Yenetian  schooL  One  of  his  best  preserved 
and  most  successful  pictures  is  the  "  Old  Qon- 
dolier  presenting  a  Ring  to  the  Doge,"  which 
Yasari  styles  the  artist's  masterpiece. 

BORE,  the  rapid  rushing  of  the  tide  inland 
against  the  current  of  a  river.  This  phenome- 
non takes  place  when  a  narrow  river  falls  into 
a  ffraduaJly  widening  estaary  which  is  subject 
to  high  tides.  At  spring  tides  the  great  volume 
of  water  which  enters  the  wide  month  of  the 
estuary  is  compressed  as  it  advances  till  it  is 


several  &et  higher  than  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
up  which  it  therefore  rushes  like  a  torrent.  In 
England  the  bore  is  observed  in  the  Severn  and 
Trent  rivers  and  in  Solway  frith.  There  is  a 
remarkable  bore  in  the  Hoogly  branch  of  the 
Ganges,  where  the  current  goes  70  miles  in  4 
hours ;  also  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bramapootra, 
where  no  boat  ventures  to  navigate  at  spring 
tide,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Indus.  The  rise 
of  the  tide  in  the  bay  of  Fnndy  resembles  a 
bore,  and  this  phenomenon  is  observed  in  some 
of  the  smaller  rivers  on  the  coast  of  Braal,  as 
well  as  in  the  Amazon. 

BOREAS  (the  north  wind),  in  mythology,  a 
son  of  Astrffius  and  Eos,  a  brother  of  Hesperus, 
Zephyrus,  and  Notus,  dwelt  in  a  cave  of  Mount 
HsBmus,  in  Thrace,  carried  off  Orithyia,  daugh- 
ter of  Erechtheus,  by  whom  he  begot  Zetes, 
Calais,  and  Cleopatra,  who  are  called  Boreadn. 
In  the  Persian  war  Boreas  destroyed  the  ships 
of  the  invaders,  and  hence  was  worshipped  at 
Athens,  where  a  festival,  Boreasmbi,  was  insti- 
tuted in  his  honor.  He  was  represented  with 
wings,  which,  as  well  as  his  hair  and  beard, 
were  fall  of  flakes  of  snow ;  instead  of  feet  he 
had  the  tails  of  serpents,  and  with  the  train  of 
his  garment  he  stirred  up  clouds  of  dust. 

BORECOLE,  a  variety  of  cabbage  known  as 
Brussels  sprouts,  and  celebrated  for  tenderness 
and  delicate  flavor.  Wild  cabbage,  or  brasnca 
oUracea^  to  which  species  borecole  belongs,  is 
met  with  in  abundance  in  many  parts  of  Europe. 
It  is  very  common  in  the  southern  part  of  Tur- 
key, especially  about  Mount  Athos.  It  is 
also  found  in  Great  Britain,  on  the  ooast  of 
Kent,  near  Dover,  on  the  Yorkshire  coasts,  in 
Cornwall  and  Wales^  and  on  the  isle  of  Wight 
In  other  places  it  forms  a  broad-leaved  glaucous 
plant^  with  a  somewhat  woody  stem,  having 
but  little  likeness  to  its  cultivated  progeny.  In 
comparing  the  difierent  varieties  of  wild  cab- 
bage with  the  corresponding  varieties  of  gar- 
den produce,  it  is  diflScult  to  conceive  by  what 
successive  steps  of  culture  and  domestication 
the  numerous  changes  and  improvements  have 
been  effected,  which  gave  birth  to  the  present 
races  of  cabbages,  savoys,  borecoles,  brocoolis, 
and  canliflowers,  so  different  in  aspect  and  in 
flavor  from  their  wild  progenitors. 

BOREHAM,  a  parish  in  Essex,  England,  the 
ate  of  Newhall,  a  mansion  built  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  YIL,  and  successively  occupied  as  a  resi- 
dence by  the  princess  Maiy,  by  Yilliers,  duke  of 
Bud^ingham,  by  Cromwell,  and  by  the  duke 
of  Albemarle,    Newhall  is  now  a  nunnery. 

BORGHESE,  the  name  of  a  patrician  family 
of  Sienna,  Italy,  which  has  been  more  or  less  dis- 
tinguished since  the  middle  of  the  16th  century. 
A  jurisconsult,  of  the  name  of  Marco  Antonio 
Borghese,  who  was  employed  by  the  papal 
court  in  the  early  part  of  the  16th  century,  ap- 
pears to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  its  fortunes 
at  Rome.  His  8d  sdn,  Camillo,  became  Pope 
Paul  Y.  in  1606,  and  he  lavished  the  honors 
and  riches  which  his  place  enabled  him  to  com- 
mand on  his  relatives.    For  a  son  of  his  eldw 


B0RGHE8E 


BORGHI-MAMO 


523 


brother,  named  Maroo  Antonio  Borgbese,  be 
procared  the  princedom  of  Sulmona  and  a 
grandeeahip  in  Spain.  His  brother  Francesco 
be  made  the  leader  of  the  troops  sent  against 
Yenioe  in  1607,  to  maintain  the  papal  canse 
against  the  opposition  of  that  republic.  Soipione 
Caffarelli,  a  nephew,  be  created  cardinal.  Paolo, 
the  son  of  Mfirco  Antonio,  married  Olympia 
Aldobrandini,  the  onlj  child  of  the  nrince  of 
Roasano,  and  grand-niece  of  Clement  YIIL,  and 
thus  introduced  the  i^ealth  of  the  Aldobrandini 
into  the  Borgbese  family.  The  son  of  Paolo, 
named  Giovanni  Battista,  was  the  ambassador  of 
Philip  v.  to  the  court  of  Bome,  where  he  died 
in  1717.  His  son,  Marco  Antonio,  was  viceroj 
of  Naples  in  1721,'  and  another  of  the  same 
name,  descended  from  him,  became  a  noted  col- 
lector of  works  of  art,  with  which  he  ailorned 
bis  sumptuous  villa  on  the  Pincian  hilL — 
O^MiLLO  FiLippo  LuDovioo,  a  son  of  the  art 
collector,  born  in  Rome,  July  19,  1775,  died 
at  Florence,  April  10,  1882.  During  the  in- 
vasion of  Italy  by  the  French  he  joined  the 
enemy,  showing  a  singular  devotion  to  the 
French,  and  particularly  to  Bonaparte ;  and  was 
afterward  (1803)  rewarded  with  the  band  of 
Marie  Pauline,  the  sister  of  Napoleon,  and 
widow  of  Gen.  Leclero.  In  1804  he  became 
a  French  prince,  and  on  the  breaking  out  of 
the  Austrian  war,  the  next  year,  assumed  the 
.  command  of  a  squadron  of  the  imperial  guard. 
At  the  close  of  it  his  wife  received  the  duchy 
of  Guastalla,  and  he  took  the  title  of  the  duke 
of  Guastalla.  He  served  in  the  campaign  of 
1806  against  the  Russians  and  Prussians,  after 
which  he  was  appointed  by  the  emperor  govern- 
or-general of  the  provinces  beyond  the  Alps, 
which  included  also  the  former  states  of  Pied- 
mont and  Genoa.  Fixing  his  court  at  Turin, 
be  conducted  his  government  with  moderation 
and  judgment  At  the  request  of  Napoleon  he 
sold  to  the  French  nation,  for  the  sum  of 
8,000,000  francs,  over  800  of  the  beautiful 
works  of  art  which  ornamented  the  palace  of 
bis  ancestors  at  Rome.  Among  them  were 
many  masterpieces,  which  are  now  the  delight 
of  the  visitors  to  the  Parisian  galleries.  After 
the  abdication  of  Bonaparte,  however,  he  broke 
up  all  connection  with  the  family,  and  separated 
from  his  wife.  He  then  fixed  his  residence  in 
Florence,  where  he  lived  in  great  splendor 
till  his  death.  Beside  tlie  famous  palace 
on  the  Pincian  bill,  his  family  were  left  large 
estates  in  different  parts  of  Tuscany,  Naples, 
and  the  papal  territories.  The  duchesse  d*Ab- 
rantds  says  he  "was  exceedingly  handsome, 
-with  a  plentiful  lack  of  brains."— Mabib  Pi.n- 
UHB,  princess,  originally  Bonaparte,  born  at 
Ajacoio,  Oct  20, 1780,  or  April  22, 1781,  died  in 
Florence,  June  9,  1825.  In  1798,  when  the  Eng- 
lish were  in  the  occupation  of  Corsica,  she  was 
cent  to  Marseilles,  where  she  afterward  came  near 
marrying  Fr^ron,  a  member  of  the  convention, 
but  another  lady  laid  claim  to  his  hand.  She 
was  then  intended  for  Gen.  Duphot,  who  was 
afterward  murdered  at  Rome.  Junot  was  in  love 


with  her,  but  Napoleon  prevented  the  match, 
inasmuch  as  he  was  not  rich.  Another  general, 
Leclerc,  for  whom  Napoleon  had  a  high  esteem, 
became  her  husband  in  1797.  Together  with 
the  rest  of  the  family  she  removed  to  Paris, 
when  the  star  of  the  first  consul  began  to  shine. 
At  that  time  she  was  remarkable  for  her  beau- 
ty, as  she  was,  indeed,  during  her  whole  life. 
The  duchesse  d'Abrantds  speaks  of  ^'  the  ex- 
traordinary perfection  of  her  beauty,^'  and  of 
the  "exquisitely  beautiful  Paulette,"  compar- 
ing her  to  Venus  or  Galatea.  The  same  au- 
thority adds  that  she  was  no  less  whimsical, 
capricious,  and  vain.  When  Leclerc  was  sent 
to  St.  Domingo  as  captain-general,  she  followed 
him  greatly  against  her  will  and  by  order 
of  her  brother,  embarking  at  Brest,  Dec.  1801, 
and  exciting  the  adipiration  of  the  ship-poets 
so  much  that  they  called  her  the  Ventu  marina. 
During  the  troubles  on  the  island  she  displayed 
unusual  intrepidity';  and  on  one  occasion,  as  the 
insurgent  negroes  attacked  her  residence  at 
Cap  Francois,  she  could  only  be  induced  to 
leave  it,  in  order  to  seek  refuge  on  ship-board, 
by  force.  Her  husband  dying  one  year  after 
their  arrival,  she  returned  to  Europe,  where 
she  was  again  married  in  1803  to  the  prince 
Camillo  Borgbese.  Their  domestic  life,  how- 
ever, was  not  happy,  and,  after  some  years, 
they  separated.  Pauline  was,  perhaps,  the 
most  accomplished  of  Napoleon's  .sisters ;  she 
was  fond  of  poetry  and  the  arts,  and  possessed 
no  little  theatrical  ability.  While  she  occupied 
a  part  of  the  villa  Borgbese  at  Rome,  her  house 
was  the  resort  of  the  most  brilliant  society  of  the 
city.  Nanoleon  was  attached  to  her,  although 
it  is  said  tnat  she  manifested  a  less  slavish  sub- 
mission to  the  imperial  will  than  any  of  her 
family.  Her  independence  in  regard  to  him- 
self he  often  overlooked,  but  when  she  put 
some  slight  upon  the  empress,  to  whom  she  was 
inimical,  he  compelled  her  to  leave  the  court 
She  was  still  in  exile  when  he  abdicated  in 
1814,  but  she  interested  herself  much  in  his 
fate,  and  was  about  to  poin  him  in  St.  Helena, 
when  the  news  of  his  decease  arrived.  A 
little  while  before  her  own  death,  she  was 
reconciled  to  her  husband,  and  lived  with  him 
at  Florence. 

BORGHESI,  BART0XX)BUfB0,  count,  a  learned 
numismatist,  bom  July  11, 1781,  at  Savignano, 
in  the  Papal  States.  His  attention  has  been  de- 
voted to  elucidating,  through  the  study  of  in- 
scriptions, severid  obscure  points  in  Roman  his- 
tory ;  and  the  papers  he  has  published,  at  various 
periods,  in  some  of  the  Italian  reviews,  have  se- 
cured for  him  a  great  reputation  among  the 
learned.  Since  1 821  he  has  been  a  resident  of  the 
little  republic  of  San  Marino.  He  has  now  com- 
pleted, after  more  than  80  years*  labor,  a  full 
chronoloffical  list  of  the  Roman  consulis,  em- 
bracing all  the  modern  discoveries  on  the  sub- 
ject, with  disquisitions  on  the  most  important 
questions  connected  with  Roman  antiquities. 

BORGHI-MAMO,  Adblaidx,  an  Italian 
prima  donna,  bom  in  Bologna,  Aug.  9,  1830, 


524 


BORGI 


BORGIA 


made  ber  debat  there  Dec.  1846,  appeared  i& 
1851  at  the  San  Carlo  in  Naples,  and  has  been 
aince  1853  engaged  at  Vienna. 

BORGI,  GiOYAKNi,  the  originator  of  ragged 
schools,  bom  in  Rome  abont  1786,  died  a^ut 
1602.  He  was  a  mason  by  trade,  and  en- 
tirely nnedncated,  but  alter  his  daily  toil 
was  completed,  he  was  in  the  habit  of  attend- 
ing the  sick  in  the  hospital  of  Santo  Bpirito, 
spending  entire  nights  in  his  labor  of  love,  and 
freqaently  fallinff  asleep  at  his  work  during  the 
day.  In  his  daily  walks,  he  had  noticed  troops 
of  vagrant  children  in  the  streets,  fast  ripening 
into  vice  and  crime.  He  took  ^em  home  to 
his  humble  lodgings,  and  having  clad  them, 
with  the  aid  of  alms  which  he  collected,  he  an- 
prenticed  them  to  n^eful  trades.  This  noble 
work  was  observed  and  admired  by  others,  who 
freely  lent  their  aid,  and  when  the  number  of 
children  became  too  great  for  his  dose  quar- 
ters, more  suitable  and  ample  accommodations 
were  provided  by  2  ffood  ecclesiastics,  who  paid 
the  rent,  and  aided  him  by  their  influence  and 
counsel,  and  in  due  time  a  society  was  formed, 
contributing  monthly  toward  its  support.  Thus 
aided,  its  organization  was  further  developed 
in  1764.  Although  Giovanni  was  himself  igno- 
rant, he  perceived  the  advantages  of  instrucSon, 
and  caused  the  children  to  be  taught  reading, 
writing,  and  arithmetic,  by  one  Francesco  Oer- 
vetti,  who  afterward  left  him  and  founded 
another  reftige  for  orphans  called  the  '^As- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,"  which  was  consoli- 
dated with  that  of  Giovanni  in  1812.  Pins 
VI.  highly  approved  of  the  good  work,  and 
having  purchased  for  the  institution  the  Pa- 
lazzo Ruggi,  became  its  principal  protector. 
Subsequently,  it  was  removed  to  different  con- 
vents, and  finally  to  the  church  of  St.  Anne  of 
the  carpenters.  The  children  rose  at  an  early 
hour,  attended  mass,  and  after  receiving  each  a 
loaf  of  bread,  went  to  their  respective  work- 
shops, which  Giovanni  frequently  visited  him- 
self^ to  learn  of  their  progress  and  behavior. 
At  the  Ave  Maria,  he  stood  at  the  entrance 
door  with  a  bag  in  his  hand,  into  which  the 
boys  dropped  their  day's  earnings.  The  school 
lessons  were  next  in  order,  and  finally  the  tra- 
gal  supper.  The  discipline  was  strict,  including 
corponu  punishment.  Yet  Giovanid  was  by  no 
means  inconsiderate,  frequently  accompanying 
the  .pupils  to  the  country,  and  joining  in  their 
sports.  He  allowed  the  boys  to  select  the  trade 
to  which  they  had  the  greatest  inclination,  for 
which  they  evinced  the  greatest  aptitude,  and 
that  best  suited  to  their  capacity  and  strength. 

BORGIA,  Cesuw,  an  Italian  prelate  and  sol- 
dier, born  about  1457,  died  March  12,  1507. 
He  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  the  son 
of  Rodrigo  Lenzuolo,  afterward  Pope  Alexander 
VL,  and  Rosa  Vanozza  (Giulia  Famese).  Hav- 
ing first  officiated  as  bishop  of  Pampeluna,  he 
was  promoted  by  his  fSnther,  in  1493,  to  the 
dignity  of  cardinal,  and  became  known  as  tlie 
cardinal  Valentino,  from  the  diocese  of  Valen- 
cia, of  which  he  was  made  archbishop.    He  at 


once  began  a  war  of  extermination  against  Um 
fendal  terons  and  small  princes  in  the  Papal 
States  and  its  vicinity,  having  persnaded  his 
father  to  take  the  lead  in  this  movement 
Thus  the  Borgias  dispossessed  moat  <rf  the 
feudatories,  seizing  their  strongholds,  castles, 
and  estates.  Abont  that  time,  Zizim,  brother 
of  Biyazet  II.,  sought  in  Rome  a  rc^nge  frna 
the  murderous  schemes  of  his  brother,  who 
offered  800,000  ducats  to  the  pope  for  the 
extradition  of  the  fugitive,  or  for  his  bead. 
Charles  VIII.,  king  of  France,  who  was  tb^ 
with  his  army  in  Italy,  where  he  exercised  a 
wide  influence,  moved  by  the  fate  of  Zizim,  im- 
periously demanded  from  Alexander  VI.  that 
the  Turkish  prince  should  be  sent  to  his  camp. 
Oesare  advised  his  fiftther  to  yield  to  the  de- 
mand, but  previously  to  administer  to  Zinm  a 
slow  poison,  and  himself  accompanied  the  vic- 
tim as  a  hostage;  but  when  the  drug  b^an  to 
operate,  he  escaped  from  the  French  eampL 
He  likewise  poisoned  Giovanni  Battista  Ferrata, 
the  richest  and  most  influential  dignitary  in  tiie 
papal  court,  and  seized  the  treasures  he  had  ae- 
oumnlated.  6oon  afterward  he  was  suagecud 
of  procuring  the  murder  of  his  own  brothciv 
Giovanni  Borgia,  duke  of  Gandia,  who  was 
found  in  the  Tiber  pierced  with  9  adktto 
strokes,  by  unknown  hands.  The  pope  released 
him  from  his  clerical  vows,  and  endeavor&d  to 
make  him  marry  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Fred- 
eric of  Aragon,  king  of  Naples.  Hiis  sdierae, 
however,  was  nnsnccessfnl,  but  a  cardinal  wlw 
participated  in  the  intrigue  was  p<»Boned  and  his 
fortune  seized  by  Borgia.  Louis  XIL,  Mag  of 
France,  demanding  from  the  pope  a  div<»oe  from 
hia  first  wife,  the  demand  was  granted  on  the 
condition  that  he  should  create  Oeeare  a  dnke, 
and  take  him  into  the  Frendi  service.  Borgia 
became  duke  of  Valentinois,  received  a  ooiw- 
erable  military  command  and  emc^nments  ia 
the  French  army,  and  in  1499  married  Cttat- 
lotte,  sister  of  Jean  d^Albret,  king  of  Navarre. 
He  commanded  in  the  campaigns  of  Loois  XH 
in  Italy,  and  by  his  wonted  means  seised  lor 
his  own  account  Forli,  Oesena,  Imola,  BtraiBi, 
Piombino,  the  island  of  Elba,  Faenza,  Ons- 
erino,  and  murdered  their  sovereigna.  He  finallT 
wished  to  destroy  all  the  petty  sovereigiis^  and 
to  seize  Romagna,  Umbria,  Tuscan  j,  and,  mut- 
ing an  these  states,  to  make  himself  the  ^ktg 
of  Italy.  As  iMa  would  have  sati^led  the 
longings  of  many  among  the  Gnel^c  patriolB, 
forever  preduding,  as  they  believed,  all  foreigB 
intervention  in  the  affiurs  of  the  peninads, 
Borgia,  notwithstanding  his  crimes,  found  eido- 
gists  among  them.  MaecbiaveQi  took  liim  as 
his  standud  in  his  celebrated  wcM'k  H  I^ine^ 
and  has  been  accused  by  many  writers  of  b^atg 
a  decided  partisan  of  Oesare.  But  Loms  Xlf 
arrested  these  ambitious  maehinatioDs,  and 
many  whom  Oeaare  had  ahready  deprived  of 
their  possessions,  as  for  example  tiie  dnke  of 
Urbino,  recovered  them.  His  most  bloody 
military  action  was  the  storm  and  slaughter  in 
Sinigagliai  at  the  head  of  bis  Swiss 


BORGIA 


BORGNE 


625 


naries,  described  by  MacohiarellL  He  still 
oontinued  to  poison  and  otherwise  murder  feu- 
dal barons,  cardinals,  and  other  wealthy  per- 
sons. Finally,  as  most  historians  allege, 
though  Rosooe  does  not  admit  the  statement, 
in  conjunction  with  his  father,  he  concoct- 
ed the  plan  bt  poisoning  4  of  the  wealth- 
iest cardinals  at  an  evening  parly  in  the 
yUla  Ok)meto.  But  by  mistake  the  poison, 
which  was  mixed  in  wine,  was  administered  to 
Alexander  YL  and  to  Oesare.  The  pope  died 
about  a  week  after.  Oesare  was  saved  by  being 
generaUy  temperate,  having  taken  but  little  of 
the  drugged  wine,  with  water.  He  seized  upon 
the  papal  treasures  in  the  Vatican,  and  with 
about  12,000  mercenaries  still  kept  Rome,  al- 
though those  whom  he  had  despoiled  in  central 
Itidy  revolted  and  recovered  their  lost  property. 
Finally  his  troops  abandoned  him,  and  the  pope, 
Julius  IL,  arrested  and  expelled  him  from  the 
Papal  States.  He  took  reftige  with  Gonzales 
de  Oordova,  the  commander  of  Naples^  who 
sent  him  to  Spain,  where  he  was  imprisoned 
by  Ferdinand  of  Aragon.  After  8  years  he 
escaped  and  found  an  i»ylum,  in  1506,  at  the 
oourt  of  Jean  d^Albret^  his  brother-in-law. 
Finally  he  was  slain,  in  1607,  before  the  castle 
of  Yiana,  which  he  was  be^eging,  in  the  war 
of  the  king  of  Navarre  with  Ferdinand  the 
Oatholic.  He  had  been  educated  with  the 
greatest  care,  and  was  considered  one  of  the 
most  cultivated  minds  of  his  epoch.  His  elo- 
quence was  so  persuasive  and  seductive,  that 
few  could  resist  being  carried  away,  even 
against  their  own  interests.  He  was  temperate 
in  the  use  of  liquors  and  the  table,  and  patronized 
science  and  letters,  which  acoounte  for  his  hav- 
ing found  some  defenders. 

BORGIA,  LvoBBZiA,  danghtor  of  Alexander 
VI.,  and  sister  of  Oesare,  lived  in  the  latter  half 
of  the  16th  century.  She  had  numberless  lovers, 
and  has  been  acctned  of  incest  with  her  fiither 
and  her  2  brothers,  though  modem  critics  have 
called  this  in  question.  She  was  affianced  in  her 
Touth  to  an  Anigonese  nobleman ;  but  her  father 
becoming  pope  gave  her  in  marriage,  in  1498, 
to  Giovanni  Sforza,  lord  of  Pesaro.  This  match 
was  dissolved  in  1497.  She  afterward  married 
Alfonso,  duke  of  Biseglia,  whose  assassination 
was  ordered  2  years  afterward  by  Oesare,  her 
brother.  In  1601,  she  married  Alfonso  d'Este. 
a  son  of  Ercole,  duke  of  Ferrara.  She  survived 
her  whole  &mily,  and  attracted  to  her  court 
poets  and  men  of  letters,  among  others  Hetro 
Bembo,  who  celebrated  her  genius.  Victor 
Hugo  has  made  her  the  sulject  of  a  play,  which 
affords  the  basis  for  the  well-khown  opera  of 
Donizetti.  Her  complexion  was  fair,  and  her 
hair  of  a  kind  of  silver-blond,  as  rare  as  it  was 
beautiful. 

BORGIA,  Stbfaho,  an  Italian  cardinal  and 
director  of  the  Roman  propaganda,  bom  at 
Velletri,  Dec.  8, 1781,  died  at  Lyons,  Nov.  28, 
1804.  He  was  one  of  the  most  generous  pa- 
trons of  science  in  the  18th  century.  Havmg 
been  made  a  member  of  the  Etroscan  academy 


of  Oortona.  in  1760,  he  founded  the  celebrated 
museum  of  antiquities  at  Velletri,  which  be- 
came the  richest  of  all  such  collections.  Sub- 
sequently officiating  as  governor  of  the  duchy 
of  Benevento,  he  distinguished  himself  by  his 
able  adminiBtratioD,  and  preserved  that  prov- 
ince from  the  famine  which  ravaged  the 
kingdom  of  Naples  in  1764.  In  1770  he  became 
secretary  of  the  propaganda,  and  during  18 
years  that  he  occupied  that  office  he  had  to  do 
with  missionaries  scattered  all  over  the  globe, 
and  was  enabled  greatly  to  enrich  his  collection 
of  rare  manuscripts  and  antiquities.  Pius  VI. 
named  him  a  cardinal  in  1789,  and  put  under 
his  care  the  institution  of  foundlings,  and  Bor- 
gia's name  thus  became  connected  with  various 
benevolent  establishments.  In  1797,  when  the 
revolutionary  movement  reached  Rome,  Pius 
VI.  made  him  dictator  of  the  city.  When  the 
French  troops  arrived  before  the  walls,  Feb.  16, 
1798,  the  republican  party  rose,  and  arrested 
and  expelled  him  from  the  Roman  states.  Ho 
retired  to  Venice,  then  to  Pisa,  where,  as  was 
his  wont,  he  formed  a  small  society  of  scientific 
men.  He  returned  to  Rome  with  Pius  VIL, 
and  devoted  his  time  to  various  administrative 
ameliorations.  He  died  on  a  journey  to  Paris 
as  companion  of  the  pope.  During  his  life  he 
was  the  friend  of  men  of  science  and  letters^ 
and  left  a  highly  esteemed  name.  He  also  hod 
a  respectable  reputation  as  a  writer  and  archad- 
ologist. 

BORGIA^  St.  Francis,  duie  of  Gandia,  vice- 
roy of  Oatalonia,  and  afterward  8d  general  of 
the  society  of  Jesus,  born  at  Janda,  Spain,  in 
1510,  died  in  Rome  in  Oct.  1572.  He  was 
eminent  as  a  soldier  and  statesman,  and  en- 
joyed the  confidence  and  friendship  of  Oharles 
V.  He  married  very  young  a  noble  Portu- 
guese lady,  Eleonora  de  Oastro,  by  whom  he 
had  a  large  family.  He  was  always  very  strict 
in  his  morality,  and  exact  in  his  religious 
duties ;  but  the  sight  of  the  disfigured  corpse  of 
his  late  sovereign,  the  beantifhl  Isabella  of  Por- 
tugal made  such  a  profound  imprecision  on  him, 
that  he  ever  after  lived  at  court  like  the  most 
austere  monk  in  his  cloister.  After  the  death 
of  his  wife,  he  entered  the  society  of  Jesus,  and 
was  ordained  priest  in  the  40th  year  of  his  age. 
At  the  death  of  Laynez,  in  1565,  he  was  elected 
general  of  the  society,  and  remained  in  office 
until  his  death.  Several  bishoprics,  and  the 
dignity  of  cardinal,  were  repeatedly  pressed 
upon  him,  but  refused.  He  was  canonized  by 
Olement  X.  in  1671. 

BORGNE,  LiLKB,  dtnatedin  the  south-eastern 
part  of  the  state  of  Louisiana.  Though  this 
Dody  of  water  is  termed  a  lake,  it  is  strictiy  the 
termination  of  that  large  arm  of  the  Mexican 
gulf  known  as  Pascagoula  sound,  being  united 
to  that  by  a  pass  or  strait  crossed  by  a  line  of 
small  islands,  and  fiiced  on  the  east  by  Grand 
island.  Lake  Borgne  is  also  connected  with 
Lake  Pontchartrain  by  the  Rigolet  pass.  It  is 
about  the  average  depth  of  Lake  Pontchartrain, 
and  approaches  within  15  miles  of  New  Or- 


526 


BORGOGNONE 


BOBma 


leans.  Its  greatest  extent  is  in  a  north-east 
and  south-west  direction,  in  which  its  length  is 
about  80  miles.  Lake  Borgne  forms  a  part  of 
the  western  boundary  of  the  Mississippi  delta. 

BORGOGNONE,  Ja^oopo  Cohtesi,  a  painter, 
born  in  Burgundy,  in  1621,  died  in  Rome,  Nov.  14, 
1676.  He  studied  his  art  at  Bologna,  a  part  of 
the  time  under  the  instrnction  of  Gnido,  whose 
style  of  coloring  he  imitated.  His  great  excel- 
lence lay  in  representing  battle  scenes.  He  re- 
sided for  many  years  at  Florence,  where  he 
acquired  a  fortune  by  his  pencil,  and  finally,  in 
1655,  became  a  Jesuit  This  did  not  interfere, 
however,  with  his  devotion  to  his  art,  which  he 
continued  to  practise  until  his  death. 

BORGOO,  a  larse  kingdom  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  bounded  N.  by  Gourma,  8.  by  Eyeo,  or 
Yarriba,  E.  by  the  Niger  river,  and  W.  by 
Dahomey.  It  is  generally  a  level  country,  though 
crossed  by  a  range  of  mountains.  The  soil  is 
fertile,  well  cultivated,  and  productive  of  com, 
yams,  plantains,  and  limes.  All  the  varieties  of 
game  which  prevail  in  Africa  are  found  here  in 
abundance.  When  Olapperton  visited  Borgoo, 
he  was  told  that  the  natives  were  the  most  dis- 
honest people  of  Africa ;  but  his  experience 
convinced  him  that  this  bad  reputation  was 
undeserved.  He  foimd  them  good-humored  and 
obliging;  nor,  during  his  stay  in  the  kingdom, 
was  he  ever  robbed  of  the  sliffhtest  article.  The 
slaves  of  the  governors  and  chiefs,  however, 
pilfered  every  thing  that  came  within  their 
reach.  These  slaves  were  natives  of  the  neigh- 
boring country  of  Houssa.  Borgoo  is  divided 
into  the  four  states  of  Bonssa,  Wawa,  Kiama, 
and  Niki.  Boussa,  which  holds  the  first  rank, 
is  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  disastrous  fate  or 
Mungo  Park. 

BORGOO,  another  country  in  central  Af- 
rica of  the  same  name  as  the  preceding. 
It  has  never  been  explored  by  Europeans. 
It  is  a  mountainous  region,  forming' a  con- 
necting link  between  the  basin  of  Lake  Tchad 
and  the  basin  of  the  Nile.  The  air  is  said 
to  be  remarkably  pure,  and  the  soil  well  wa- 
tered by  perennial  rivers,  and  very  fertile  in 
date-trees.  The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  pow- 
erful Arab  tribe  of  the  Uelad  Solyman.  In  the 
year  1851  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  explore 
this  region  was  made  by  Dr.  Barth  and  Dr. 
Overweg.  They  set  out  with  a  large  army, 
despatched  by  the  sheik  of  Bomoo  for  the 
invasion  of  the  countries  eastward  from  Lake 
Tchad ;  but  before  they  could  reach  Borgoo  this 
army  was  attacked  by  the  en«my,  defeated,  and 

gut  to  flight.    Barth  and  Overweg  saved  their 
ves  only  by  a  quick  retreat 
BORIE,  PiBBBB  Ross  Ubsvlb  DuMOTTLnr,  a 
French  missionary,  born  Feb.  20, 1808,  at  Beynat, 

Sut  to  death  in  Tonquin,  Nov.  24, 1888.  Having 
etermined  to  become  a  priest,  he  diligently  ap- 
plied himself  to  his  studies,  and  led  an  exemplary 
life ;  but  his  restless  and  aspiring  spirit  was  al- 
ways in  search  of  some  field  of  heroic  achieve- 
ment Finally  he  was  ordained  and  sailed  for 
Tonquin,  his  appointed  mission,  Dec.  1, 1881.  He 


arrived  in  Tonquin  just  at  the  commencement  of 
a  bloody  persecution,  carrfed  on  by  the  tyrant 
Minh-Menh  against  his  Christian  subjects.  He 
very  soon  learned  to  speak  the  language  and 
accommodate  himself  to  the  habits  and  temper 
of  the  Tonquinese,  and,  notwithstanding  the 
difficulties  placed  in  his  way  by  the  persecution, 
he  labored  with  great  zeal  and  success  during 
6  years.  In  1888  he  was  apprehended,  severely 
beaten,  and  imprisoned,  and  after  4  months 
condemned  to  be  beheaded.  He.  bore  his  tor- 
tures with  fortitude,  and  wrote  several  letters 
from  his  prison  to  his  relatives  and  friends  in 
France,  breathing  the  most  heroic  sentiments. 
He  was  executed  in  company  with  2  native 
priests.  The  mandarin  expressed  to  him  his  re- 
gret at  the  necessity  he  was  under  of  obeying  the 
orders  of  the  king,  and  the  officer  who  command- 
ed the  escort  of  troops  wept  when  he  bade 
him  farewell.  He  was  escorted  to  the  scafiEbld 
by  a  guard  of  honor.  The  native  priests  were 
strangled.  Borie  seated  himself  on  the  scaffold, 
and,  without  betraying  the  least  trepidation,  laid 
bare,  with  his  own  hand,  his  neck  and  shoulders. 
No  one  of  the  soldiers  was  willing  to  perform 
the  office  of  executioner,  and  the  one  who  was 
compelled  to  do  it,  intoxicated  himself  in  order 
to  ffain  courage  for  the  hateful  office.  .  Through 
awkwardness  and  confusion  he  prolonged  the 
sufferings  of  the  missionary  by  striking  several 
ineffectual  blows.  The  first  struck  him  on  the 
cheek,  the  second  on  the  shoulders,  and  it  was 
not  until  the  seventh  stroke  that  the  head  was 
severed  from  the  body.  The  heathen  venerated 
Borie  as  one  of  the  greatest  of  heroes,  and  even 
honored  him  as  a  divinity,  by  burning  gold  paper 
over  his  grave.  He  was  appointed  bishop  and 
vicar-apostolic,  just  before  his  death,  but  was 
never  consecrated.  His  bones  were  brought  to 
Paris,  and  are  preserved  in  the  chapel  of  the 
foreign  missions. 

BORING  is  the  name  common  to  2  distinct 
mechanical  operations,  which  bear  different 
appellations  in  most  languages.  The  one  con- 
sists in  turning  the  inside  surface  of  cylinders 
to  make  them  true,  the  other  in  cutting  holes 
through  solid  matter.  Cylinders  of  a  diameter 
smaller  than  4  feet  are  bored  on  a  lathe ;  the 
cylinder  is  fastened  to  the  slide-rest,  and  the 
tool  is  keyed  on  a  mandrel  or  boring  bar  held 
between  the  centres  of  the  lathe ;  the  cylinder 
moves  lengthwise,  and  the  tool  revolves  so 
that  the  cut  is  helical.  Large  cylinders  of  the 
thickness  usual  for  steam  engines  cannot  be 
bored  horizontally,  as  their  weight  is  sufficient 
to  deflect  them  when  resting  on  the  side ;  they 
are  bored  on  a  boring  machine.  This  im- 
portant tool  is  of  modem  invention,  and  is 
found  only  in  those  larse  establishments  where 
huge  steam  engines  are  built  Boring  machines 
are  made  to  order  in  England  and  Scotiand ; 
in  the  United  States  they  are  built  in  the  shops 
where  they  are  wanted.  A  boring  machine  is 
generally  placed  in  a  comer  of  the  shop  formed 
by  2  solid  walls.  It  consists  miunly  of  a  verti- 
cal shaft  placed  below  the  floor,  supporting  a 


BORING 


627 


vertical  boring  bar  which  carries  a  horizontal 
cutter-wheel,  and  of  a  strongly  ribbed  bed- 
plate on  which  are  4  movable  standards  or 
supports,  with  clamps  to  hold  the  cylinder  in 
a  vertical  position.  The  lower  end  of  the 
shaft  rests  in  a  socket  on  strong  foundations ; 
the  upper  end  is  keyed  loosely  to  the  boring 
bar,  and  supports  it  The  boring  bar  is  guided 
by  2  adjustable  boxes,  the  lower  one  forming 
a  part  or  the  bed-plate,  the  upper  one,  part  of  an 
iron  beam  strongly  bolted  and  braced  to  the 
walls.  The  shaft  and  boring  bar  are  made  to 
revolve  by  a  train  of  wheels  placed  under  the 
floor.  Tlie  cutter- wheel,  on  which  are  bolted 
,  several  tool-carriers,  descends  slowly  along  the 
boring  bar.  To  operate  with  this  machine, 
the  boring  bar  is  at  first  withdrawn,  to  make 
room  for  the  cylinder,  which  is  placed  on  the 
standards,  and  then  the  bar  is  put  back  in  its 
place  inside  the  cylinder.  This  last  is  then  so 
adjusted  as  to  have  the  same  axis  with  the 
boring  bar,  and  is  firmly  clamped.  Gutting 
chisels  are  set  on  the  tool-carriers;  these  are 
adjusted  for  the  depth  of  cut  desired,  and  the 
machine  is  pat  in  motion.  After  the  cutter- 
whed  has  come  down  the  whole  length  of  the  cyl- 
inder, it  is  raised  by  means  of  a  revolving  crane 
for  another  cut  Boring  machines  were  made 
to  avoid  the  bulging  of  the  sides  of  cylinders 
when  placed  horizontally,  as  this  was  the  main 
impediment  to  good  boring;  they  also  avoid 
the  deflection  of  the  boring  bar.  They  require 
much  less  power  than  lathes  to  do  the  same 
work,  and  have  several  other  minor  advantages. 
The  largest  of  these  machines  in  existence  is 
said  to  be  one  built  in  Glasgow,  by  0.  and  A. 
Harvey,  for  Robert  Napier's  machine-shop.  It 
weighs  80  tons,  is  25  feet  high,  and  14  feet 
wide.  It  can  work  at  from  2^  to  16  revolu- 
tions a  minute ;  can  bore  a  cylinder  10  feet  in 
diameter,  and  7  feet  8  inches  long,  and  can  take 
feed  from  ,'j,  to^  of  an  inch  per  revolution.  This 
boring  machine  can  also  be  used  as  a  drilling 
machine  for  boring  holes  10  inches  in  diameter 
through  solid  iron. — Borino  Tools  for  drilling 
holes.  If  these  tools  had  only  to  cut  away  a 
portion  of  matter,  as  is  done  in  cutting,  planing, 
and  turning,  the  directions  given  for  cutting 
tools  as  to  the  angles  of  the  faces  of  the  edge 
with  the  work,  the  velocity,  and  the  lubricating 
liquid  proper  for  the  substance  to  be  cut,  would 
have  to  be  strictly  applied.  Such  is  not  the 
case,  however ;  a  drill  has  not  only  to  turn  off 
the  bottom  of  the  hole,  but  also  to  pare  its 
sides,  to  guide  itself  in  a  straight  line,  and,  for 
wood  and  some  other  substances,  to  eject  the 
shavings.  Moreover,  the  velocity  is  unavoid- 
ably different  at  all  points  from  the  centre  to 
the  circumference.  In  consequence,  the  rules 
given  for  cutting  tools  are  observed  in  boring 
tools  only  as  far  as  they  accord  with  other  im- 
portant requisites ;  but  they  must  never  be  lost 
sight  of.  Drills  are  made,  in  general,  to  bore 
straight  holes,  by  providing  them  with  a  centre- 
point  or  pin  projecting  beyond  the  cutting  edge 
just  in  the  centre  of  the  hole,  or  by  tapering 


the  cutting  edges  to  a  point.  Drills  are  made 
to  bore  clean  holes,  by  providing  them  with  a 
shearing  point  on  the  side,  that  cuts  like  the 
point  of  a  knife ;  or  by  prolonging  the  cutting 
edge  along  the  side ;  or,  for  metal,  by  making 
a  reamer  with  the  stem  of  the  drill.  Boring 
tools  are  made  to  eject  the  material  cut  away, 
by  shaping  this  stem  in  the  form  of  a  screw,  or 
by  making  it  hollow.  The  various  tools  used 
for  boring  wood  are  as  follows:  the  brad-awl 
is  a  cylindrical  wire,  with  a  chisel  edge;  it 
packs  the 'material  around  the  hole.  The  awl 
IS  a  square  bar  tapering  to  a  point  A  great 
number  of  tools  are  fluted,  that  is,  have  the 
shape  of  the  half  of  a  tube.  Such  are  the  shell- 
bit,  the  gouge-bit,  the  spoon-bit,  the  table-bit, 
tne  cooper's  dowel-bit,  the  brush-bit,  the  nose- 
bit,  or  auger-bit  The  gimlet  is  fluted,  but 
terminates  in  a  screw,  which  drives  it  into 
the  wood.  The  centre-bit,  an  instrument  of 
English  invention,  was  totally  unknown  in 
continental  Europe  80  years  ago.  It  consists 
of  a  centre-point,  a  shearing-point,  and  a  broad 
inclined  cutter.  Its  variations  are  called  plug 
centre-bit,  wine-cooper's  centre-bit,  expanding 
centre-bit  The  tools  in  the  form  of  a  screw 
are  the  single-lip  auger,  made  of  a  half  round 
bar  wound  spirally  around  a  cylinder;  the 
twisted  gimlet,  made  of  a  conical  shafts  around 
which  is  cut  a  half  round  spiral  groove;  the 
screw  auger,  formed  of  a  flat  band  of  steel 
twisted  when  red  hot;  the  American  auger, 
made  of  a  solid  shaft,  around  which  is  a  thin 
helical  fin.  The  last  much  resembles  a  wood 
screw;  the  cutting  edge  is  removable,  and 
resembles  that  of  a  centre-bit.  All  these 
twisted  tools  are  of  American  invention,  and 
were  scarcely  known  in  Europe  15  years  ago. 
Another  American  tool  is  an  auger  for  produc- 
ing square  holes  or  cutting  mortices :  it  consists 
of  a  screw  auger  working  in  a  tube,  round  in- 
side and  square  outside;  the  four  corners  at  the 
lower  end  of  the  tube  are  sharpened  from 
inside,  and  proceed  forward  a  short  distance 
behind  the  cutting  edge  of  the  auger,  cutting 
through  the  wood  as  they  advance,  and  mak- 
ing the  round  hole  square.  Several  of  these 
tools  working  side  by  side  will  cut  an  oblong 
hole.  Boring  tools  for  wood  are  worked  by 
means  either  of  a  lathe,  a  carpenter^s  brace, 
a  transverse  handle,  or  a  drilling  machine.— 
Boring  tools  for  metal  are  called  drills,  and 
are  much  less  varied  in  shape  than  those' 
for  wood.  The  double-cutting  drill  is  made 
by  flattening  the  end  of  a  small  bar  of  steel, 
cutting  it  so  as  to  form  a  point  or  projecting 
angle  of  about  90^  in  the  centre  line  of  the 
tool,  and  grinding  on  both  sides  to  transform 
the  2  flats, -forming -the  angle  into  edges  of 
about  60°  sharpness.  Another  double-cutting 
drill,  called  the  Swiss  drill,  is  made  of  a  wire 
filed  on  one  side  to  the  diameter,  the  end  of  the 
remaining  half  being  ground  in  the  shape  of  a 
half  cone.  These  drills  are  used  with  a  drill 
bow,  by  watchmakers  and  musical-box  makers, 
but  only  for  very  small  holes.    The  common 


628 


BORING 


J  drill  is  forged  flat  and  cat  point- 
ed,^so  as  to  show  at  the  end  2  small  faces  meet- 
ing at  an  angle  of  90^,  and  forming  a  point 
projecting  in  the  centre  line  of  the  tool. 
These  two  faces  are  ground  so  as  to  form  angles 
of  60°  with  the  flat  sides  of  the  tool;  the 
one  face  forming  this  angle  with  one  side,  the 
second  face  with  the  other.  This  drill  is  in 
nniversal  use,  the  angles  specified  being  slight- 
I7  modified  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
metal  to  be  bored.  To  turn  horn  and  compo- 
sition, or  bronze,  which  substances  dog  the 
drill  hj  forming  a  paste  around  it,  the  drill  has 
to  be  cut  less  pointed,  the  faces  ground  more 
inclined,  and  the  small  sides  of  the  drill  have 
also  to  be  ground  inclined  to  the  flat  sides,  so 
as  to  form  a  reversed  drill,  hj  means  of  whi& 
the  tool  may  cut  its  way  out  of  the  hole.  It 
is  nearly  impossible  to  drill  a  hole  in  the  exact 
place  where  it  is  designed  to  be,  and  the  error 
IS  proportional  to  the  size  of  the  drilL  For 
this  reason,  when  exactness  is  required  for  a 
large  hole,  a  small  hole  is  drilled  fijnst,  and  this 
is  barged  by  means  of  a  pin  drill.  The  shape 
of  a  pin  drill  is  exactly  represented  by  placing 
2  oarpenter^s  chisels  side  by  side,  the  one  pre- 
senting its  face,  the  other  its  back,  to  the 
person  holding  them,  and  by  letting  the  end  of 
a  wire  project  between  them  a  little  below  the 
edges.  In  using  the  instrument,  the  centre 
pin  must  enter  and  fit  the  small  hole  previously 
bored,  which  acts  as  a  guide.  If  the  portion 
of  the  cutting  edges  nearest  the  centre  pin  is 
cut  away,  the  tool  will  cut  a  circular  groove ; 
such  is  the  form  adopted  for  cutting  holes  in 
the  tube  plates  which  receive  the  tubes  in  looo- 
motives.  These  drills  are  worked  in  various 
kinds  of  braces,  in  the  lathe  or  in  the  drilling 
machine.  After  they  are  drilled,  the  holes  of 
all  carefully  made  machines,  which  are  not 
tapped,  are  perfected  by  reaming.  A  large  pro- 
portion of  holes  driUed  are  intended  for  screws, 
and  are  consequently  tapped.  Taps,  master-taps, 
stocks,  dies,  and  reamers,  are  costly  tools; 
hence  it  is  the  interest  of  machinists  to  devise 
and  adopt  a  uniform  system  in  drillmg  and 
making  screws,  so  that  a  machine  may  be  re- 
paired in  another  shop  than  that  of  the  maker, 
without  the  necessity  of  making  a  new  set  of 
tools  for  each  particular  case.  Mr.  J.  Whit- 
worth,  the  great  machinist  of  Manchester,  Eng- 
Itind,  has  planned  and  introduced  in  Great  Brit- 
ain a  regular  system  for  holes  and  screws,  which 
has  also  been  adopted  in  the  United  States  by 
gas  fitters,  and  in  a  few  machine  shops,  where 
perfection  rather  than  quantity  of  work  is 
aimed  at.  Holes  and  screws  of  a  diameter 
comprised  between  ^  of  an  inch  and  6  inches, 
are  the  only  ones  considered;  from  iV  to  ^  of 
an  inch  only  those  measuring  an  exact  multiple 
of  ^  are  used ;  from  |  to  2  inches,  only  those 
measuring  an  exact  multiple  of  ),  without  frac- 
tions ;  from  2  inches  to  6,  those  measuring  an 
entire  multiple  of  i  inch.  Standard  holes  of 
these  dimensions  in  hardened  cast  steel,  with  a 
plug  to  fit,  are  made  at  Whitworth^s ;  a  set  was 


imported  into  this  country  by  the  Messrs.  Hoe, 
for  building  their  fast  presses,  and  from  the  use 
of  these  and  other  gauges,  they  now  reap  the 
advantage  of  building  presses  for  the  London 
press  in  England,  with  nearly  as  little  risk  of 
inaccuracy  as  if  they  were  made  in  thdr 
own  shop  by  men  accustomed  to  the  woik. 
From  Whitworth^s  standards,  or  from  accurate 
measurement,  8  other  gauges  have  to  be  made 
for  the  use  of  the  shop.  The  first,  called  clear- 
ing-holes, in  which  each  hole  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  multiple  of  ^,  },  or  ^  of  an  inch 
stamped   by   the   side   of  them,  is  used  to 

gauge  the  width  of  drills  intended  to  make 
oles  large  enough  for  bolts  of  the  diameter  of 
the  same  mark  to  pass  through.  The  second, 
tapping-holes,  is  a  gauge  for  £rills  intended  for 
holes  in  which  a  thread  has  to  be  cut ;  these 
holes  are  snialler  than  their  mark  by  twice  the 
depth  of  the  corresponding  screw  thread.  The 
third  is  called  reaming  holes ;  the  holes  made 
by  drills  gauged  in  it,  have  to  be  reamed  to  be 
of  the  same  size  as  the  standards. — Substances 
very  soft  and  yielding,  as  well  as  those  ex- 
tremely hard,  cannot  be  bored  with  the  tools 
described  for  wood  and  metal ;  but  other  pro- 
cesses are  employed.  Ohemists  bore  the  nu- 
merous corks  they  use  for  connecting  fflass  tubes 
with  a  red-hot  pointed  rod,  afterward  cleaning 
the  hole  and  making  it  of  the  requisite  size 
with  a  round  file.  Cork  may  also  be  bored 
with  a  sharpened  tube  or  round  cutter,  if  this  be 
oiled  and  made  to  rotate  15  times  faster  than 
it  advances  in  the  cork,  as  is  seen  in  a  patented 
cork-cutting  machine.  Hard  steel  and  glass 
are  bored  with  the  end  of  a  rotating  brass  rod 
fed  with  oil  and  emery.  Glass  offers  also  this 
remarkable  and  little  known  peculiarity,  that 
it  i9  drilled  through  as  easily  as  hard  woods, 
with  a  common  metal  drill,  provided  the  driU 
is  kept  all  the  time  moistened  with  turpentine. 
The  discovery  of  this  curious  fact  is  ascribed 
to  Mr.  J.  Stewart,  of  New  York,  and  the  ex- 
periment has  been  repeated  with  perfect  suc- 
cess by  the  writer  of  tnis  article.  It  is  a  strik- 
ing illustration  of  the  importance  of  lubrica- 
tors, and  of  the  intimate  connection  between 
the  sciences,  as  after  this  there  is  no  absurdity 
m  thinking  that  chemistry  may  one  day  fur- 
nish machinists  with  the  means  of  working 
metal  as  fast  as  they  now  do  wood. — Holes  2 
inches  in  diameter  and  8  feet  deep,  are  cut 
through  rook  for  the  purpose  of  blasting,  by 
striking  the  bottom  of  we  hole  with  the  chisel- 
like  end  of  a  heavy  bar  of  iron ;  the  workman 
holds  the  bar  in  his  hands,  and  takes  care  to 
make  it  revolve  a  quarter  of  a  circle  between 
each  stroke.  Several  machines  have  been  in- 
vented to  render  the  work  more  easy,  but  they 
are  not  as  yet  much  used.  This  is  due  partly 
to  the  prejudices  of  the  laborers  employed  in 
that  kind  of  work,  partly  to  the  difficulty  of 
handling  and  acMusting  machines  on  uneven 
ground,  among  loose  stones.  In  these  ma- 
chines tlie  bar  moves  lengthwise  between 
guides,  and  is  constantly  pressed  down  by  a 


BORISSOV 


bOrne 


529 


spring.  By  means  of  a  shaft,  a  crank,  and  a 
oam,  tbe  bar  is  forced  up  against  the  spring, 
describing  a  quarter  of  a  circle  in  its  way. 
Before  the  crank  has  made  a  whole  tarn,  the 
bar  is  suddeidy  released,  and  strikes  the  ground 
with  a  power  equal  to  that  accumulated  in  the 
spring.  A  large  patented  machine  of  this 
class,  provided  with  a  portable  steam  engine^ 
and  containing  several  new  features,  was  ex- 
hibited ^ve  years  ago  in  New  York  by  G.  A. 
Gardner,  its  inventor. — ^Experiments  have  been 
made  in  boring  tunnels  by  machinery  in  Mont 
Oenis  (Alps),  and  in  the  Hoosick  Mountain  at 
Adams,  Mass.  The  machine  is  carried  on  a  truck, 
and  consists  of  a  large  vertical  wheel  with  a  hori- 
zontal boring  bar  in  its  centre.  It  is  wheeled 
dose  to  the  wall  which  is  to  be  bored,  and  the 
central  bar  is  made  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  rock. 
This  bar  is  then  removed,  and  the  hole  is  used 
to  firmly  bind  the  machine  to  the  rock.  The 
large  wheel  is  then  made  to  revolve,  cutting  in 
the  rock  a  circular  groove,  of  the  diameter  of 
the  intended  tunnel,  by  means  of  cutters  carried 
on  its  periphery.  These  cutters  are  made  to 
cut  or  to  strike,  and  to  work  slow  or  fast,  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  stone.  After  the 
groove  is  cut  as  deep  as  the  length  of  the  tools 
allows,  the  machine  is  unfastened  from  the 
rock,  and  drawn  back  a  few  steps,  when  a 
charge  of  powder  is  placed  in  the  central  hole, 
and  fired.  The  huge  ring  which  was  cut  in 
relief  on  the  wall  comes  down  in  fragments, 
leaving  the  sides  of  the  tunnel  neatly  cut. — ^For 
an  account  of  BoBisra  fob  Wi.tbb,  see  Abte- 
siAN  Wells. 

BOBISSOV,  a  district  in  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment Minsk ;  pop.  109,800,  with  a  capital 
of  the  same  name;  pop.  5,000.  Near  the 
adjacent  village,  Studlanda,  Uie  Beresinawas 
crossed  by  the  French  army,  Nov.  26  and  27, 
1812. 

BOREIJM,  an  island  in  the  North  sea,  on 
the  coast  of  East  Friesland,  belonging  to  Han- 
over (jurisdiction  of  Aulich).  It  is  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  is  about  6  miles  long 
by  2  miles  broad,  and  has  a  low  surface.  A 
narrow  channel  divides  it  into  two  parts,  on 
one  of  which  is  a  light-house.  The  600  in- 
habitants support  themselves  by  agriculture, 
fishing,  and  shipping,  and  speak  the  Frisian 
dialect. 

BORLAOE,  Edmond,  an  Anglo-Irish  his- 
torian, a  physician  by  profession,  died  at  Ghes- 
ter,  in  England,  about  1682.  He  wrote  ^^The 
Redaction  of  Ireland  to  the  Crown  of  Eng- 
land, with  the  Governors  since  the  Conquest 
by  Henry  II.  in  11Y2"  (London,  1675) ;  "  The 
History  of  the  execrable  Irish  Rebellion,  traced 
from  many  preceding  acts  to  the  grand  Erup- 
tion, Oct.  28,  1641,  and  thence  pursued  to  the 
Act  of  Settlement,  1661"  (London,  1680),  and 
other  works. 

BORLASE,  William,  an  English  clergyman, 

antiquary,  and  naturalist,  bom  at  Pendeen,  in 

OomwAll,  Feb.  2,  1696,  died  Aug.  81,  1772. 

He  wrote  various  works  on  the  mineralogy, 

VOL.  in. — 34 


natural  history,  and  antiquities  of  his  native 
region ;  also  a  history  of  Cornwall,  a  paraphrase 
of  Job,  and  other  works.  He  had  a  large  cor- 
respondence with  many  of  the  most  eminent 
literary  men  of  his  day,  particularly  with  Pope, 
a  large  collection  of  whose  letters  to  Borlase  is 
still  extant.  Pope's  grotto  at  Twickenham  was 
made  out  of  fossils  and  spars  furnished  by  Bor- 
lase from  tbe  Cornish  excavations. 

BORMIO(Germ.  Worms),  a  town  of  the  Aus- 
trian province  of  Sondrio,  in  Lombardy,  near 
the  Adda ;  pop.  2,000.  In  its  vicinity  are  the 
salt  baths  called  Bagni  di  Bormio,  The  tem- 
perature is  99°  5'.  C^n.  DessoUes  achieved 
here  a  victory  over  the  Austrians,  March  26, 
1799.  The  beautiful  galleries  of  tiie  voad  which 
leads  over  the  Worms&r  Joch  (an  Alpine  moun- 
tain), from  Tyrol  to  Italy,  were  destroyed  by 
tb#  Italians  in  1848. 

BORNE,  Ludwio,  a  €krman  politician  and 
author,  of  Jewish  origin,  bom  May  18, 1786,  at 
Frankfort-on-the-Main,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  13, 
1887.  His  father,  Jakob  Baruoh,  was  a  wealthy 
banker,  and  his  grandfather  a  man  of  great  dig- 
nity of  character,  and  an  accomplished  diplo- 
matist, employed  by  Prince  Thum  and  Taxis  as 
ambassador  to  Vienna.  The  associations  of  his 
grandfather  first  turned  young  Bdme's  atten- 
tion to  politics,  and  after  studying  at  Berlin, 
where  be  became  intimately  acquainted  with  the 
celebrated  Henrietta  Herz,  and  with  Schleier- 
macher,  he  attended  lectures  on  medicine  at  the 
univermtT  of  Halle,  but  eventually  at  Heidel** 
berg,  and  in  1808,  at  Giessen,  devoted  himself 
more  exclusively  to  the  study  of  political  sci- 
ence. On  his  return  to  Frankfort  he  received 
an  employment  in  the  police  office,  which  he 
held  until  Frankfort  was  reinstated  in  its  posi- 
tion as  a  free  town,  when  he  devoted  himself 
to  literary  labor,  by  publishing  at  Offenbach 
(U)  escape  the  Frankfort  censor^ip)  the  Stoats- 
Bistretto,  and  the  Zeitachtoingen,  2  journals, 
which,  however,  were  stopped  by  the  grand 
duke  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  to  whose  little  realm 
Offenbach  belongs.  At  the  same  time  he  was 
arraigned  at  Frankfort  upon  a  char^  of  cir- 
culating seditious  pamphlets,  but  acquitted.  In 
1817  he  became  a  convert  to  Christianity,  and 
was  baptized,  on  which  occasion  he  relinquished 
his  family  name  of  Baruch  and  adopted  that  of 
B6me.  From  1818  to  1821  he  edited  the 
Woffe,  a  family  paper,  containing  philosophical 
and  artistic,  but  scorching  and  witty,  criticisms 
on  the  stage,  which  rank  to  this  day  among  the 
highest  specimens  of  theatrical  criticism.  Un- 
til 1880  he  lived  principally  at  Paris,  Hamburg, 
and  Frankfort,  in  great  isolation,  at  war  with 
the  order  of  things  in  Europe,  and  too  apt 
to  display  the  bitterness  of  his  feelings.  After 
the  July  revolution,  he  founded  at  Paris  a  new 
paper,  La  balance,  with  a  view  to  create  a 
closer  intellectual  and  social  union  between 
France  and  Germany;  at  the  same  time  he 
published  letters,  in  which  he  castigated  the 
European,  especially  the  German  despots,  with 
a  spirit  so  French  in  its  keen  wit  and  brilliant 


580 


BORNEO 


gayet J,  and  so  GtormaQ  in  its  depth  of  thought, 
isplayiDg  8Qoh  nodiaguised  contempt  for 
French  frivolity  and  each  uncompromising  dis- 
gost  for  German  pedantry,  tliat  he  filled  the 
French  with  admiration  for  his  genius,  and  the 
Germans  with  respect  for  his  philosophy  and 
scholarship.  These  letters  are  included  in  his 
OeaammeUe  Schriften  (17  vols.,  Hamhnrg, 
1829-81),  which,  together  with  his  NachgeloB- 
iens  Schriften  rkannheim,  6  vols.,  1847-50), 
form  the  hulk  of  his  contributions  to  literature, 
excepting  those  to  the  German  press,  while  La 
balance  (included  in  the  17th  vol.)  was  written 
in  French,  a  language  which  he  mastered  ad- 
mirably, catchinff  its  most  delicate  points  with 
singular  tact  and  sagacity.  Of  his  miscellane- 
ous writings  his  most  elevated  compoution  is 
his  Denkrede  avf  Jean  FauL  In  this,  his 
deep  sympathies  with  a  genial  thinker  l^^e 
Richter  found  eloquent  expression,  and  never 
before  or  since  has  the  German  sage  been 
reviewed  by  a  spirit  so  kindred  to  his  own. 
He  answered  Menzd's  onslaught  on  the  French 
in  a  crushing  manner,  in  his  Meneel  der  Fran" 
tountfreuer^  a  perfect  tornado  of  satire.  The 
celebrated  Heine  hated  him,  aui  wrote  a  work 
arrogantly  entitled  Heine  iher  Bome^  imply- 
ing his  superiority  over  his  rival  on  the  very 
tide-page,  in  which  he  reflected  upon  a  virtuous 
and  accomnlished  lady,  Madame  Wohl,  an  inti- 
mate friend  of  BOrne,  and  his  devoted  nurse  in 
his  days  of  sickness.  A  monument,  executed 
gratuitously  by  David  d' Angers,  has  been 
erected  to  his  memory  in  Pere  la  Chaise  by 
his  friends.  Since  the  revolution  of  1848,  his 
homestead  in  the  Ghetto  of  Frankfort  has  been 
restored  and  decorated,  so  that  the  only  2 
houses  which  now  break  the  monotony  of 
that  crumblinff  and  dirty  quarter,  are  those  of 
Rothschild  ana  of  Bdrne. 

BORNEO,  an  island  of  the  Malay  archipelago, 
Iving  under  the  equator,  and  next  to  Austrsdia 
the  largest  in  the  world.  Its  greatest  length  from 
Cape  8ampanmai\)o,  K,  to  Gape  Salatan,  S.,  is 
778  miles ;  its  greatest  width  from  Oape  Xanio- 
ongan,  £.,  to  Mount  Pamankat,  at  the  mouth  of 
Sambas  river,  W.,  685  miles.  It  has  nearly  8,000 
miles  of  sea-coast ;  are^  816,820  sq.  m.,  7  times 
the  extent  of  Cuba,  and  a  little  larger  than  the 
state  of  Texas;  pop.  estimated  at  2,500,000. 
The  outline  of  Borneo  is  but  slightly  indented 
by  bays  and  inlets ;  and  yet  tlie  skeleton  of  its 
mountain  ranges,  now  well  ascertained  by  the 
travels  of  Dalton,  Low,  Burns,  and  Schwaner, 
show  that,  at  not  a  very  remote  period,  it  must 
have  presented  the  same  singular  configuration 
with  Celebes  and  Gilolo,  that  of  a  group  of  penin- 
sulas. StartiDg  from  the  central  mountains,  the 
Anga-anga  group,  and  proceeding  N.  E.,  we 
trace  a  chain,  terminating  in  Kinibaloo  (11,000 
feet  high,  the  highest  peak  in  Borneo),  which 
forms  the  backbone  of  the  peninsula,  compris- 
ing the  Brunai  andSooloo  territories;  diverging 
E.  from  the  same  central  point,  we  trace  the 
Sakooroo  range,  which  forms  the  water-shed 
of  the  Ooti  peninsula;  again,  Mouiits  T^ftt^m^ 


Looang,  and  the  Meratooa  chain,  form  the  water- 
shed of  the  S.  or  Banjarmassin  peninsula;  the 
Elaminting  chain  to  Mount  Penampongan  fonna 
that  of  the  S.  W.  or  Kotta-Waringiu  peninsula; 
and  Erimbang,  Bataog-Loopar,  and  Pangi  moun- 
tains, form  the  shed  of  the  short  W.  peninsula, 
terminating  at  Oape  Datoo.  As  in  the  ocmfigur- 
ation  of  Oelebes  and  Gilolo,  there  are  4  clearly 
indicated  peninsular  arms  extending  N.  K  and 
S.,  and  a  5th,  a  short  projection  W.  The  val- 
leys between  these  mountain  ranges  are  mostly 
impenetrable  swamps,  so  much  submerged  at 
times  as  to  resemble  shallow  bays,  penetratiiig 
&r  into  the  body  of  the  island ;  and  when  vs 
consider  that  the  deep  bays  of  Oelebes  are  fill- 
ing up,  that  of  Tomini,  accessible  to  PortogiieBe 
frigates  in  the  16th  century,  now  scarcely  floating 
a  small  native  craft,  it  is  evident  that  a  gradoai 
upheaval  of  the  central  body,  or  what  is  termed 
the  sedimentary  and  plutonic  portioa  of  the 
archipela^,  has  taken  place,  and  that  Borneo 
is  probably  of  as  recent  geological  formatiim 
as  Australia.  Hardly  ^  of  the  island  is  good 
terra  firmo^  habitable  for  man;  and  tiiis  must 
be  evident  when  we  consider  the  thinness  cf 
the  population,  about  7  to  the  sq.  m.,  which  is 
proportionally  50  times  less  than  that  of  the 
neighboring  island  of  Java.  An  alluvial  marshy 
band,  varying  from  80  to  50  miles  in  width,  sur- 
rounds the  island,  the  only  avenues  to  the  in- 
terior being  its  numerous  rivers  and  atresmSb 
The  moutlis  of  28  rivers,  all  navigable  on  an 
average  100  miles  for  vessels  drawing  not  more 
thau  12  feet  water,  can  be  counted  along  the  X. 
W.  coast,  between  Gapes  Sainpanmai^o  and  Dsr 
too.  Berow  and  Ooti  rivers  on  the  E.,  Baigar,  Ma- 
rong,  Kahajan,  and  Mendawei  rivers  on  the  &, 
and  the  rivers  Pontianak  and  Sambas  on  the 
W.,  are  large  streams  with  tides  flowing  tu  up^ 
and  some  of  them  navigable  for  200  miles.  In- 
numerable smaller  streams  flow  from  the  great 
water-sheds.  But  few  lakes  have  been  discov- 
ered; only  2  considerable  ones,  Sumbah  and 
Samar,  250  miles  up  the  Pontianak  river,  and 
4  inconsiderable  ones  in  Banjarmassin  teiri- 
tory.  Of  one  called  Kinibaloo,  and  indicated 
on  the  maps  in  the  K.  £.  peninsola,  we  have 
no  account  from  any  European  eye-witness.— 
The  geological  formation  of  the  mountain 
ranges  is  composed  of  granites,  schists,  sienites, 
and  limestones,  and  in  portions  of  the  extensive 
intermediate  savannas,  a  rich  vegetable  mooM 
overlies  the  quartz  formation.  The  best  fosal 
coal  of  the  archipelago  crops  out  abundantly, 
in  Brunai  and  Banjarmassin,  at  the  N.  and  3. 
extremities,  and  it  is  evident  that  coal  te^ 
extend  die  entire  length  of  the  island.  The  oosl 
is  ea^ly  mined,  and  can  be  produced  at  points 
in  Banjarmassin,  ready  for  shipment,  at  a  cost 
of  $1  25  per  ton.  Iron  of  a  superior  quali- 
ty abounds  in  the  S.  portion;  in  Tanah-iaot, 
large  fields  and  masses  of  400  and  500  cubie 
feet  of  rich  ferruginous  earth  have  been  found, 
which  will  yield  ft8  per  cent,  of  red  oxide  of 
iron,  and  70  per  cent,  of  pure  metal,  possessed 
of  strong  magnetic  properties,  and  esteemed 


BORNEO 


581 


floperior  to  the  best  Swedish;  and  from 
this  the  natives  make  the  best  catting  blades 
of  the  east,  although  they  use  also  Suma- 
tran  iron.  Antimony  is  obtained  so  plentifully 
in  Sarawak,  on  the  N,  W.  coast,  as  to  fur- 
nish the  chief  supply  of  the  world ;  upward 
of  2,000  tons  of  Sarawak  antimony  being  an- 
nually shipped  from  Singapore.  It  is  fbund 
9^  in  Bintnla,  N.  of  Sarawak,  but  has  not 
been  mined  there.  Gold  is  found  in  a  belt 
stretching  across  the  island,  between  lat  2**  N. 
and  1^  S.,  corresponding  in  latitude  with  the 
range  of  the  gold  deposits  of  Sumatra  and  Oele- 
bes.  It  has  been  obtained  thus  far  only  from 
alluvial  washings  in  the  form  of  small  grain, 
and  rarely  in  nuggets  of  the  dimensions  found 
in  California.  The  annual  product,  for  several 
years  past,  has  been  estimated  at  about  850,000 
onnoes.  Diamonds  are  found' in  the  Landak  dis- 
trict, 40  miles  K.  of  the  equator,  and  at  points 
thence  in  a  S.  £.  direction  toward  Banjarmassin, 
and  are  found  nowhere  else  in  the  archipelago. 
The  gems  are  obtained  at  depths  varying  from 
20  to  80  feet;  6  different  alluvial  strata  occur 
before  reaching  the  diamond  yielding  one; 
these  strata  are  a  black  mould,  a  yellow  sandy 
day,  a  red  clay,  a  blue  clay,  a  blue  clay  inter- 
mixed with  gravel,  and,  lastly,  a  stiff  yellow 
clay,  in  which  the  precious  stones  are  imbedded. 
The  largest  Bomean  diamond,  in  possession  of 
the  sultan  of  Matan,  weighs  867  carats.  The 
wild  Dyaks  work  the  mines;  the  product  in 
1850  was  2,100  carats.  No  tin  nor  copper  has 
been  found. — ^The  vegetative  aspect  is  luxuriant 
and  gorgeous,  although  the  soil  is  generally 
nnfavorable  to  the  production  of  grains  suita- 
ble as  food  for  man.  The  exchangeable  vege- 
table products  are  benzoin,  found  in  Brumd 
territory  alone,  sago,  camphor,  gomati  palm 
sugar,  exclusively  i^ed  by  natives  of  the  archi- 
pelago, and  ratans,the  latter  found  in  Ban- 
jannassin  territory,  are  worth  100  per  cent, 
more  than  those  of  any  other  country,  and  are 
exported  to  the  value  of  $500,000  annually. 
Valuable  timber  trees  of  enormous  dimensions 
abound  in  the  forests. — ^The  island  has  none  of 
the  ferocious  felines  found  in  Sumatra  and  Java, 
which  would  not  permit  the  existence  of  such 
numerous  families  of  the  larger  species  of  ape. 
which  throng  the  Bomean  jungles.  Several 
species  of  the  orang-outang,  or  nmia  Botyrui^  at- 
tain here  their  largest  development,  and  nearest 
resemblance  to  man.  None  of  the  canine  family 
exists,  except  the  domestic  dog.  Only  one  car- 
nivorons  animal  is  found,  a  small  leopard,  from 
the  skin  of  which  the  Dyak  pirates  make  their 
martial  coats.  There  is  the  small  Malay  bear, 
the  porcupine,  and  several  varieties  of  the  ot- 
ter and  squirrel  families.  The  elephant  is  not  a 
native,  although  a  few  have  been  found  in  the 
N.  E.  peninsula,  but  evidently  the  progeny  of 
some  escaped  from  confinement  that  had  been 
imported  by  Bomean  sultans.  A  singular  spe- 
cies of  white  bearded  hog  {iu%  Ixvrbatus) 
abounds ;  also  the  tapir,  a  fine  species  of  buffalo, 
the  beautiful  kancheel,  or  diminutive  Malayan 


deer,  and  the  large  horse  deer  {eefwj»  equinm). 
Of  reptiles,  there  are  none  of  the  large  venomous 
serpents  that  infest  islands  of  the  volcanic 
band;  there  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  crocodile, 
resembling  the  gaviol  of  the  Ganges.  The 
feathered  creation  is  varied  and  numerous,  dis- 
tinguished less  for  its  song  than  for  plumage  of 
gaudy,  dazzling  colors.  The  Jungle  fowls  of 
Sumatra  and  the  Malay  peninsula  are  hH  wanting. 
The  insect  world  presents  some  very  large  and 
beautiful  varieties;  butterflies,  9  inches  from 
tip  to  tip  of  the  wings,  appear  like  large  flowers 
in  the  trees ;  and  there  are  flowers  much  re- 
sembling these  butterflies.  Myriads  of  gaudy 
winged,  and  some  peculiarly  scented  insects 
mingle  with  the  foliage,  and  the  bee  produces 
wax  and  honey  in  abundance — ^important  items 
of  export — ^The  population  of  Bomeo  is  divi- 
sible into  4  classes:  the  ruling  Malays,  forming^ 
probably,  not  more  than  ^  of  the  whole;  the 
aboriginal  Dyak,  about };  250,000  Chinese;  and 
about  80,000  colonists  from  Celebes.  The 
Malays  claim  their  origin  from  Menangkabao, 
the  central  and  once  dominant  state  of  Sumatra. 
The  native  Dyak  is  of  larger  average  stature 
than  the  Malay,  of  a  lighter  brown  complexion, 
more  musoulfur.  though  not  so  active  in  move- 
ment, and  mucn  inferior  in  point  of  civilization 
and  political  capacity.  The  Dyaks  are  divided 
into  a  large  number  of  petty  tribes,  of  which 
upward  of  100  are  enumerated,  speaking  dif- 
ferent dialects  like  savage  tribes  of  Africa,  sub- 
sisting, some  by  fishing  and  hunting,  but  the 
larger  portion  by  agriculture.  The  traits  of 
their  character  exhibit  many  favorable  points; 
when  kindly  treated  they  are  docile,  industrious, 
and  faithful,  though,  at  the  same  time,  they 
have  been  notorious  as  pirates,  and,  owing  to  a 
horrible  superstition,  hunters  of  the  heads  of 
their  fellow-men,  believing,  as  some  affirm, 
that  those  decapitated  will  be  their  slaves  in 
the  world  after  death,  while  others  regard 
them  as  signal  trophies.  They  exhibit  in  char- 
acter manv  of  the  good  and  bad  qualities  of 
the  New  islanders,  when  first  discovered,  and 
like  them,  show  excellent  results  under  civili- 
zation, probably  more  than  any  other  people  of 
the  archipelago.  They  are  regarded  by  all 
travellers  as  much  superior  in  natural  disposi- 
tion  to  their  Malay  masters.  However,  the 
Dyaks  cannot  be  regarded  as  generally  subject 
to  the  Malays ;  for  though  a  small  portion  on 
the  coasts  are  enslaved,  the  great  body  of  them 
maintain  their  independence  in  the  extensive 
central  mountain  ranges  and  valleys.  Some  of 
them  are  half  dad,  barbarian  nomads ;  but  the 
greater  portion  have  substantial  dwellings,  and 
cultivate  rice,  the  banana,  sugar  cane,  and  some 
cotton  and  tobacco  for  their  own  consumption. 
They  are  skilful  artificers  in  iron ;  the  sword 
blades,  mandows,  and  kreeses  of  the  southern 
Dyaks,  have  now  a  high  European  reputation. 
They  spin  and  weave,  and  have  domesticated  a 
few  small  animals,  but  no  beasts  of  burden,  the 
laboring  ox  and  horse  being  unknown  to  them. 
No  Bomean  tribes  have  invented  letters.  There 


532 


BORNEO 


BORNOO 


has  evidentlj  been  much  interoonrse  with  Java, 
88  attested  bj  so  many  names  of  places,  and  of 
things  in  common  use;  and  remains  of  ancient 
Javanese  temples  have  been  fonnd  far  in  the  in- 
terior. The  intercourse  with  Oelebes  is  very 
great  and  the  enterprising  Bagis  race  of  that 
udand  compete  sncceasfullj  with  the  Malays  for 
the  trade  of  the  coasts.  The  Chinese  are  the 
chief  miners  of  gold,  and  traders  of  the  towns 
and  villages  where  European  dominion  is  estab- 
lished.—I>e  Barros  says  that  the  Portuguese 
discovered  Borneo  'in  1626;  but  the  earliest 
mention  of  it  is  to  be  fonnd  in  the  "  Itinerary*'  of 
Ludovico  Barthema,  who  visited  the  archipelago 
between  1608  and  1607.  No  portion  was  taken 
possession  of  by  Portuffuese  or  Spanish  com- 
manders, as  the  island,  at  every  approach, 
presenting  its  impassable  alluvial  coast  belt, 
seemed  to  offer  no  commercial  advantages  like 
Sumatra,  Java,  and  the  Moluccas.  The  Dutch, 
under  Van  Noort,  first  appeared  in  Borneo  in 
1698,  but  did  not  begin  to  trade  till  1664. 
Their  sole  object  then  was  to  secure  the  mo- 
nopoly of  pepper,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
European  traders,  and  they  made  a  treaty  to 
this  effect  with  the  sultan  of  Bamarmassin, 
where  they  established  a  factory.  They  were 
expelled  after  a  few  years,  throush  the  intrigues 
of  the  English.  They  returned  in  1778.  In 
1786  they  rendered  important  military  services 
to  the  reigning  prince,  in  a  case  of  disputed 
succession,  who,  out  of  gratitude,  ceded  to  them 
the  sovereignty  of  his  dominions.  In  the  same 
manner,  taking  advantage  of  the  weakness  of 
petty  princes,  they  have,  by  treaties,  been 
enabled  to  claim  sovereignty  over  all  that  por- 
tion of  the  island  south  of  a  line  running  from 
Gape  Datoo,  W.,  to  Cape  Salatan,  E. ;  but  the 
great  body  of  it  is  inhabited  by  independent 
interior  tribes,  who  have  no  knowledge  of  the 
contests  between  the  Malay  and  Dutch  sover- 
eignties on  the  coast,  or  even  of  their  existence. 
This  extensive  territory  claimed  by  the  Dutch, 
nearly  twice  as  large  as  the  state  of  New  York, 
is  probably  a  bu^en  upon  the  Netherlands' 
Indian  treasury;  as  the  gross  amount  of  its 
revenue,  only  $120,000  in  1853,  would  not  cover 
the  expense  of  its  establishments  at  Banjarmas- 
sin,  Goti,  Pontianak,  and  Sambas.  The  English 
had  trading  factories  for  a  short  time  in  Borneo, 
during  the  17th  century;  but  have  not  had  any 
territorial  possessions,  if  we  except  the  settle- 
ment, in  1775,  of  Balambangan,  an  island  geo- 
graphically belouffing  to  Borneo,  and  ceded  by 
the  sultan  of  Sooloo,  and  the  still  more  recent 
settlement  of  another  island,  Labooan,  in  1846, 
ceded  to  the  British  government  by  the  sultan 
of  Brunai,  and  upon  which  an  English  company 
are  now  engagea  in  mining  the  coal  with  wiiich 
it  abounds.  This  latter  cession  was  obtained 
through  the  influence  of  Sir  James'Brooke,  bet- 
ter known  in  the  East  as  Rajah  Brooke.  This 
enterprising  gentleman,  pursuing  the  policy  of 
the  Dutch  in  their  relations  with  Bomean 
iH-inces,  having,  with  a  small  armed  vessel  of 
nis  own,  rendered  militarv  aid  to  the  sultan  of 


Bmnai,  obtained  from  him  the  cession  of  a  ter- 
ritory called  Sarawak,  bounded  S.  bj  the  Dutch 
provmce  of  Sambas,  extending  thenoe  from 
Gape  Datoo  along  the  coast  N.  E.  80  mUes,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  50  miles.  The  Tulue  of 
the  exports,  in  1854,  from  Sarawak,  was  $1,125,- 
000,  and  of  the  imports  over  $800,000.  The  net 
revenue  of  the  rajah  from  seigniorage  on  anti- 
mony mines,  and  other  sources,  was  $120,000, 
or  $20,000  more  than  the  gross  revenue  of  the 
Dutch,  controlling  more  than  20  times  the  ex- 
tent of  territory  on  the  same  island.  The  Briti^ 
ei^ov  a  large  trade  with  Borneo,  chiefly  carried 
on  through  the  free  port  of  Singapore,  which  is 
much  more  valuable  than  that  of  the  Dutch. 

BORNHAUSER,  Thoicab,  a  Swiss  div'me, 
poet,  and  political  reformer,  bom  May  26, 1799, 
at  Weinfefden  in  Thurgau,  died  in  March,  1856. 
He  began  political  life  in  1880  by  exciting  publi- 
cations in  &vor  of  changing  the  constitution  of 
Thurgau.  In  1887  he  carried  through  a  meas- 
ure for  subjecting  religious  estates  to  the  admin- 
istration of  the  state.  On  one  occanon  the  arb- 
tocratic  party  opposed  his  election  to  the  gr^ 
council,  as  the  Thurgau  law  does  not  permit  cler- 
gymen to  become  members  of  political  bodies; 
but  he  was  elected  notwithstanding,  and  the  ex- 
asperation against  him  became  so  violent,  that 
one  of  hb  political  opponents  even  threatened 
his  life.  In  1882  he  published  a  collection  of 
songs,  and  in  1836  an  epic  poem,  ffeiru  um  Stfin. 
He  was  one  of  the  editors  of  a  political  journal 
in  St.  Gall,  called  Der  WOchter,  and  in  1833  he 
compiled  a  collection  of  the  constitations  of  the 
Swiss  cantons. 

BORNHOLM,  an  island  in  the  Baltic,  owned 
by  Denmark,  but  geographically  and  geolo^- 
cally  belon^png  to  Sweden ;  about  28  miles  long 
by  18  broad;  area  280  sq.  m.;  pop.  38,000. 
The  coast  in  most  places  is  high  and  rocky; 
where  difi^  are  not  seen,  dangerous  reefe  and 
sand  banks  stretch  out  to  sea.  There  are  no 
good  harbors  for  large  vessels.  The  land  is 
generally  fertile,  and  produces  the  same  grain 
crops,  and  the  same  kinds  of  trees,  except  the 
beech,  as  the  rest  of  Denmark.  The  i^and 
produces  coal,  marble,  and  building  stone, 
earthenware,  fish,  sheep,  and  cattle. 

BORNOO,  or  Bornou  (called  by  the  natives 
Ka7wwra\  a  country  of  central  Africa,  bound- 
ed on  the  N.  by  the  Great  Desert,  on  the 
S.  by  Mandara,  on  the  R  by  Lake  Tchad 
and  Begharmi,  and  on  the  W.  by  Hoossai 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  'Waube,  generally  bat 
improperly  called  the  Teou,  and  the  Sbarr. 
The  former  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Houssa, 
flows  first  north,  then  eastward  through  Bor- 
neo, find  empties  into  Lake  Tchad.  The  Shair 
takes  its  rise  in  the  mountains  of  Mandara,  and 
is  the  more  considerable  river  of  the  two. 
Lake  Tchad  receives  its  waters  also.  This 
lake  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  natural 
features  of  the  country.  During  the  dry  sea- 
son, when'  the  streams  by  which  it  is  ftd.  are 
reduced  in  size,  its  waters  recede,  and  leave  un- 
covered a  tract  of  many  miles  in  extent,  to  be 


BORO-BODO 


BORODINO 


638 


again  overflowed  when  the  rivers  are  swollen 
by  the  rains  of  the  wet  season.  The  fertility 
caused  by  this  inaudation  produces  only  a  rank 
growth  of  grass  from  10  to  12  feet  in  height, 
and  ahnost  impenetrable  thickets  of  trees  ana 
underwood.  When  the  lake  encroaches  upon 
these  regions,  the  numerous  wild  animals  and 
serpents  with  which  they  are  filled  seek  refuge 
in  the  cultivated  and  settled  tracts  of  country, 
and  spread  terror  among  the  inhabitants.  The 
dimate  of  Bomoo,  especially  from  March  to 
the  end  of  June,  is  excessively  hot.  During 
the  rainy  season,  from  May  to  October,  great 
numbers  of  the  inhabitants  are  carried  on  by 
fever  and  ague.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  though 
but  imperfectly  cultivated,  produces  large  croos. 
A  species  of  millet  forms  the  staple  food  of  the 
Bornooese ;  rice  and  grain  of  an  inferior  kind 
are  also  grown  in  small  quantity.  There  are 
no  fruits,  and  minerals  are  unknown.  The 
population  is  variously  estimated  at  from 
5,000,000  to  9,000,000.  The  mass  of  the  peo- 
ple, called  Bornooese,  or  Kanowry,  present 
a  complete  specimen  of  the  negro  form  and 
features.  They  are  peaceable  and  courteous, 
but  resentful  and  addicted  to  pilfering.  The 
pastoral  districts  are  occupied  by  an  Arab  race 
called  Shouas.  They  have  fine  open  counte- 
nances, with  aquiline  noses,  large  eyes,  and  a 
complexion  of  light  copper.  They  are  de- 
scribed as  being  arrogant,  deceitful,  and  dis- 
honest. The  Mohammedan  religion  is  uni- 
versally professed,  and  that  with  a  violence 
and  bigwtry  scarcely  paralleled.  The  govern- 
ment or  Bornoo  is  nominally  vested  in  a  sul- 
tan, but  all  the  power  really  resides  in  an  of- 
ficer called  the  sheik.  The  sultan  is  surrounded 
by  a  body-guard  of  nobles  and  chiefs,  clad  in 
the  most  grotesque  and  unwieldy  attire  to 
which  the  custom  of  any  country  has  given 
rise.  The  rank  of  an  officer  or  noble  is  indi- 
cated by  the  number  of  robes  which  are 
wrapped  about  his  body.  Notwithstanding 
the  heat  of  the  climate,  as  many  as  10  or  12 
are  sometimes  worn.  It  is  considered  indis- 
pensable that  the  sultan  should  present  a  cor- 
pulent appearance,  and  when  high  feeding  can- 
not effect  the  desired  result,  stuffing  is  resorted 
to.  The  military  force  of  this  monarch  amounts 
to  about  80,000,  mostly  cavalry.  The  principal 
towns  are  ituka,  the  royal  residence,  ikigornoo, 
Deegoa.  Old  and  New  Birnie,  and  Affiigay. 
Most  oi  them  are  populous,  well  built,  and  en- 
dosed  by  waUs.  The  countrv  was  visited  by 
Barth,  Overweg,  and  Richardson  in  1851-'54. 

BORO-BODO,  a  remarkable  ancient  edifice 
in  the  island  of  Java,  situated  in  the  province 
of  Kadoe,  near  the  Probo  river,  about  25  miles 
N.  W.  of  the  native  capital  of  Yugyakerta. 
Upon  a  quadrangular  base,  measuring  620  ft. 
on  either  side,  there  rise  to  the  height  of  116 
ft.  7  stories  of  sculptured  walls,  each  storv,  as 
you  asoend,  receding  within  the  area  of  the 
one  below,  and  leaving  a  broad  terrace  between 
each  succession  of  walls.  Upon  the  topmost 
terrace  are  8  cirdes  of  small,  round,  bell-snaped 


fanes,  72  in  number,  and  from  their  centre 
springs  a  pointed  dome,  50  ft.  in  diameter, 
which  crowns  this  singular  pyramidal  struc- 
ture. It  is  built  upon,  or  rather  hewn,  like  the 
temples  of  Arabia  Petraa,  out  of  a  hill  of 
trachytio  stone  in  the  centre  of  the  plain  of 
Probo,  which  lies  between  4  grand  volcanic 
peaks,  Sindoro,  Sumbing,  Merbaboo,  and  Merapi, 
the  highest  of  which  is  11,090,  and  the  lowest 
9,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
architecture  of  the  different  facades,  in  the 
proportions  of  the  arched  entrances,  the  flights 
of  steps,  the  sculptured  niches,  and  many  cupo- 
las at  frequent  intervals  decorating  the  walk, 
and  in  the  proportions  and  finish  of  the  terraces 
and  crowning  dome,  is  grand  and  elegant;  but 
a  profusion  of  sculpture  in  low  relief  overloads 
and  mars  the  chasteness  of  the  outline.  On  a 
square  of  14  feet  upward  of  1,000  figures  have 
been  counted,  representing  ceremonials,  pro- 
cessions, chariot  races,  battles^  and  also  sea 
views  and  naval  engagements.  There  are  400 
colossal  images  in  the  temple.  The  date  of  its 
construction  is,  according  to  the  opinion  of 
many  oriental  antiquaries,  fixed  as  late  as 
1360,  and  the  perfect  state  of  the  edifice  does 
not  show  a  more  remote  antiquity ;  but  though 
not  more  than  500  years  old,  such  is  the  imperfect 
character  of  Javanese  records,  so  many  have 
been  the  wars,  revolutions,  changes  of  dynas- 
ties, and  migrations  of  people  during  that  peri- 
od, that  the  present  inhabitants  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  indeed  of  the  island, 
know  nothing  of  its  purpose,  nor  when  nor  by 
whom  it  was  built.  It  has  evidently  been  de- 
voted to  the  worship  of  Buddha,  the  chief 
Asiatic  deity. 

BORODINO,  a  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river  Kolotcha,  in  Russia,  about  2  miles  above 
its  junction  with  the  Moskva.  From  this  vil- 
lage the  Russians  name  the  great  battle,  in  1812, 
which  decided  the  possession  of  Moscow ;  the 
French  call  it  the  battle  of  the  Moskva,  or  of 
Mozhaisk.  The  battle-field  is  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Kolotcha.  The  Russian  right  wing  was 
covered  by  that  river  from  its  junction  with  the 
Moskva  to  Borodino ;  the  left  wing  was  drawn 
back,  en  potence^  behind  a  brook  and  ravine 
descending  from  the  extreme  left,  at  Utitsa,  to- 
ward Borodino.  Behind  this  ravine,  2  hills 
were  crowned  with  incomplete  redoubts,  or 
lunettes,  that  nearest  the  centre  called  the  Ra- 
yevski  redoubt,  those  on  the  hill  toward  the 
left,  8  in  number,  called  the  Bagration  lunettes. 
Between  these  2  hills,  another  ravine,  called 
from  a  village  behind  it  Uiat  of  Semionovskoye, 
ran  down  from  the  Russian  left  toward  the  for- 
mer ravine,  joining  it  about  1,000  yards  before 
it  reached  the  Kolotcha.  The  main  road  to 
Moscow  runs  by  Borodino;  the  old  road  by 
Utitsa,  to  Mozhaisk,  in  rear  of  the  Russian  posi- 
tion. This  line,  about  9,000  yards  in  extent, 
was  hdd  by  about  180,000  Russians,  Borodino 
being  occupied  in  front  of  the  centre.  Gen. 
Kutusoff  was  the  Russian  commander-in-chief; 
his  troops  were  divided  into  2  anniesi  the 


584 


BORODINO 


larger,  under  Barclay  de  T0II7.  holding  the 
right  and  centre,  the  smaller,  tinaer  Bagration, 
OGcnpying  the  left.  The  position  was  very 
badly  chosen;  an  attack  on  the  left,  if  snccess- 
ful.  turned  the  right  and  centre  completely; 
and  if  Mozhaisk  had  been  reached  by  the  French 
before  the  Rossian  right  had  retreated,  which 
was  possible  enough,  they  would  have  been  hope- 
lessly lost  But  Kntusoff,  having  once  rejected 
the  capital  position  of  Tsarevoye  Zaimishtche, 
selected  by  Barclay,  had  no  other  choice.  The 
French,  led  by  Napoleon  in  person,  were  abont 
125,000  strong :  after  driving  the  Russians,  Sept 
5,  1812.  N.  8.  (Aug.  26,  O.B.),  from  some  slight 
intrenchments  on  Uieir  left,  they  were  arranged 
for  battle  on  the  7th.  Napoleon's  plan  was 
based  upon  the  errors  of  Kutusoff ;  merely  ob- 
serving the  Russian  centre,  he  concentrated  his 
forces  against  their  left,  which  he  intended  to 
force,  and  then  cut  his  way  through  toward 
Mozhaisk.  Prince  Eugene  was  accordingly  or- 
dered to  make  a  false  attack  upon  Borodino, 
after  which  Ney  and  Davoust  were  to  assail 
Bagration  and  Uie  lunettes  named  from  him, 
while  Poniatowski  was  to  turn  the  extreme 
left  of  the  Russians  by  Utitsa;  the  battle  once 
well  engaged,  Prince  Eugene  was  to  pass  the 
Kologa,  and  attack  the  Rayevski  lunette. 
Thus  the  whole  front  actually  attacked  did  not 
exceed  in  length  6.000  yards,  which  allowed 
26  men  to  each  yard  of  front,  an  unprecedented 
depth  of  order  of  battle,  which  accounts  for  the 
terrible  losses  of  the  Russians  by  artillery  fire. 
About  daybreak  Poniatowski  advanced  against 
Utitsa,  and  took  it,  but  his  opponent,  Tutchkoff, 
again  expelled  him;  subsequently,  Tutchkon 
having  had  to  send  a  division  to  the  support  of 
Bagration,  the  Poles  retook  the  village.  At 
6  o'clock  Bavoust  attacked  the  proper  left  of 
the  Bagration  intreHchments.  Under  a  heavy 
fire  from  12-pounders,  to  which  he  could 
oppose  only  8  and  4-pounders,  he  advanced. 
Half  an  hour  later,  Ney  attacked  the  proper 
right  of  these  lunettes.  They  were  taken  and 
retaken,  and  a  hot  and  undecided  fight  fol- 
lowed.— ^Bagration,  however,  well  observed  the 
great  force  brought  against  him,  witli  their 
powerful  reserves,  and  the  French  guard  in  the 
background.  There  could  be  no  mistake  about 
the  real  point  of  attack.  He  accordingly  called 
together  what  troops  he  could,  sending  for  a 
division  of  Rayevski's  corps,  for  anoUier  of 
TutchkofT's  corps,  for  guards  and  grenadiers 
from  the  army  reserve,  and  requesting  Barclay 
to  despatch  the  whole  corps  of  Baggehufvud. 
These  reenforcements,  amounting  to  more  than 
80,000  men,  were  sent  at  once ;  fl*om  the  army 
reserve  alone,  he  received  17  battalions  of 
guards  and  grenadiers,  and  2  12-pound  batter- 
ies. Thev  could  not,  however,  be  made  avail- 
able on  the  spot  before  10  o'clock,  and  before 
this  hour  Davoust  and  Ney  made  their  second 
attack  against  the  intrenchments,  and  took 
them,  driving  the  Russians  over  the  Semionov- 
skoye  ravine.  Bagration  sent  his  cuirassiers 
forward ;  an  irregular  struggle  of  great  violence 


followed,  the  Russians  regaining  ground  as  their 
reinforcements  arrived,  but  again  driven  beyond 
the  ravine  as  soon  as  Davoust  engaged  his  re- 
serve division.  The  losses  on  both  sides  were  im- 
mense ;  almost  all  the  general  officers  were  killed 
or  wounded,  and  Bagration  himself  was  mor- 
tally hit.  Kutusoff  now  at  last  took  some  part 
in  the  battle,  sending  Dokhturoff  to  take  the 
command  of  the  left,  and  Lis  own  chief  of  the 
etaf^  ToU,  to  superintend  the  arrangements  for 
defence  on  the  spot  A  little  after  10  the  17 
battalions  of  guards  and  grenadiers,  and  the 
division  of  Yasiltchikoff,  arrived  at  Seroionov- 
skoye;  the  corps  of  Baggehufvud  was  divided, 
one  division  being  sent  to  Rayevski,  another  to 
Tutchkofl^  and  the  cavalry  to  the  right  The 
French,  in  the  mean  time,  continued  their  at- 
tacks; the  Westphalian  division  advanced  in 
the  wood  toward  the  head  of  the  ravine,  while 
Gen.  Friant  passed  this  ravine,  without,  howev- 
er, being  able  to  establish  himself  there.  The 
Russians  now  were  reinforced  (i  past  10)  by 
the  cuirassiers  of  Borosdin  from  the  army  re- 
serve, and  a  portion  of  Korff's  cavalry;  but  they 
were  too  much  shattered  to  proceed  to  an  at- 
tack, and  about  tiie  same  time  the  French  were 
preparing  a  vast  cavalry  charge.  On  the  Rus- 
sian centre  Eugene  Beauhaniais  had  taken  Bo- 
rodino at  6  in  the  morning,  and  passed  over  the 
Eologa,  driving  back  the  enemy;  but  he  soon 
returned,  and  again  crossed  the  river  higher  up 
in  order  to  proved,  with  the  Italian  guards,  the 
division  of  Broussier  (Italians),  Gerard,  Morand, 
and  Grouchy's  cavalry,  to  the  attack  on  Rayev- 
ski, and  the  redoubt  bearing  his  name.  Bo- 
rodino remained  occupied.  The  passage  of 
Beauhamais'a  troops  caused  delay;  his  attack 
could  not  be^^n  much  before  10  o'clock.  The 
Rayevski  redoubt  was  occupied  by  the  divi- 
rion  Paskiewitch,  supported  on  its  left  by  Va- 
dltchikof^and  having  Dokhturoff's  corps  for  a 
reserve.  By  11  o'clock,  the  redoubt  was  taken 
by  the  French,  and  the  Paskiewitch  diviaon 
completely  scattered,  and  driven  from  the  field 
of  battle.  But  Yasiltchikoff  and  Dokhturoff 
retook  the  redoubt;  the  division  of  Prince 
Eugene  of  Wttrtemberg  arrived  in  time,  and 
now  Barclay  ordered  the  corps  of  Ostermann 
to  take  position  to  the  rear  as  a  fresh  reserve. 
With  this  corps  the  last  intact  body  of  Russian 
infantiy  was  brought  within  range ;  there  re- 
mained now,  as  a  reserve,  only  6  battalions  of 
the  guard.  Eugene  Beauhamais,  about  12 
o'clock,  was  just  going  to  attack  the  Rayevski 
redoubt  a  second  time,  when  Russian  cavalry 
appeared  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Kologa. 
The  attack  was  suspended,  and  troops  were 
sent  to  meet  them.  But  the  Russians  could 
neither  take  Borodino,  nor  pass  the  marshy 
bottom  of  the  Voina  ravine,  and  had  to  re- 
treat by  Zodock,  without  any  other  result 
than  having  to  some  extent  crossed  Napo- 
leon's intentions. — ^In  the  mean  time,  Ney  and 
Davoust,  posted  on  the  Bagration  hill,  had 
maintained  a  hot  fire  across  the  Semionovskoye 
ravine  on  the  Rus^n  masses.    All  at  once 


BORODINO 


BORON 


535 


the  Frencn  cavalry  began  to  move.  To  the 
right  of  Semionovskoye,  Nansoaty  charged  the 
Russian  infantry  with  complete  sncoess,  until 
8ievas'8  cavalry  took  him  in  fiank  and  drove 
him  back.  To  the  left,  Latour-Maubourg's 
8,000  horse  advanced  in  2  columns;  the  first, 
headed  by  2  regiments  of  Saxon  cuirassiers, 
rode  twice  over  8  Russian  grenadier  battalions 
just  forming  square,  but  they  were  also  taken 
in  flank  by  Russian  cavalry ;  a  Polish  cuiras- 
sier regiment  completed  the  destruction  of  the 
Russian  grenadien,  but  thev  too  were  driven 
back  to  the  ravine,  where  the  second  column, 
2  regiments  of  Westphalian  cuirassiers,  and  1 
of  Polish  lancers,  repelled  the  Russians.  The 
ground  thus  being  secured,  the  infantry  of  Ney 
and  Davonst  passed  the  ravine.  Friant  occu- 
pied Semionovskoye,  and  the  remainder  of  the 
Russians  who  had  fought  here,  grenadiers, 
guards,  and  line,  were  finally  driven  back  and 
their  defeat  completed  by  the  French  cavalry. 
They  fled  in  small  disorderly  bands  toward 
Mozhaisk,  and  could  only  be  collected  late  at 
night ;  the  8  regimenta  of  guards  alone  pre- 
served a  little  order.  Thus  the  French  right, 
after  defeating  the  Russian  left,  occupied  a  po- 
sition directly  in  rear  of  the  Russian  centre  as 
early  as  12  o'clock,  and  then  it  was  that  Da- 
Toust  and  Ney  implored  Napoleon  to  act  up  to 
his  own  system  of  tactics,  and  complete  the 
victory,  by  launching  the  guards  by  Semionov- 
skoye on  the  Russian  rear.  Napoleon,  however, 
refdsed,  and.  Ney  and  Davoust,  themselves 
dreadfully  shattered,  did  not  venture  to  ad- 
vance without  reinforcements. — On  the  Russian 
side,  after  Eugene  Beauharnais  had  desisted 
from  the  attack  on  the  Rayevski  redoubt,  Eu- 
gene of  Wtlrtemberg  was  sent  to  Seraionov- 
idcoye^  and  Ostermann,  too,  had  to  change 
front  in  that  direction  so  as  to  cover  the  rear 
of  the  Rayevski  hill  toward  Semionovskoye. 
When  Sorbier,  the  French  chief  of  artillery, 
saw  these  fresh  troops,  he  sent  for  86 12-pound- 
ers  from  the  artillery  of  the  guard,  and  formed 
a  battery  of  85  guns  in  front  of  Semionovskoye. 
WhUe  these  guns  battered  the  Russian  masses, 
Murat  drew  forward  the  hitherto  intact  cav- 
alry of  Montbrun  and  the  Polish  lancers. 
They  surprised  Ostermann's  troops  in  the  act 
of  deploying,  and  brought  them  into  great 
danger,  until  the  cavalry  of  Erentz  repelled  the 
French  horse.  The  Russian  infantry  continued 
to  suffer  from  the  artillery  fire;  but  neither 
party  ventured  to  advance.  It  was  now  about 
2  o'clock,  and  Eugene  Beanhamais,  reassured 
as  to  the  hostile  cavalry  on  his  left,  again  at- 
tacked the  Rayevski  redoubt  While  the  in- 
fantry attacked  it  in  front,  cavalry  was  sent 
from  Semionovskoye  to  its  rear.  After  a  hard 
struggle,  it  remained  in  the  hands  of  the 
French ;  and  a  little  before  8  o'clock  the  Rus- 
sians retreated.  A  general  cannonade  from 
both  ndes  followed,  but  the  active  fighting  was 
over.  Napoleon  still  refused  to  launch  his 
guard,  and  the  Russians  were  allowed  to  retreat 
as  they  liked.     The  Russians  had  all  theur 


troops  engaged,  excepting  the  2  first  regiments 
of  the  guards,  and  even  these  lost  by  artil- 
lery fire  17  ofiicers  and  600  men.  Their  total 
loss  was  52,000  men,  beside  slightly  wounded 
and  scattered  men  who  soon  found  their  way 
back;  but  on  the  day  after  the  battle  their 
army  counted  only  52,000  men.  The  French 
had  all  their  troops  engaged,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  ffuards  (14,000  infantry,  5,000  cav« 
airy  and  artillery) ;  they  thus  beat  a  decidedly 
superior  number.  They  were,  beside,  inferior 
in  artillery,  having  mostly  8  and  4-pounder8, 
while  i  of  the  Russian  guns  were  12-pounders, 
and  the  rest  6-pounders.  The  French  loss  was 
80,000  men ;  they  took;  40  guns,  and  only 
about  1,000  prisoners.  If  Napoleon  had 
launched  his  guard,  the  destruction  of  the  Rus- 
sian army,  according  to  Gen.  Toll,  would  have 
been  certain.  He  cu^  not,  however,  risk  this 
last  reserve,  the  nucleus  and  mainstay  of  his 
army,  and  thus,  perhaps,  missed  the  chance  of 
having  peace  concluded  in  Moscow. — ^The  above 
account,  in  such  of  its  dettdls  as  are  at  variance 
with  those  commonly  received,  is  mainly  based 
upon  the^  "  Memoirs  of  Gen.  Toll,"  whom  we 
have  mentioned  as  Kutusoffs  chief  of  the  staff. 
This  book  contains  the  best  Russian  account 
of  the  battle,  and  is  indispensable  for  its  correct 
appreciation. 

BORON,  or  BoRimc,  a  metalloid  substance 
discovered  by  Sir  H.  Davy,  in  1807,  by  exposing 
boracic  acid  to  the  action  of  a  powerful  galvanic 
battery.  Gay-Lussao  and  Th6nard  the  succeed- 
ing year  obtained  it  in  larger  quantities  by  heat- 
ing boracic  acid  with  potassium.  It  occurs  in 
nature  only  in  combination  with  oxygen  in  the 
form  of  boracic  acid,  either  free  or  combined. 
It  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  powder,  which 
is  of  dark  olive-brown  color,  infusible  and  not 
volatilized  at  a  white  heat  Heated  to  600°  in 
the  open  air  it  takes  fire,  and,  absorbing  oxygen, 
is  converted  into  boracic  acid.  It  possesses 
neither  taste  nor  smell,  and  is  a  non-conductor 
of  electricity.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  2. 
Mixed  with  nitrate  of  potash  and  heated,  it  de- 
tonates with  violence.  Its  chemical  equivalent 
is  11,  and  its  symbol  B.  It  is  not  applied  to 
any  tuseful  purpose.  By  means  of  the  new 
metal  aluminum,  boron  has  been  recently  ob- 
tained by  Wdbler  and  Sainte  Claire  DeviUe 
in  a  crystallized  state,  and  in  a  form  they  call 
ffraphitoid,  from  its  resemblance  to  graphite. 
In  the  form  previously  known  it  is  designated 
as  amorphous.  The  results  of  their  investiga- 
tions are  very  interesting  from  the  entirely  new 
properties  they  discover  in  this  substance.  The 
crystallized  boron  they  find  to  be  the  most  un- 
alterable of  all  simple  bodies.  No  acids,  pure 
or  mixed,  have  any  effect  npon  it ;  nor  is  it 
affected  by  boiling  concentrated  caustic  soda, 
or  nitrate  of  notash.  It  is  slowly  dissolved  by 
monohydratea  soda  and  carbonate  of  soda  at  a 
red  heat    It  is  infusible  before  the  oxyhydro- 

gen  blovrpipe,  and  is  not  oxidized  when  strongly 
eated.    By  chlorine  it  is  acted  upon  with  en- 
ergy, becoming  red  hot  in  an  atmosphere  of  it^ 


536 


BOROUGH 


BOROUGHBEroOE 


and  converted  into  cbloride  of  boron.  Its  crjs- 
talline  form  is  not  ascertained.  It  is  brilliant 
and  bigblj  refractive  like  tbe  diamond,  and  bat 
little  inferior  to  it  in  hardness.  Like  this,  it  is 
expected  to  be  obtained  in  colorless  crystals. 
These  are  now  transparent,  of  garnet-red  and 
heavy  yellow  colors,  due  probably  to  foreign 
coloring  matters.  It  easUy  scratches  corundum. 
The  graphitoid  variety  is  obtained  in  spangles 
of  reddish  color,  quite  opaque  and  sometimes  of 
hexagonal  form.  It  is  deposited  from  a  solution 
of  boride  of  aluminum  in  hydrochloric  acid. 
The  preparation  of  the  crystallized  boron  is 
thus  described  in  a  late  number  of  the  Comptet 
rendus :  *'  £ighty  grammes  of  aluminum  in 
large  fragments  are  fdsed  with  100  grammes  of 
fragments  of  fused  boracic  acid.  The  charcoal 
crucible  is  luted  into  a  good  black-lead  crucible, 
and  the  whole  put  into  a  blast-furnace  capable 
of  easily  fusing  pure  nickel.  The  temperature 
is  kept  at  its  maximum  for  about  5  hours,  care 
being  taken  to  clear  the  bars  of  all  ashes. 
When  cold,  the  crucible  is  broken,  and  two  dis- 
tinct strata  are  found  in  it— one  vitreous,  com- 
posed of  boracic  acid  and  alumina,  and  the 
other  metallic  and  cavernous,  of  an  iron-gray 
color,  beset  with  little  crystals  of  boron ;  it  is 
aluminum  impregnated  throughout  with  crys- 
tallized boron.  All  the  metallic  portion  is 
treated  with  a  moderately  concentrated  boiling 
solution  of  soda,  which  dissolves  the  alumi- 
num ;  then  with  boiling  muriatic  acid,  which 
removes  the  iron;  and  lastly,  with  a  mixture 
of  hydrofluoric  and  nitric  acids  to  extract  the 
traces  of  silicium  which  the  soda  may  have  left 
mixed  with  the  boron.  The  boron  is  not  pure, 
however;  it  contains  laminaD  of  aluminum, 
which  may  be  extracted  mechanically,  but  can- 
not be  separated  from  the  boron  by  any  chemi- 
cal process." 

BOROUGH.  The  origin  of  this  term  is  un- 
certain. By  some  etymologists  it  is  derived 
from  burgh  (Sax.),  burgtt9  (Lat),  a  walled  town, 
and  thence  applied  to  any  association  of  fami- 
lies in  a  neighborhood,  for  the  purpose  of  mutual 
protection.  By  others,  it  is  deduced  from  borgh 
or  barJuB  (Sax.),  pledge,  referring  to  the  civil 
division  into  tithings  or  decennaries,  hundreds, 
&c.,  in  which  the  inhabitants  composing  the 
tithing  or  hundred  were  pledges  for  the  good 
conduct  of  each  other.  It  is  probable  that  in 
an  early  period  when  great  disorder  prevailed, 
protection  was  the  principal  object  of  the  vici- 
nage of  houses  which  was  denominated  a  bor- 
ough. The  term  villOy  from  which  is  derived 
the  modem  vt'Z^d,  originally  signified  a  private 
country  residence,  but  was  afterward  applied 
to  a  number  of  buildings  placed  near  each  other 
for  the  common  safetv  of  the  inhabitants.  It  ap- 
pears from  "  Domesaay  Book  "  that  there  were 
82  boroughs  in  England,  including  cities,  at  the 
time  of  the  Norman  conquest  Though  differ- 
ing as  to  the  extent  of  their  franchises  and 
mode  of  government,  they  were  alike  in  two 
respects:  1,  in  having  a  fair  or  market;  2, 
they  had  a  borough  court  independent  of  the 


hundred.  A  8d  particnlar  afterward  became  the 
distinctive  franchise  of  boroughs,  viz.,  the  right 
of  sending  burgesses  to  parliament.  The  origi- 
nal object  of  mutual  defence  was  merged  in 
another,  viz.,  privileges  of  trade ;  and  not  long 
after  the  conquest  the  guild,  which  was  an  as- 
sociation of  persons  in  a  particular  trade,  be- 
came so  intermingled  with  the  original  consti- 
tution of  boroughs  that  it  is  difficult  to  distin- 
guish the  respective  franchises  belonging  to  each, 
and  the  gmld  merchant,  which  was  a  kind  of 
incorporation  or  licensed  association  of  all  the 
trades,  became  substantially  the  borough,  or  at 
least  became  possessed  of  its  franchises,  govern- 
ment, and  name.  Membership  of  the  guild 
thus  became  the  principal  mode  of  obtaining 
the  freedom  of  the  borough.  The  number  of 
burgesses  was  by  no  means  co-extensive  with 
that  of  the  inhabitants ;  in  fact,  the  boroughs 
were  generally  oligarchies,  especially  those 
which  were  created  by  charters  after  the  con- 
quest. The  government  was  in  many  instances 
engrossed  by  a  self-constituted  body  as  the 
guild  merchant,  and  in  some  cases  even  bj  a 
particular  guild.  Borough  franchises  were  de- 
rived from  charter  or  prescription  (which  was 
founded  upon  a  supposed  charter),  and  consisted 
at  first  of  particular  privileges,  as  that  of  a  fur 
or  market,  of  having  a  court,  exemption  from 
toll,  and  the  like.  Charters  of  incorporation  were 
firs^grantod  in  the  reign  of  Henry  YI.,  althooji^ 
the  ancient  boroughs  had  in  fact  used  the  privi- 
leges peculiar  to  corporations,  viz.,  of  govern- 
ing themselves,  and  of  holding  property  in 
common.  But  from  tlie  period  above  mention- 
ed, the  history  of  boroughs  belongs  to  the  sob- 
ject  of  municipal  corporations,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  parliamentary  franchise.  Before  the 
act  of  1831,  known  as  the  act  for  parliament- 
ary reform,  there  were  171  boroughs  ui  Eng- 
land, represented  by  389  burgesses ;  from  Soot- 
land  there  were  15  members  for  boroughs,  and 
from  Ireland  36.  By  that  act  56  English  bor- 
oughs were  wholly  disfranchised,  80  were  de- 
prived of  1  member  each,  and  the  right  was 
given  to  22  boroughs,  which  were  before  unrep- 
resented, of  returning  2  members  eaoh,  and 
to  19  boroughs  of  returning  1  member  each. 
The  right  of  voting  was  also  extended  from  a 
small  privileged  class  to  the  citizens  at  large 
having  certain  qualifications.  The  whole  num- 
ber of  representatives  from  boroughs  in  the 
English  parliament,  is  now  837  from  England 
and  Wales,  28  from  Scotland,  and  89  from  Ire- 
land, being  nearly  the  same  numerically  as  be- 
fore, but  having  very  different  constituendes. 
In  the  United  States  the  term  borough  is  ap- 
plied to  an  incorporated  village  or  town,  but 
not  to  a  city.  In  England  it  includes  dlies  as 
well  as  villages,  tliough  in  some  old  statutes  the 
8  torms^  city,  borough,  and  village,  are  used 
distinctively. 

BOBOUGHBRIDGE,  an  English  market- 
town,  in  the  parish  of  Aldborough,  and  the 
west  riding  of  Yorkshire,  206  miles  JN.  N.  W.of 
London ;  pop.  1,095.   In  old  tunes  it  was  a  seat 


BOROVSK 


BORBOKEO 


637 


of  the  draids,  and  there  still  remain  in  its  vioinitj 
8  rude  obelisks  or  piUars,  called  the  devil's  arrows, 
which  were  the  goals  in  ancient  British  races. 

BOROVSK,  a  district  in  the  government  of 
Ealooga,  in  European  Rosda;  pop.  69,600. — ^A 
city  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Protva,  pop.  7,800. 
Lint,  hemp,  and  leather,  are  the  chief  articles  of 
trade;  here  are  also  some  manufactories  of  sail- 
cloth. Near  this  city,  in  1 6 1 0,  the  prince  and  boy- 
ard,  Michel  Volkonsky^  valiantly  resisted  the 
Poles  and  the  troops  of  the  pretender  Dimitri. 
Within  a  short  distance  of  the  city  is  one  of  the 
wealthiest  convents  in  Russia,  called  Pavnou- 
tiev-Borovskii,  which  was  founded  in  1444. 
The  district  is  covered  with  forests,  and  is 
famous  throughout  Russia  for  its  garlic  and 
onions. 

BOROWLASKI,  Count,  a  celebrated  Polish 
dwarf,  born  in  1789,  died  Sept  5,  1837. 
He  was  less  than  8  feet  high,  but  perfectly 
symmetrical.  Lockhart  {^  Life  of  Scott''}  says : 
*^  After  realizing  some  money  as  an  itinerant 
object  of  exhibition,  he  settled,  married,  and 
died  at  Durham.^'  Scott  says,  in  one  of  his 
letters,  that  the  count's  wife  used  to  set  him  up 
upon  the  chinmey-piece,  when  he  displeased 
her.  The  count  spoke  several  languages,  and 
was  well  informed  and  witty. 

BORRELISTS,  the  followers  of  one  Adam 
Borrel,  who  was  bom  in  Zealand,  1608,  and 
died  in  1667.  He  insisted  upon  the  exclusive 
authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and  wrote  a  work 
entitled  Ad  legern^  et  testimonium^  which  set 
aside  every  thing  as  essential  to  man's  salvation, 
beyond  the  letter  of  Scripture.  His  followers 
raUied  around  him  in  Amsterdam,  in  1645, 
where  he  held  meetings,  and  promulgated  his 
views.  They  entirely  r^eoted  all  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  church. 

BORRI  (BoRRo,  BuRRHcs,  BuRRHi),  Gnr- 
8SPPB  Franoesoo,  a  religious  adventurer,  bom 
in  Milan  May  4,  1627,  died  in  Rome,  in  the 
casUe  of  St.  Angelo,  Aug.  10, 1695.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  the  college  of  the  Jesuits  at  Rome,  and 
became  engaged  in  the  search  for  the  philoso- 
pher's stone.  Li  Rome  he  professed  to  become 
very  much  shocked  with  the  want  of  morality, 
and  presently  claimed  to  have  received  divine  di- 
rections ho  w  to  conduct  a  reformation.  He  taught 
the  actual  presence  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the 
bread  of  the  eucharist,  and  that  the  third  person 
in  the  Trinity  had  been  incarnated  in  the  Y  irgin 
Mary.  He  extorted  large  sums  of  money  from 
hb  followers,  and. even  ingratiated  himself  into 
the  &vor  of  several  royid  personages,  among 
whom  were  Christina,  queen  of  Sweden,  and 
the  king  of  Denmark,  by  his  pretended  discov- 
ery of  the  philosopher's  stone.  At  lenglii  he 
fled  to  Strasbourg,  in  1660,  then  to  Amster- 
dam, and  finally  to  Denmark.  On  attempting 
to  flee  from  there  to  Hungary,  he  was  arrested  as 
a  spy,  and  brought  before  the  king,  who  de- 
livered him  to  the  nuncio  of  the  pope  on  a  re- 
quisition for  him  as  an  excommunicated  heretic 
He  was  sentenced  to  perpetual  imprisonment, 
and  died  in  prison. 


BORROMEAN  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  6 
islands  belonging  to  the  Sardinian  province 
Pallonza,  in  the  entrance  of  the  gulf  of 
Tosa,  an  arm  of  Lago  Maggiore.  They 
have  their  name  from  the  Borromeo  family, 
in  whose  possession  they  have  been  for 
600  years  without  alienation.  In  the  17th 
century  they  were  enriched  by  soil  carried 
from  the  continent,  and  adorned  with  produc- 
tions of  every  kind  congenial  to  the  climate. 
The  principal  one  in  size  is  Isola  Madre,  being 
about  8  miles  in  circumference,  and  the  most 
northerly  of  the  group.  The  most  highly  ornor 
mented  and  productive  is  the  Isola  Bella,  which 
was  formerly  a  barren  rock.  It  now  abounds 
in  the  most  interesting  tropical  plants.  The 
Isola  dei  Piscatori  contains  a  community  of 
fishermen,  850  in  number. 

BORROMEO,  Carlo,  count,  a  saint  and  cardi- 
nal of  the  Roman  churcn,bom  at  Arena  on  Lago 
Maggiore,  Oct.  %  1538,  died  Nov.  4, 1584.  In  the 
university  of  Pavia,  to  which  he  was  sent  at  an 
early  age,  he  was  marked  as  a  model  of  trutii- 
fulness,  disinterestedness,  and  Parity.  It  was 
said  of  him,  as  of  Gregory  and  Basil  in  Athens, 
that  he  knew  but  two  streets  in  the  city,  that 
which  led  to  the  school,  and  that  which  led  to 
the  church.  Galled  home  at  the  age  of  20,  on  the 
death  of  his  father,  to  take  charge  of  the  family 
estates,  and  to  dispose  of  the  revenues  of  2  rich 
abbeys  which  his  uncles  had  given  him,  he 
proved  himself  incorruptible  and  sagacious  in 
business.  At  the  age  of  22,  he  was  appointed, 
by  his  uncle.  Pope  Pius  IV.,  archbishop  of 
Milan,  grand  penitentiary  and  president  of  the 
Roman  council.  The  force  of  his  character 
overruled  the  objection  of  his  youth,  and  the  5 
years  of  his  administration  in  Rome  justified 
the  wisdom  of  his  appointment.  He  vigor- 
ously carried  through  reforms  in  manners 
and  in  policy,  discouraging  bigamy,  remov- 
ing the  tax  on  food,  hearing  the  complaints 
of  the  suffering,  and  awakening  new  inter- 
est in  the  services  of  the  church.  He  show- 
ed, in  his  manner  of  life,  how  a  man  might 
be  a  magistrate,  a  scholar,  and  a  saint,  with- 
out avoiding  general  society,  or  courting 
monastic  seclusion.  While  he  favored  the  va- 
rious religions  orders,  he  did  not  imitate  theur 
cloistral  customs.  His  palace  was  an  academy 
of  letters,  to  which  the  wits  and  scholars  of  the 
city  resorted,  and  here  he  was  accustomed  to 
read,  with  a  choice  circle  of  friends,  the  ancient 
classics,  especially  the  Enchiridion  of  Epictetus; 
Dividing  his  time  by  method,  he  had  leisure 
for  stu^,  leisure  for  conversation,  leisure  for 
prayer,  while  he  wrote  with  his  own  hand  his 
official  despatches  and  the  decisions  of  his 
court.  Not  the  least  service  which  he  rendered 
to  the  Catholic  religion  at  this  period  of  his  life, 
was  his  agency  in  finishing  the  long  work  of 
the  council  of  Trent,  and  nrovidixig  for  the 
church  a  permanent  symbol  of  faith.  This 
work  completed,  he  began  to  think  more  of  the 
needs  of  that  religious  charge  to  which  he  hod 
been  appointed.    It  seemed  to  him  wrong  that 


588 


BORROMEO 


the  overseer  of  a  diocese  sliotild  be  so  long  an 
absentee,  and  that  an  archbishop  should  not  be 
ever  a  priest  of  the  altar.  The  worldly  pros- 
pects held  oat  to  him  on  the  death  of  his 
Drother,  when  the  succession  of  a  knightly  hbnse 
seemed  to  require  him  to  resign  his  dignities 
and  to  marry,  and  even  the  ased  pope  urged 
him  to  that  change,  could  not  shake  his  resolu- 
tion to  take  ordination  vows,  and  to  go  to  Milan. 
His  journey  of  8  weeks,  from  Rome  thither, 
was  a  triumphal  progress.  Nobles  and  peas- 
ants, monks  and  women  and  children,  came 
out  to  greet  one  whose  countenance  and  char- 
acter, not  less  than  his  official  sanctity,  gave 
them  benediction.  On  Sept.  23,  1565,  the  day 
of  his  entry  into  the  city,  the  windows  were 
garlanded,  arches  were  thrown  across  the 
streets,  and  the  mteful  people  shouted  that 
their  prayers  haa  been  heard,  and  Ambrose 
had  come  again  to  Milan.  For  80  years  no 
bishop  had  resided  there.  The  enthusiasm  rose 
to  its  height  when  from  the  pulpit  of  the  cathe- 
dral the  young  archbishop  preached  to  them, 
taking  for  his  text :  *'  With  a  great  desire  have  I 
desired  to  eat  the  passover  with  you.*'  In  the 
fervor  of  their  gratitude,  the  people  could  not 
notice  (what  the  critics  complained  of)  that 
the  speech  of  this  new  preacher  was  awkward 
and  halting ;  its  very  simplicity  seemed  to  them 
to  be  dictated  by  a  special  inspiration.  He 
was  soon  summoned  back  to  Rome,  to  wait  at 
the  bedside  of  the  dying  pontiff.  From  closing 
the  eyes  of  one  pope,  he  passed  to  the  conclave 
where  another  was  to  be  chosen ;  and  there  we 
behold  him  supporting  for  the  vacant  place  the 
hereditary  enemy  of  the  race  of  Medici,  sacri- 
ficing all  family  pride  and  persona]  ambition, 
and  thwarting  the  intrigues  of  princes,  that 
he  might  give  to  the  church  the  ablest  ruler. 
The  only  favor  which  he  asked  from  Pius 
Y.  was  permission  to  return  to  Milan,  and 
to  dwell  among  his  own  people.  His  visit 
to  Milan  had  shown  him  that  a  great  work 
of  reform  was  needed  there.  Commencing 
with  himself,  he  began  to  practise  abstinence 
from  all  luxuries,  frequent  fasting,  penitential 
discipline,  manual  labor ;  and  his  name  became 
a  proverb  in  Milan  for  self-denial.  Abstinence 
was  femiliarly  called  "Cardinal  Borromeo's 
remedy."  Next  to  this  personal  reform,  came 
reform  in  the  order  of  his  household.  Work 
was  the  rule  there ;  all  had  some  duty  to  do, 
and  there  were  no  sinecures.  Mutual  help, 
modesty  in  dress,  regularity  in  study,  and  con- 
Btanoy  in  prayer,  were  the  elements  of  his  do- 
mesCio  discipline.  He  carried  this  idea  of  a 
Christian  household  with  him  in  his  parochial 
visits  and  episcopal  journeys.  It  was  the  idea 
of  well-ordered  convent  life ;  yet  he  was  pained 
to  find  that  in  many  convents  in  his  diocese,  a 
very  different  course  prevailed.  And  not  only 
did  he  investigate  the  methods  of  village  cu- 
rates, visiting  every  hamlet  where  there  was  a 
school  and  a  church,  even  in  the  wildest  and 
most  secluded  recesses  of  the  province,  examin- 
ing every  altar,  every  sacristy,  all  tiiie  furniture 


of  the  church,  and  the  homes,  too,  of  the  cu- 
rates, with  whom  he  invariably  lodged,  but  he 
gave  particular  scrutiny  to  monastic  institutions. 
His  task  of  reform  in  these  was  not  so  easy  as 
in  the  parishes.  While  the  honor  of  his  pres- 
ence, the  earnestness  of  his  preaching,  and  the 
loveliness  of  his  spirit  captivated  the  inferior 
clergy  and  the  men  of  the  humbler  ranks,  the 
monks  were  bold,  in  some  instances^  to  resist 
and  defy  him.  The  order  of  the  Humiliati  es- 
pecially, in  which  a  handful  of  170  men  could 
squander  the  revenues  of  more  than  90  con- 
vents, took  every  means  to  defeat  his  reforms. 
They  ridiculed  his  canons,  bribed  his  officers, 
circulated  slanders  about  his  character,  barred 
their  doors  against  his  visits,  and  when  all 
other  measures  failed,  attempted  to  murder 
him.  A  renegade  priest  was  hired  for  that 
work,  and  while  the  cardinal  was  on  his  knees 
in  the  chapel,  a  blunderbuss  was  discharged, 
the  ball  of  which  struck  his  robe  without  i)en- 
etrating  the  body,  and  fell  leaving  only  a  trifling 
bruise.  It  was  the  second  time  that  the  shot 
of  an  assassin  had  failed,  and  tlie  people  saw 
now,  in  his  marvellous  escape,  the  same  special 
favor  which  had  before  protected  him.  The  mur- 
derers were  arrested,  and  the  cardinal^s  merciful 
interposition  could  not  this  time  save  them 
from  punishment  The  order  of  the  Harailiati 
was  abolished,  its  revenues  distributed  to  the 
poor ;  and  the  other  convents,  after  this  sala- 
tary  warning,  hastened  to  conform  to  his  decrees. 
Even  the  nuns,  after  a  time,  acquiesced  in  a  disci- 
pline which  required  them  to  labor  as  well  as 
pray.  The  most  important  reform  which  he  in- 
augurated was  in  the  system  of  education.  The 
number  of  schools  and  seminaries  which  he 
founded  is  almost  incredible :  740  schools,  with 
8,040  teachers,  and  40,098  scholars,  are  recorded. 
It  was  his  theory  that  every  child  belonged  to 
the  church,  and  that  the  priest  had  especial 
care  of  the  souls  of  children.  And  while  he  in 
no  degree  abated  the  splendor  of  the  metropoli- 
tan ritual,  and  left  the  choir  of  the  cattiedral 
that  marvel  of  magnificence  which  it  still  re- 
mains, he  would  have  its  institutions  of  religious 
training  only  the  centre  of  a  system  which 
should  penetrate  the  remotest  parts  of  his  dio- 
cese, so  that  the  poorest  boy  in  the  mountidn 
districts  might  reach,  in  regular  course,  the 
highest  doctor^s  place  in  tlie  metropolitan 
chapter.  Neglect  of  teaching  was  to  him  a 
graver  offence  than  neglect  of  prayer,  when  he 
took  account  of  his  priesthood.  Hardly  less 
thorough  was  his  reform  in  criminal  discipline. 
He  found  Milan  the  most  turbulent,  profligate, 
pauperized,  and  ill-governed  city  in  Europe. 
When  he  died,  it  had  become  a  proverb  for 
neatness,  safety,  and  tranquillity.  He  would 
have  criminals  treated  as  unfortunates  more  than 
as  outcasts — as  morally  diseased,  more  tlian 
hopelessly  vicious.  Punishment  should  be  pro- 
portioned to  the  offence;  the  penitent  should 
be  subjects  of  mercy,  and  all  ^ould  have  the 
influences  of  reli^on  to  move  and  renew  their 
hearts.    He  appomted  Christian  visitors  to  the 


BORROMEO 


589 


prisons,  and  often  accompanied  these  men  on 
their  daily  rounds.  He  established  a  religions 
police  to  watch  the  beginnings  of  crime  and  to 
save  from  the  consequences  of  a  first  offence. 
He  made  of  the  prisons  only  another  kind  of 
hospitals,  and  be  changed  that  tyrannical  mag- 
istracy who  at  first  hated  and  resisted  him,  into 
coadjators  and  philanthropist*!.  His  own  char- 
ity was  unboanded.  It  is  said  that  he  dis- 
tribated  to  the  poor,  in  a  single  day,  40,000 
crowns,  the  price  of  a  principality  in  Naples. 
The  gifts  and  legacies  which  from  time  to  time 
came  to  him,  were  dispensed  in  the  same  way. 
In  20  years,  one  of  the  richest  prelates  in  Eu- 
rope made  himself,  by  incessant  sacrifices,  al- 
most as  poor  as  a  Franciscan  friar.  Yet  he  was 
Judicious  in  his  charities.  Though  he  turned 
no  suppliant  coldly  away,  he  discouraged  beg- 
gary. And  the  poor,  indeed,  had  now  the  gos- 
pel preached  to  them.  The  same  voice  which 
Bpoke  from  the  cathedral  pulpit  was  heard  in 
the  villages  of  the  high  Alps,  proclaiming  the 
doctrine  of  brotherly  love  and  God's  compassion 
to  the  sinful.  He  proved  to  the  Protestants  of 
Switzerland  that  their  notion  of  a  Roman 
bishop  was  not  wholly  just;  and  where  he 
had  spoken,  there  were  no  more  executions 
for  witchcraft. — ^The  passage  in  the  life  of 
Cardinal  Borromeo,  which  has  given  him  the 
largest  fame,  is  his  conduct  during  the  great 
pli^ue  of  Milan,  in  1576.  The  genius  of  Man- 
2oni  has  illustrated,  but  not  exaggerated,  the 
noble  endurance  and  valor  of  St.  Charles  in 
that  time  of  terror.  Predicting  calamity  from 
the  foolish  wantonness  which  marked  the  sports 
of  the  carnival  in  that  year,  he  was  not  disposed 
to  flee,  like  the  rest,  when  the  calamity  came. 
No  entreaties  conld  induce  him  to  leave  his 
suffering  flock.  He  headed,  in  the  garb  of  pen- 
ance, the  customary  procession  of  expiation. 
He  preached  every  day,  and  fasted  continually. 
He  entered  the  most  squalid  abodes  of  the 
infected  districts,  carrying  the  ]}oly  viaticum, 
and  composed  with  his  own  hands,  in  the 
wards  of  the  hospitals,  the  liflibs  of  the  dying. 
He  organized  a  heroic  band  of  priests  to  take 
the  duties  of  the  fugitive  magistrates.  He 
opened  the  churches  and  the  episcopal  man- 
sions to  the  frightened  people,  sold  his  furniture 
and  his  plate  to  buy  bread  for  them,  made  by 
his  will  the  hospitals  of  the  city  heir  to  his  es- 
tate, if  his  life  should  be  lost,  and  even  gave  up 
his  own  straw-bed,  and  slept  upon  a  board 
His  strength  seemed  to  increase  as  by  miracle. 
He  went  everywhere  by  day  and  night,  on 
iaot  and  on  horseback,  within  and  without  the 
city,  praymg  the  rich  to  give  and  to  lend,  and 
to  open  their  houses  to  the  poor.  The  horrors 
of  famine,  added  to  the  horrors  of  pestilence. 
only  quickened  his  oourage.  Even  when  all 
seemed  lost,  he  did  not  despair;  and  after 
months  of  misery  and  devastation,  the  scourge 
departed  from  the  city,  and  in  the  bitterness  of 
their  sorrow,  the  people  could  r^oice  that  their 
chief  pastor  bad  oeen  spared  to  them ;  17,000, 
120  of^them  eooledasticS)  had  died  of  the  plague. 


The  excesdve  labors  of  Si  Charles  wore  upon 
a  constitution  naturally  feeble,  and  it  was  evi- 
dent that  his  self-sacrificing  life  would  be  too 
short  for  his  broad  designs.  The  loumeys 
which  he  made  to  Turin  and  Rome  hastened 
his  weakness,  and  the  x>cople  were  now  called 
to  lament  his  loss.  And  it  was  such  a  lament 
as  had  been  given  to  no  prince  or  hero  within 
the  memory  of  man.  At  the  first  alarm  that 
their  bbhop  was  dying,  a  cry  went  up  in  the 
streets,  which  reached  to  every  house  and  con- 
vent and  chamber.  Some  ran  to  the  churches 
to  pray.  Some  waited  at  the  gate  of  the  pdace 
for  instant  tidings.  All  Italy  was  mourner  for 
this  good  man.  The  faneral  solemnities  were 
broken  by  the  bursts  of  grief  which  could  not 
be  restrained ;  and  when,  from  the  pulpit  of  the 
cathedral,  the  holy  life  and  the  Christian  de&th 
of  this  devoted  servant  of  God  were  set  before 
the  multitude,  all  felt  that  their  bishop  was  in- 
deed a  saint  and  a  martyr.  His  tomb,  beneath 
the  high  altar,  became  at  once  a  shrine,  to 
which  the  feet  of  pilgrims  from  all  parts  were 
directed,  and  to  wnich  the  princes  of  Europe 
sent  their  offerings;  and,  m  1610,  72  years 
from  the  date  of  his  birth,  the  name  of  Bor- 
romeo was  associated  with  those  whose  in- 
tercession the  Catholic  faithfhl  supplicate.  The 
biography  of  St.  Charles  has  been  many  times 
written,  best  by  Godeau,  bishop  of  Venice 
(Paris,  2  vols.  12mc,  1748),  by  Touron  (Paris, 
1761, 8  vols.,  12mo),  and  by  the  Italian  Guissano 
(1751).  A  new  life  has  been  written  recently  by 
£.  H.  Thompson  (London,  1858).  His  t^orks, 
which  were  almost  entirely  of  a  practical  and 
oflicial  character,  sermons,  letters,  decrees  of 
councils,  are  published  in  their  most  complete 
form  in  the  MEan  edition  of  1747  (5  vols,  folio). 
A  selected  edition  of  his  letters  was  published 
in  Paris,  in  1762,  in  octavo.  But  large  num- 
bers still  remain  unpublished  in  the  archives 
of  the  Ambrosian  and  Vatican  libraries  and 
of  the  Jesuits'  house  in  Rome.  As  a  writer, 
St.  Charles  was  not  remarkable.  His  works 
help  to  illustrate,  however,  the  Roman  Catholic 
creed  in  its  final  development.  His  statue  was 
erected  near  Arona,  and  his  festival  is  cele- 
brated Nov.  4. 

BORROMEO,  Fedebioo,  count,  cardinal  and 
archbishop  of  Milan,  nephew  of  St.  Charles,  bom 
at  Milan  in  1668,  died  Sept  22,  1681.  He 
founded  the  Ambrosian  libraiy  at  Mian  in 
1609,  and  devoted  to  it  most  of  his  fortune. 
He  sent  Oligati  to  Germany,  the  Netherlands^ 
and  France;  Ferrari  to  Spain,  Salmaci  to 
Greece,  Father  Michael,  a  Maronite  priest,  to. 
Syria,  to  coUect  MSS.  for  it  He  added  to  it  a 
printing  establishment,  and  founded  academies, 
schools,  and  charitable  institutions. 

BORROMEO,  St.,  Sisterhood  of,  a  religious 
association  founded  in  1652  by  tiie  abb6  of 
Estival,  for  educational  and  charitable  purposes, 
has  its  chief  organization  at  Nancy,  in  Lorraine. 
«— A  religious  association  of  the  same  name  was 
founded  in  Bonn,  in  1844,  for  the  distribution 
of  Roman  Catholic  pablioations,  and  had,  in 


640 


BORROMINI 


BORY  DE  SAINT  VINCENT 


1851, 15,000  members,  and  an  annual  income 
of  $15,000. 

BORROMINI,  Francbboo,  an  Italian  arohi- 
ieot,  bora  at  Bisaone,  in  1599,  died  by  his  own 
hand,  in  1667.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Bernini 
by  whom  he  was  employed  on  yarious  parts  of 
St.  Peter's,  and  ezecutea  a  number  of  important 
works  at  Rome  and  elsewhere,  including  palaces, 
dmrches,  and  other  public  buildings. 

BORROW,  Gbobob,  an  English  writer  on 
gypsy  hLitory,  born  in  the  headquarters  of  the 
gypsies  who  roam  about  in  the  yicinity  of  Lon- 
don, near  the  beautiful  little  yillage  of  Norwich, 
Feb.  1803.  The  affinities  which  from  his  earliest 
childhood  existed  between  his  own  pliable  na- 
ture and  the  yagabond  life  of  the  Norwich  gyp- 
sies, ripened  into  still  more  decided  sympa- 
thies by  the  contact  into  which  he  was  brought, 
while  camping  about  with  the  regiment  of  which 
his  father  was  military  teacher,  with  other 
branches  of  the  gypsy  community,  which,  at  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  infested  many  English 
counties.  Mr.  Borrow  had  a  decided  talent  for 
the  acquisition  and  the  colloquial  use  of  lan- 
guages ;  and  his  acquaintance  with  the  learned 
William  Taylor  of  Norwich,  the  author  of  the 
"  Survey  of  German  Poetry,"  and  with  other 
eminent  scholars,  contributed  to  give  him  a  taste 
for  knowledge,  which  he  gratified  by  his  studies 
at  Edinburgh,  and  subsequently  by  his  travels, 
whose  principal  object  was  to  master,  in  addition 
to  the  traditions  and  manners  which  he  had 
gathered  from  his  Norwich  gypsy  friends,  all  the 
nnguistio^  social,  and  general  characteristics  of 
the  Spanish  gypsies  or  gitanos.  For  the  better 
attainment  of  this  object,  he  passed  considerable 
time  in  Spain ;  and  the  work  which  he  pub- 
lished in  1841, "  The  Zinoali,  or  an  Account  of  the 
Gypsies  of  Spain,  with  an  original  Oollection  of 
their  Songs  and  Poetry,  and  a  copious  Dictionary 
of  their  language,"  gave  eyidence  of  the  success 
of  his  labors,  and  also  became  popular  by  the 
picturesqueness  of  its  style.  His  next  work, 
"The  Bible  in  Spain," Ac.  (Lond.,  8  vols.,  1843), 
gave  a  humorous  account  of  his  adventures  and 
imprisonment  while  attempting  to  distribute 
the  Bible  in  that  country,  as  agent  of  the  London 
Bible  society.  In  1851  he  brought  out  a  semi- 
autobiographical,  semi-fictitious  work  entitled 
"  Lavengro,  the  Scholar  and  the  Priest,"  which 
fiailed  to  produce  the  same  impression  as  his 
previous  works.  In  1857  he  published  "  Ro- 
many Rye^"  a  continuation  of  ^^  Lavengro." 
We  have  also  to  mention  a  small  volume  of 
*^  Translations  of  Northern  Poetry,"  and  a 
**  Translation  of  the  Gospel  of  St  Luke  into 
the  Spanish  Gypsy  Tongue :"  BlBoangdioiegun 
Lucag^  t/radueido  al  Eonumi  o  dialeeto  de  Im 
Oitano%  de  Bspafia, 

BORROWSTOUNNESS,  or  Bonms,  a  bar- 
ony  and  one  of  the  oldest  seaports  of  Scotland, 
pop.  in  1851, 2,645,  in  the  county  of  Linlithgow, 
on  the  firth  of  Forth.  It  formerly  had  consider- 
able trade,  but  its  commerce  is  now  confined 
principally  to  the  Baltic,  though  it  sends  a  few 
ships  every  year  on  wnaling  voyages.    From 


the  extensive  manufactories  in  this  town,  80,000 
bushels  of  salt  are  annually  exported.  In  the 
vicinity  are  valuable  coal  mines,  some  of  which 
have  been  worked  for  centuries,  and  extend 
under  the  firth  of  Forth  to  the  distance  of  a 
mile — ^nearly  reaching  the  mines  of  Culrosa  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  most  interesting  objects 
in  the  parish  are  a  part  of  the  Roman  wall  of 
Antonine,  and  Kinneil  house,  for  many  years 
the  residence  of  Dugald  Stewart 

BORTHWIOE,  Petbb,  a  Britbb  tory  poli- 
tician, born  in  Scotland,  in  1804,  died  in  Dea 
1852.  In  1882  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candi- 
date for  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Evesham. 
Soon  after,  being  accidentally  present  at  an 
anti-slavery  meeting  in  London,  he  spoke  in 
favor  of  the  gradual,  instead  of  the  immediate, 
emancipation  of  slaves  in  the  British  colonies, 
and  was  immediately  employed,  by  what  waa 
called  *^the  West  India  interest,"  as  th^  advo- 
cate. For  months  he  appeared  in  this  capacity, 
in  various  parts  of  Great  Britain,  his  most  con- 
stant and  able  opponent  being  Mr.  George 
Thompson.  Mr.  Borthwick  became  representa- 
tive of  Evesham  in  1884,  for  which  he  sat  until 
1847.  After  he  left  parliament,  he  became 
manager  of  the  "  Mommg  Post"  newspaper,  in 
which  capacity  he  continued  until  his  death. 

BORTHWIOE  CASTLE,  a  strong  fortress  in 
the  parish  of  Borthwick,  Scotland.  It  was  built 
in  the  year  1480,  and  was  £unous  in  the  civil 
wars  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 
Dr.  Robertson,  the  historian,  was  bom  in  the 
parsonage  of  Borthwick. 

BORYDE  SAINT  VINCENT,  Jean  Baptibtb 
Gbobob  Mabib,  a  French  naturalist,  bom  at  Agen 
in  1780,  died  in  Paris  Dec  22  or  28, 1846.  In  his 
15th  year  he  read  2  remarkable  papers  before 
the  society  of  natural  history  at  Bordeaux.  In 
1800  he  accompanied,  as  naturalist,  the  expedi- 
tion of  Capt.  Baudin.  Being  immediately  after 
appointed  to  an  office  on  the  isle  of  Bourbon, 
he  made  a  mfgnificent  map  of  that  island,  visit- 
ed St.  Helena,  and  after  his  return  to  France 
published,  in  1806*^4,  an  '*  Essay  on  the  Fortu- 
nate Isles  and  the  Ancient  Atlantis,''  and  a  nar- 
rative of  a  "  Voyage  among  the  African  Isl- 
ands." Under  the  empire  he  served  in  the  staff 
of  Davoust  in  the  Austerlitz  campaign,  and 
with  Ney  and  Soult  in  the  Spanish  campaigns. 
He  was  proscribed  from  1815  to  1820,  lived 
near  the  quarries  of  Maestricht,  studied  those 
immense  crypts,  and  published  an  account  of 
them  in  a  work  entitled  a  ^^Subterranean 
Journey."  He  visited  Berlin,  Magdeburg,  and 
Aix  la  Ohi4)elle,  and  establiiahed  himself  at 
Brussels,  where,  in  connection  with  2  other 
savants,  he  published  the  "  Annals  of  the  Phys- 
ical Sciences."  In  1829  he  directed  the  scien- 
tific expedition  to  the  Morea,  and  in  1830  was 
appointed  chief  of  the  historical  bureau  in  the 
department  of  war.  Beside  numerous  short 
papers  published  in  periodicals,  he  wrote  a 
work  on  the  geography  of  Spain,  a  history  of 
microscopic  animals,  and  many  articles  in  tte 
<'  Classical  Dictionary  of  Natural  History." 


B0RY8THENES 


BOSOAWEN" 


541 


BORY8THENE8.    See  Dnibpkb, 

B03,  Lambert,  a  Dutch  philolo^st,  bom  at 
Workura,  in  Friesland,  Nov.  28, 1670,  died  Jan. 
6,  1717.  He  was  instructed  by  his  father  in 
Greek  and  Latin.  Yitringa,  the  distinguished 
oriental  scholar,  was  professor  at  Froneker,  and 
thither  jouus  Bos  went  to  pursue  his  philologi- 
cal studies.  Not  long  after  he  was  chosen  Greek 
Erofessor  in  that  nniversity.  He  is  best  known 
y  his  work  entitled  Ellipses  Grcsea  (1702), 
though  he  was  the  author  of  several  others, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  an  edition  of 
the  Septuagint  and  Animadv&numes  ad  Scrip- 
tores  Oraeos, 

BOS,  Boson  or  Bosoo,  Hierontmus,  a  Dutch 
|>ainter  and  engraver,  bom  at  Bois  le  Due  about 
1470,  died  in  1680.  His  fancy  partook  of 
the  grotesque,  Gothic  character  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  his  pictures  are  ingenious  representa- 
tions of  devils^  spectres,  and  incantations.  Some 
of  his  works,  however,  representing  scriptural 
scenes,  possess  greater  dignity.  His  engravings 
resemble  his  paintings,  and  have  become  very 
scarce. 

BOSO,  Louis  ATrausnir  Guilulumb,  French 
naturalist,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  29,  1759,  died 
there  July  10, 1828.  Employed  in  various  pub- 
lic offices  until  1798,  his  political  sympathies 
made  him  obnoxious  to  the  terrorists,  and  con- 
cealing himself  in  the  forest  of  Montmorency, 
he  resumed  there,  under  the  greatest  difficulties, 
his  favorite  science  of  botany,  having  already 
previously  gained  some  distinction  as  a  naturalist. 
On  returning  to  Paris  after  the  fall  of  Robespierre 
he  was  sent  in  1796  as  French  consul  to  the 
United  States ;  but)  not  recognized  in  this  posi- 
tion by  the  American  authorities,  he  explored  the 
country  for  scientific  purposes.  In  1799  he  was 
appointed  chief  of  the  administration  of  pris- 
ons, but  lost  this  office  on  the  18  th  Bramaire. 
Applying  himself  thenceforward  to  literary  la- 
bora,  he  made  numerous  contributions  to  natural 
science.  His  Histoire  naturelle  des  eoquilles 
(5  vols.  2d  edition,  Paris,  1824),  and  Histoire  d€S 
vers  et  des  erustaek  (2  vols.  2d  edition,  Paris, 
1829),  and  his  studies  on  the  vines  of  France, 
are  his  principal  achievements.  He  was  made  a 
member  of  the  academy  of  sciences,  of  the  cen- 
tral agricultural  society,  and  finally,  after  hav- 
ing been  inspector  of  the  gardens  at  Versailles, 
he  became  professor  at  the  janZtn  des  plantes 
at  Paris.  He  was  a  zealous  worker  in  the  realms 
of  science,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a  warm  and 
generous  friend.  Roland,  under  whose  admin- 
istration he  had  served^  and  who  perished  with 
his  wife  on  the  guillotine,  made  him  guardian 
of  their  daughter.  Boso  published  memoirs  of 
the  celebrated  Madame  Roland,  and  succeeded  in 
obtaining  for  Mile.  Roland  the  confiscated  prop- 
erty of  her  unfortunate  parents. 

BOSOAN  ALMOGAVER,  Juaw,  a  Spanish 
poet,  born  in  Barcelona  toward  the  end  of  tihe 
15th  century,  died  in  1543.  He  served  in  the 
armies,  and  figured  at  t!ie  court  of  Charles  V. 
He  had  published  several  poems,  when  he  met 
at  Granada  the  Venetian  ambassador  and  emi- 


nent scholar,  Andrea  Kavagiero,  who  made 
him  acquainted  with  the  beauties  of  Italian  lite- 
rature. He  now  wrote  somewhat  in  imitation 
of  Italian  poets,  and  succeeded  so  far  as  to  in- 
troduce the  Italian  11 -syllable  and  iambic  versi- 
fication ;  the  sonnet  and  cam(me,  as  settled  by 
Petrarch;  Dante^s  terza  rima,  and  Boccacio's 
and  Ariosto's  flowing  octaves.  Of  his  works, 
which  were  published  at  Barcelona  by  his  wid- 
ow immediately  after  his  death,  and  which  are 
divided  into  4  books,  the  last  book,  entitled  the 
"  Allegory,"  is  the  best.  His  longest  work  was 
a  translation  from  the  Italian  of  Gastiglione's 
"  Courtier,"  according  to  Dr.  Johnson,  tJfcie  best 
book  on  good  breeding  that  was  ever  written. 

BOSCAWEN,  Edward,  a  British  admiral, 
third  son  of  Hugh  Boscawen,  the  first  Lord  Fal- 
mouth, bom  in  Cornwall,  Aug.  19,  1711,  died 
near  Guildford,  Jan.  10, 1761.  His  mother  was 
the  daughter  of  a  sister  of  the  great  duke  of 
Marlborough.  Entering  the  navy  at  an  early 
age,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  captain  in 
1737.  In  1740  he  displayed  great  intrepidity  as 
a  volunteer  under  Admiral  Vernon  at  the  taking 
of  Puerto  Bello,  and  the  next  year,  at  the  siege 
of  Carthagena,  had  command  of  a  small  party  of 
seamen,  who  resolutely  stormed  a  battery  of  15 
24-pounders,  while  exposed  to  the  fire  of  anoth- 
er fort  On  his  return  to  England  he  was 
elected  to  parliament  for  the  borough  of  Truro, 
which  he  continued  to  represent  until  his  death. 
In  1744,  when  in  command  of  the  Dreadnought, 
of  60  guns,  he  captured  a  French  frigate  in  the 
channel,  and  was  soon  after  promoted  to  the 
oommand-in-chief  of  all  the  armed  cruisers 
employed  by  government.  In  1747  he  was 
a  captain  in  Anson^s  fleet,  and  signalized  his 
bravery  in  the  engagement  with  the  French 
fleet  under  Le  Jonqui^re  off  Cape  Finisterre, 
where  he  was  wounded  in  the  shoulder  by  a  mus- 
ket ball.  Promoted  successively  to  the  ranks  of 
rear-admural  of  the  blue  and  of  the  white,  he  was 
in  1748  intrusted  with  the  command  of  all  the 
forces,  naval  and  military,  destined  for  the 
East  Indies.  He  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
upon  Pondicherry,  and  returned  to  England  on 
receiving  news  of  the  peace.  In  1751  he  be- 
came lord  of  the  admiralty  and  an  elder  brother 
of  the  Trinity  house,  and  soon  after  the  renewal 
of  hostilities  with  France  in  1755,  was  made 
successively  vice-admiral  of  the  blue  and  of  the 
white.  He  was  despatched  to  cruise  on  the 
shores  of  Newfoundland,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
tercepting a  French  squadron,  which,  however, 
escaped  from  him  by  passing  through  the  straits 
of  Bdleisle ;  but  he  fell  in  with  and  captured 
the  Alcide  and  the  Lys,  of  64  guns  each,  taking 
prisoner,  for  the  third  time,  M.  de  Hoquart, 
the  commander  of  the  former.  Advanced  to 
the  rank  of  admiral  of  the  blue,  in  1758,  he  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  naval 
forces  which  took  part  at  the  reduction  of 
Louisburg  and  of  the  whole  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  and  for  his  services  received  the  thanks 
of  the  house  of  commons,  and  was  nominated  a 
privy  counoiUor.    Being  appointed,  in  1769,  to 


642 


BOSCOBEL 


BOSNA-SERAI 


the  command  of  a  squadron  in  the  Mediter* 
ranean,  he  pursued  and  engaged  the  French 
fleet  off  Cape  Logos,  where  he  captured  8  of  its 
largest  ships,  burned  2  others,  and  totally  mined 
the  schemes  of  the  French  court  for  an  attack 
on  the  British  dominions  in  their  most  vital 
parL     On  his  return  to  Spitbead  with  his 

Srizes,  and  2,000  prisoners,  he  received  the  free- 
om  of  the  citj  of  Edinburgh,  and  was  made 
governor  of  the  marine  forces,  with  a  salary  of 
£3,000  a  year.  His  last  services  were  in  1760, 
in  sharing  with  Sir  Edward  Hawke  the  ar- 
duous duty  of  watching  the  remaining  ships  of 
Oonflans'  defeated  fleet  in  the  ports  of  the  bay 
of  Biscay.  Admiral  Boscawen  was  one  of  the 
bravest  of  seamen,  and  was  styled  by  Horace 
Walpole  the  most  obstinate  of  an  obstinate 
family.  Lord  Chatham  thus  eulogized  him: 
'^When  I  apply  to  other  oflScers  respectiug 
any  expedition  I  may  chance  to  project,  they 
always  raise  difficulties ;  Boscawen  always  finds 
expedients." 

BOSCOBEL,  an  extra-parochial  liberty  of 
England.  After  the  battle  of  Worcester,  Sept. 
8,  1661,  King  Charles  XL  took  refuge  in  the 
manor-house  of  this  place.  The  next  day  be 
concealed  himself  in  a  thick  oak  tree  which 
stood  near  by,  and  from  an  acorn  of  this  tree 
grew  the  present  "  royal  oak"  at  BoscobeL 

BOSCOVICH,  RuQGiEKo  Giusbppb,  an  Ital- 
ian mathematician  and  physicist,  born  at  Ragu- 
sa,  May  18,  1711,  died  m  Milan,  Feb.  12, 1787. 
Educated  by  the  Jesuit^  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  in  their  college  at  Bome, 
and  distinguished  himself  by  publishing  able 
dissertations  on  a  great  variety  of  astronomical, 
physical,  and  mathematical  subjects;  also  by 
editing  several  philosophical  poems.  He  was 
frequently  called  upon  as  umpire  in  national 
disput^  and  thus  visited  many  states  of  Eu- 
rope, including  England,  being  everywhere  re- 
ceived with  attention.  After  his  return  from 
England,  he  was  appointed  professor  of  mathe- 
matics at  Pavia,  and  6  years  afterward  profes- 
sor of  astronomy  and  optics  at  Milan.  On  the 
abolition  of  the  order  of  Jesuits,  he  took  refuse 
in  Paris,  and  received  a  pension  from  Louis  X\ ., 
with  the  office  of  director  of  optics  for  tlie  sea 
service.  Ten  years  after,  in  1788,  he  obtdned 
leave  to  visit  Italy,  and  at  Bassano  published 
5  quarto  volumes  of  mathematical  and  astro- 
nomical papers.  This  versatile  and  able  man  is 
chiefly  renowned  for  his  theory  of  a  universal 
law  of  forces,  conceived  in  his  earliest  manhood, 
and  published  at  the  age  of  47. 

BOSHUANA.     See  Bechttana. 

BOSIO,  AxGioLiNA.,  an  Italian  opera  singer, 
born  in  Turin,  Aug.  20,  1829.  At  an  early  age 
she  showed  so  decided  a  taste  for  music,  that 
her  parents  were  induced  to  place  her  under 
the  instruction  of  Cattaneo,  at  Milan.  The 
best  evidence  of  her  progress  and  talent  for 
singing,  was  her  d^but  in  her  15th  year  at 
Milan,  in  Verdi's  DtLe  Foscari^  with  decided 
success.  Thenceforth,  young  and  undeveloped 
as  she  was,  a  series  of  triumphs  awaited  her. 


After  a  short  engagement  at  Verona  she  pro- 
ceeded to  Copenhagen,  and  excited  an  immense 
enthusiasm  among  the  Danes,  who  offered  her  a 
very  lucrative  engagement  for  6  years.  Declin- 
ing this,  she  next  sang  in  Madrid  with  great 
effect^  and  in  the  season  of  1848-^49,  saccess- 
fuUy  passed  the  ordeal  of  a  d^but  before  a  Parisian 
audience.  The  next  season  found  her  singing 
at  the  Tacon  theatre  in  Havana,  whence,  in 
the  spring  of  1850,  she  came  to  the  United 
States,  where  for  the  next  2  or  3  years  she  was 
one  of  the  reigning  favorites  on  tiie  operatic 
stage.  8he  then  returned  to  Europe,  and  has 
since  sung  with  increased  reputation  at  London, 
Paris,  St.  Petersburg,  and  other  cities.  A  few 
years  ago  she  was  married  to  Signer  de  Xin- 
davelonis.  Madame  Bosio  possesses  a  so- 
prano voice  of  great  compass,  and  of  a  pure 
and  sympathetic  quality,  which  she  knows  now 
to  employ  to  advantage. 

BOSIO,  FiUNgoiB  JosKFR,  baron,  a  French 
sculptor,  born  in  Monaco,  March  19, 1769,  ^ed 
July  19, 1845.  He  was  employed  by  Napoleon, 
and  by  the  successive  Bourbon  and  Orleans 
dynasties.  The  bas-reliefs  of  the  column  on 
the  Place  Vend6me,  and  the  equestrian  statue 
on  the  Place  des  Victoires,  were  executed  by 
him.  He  was  director  of  the  Paris  academy 
of  flne  arts  when  he  died« 

BOSJESMANS,  or  Bushmen,  the  name  given 
by  the  Dutch  to  a  tribe  of  southern  Africa,  be- 
yond the  boundaries  of  Cape  Colony,  and  on  bodi 
sides  of  the  Orange  river.  In  personal  appear- 
ance they  resemble  the  Hottentots,  are  equally 
dirty  and  repulsive,  but  their  figure  Is  smaller  and 
more  spare,  while  their  wild  and  restless  life  of 
constant  warfare  and  privation  has  given  them 
a  crafty,  wild  look,  at  variance  with  the  easy, 
stupid  expression  of  the  Hottentot.  Their  kn- 
gnage  resembles  the  Hottentot  dialect  in  its 
harsh,  guttural,  and  snorting  sounds,  but  the 
two  people  do  not  understand  each  other.  They 
have  no  fixed  residence,  build  no  dwellings,  bat 
live  in  families  and  roam  about,  resting  nnder 
trees,  bushes,  and  other  casual  shelter,  subsist- 
ing upon  plunder,  eating  raw  flesh,  and  when 
that  fails  living  on  snakes,  mice,  grubs,  and 
vermin.  In  drinking  they  lie  down.  Their 
clothing  is  a  mere  sheepskin,  although,  whea 
they  can  procure  caps  or  other  garments,  they 
wear  them.  They  are  armed  with  knives,  smau 
bows  and  poisoned  arrows,  which  they  use  witii 
dexterity. 

BOSNA^EBAI,  or  Serajevo,  the  ancient 
Tiberiapolis^  a  city  of  European  Turkey,  and 
capital  of  theprovince  of  Bosnia,  situated  495 
miles  W.  N.  W.  of  Constantinople,  with  15,000 
houses,  and  pop.  50,000,  mostly  Turks  proper. 
It  is  the  great  commercial  focus  of  Bosnia,  and 
one  of  the  most  important  towns  of  Turkey, 
being  the  depot  of  the  great  caravan  trade  be- 
tween Yanina  and  Salonica,  and  possessing  tan- 
neries and  manufactories  of  jewelry,  hardware, 
and  woollen  goods.  The  walls  of  the  town  are 
dilapidated ;  its  citadel  contains  a  series  of  strong 
fortresses.    In  1697,  when  Prince  Eugene  cap- 


BOSNIA 


BOSQUET 


543 


tared  tbe  place,  he  was  unable  to  take  poeses- 
aion  of  the  citadel. 

BOSNIA  (properly  Bosna),  the  extreme 
north-western  province  or  eyalet  of  European 
Turkey,  comprising  Bosnia  proper,  Herzegovi- 
na, and  parts  of  Turkish  Croatia  and  Dalmatia, 
bounded  N.  by  tlie  river  Save,  W.  by  Dalmatia 
and  tbe  Adriatic,  E.  by  Servia,  and  S.  by  Al- 
bania and  Montenegro.  Area  about  28,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  in  1862  about  370,000  Bosnians,  180,- 
000  Groatians,  145,000  Morlaks,  260,000  Turks 
proper,  15,000  Greeks,  12,000  Jews,  428,000 
Wallachians,  Hungarians,  Armenians,  Illyrians, 
Italians,  Germans,  Gypsies,  and  various  other 
tribes;  total,  about  1,400,000.  The  Bosnians 
proper  are  principally  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Catbolio  churches,  though  many  of  them  are  fol- 
lowers of  Mobammed.  The  Groatians  are  al- 
most all  members  of  the  Christian  community, 
with  but  few  Mohammedan<s  while  the  Morlaks, 
who  are  the  fiercest  tribe  of  them  all,  are  active- 
ly hostile  to  the  Turkish  religion.  The  prov- 
ince, or  eyalet,  is  governed  by  a  vali,  i.  e, 
viceroy  or  pasha  with  8  tails.  Of  the  other  6 
districts,  Herzek  alone  has  a  governor  of  the 
rank  of  vali  or  viceroy.  Tuzla  is  under  the 
sway  of  a  mutessarif,  or  governor-general, 
while  Banjaluka,  Bihke,  Jeni-Bazar,  and  Trav- 
nik,  are  under  a  sub-governor  or  kaimakan. 
In  tlie  12ih  and  13th  centuries  Bosnia  formed 
part  of  Hungary.  In  1839  it  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Servian  king  Stephen.  For  a 
short  time  subsequent  to  the  king's  death  the 
province  formed  an  independent  government^ 
until  1370,  when  one  of  the  chieftains  seized 
tbe  reins  of  power  as  king  of  Bosnia.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  15th  century  Turkey  asserted 
its  claims  upon  the  province,  finally  annex- 
ing it  in  1528 ;  since  then,  however,  the  native 
claimants  to  power  have  frequently  caused  dis- 
turbances, especially  in  1851.  According  to 
the  law  Bosnia  is  bound  to  furnish  a  contin- 
gent of  80,000  men,  which,  however,  consists 
actually  only  of  about  80,000.  The  Bosnians 
proper  are  unfriendly  toward  strangers,  but 
industrious,  temperate,  and  domestic  in  their 
habits,  excellent  horsemen,  and  fond  of  fishing 
and  hunting.  Among  the  Turkish  population, 
the  women  assimilate  much  to  European 
manners,  and  go  in  the  streets  unveiled.  The 
rivers,  beside  the  frontier  river  the  Save,  which 
joins  the  Danube,  are  the  Unna,  the  Bosna, 
the  Verbas,  the  Drin,  and  the  Narenta.  The 
country  is  generally  mountainous;  the  of^ta 
of  the  Julian  Alps  intersect  it  everywhere. 
The  climate  is  mild,  the  summers  warm,  but 
the  snow  on  tbe  summits  not  melting  until  late 
in  the  spring  contributes  to  moderate  the  heats. 
The  natural  products  are  fruits  of  all  kinds,  a 
fiery  wine  and  other  liquors;  grain  is  not  much 
raised.  The  mountains  are  covered  with  tim- 
her,  and  chestnuts  are  so  abundant  that  the 
swine  are  fed  with  them.  The  forests  abound 
in  game  and  the  rivers  in  fish.  The  cattle  are 
of  good  breed,  but  little  attention  is  paid  to  the 
stock,  and  horses,  of  which  there  is  an  excel* 


lent  race,  are  bred  only  by  the  Turks.  The 
chief  occupation  is  agriculture.  Trade  is  very 
limited,  and  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  Arme- 
nians, and  Jews.  The  mountains  are  rich  in 
mineral  products,  and  anciently  gold  was  ob- 
tained from  them,  but  mining  is  not  followed 
as  a  pursuit.  Iron  and  quicksilver  are  found; 
marble,  alabaster,  and  coal  may  be  had.  There 
are  several  towns  beside  the  capital,  Zvornik, 
Banjaluka,  Mostar,  Derbend,  and  Gradiska. 
The  revenue  amounts  to  about  $300,000. 

BOSPORUS  (Gr.  Botnopos)  frequently,  but 
incorrectly,  written  Bosphobus,  a  strait,  or  nar- 
row arm  of  the  sea,  supposed  to  have  been  swum 
across  by  a  heifer,  whence  its  name,  "  the  ford 
of  the  heifer."  There  are  2  straits,  not  far  re- 
moved the  one  from  the  other,  known  as  the 
Thracian  and  Cimmerian  Bospori ;  the  former 
is  the  canal  of  Constantinople,  connecting  the 
sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Euxine,  or  Black 
sea;  the  latter,  or  Cimmerian  Bosporus,  is 
the  strait  of  Yenikale,  connecting  the  Black 
sea  with  the  sea  of  Azof.  Both  these  cele- 
brated straits  are  of  nearly  the  same  length, 
the  former  being  about  16  miles,  from  the  en- 
trance, anciently  the  Cyanean  rocks,  to  the 
harbor  of  Constantinople;  the  latter  being 
about  20,  from  Cape  Takli,  on  the  Black  sea,  to 
Cape  Kamenoi,  in  the  sea  of  Azof^  the  Palus 
Mffiotis  of  the  ancients.  Beyond  this,  the  2 
straits  have  no  resemblance ;  the  canal  of  Con- 
stantinople being  singularly  beautiful,  lying 
between  steep  dins,  romantically  wooded,  stud- 
ded with  ruins  of  aJl  ages  mixed  with  gay  ori- 
ental erections  of  the  present  day,  and  hav- 
ing deep  water  to  the  very  shores ;  tho  other 
being  a  comparatively  wide,  shallow  sound, 
between  arid  sand-banks  and  pestilential  la- 
goons. 

BOSQUE,  a  central  county  of  Texas,  watered 
by  a  river  of  its  own  name  and  by  1  or  2  small 
creeks.  It  has  a  hilly  or  undulating  surface, 
about  1  of  which  is  covered  by  forests  of  oak, 
live  oak,  and  cedar.  The  soil  is  a  dark  loam, 
resting  on  beds  of  hard  blue  limestone.  The 
county  was  formed  in  1854  from  part  of  Mc- 
Lennan county,  and  is  yet  but  thinly  settled. 
Pop.  in  1857,  1,017,  of  whom  121  were  slaves. 
Capital,  Meridian. 

BOSQUET,  Mabib  Josbpb,  a  marshal  of 
France,  born  in  1810,  at  Pau,  in  the  department 
of  Basses  Pyr6n6es.  He  entered  the  polytechnic 
school  of  Paris  in  1829,  the  military  school  at 
Metz  in  1831,  became  lieutenant  of  artillery  in 
1883,  and  in  that  capacity  went  to  Algeria  with 
the  10th  regiment  of  artillery,  in  1834.  There  on 
one  occasion,  when  a  small  French  detachment 
found  itself  in  a  very  critical  position,  the  com- 
manding officer  being  at  a  loss  how  to  disengage 
his  troons,  young  Bosquet  stepped  forward  and 
proposea  a  plan  which  led  to  the  total  discom- 
nture  of  the  enemy.  He  was  appointed  lieuten- 
ant in  1836,  captain  in  1839,  m^jor  in  1842, 
lieut. -colonel  in  1845,  colonel,  and  soon  after, 
under  the  auspices  of  the  republican  govern- 
ment, general  of  brigade,  in  1848.    During  the 


544 


BOSSI 


BOSSDET 


campaign  of  Kabylia  in  1851,  he  was  wounded, 
at  the  head  of  his  brigade,  while  stomnng  the 
defile  of  Monagal.  His  promotion  to  the  rank 
of  general  of  divbion  was  put  off  in  conseqaence 
of  his  reserve  toward  Lonis  Napoleon,  bnt 
when  troops  were  sent  to  the  war  in  Turkey 
he  obtained  the  command  of  the  second  division. 
At  the  battle  of  the  Aim  a  he  executed  the 
flanking  attack  of  the  French  right  wing  upon 
the  Russian  lefl^  with  a  speed  and  energjr 
praised  by  the  Russians  themselves,  and  even 
succeeded  in  bringing  his  artillery  through  path- 
less and  apparently  impracticable  ravines  up 
to  the  plateau.  It  must,  however,  be  added 
that  on  this  occasion  his  own  numerical  force 
greatly  surpassed  that  of  the  enemy.  At  Bala- 
klava  he  hastened  to  disengage  the  English 
right  wing,  so  that  the  remainder  of  the  Eng- 
lish light  cavalry  was  enabled  to  retreat  nnder 
the  cover  of  his  troops,  while  the  Russians 
were  compelled  to  stop  their  pursuit.  At 
Inker  man  he  was  ready  early  in  the  morning 
to  support  the  English  with  8  battalions  and  2 
batteries.  This  offer  being  declmed,  he  posted 
as  reserves,  in  the  rear  of  the  English  right 
wing,  8  French  brigades,  with  2  of  which,  at  11 
o^clock,  he  advanced  to  the  line  of  battle,  thus 
forcing  the  Russians  to  fall  back.  But  for  this 
succor,  the  English  would  have  been  com- 
pletely destroyed,  since  they  had  all  their  troops 
engaged  and  no  more  reserves  to  draw  upon, 
wliile  the  Russians  had  16  battalions  not  yet 
touched.  As  chief  of  the  corps  destined  to  cover 
the  allied  forces  on  the  slope  of  the  Tchernaya, 
Bosouet  constantly  distinguished  himself  by 
quickness,  vigilance,  and  activity.  He  took  part 
in  the  storming  of  the  Malakol^  and  after  that 
event  was  made  a  marshal,  and  in  1856  a  senator. 
BOSSI,  GiusBPPs  Cablo  Aubbuo,  baron, 
an  Italian  politician  and  poet,  born  Nov.  15, 
1758,  at  Turin,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  20,  1628. 
When  only  18  years  old  he  made  a  successful 
d^but  as  a  dramatist.  In  1792  he  was  sent  on  a 
diplomatic  mission  to  Berlin,  and  a  few  months 
later  to  St.  Petersburg.  In  1796  King  Charles 
Emanuel  IV.  appointed  him  his  agent  near 
Gen.  Bonaparte.  He  acted  a  somewhat  con- 
spicuous part  in  the  various  changes  imposed 
upon  the  Sardinian  states  by  the  directory 
and  the  consular  government  of  France ;  and 
finally  was,  with  Carlo  Giulio  and  Carlo  Bot- 
ta,  a  member  of  the  triumvirate  which  gov- 
erned Piedmont  previous  to  its  annexation 
in  1802.  Some  2  years  later  he  entered 
the  French  civil  service,  and  was  appointed 
prefect  of  Ain.  In  1810  he  was  made  a 
oaron  of  the  empire,  and  promoted  to  the 
prefecture  of  Manche,  which  post  he  kept  on 
the  first  restoration ;  but  having,  in  March, 
1815,  adhered  to  Napoleon,  he  was  dismissed 
on  the  second  return  of  the  Bourbons.  He 
wrote  some  lyrical  poems,  and  also  VIndipenr 
dema  Americana  (1785),  La  Olanda  pac\fic€h 
to,  in  2  cantos,  and  Oihmasia^  in  12  cantos,  giv- 
ing a  description  of  the  principal  events  in  the 
French  revolution. 


BOSSIER,  a  parish  in  the  N.  W.  part  of 
Louisiana,  bordering  on  Arkansas,  and  contain- 
mg  1,066  sq.  miles.  Red  river,  which  fonns  its 
wT  boundary,  is  navigated  by  steamboats  as  far 
as  the  ^^  raft,"  an  immense  mass  of  drift- wood 
and  trees  brought  down  by  the  current  and 
lodged  in  the  channel,  just  on  the  borders  of 
this  parish.  Bosuer  was  formed  out  of  the 
western  part  of  Claiborne  parish.  It  has  a 
population  of  6,962,  of  whom  4,455  are  slaves. 

BOSSUET,  Jaoquxs  BfimoNB,  the  most  ro- 
nowned  pulpit  orator  of  France,  and  equally 
eminent  as  a  theologian,  bom  at  Dijon,  Sept. 
27, 1627,  died  in  Paris,  April  12,  1704.  After 
a  preliminary  education  in  the  college  of  tJie 
Jesuits  of  Dijon,  he  was  sent  to  the  college  of 
Navarre,  at  Paris,  where  he  spent  10  years  in 
the  most  laborious  studies  for  the  priesthood. 
His  genius  elicited  general  admiration  soon 
after  his  arrival  at  Paris,  and  he  was  only  16 
years  old  when  he  dazzled  by  his  eloquence  the 
literary  people  of  the  h6tel  de  Rambonillet. 
His  first  ecclesiastical  appointment  was  in 
the  capacity  of  canon  to  the  cathedral  of  Metz^ 
where  he  rose  subsequently  to  the  ranks  of 
archdeacon  and  dean.  As  the  Huguenots  were 
at  that  period  the  chief  sectaries,  to  whose  con- 
version Catholic  zeal  was  especially  directed, 
the  vehemence  of  Bossuet^s  character  soon  dis- 
tinguished him  in  that  function.  In  1655  he 
wrote  a  refutation  of  the  catechism  of  t^e  Hu- 
guenots; and  at  last  attracted  the  attention  of 
Anne  of  Austria,  the  queen  mother,  who 
nominated  him  in  1661  to  deliver  the  Ad- 
vent sermon  at  the  Louvre.  The  following 
year  he  delivered  the  Lent  sermon,  and  the 
fiune  of  his  eloquence  soon  spread  from  the 
court  circle  to  a  wider  public.  It  was  not, 
however,  till  1668,  when  be  pronounced  a  dis- 
course on  the  occasion  of  Turenne's  joining  the 
Catholic  church,  that  he  came  into  effective  fa- 
vor with  the  king,  although  the  monarch  had 
already  on  a  previous  occasion  complimented 
Bossuet's  father  for  possessing  such  a  son* 
The  conversion  of  Turenne  had  been  effected  by 
a  book  called  *^An  Exposition  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  ti^e  Catholic  Church  on  Hatters  of 
Controversy,"  expressly  written  by  Bossnet  for 
the  marshal's  instruction,  and  instrumental  the 
same  year  in  the  conversion  of  the  marquis  de 
Courcillon,  afterward  abb^  of  Dangean.  It  was 
only  8  years  afterward,  in  1671,  that,  in  com- 
pliance with  Turenne's  urgent  invitation,  Bos- 
snet consented  to  publish  the  book.  It  was 
speedily  translated  into  Latin,  German,  English, 
Italian,  and  Dutch.    It  received  the  formal  ap- 

Eroval  of  Pope  Innocent  XI.  by  2  successive 
riefe  on  Nov.  22,  1678  and  July  12, 1679,  the 
sanction  of  the  Gallican  clergy  in  their  assembly 
of  1682,  and  finally  gave  rise  to  the  memorable 
conference  between  Bossuet  and  Claude,  one  of 
the  most  eminent  divines  of  the  Reformed 
church  in  France.  The  "History  of  the  Vari- 
ations of  the  Protestants,"  which  was  first  pnb^ 
lished  in  1688,  has  since  become  more  cele. 
brated,  as  the  most  important  of  all  his  contro^ 


BOSSUET 


645 


venial  works,  by  which  Gibbon  in  hia  yonnger 
years  was  converted  to  the  fdAth  of  Rome. 
Louis  first  gave  him  the  bishopric  of  Condom, 
and  a  year  later  appointed  him  to  the  office  of 
teacher  of  the  danphin.  In  1672  he  was  made 
a  member  of  thefEVench  academy,  which  body 
considered  him  one  of  its  greatest  ornaments. 
Already  he  was  the  most  admired  and  popu- 
lar preacher  of  the  capital.  Crowds  filled 
the  aisles  of  the  churches  where  it  was  expect- 
ed that  he  would  lift  his  voice,  and  the  most 
eminent  people  vied  with  each  other  in  their 
eagerness  to  become  his  listeners.  Nor  was  the 
excitement  destitute  of  that  stimulus  which  ri- 
valry gives  to  every  public  feeling,  and  botii 
preacher  and  hearer  derived,  no  doubt,  from 
the  rising  fame  of  Bourdalone,  an  impulse— the 
one  to  increased  exertion,  and  the  other  to  a 
more  intense  admiration.  Bossuet's  appoint- 
ment as  preceptor  to  the  prince  caused  him  to 
relinquish  hb  bishopric,  in  lieu  of  which  he  re- 
ceived the  priory  of  Plessis-Grisnon  and  the 
abbey  of  St.  Luoien  de  Beauvais,  a  rich  benefice 
which  he  devoted  to  charity.  His  sub-precep- 
tor was  Hnet,  afterward  bishop  of  Avranches, 
under  whose  supervision  the  well-known  Dol- 
phin classics,  in  fiwm  serenisnmi  principis^ 
were  prepared.  Bossuet  wrote,  for  the  same 
object,  his  Diteoun  mr  Vhiatovre  ^ivenelUf 
which  was  published  in  1681.  It  won  a  high 
reputation  at  the  time,  and  continues  to  be  re- 
published, though  it  has  grave  defects  both  as 
a  philosophy  and  a  historical  narrative.  Yet 
there  are  passages  in  it  of  wonderftil  rhetorical 
skill,  and  to  these,  no  doubt,  more  than  its  gen- 
eral merits,  it  has  been  indebted  for  its  success. 
The  first  part  is  a  rapid  abridgment  of  the  chief 
facts  of  universal  history;  the  second  part  de- 
monstrates the  truths  of  Christianity,  and  affords 
the  author  a  fine  opportunity  for  his  peculiar 
power ;  and  the  third  part  expounds  the  causes 
of  the  rise  and  fall  of  nations,  but  is  not  wholly 
satisfactory.  The  same  year  in  which  the  book 
was  printed  Louis  XIV.  testified  his  gratitude  to 
Bo^uet  by  conferring  upon  him  the  blBhopric 
of  Meaux,  beside  which  place  he  held  the  other 
distinguished  posts  of  principal  of  the  college  of 
Navarre,  warden  of  the  Sorbonne,  councillor  of 
state,  and  first  almoner  to  the  duchess  of  Bur- 
gundy. But  his  "  Universal  History**  was  not 
tbe  only  work  he  prepared  for  the  dauphin.  A 
treatise,  Ds  la  eannaisMnce  de  Dieu  et  de  foi- 
memey  another  on  logic,  and  a  third  on^the 
Folitique  t%r€e  dee  propree  parolee  de  VJSeri- 
ture  SatTUe,  are  to  be  enumerated  among 
his  works;  the  first  relating  to  the  soul,  the 
body,  the  union  of  the  two,  and  of  the  dif- 
ference between  God  and  man ;  the  second  em- 
bracing a  description  of  the  three  operations  of 
the  human  understanding,  conception,  judg- 
ment, and  reason ;  and  the  third  containing  the 
doctrines  of  tradition  and  authority  on  the  right 
of  kings.  His  S  catechisms,  his  translations  of 
church  hymns,  and  his  formulas  of  prayer,  are, 
doubtless,  to  be  referred  to  the  same  period. 
In  the  delicate  negotiation  by  which  Louis  got 
VOL.  in. — 35 


rid  of  the  duchess  de  la  Yallidre,  in  order  to 
transfer  his  affection  to  a  new  favorite,  he  was 
greatly  assisted  by  the  intervention  of  Bossuet, 
who  procured  the  discarded  mistress  a  place  in 
a  convent,  and  preached  a  brilliant  sermon  on 
her  retirement.  France,  or  rather  its  clergy, 
was  then  engaged  in  an  important  dispute 
with  the  church  of  Rome,  as  to  the  right  of  the 
king  to  the  revenues  of  the  bishoprics  in  his 
kingdom.  The  church  maintained  that  they  were 
ecclesiastical  property  belonging  to  the  church, 
but  the  king  asserted  that  they  belonged  to  his 
dominion.  An  extraordinary  assembly  of  cler- 
gy was  convoked  in  1682,  to  settle  the  matter, 
which  Bossuet  opened  with  an  eloquent  dis- 
course in  the  interest  of  the  king.  The  result 
was  a  decision  on  the  same  side,  expressed  in  a 
series  of  resolutions,  drawn  up  by  Colbert, 
although  ascribed  to  Bossuet,  and  which  have 
become  highly  important  in  ecclesiastical  histo- 
ry. The  1st  proclaimed  the  independence  of 
the  temporal  power  of  kings  and  princes,  and 
of  the  spiritual  power  of  the  popes;  the  2d 
confirmed  this  temporal  independence  by  the 
act  of  the  Galilean  church ;  the  8d  commanded 
the  clergy  to  respect  it;  and  the  4th  claimed 
that  '*  although  the  pope  had  the  principal  voice 
in  matters  of  faith,  his  decisions  were  still  not 
irrevocable,  at  least  if  they  were  not  confirmed 
by  the  consent  of  tiie  church."  This  last  was, 
in  fact,  an  attack  upon  the  supremacy  of  the 
pope,  and  exposed  Bossuet  to  charges  of  error 
and  heresy.  But  Bossuet  was  too  powerful  in 
himself,  and  too  powerful  in  the  favor  of  the 
French  monarch,  to  fear  the  power  of  the  Vat- 
ican. As  strongly  as  he  asserted  the  independ- 
ence of  kings,  however,  he  did  not  believe  in 
the  independence  of  the  individual  conscience. 
Toward  the  Protestants  he  was  excessively  se- 
vere, although,  in  a  correspondence  with  Leib- 
nitz, he  professed  a  wish  to  see  a  junction  of 
the  Lutheran  and  Catholic  churches,  while  he 
resisted  the  quietism  of  the  amiable  and  gifted 
F^n^lon,  and  of  his  friend  Madame  Guyon,  with 
great  vehemence.  F6n61on  had  been  his  be- 
loved disciple,  but  on  the  publication  of  his 
*^  Maxims  of  uie  Saints"  he  published  his  Be- 
lotion  du  QuiStieme  and  engaged  in  a  bitter 
and  inveterate  controversy  with  him,  which 
ended  in  F^n^lon's  disniission  from  court,  and 
his  oondemnntion  at  Rome.  The  suspicion  that 
the  ^'  Telemaohus"  of  F6n^lon,  not  yet  printed, 
as  prepared  for  the  grandson  of  the  king,  to 
whom  he  was  mentor,  was  but  a  disguised  sat- 
ire on  the  court  and  its  monarch,  contributed 
to  the  success  of  tiie  bishop  of  Meaux  against 
the  archbishop  of  Cambray.  Subsequently  to 
this  rigid  manifestation  of  his  zeal  he  took  an 
active  part  in  bringing  forward  the  measure:) 
which  led  Louis  Xlv .  to  a  repeal  of  the  edict 
of  Nantes,  and  he  consented  to  the  persecution 
of  the  Protostants  which  followed  that  act.  He 
was  at  last  admonished  by  failing  health  to  re- 
lax his  vigor  in  the  discharge  of  high  official 
functions.  The  latter  part  of  his  life,  how- 
ever, withdrawn  more  and  more  from  poll- 


546 


B0S8UT 


BOSTON 


ties,  was  devoted  to  labors  of  Pj^ty  and  love. 
A  life  of  Boesoet  was  written  by  Burigny  (Paris, 
1761),  and  in  English  by  Charles  BuUer.  The 
poBthamoos  memoirs  of  Bossnet  by  the  abb6 
Le  Dieo,  reoenUy  pnblished  (4  vols.  Paris,  1856 
-67),  contain  interesting  information  on  his 
public  career.  Namerous  editions  of  Bossnet^s 
writiDgs  have  been  published,  all  more  or  less 
complete;  bat  the  best,  probablv,  is  tbat  in  12 
vols.,  larffe  octavo,  Paris,  1885-^87.  The  Ver- 
sailles edition  of  1816-19  is  in  47  vols.  8vo,- 
including  Bossuet^s  biography  (in  4  vols.)  by 
Cardinal  de  Bansset,  of  which  a  Grerman  trans- 
lation appeared  in  1820.  The  oldest  edition, 
that  of  Paris,  1747-'68,  is  in  20  vols. 

BOSSUT,  UHABUca,  a  French  geometer,  bom 
Aug.  11,  1780,  at  Tarare,  near  Lyons,  died  Jan. 
14, 1814.  He  assisted  D^Alembert  in  writing 
the  mathematiod  articles  for  the  &ieyelopSdie, 
became  royal  professor  of  hydraulics,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  academy  when  only  80  yean 
of  age.  In  1792  he  published  MSeaniqns  en 
ginirdl;  in  1795,  a  uaun  compUt  de  mathenuh 
tiquee^  and,  in  1802,  an  EtetU  mir  VhUtoire  dee 
mathhnati^uee.  This  last  book,  translated  into 
English  and  German,  became  the  occasion  of 
bitter  criticism  from  many  living  mathemati- 
cians mentioned  in  it,  but  not  satisfied  with  the 
part  allotted  to  them.  He  also  wrote  other 
mathematical  works,  and  published  an  edition 
of  Pascal. 

BOSTON,  a  game  of  cards  played  by  4  per- 
sons, with  2  packs  of  cards.  The  cards  are 
never  shuffled ;  one  of  tiie  packs  is  dealt,  and 
the  other  cut  alternately  to  determine  the  trump, 
which  governs  the  game.  The  dealer  deals  5 
cards  to  each  plinrer  twice,  and  8  the  last  time 
around.  If  the  first  player  can  make  6  tricks, 
he  says,  ^  I  go  Boston  ;**  and  his  competitors 
may  overbid  him  by  saying,  ^^  I  so  6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 
11, 12,  or  18,"  as  the  hand  of  each  may  warrant. 
Should  either  of  them  ful  to  make  the  number  of 
tricks  he  "bids  '*  for,  he  must  pay  to  each  compet- 
itor a  forfeit  regulated  by  a  card  of  prices,  which 
must  be  prepal^Bd  beforehand.  Without  such  a 
card  Boston  cannot  be  played.  It  is  the  most 
complicated  of  all  games  of  cards.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  introdn(^  into  France  by  Dr.  Frank- 
lin, who  gave  it  the  name  of  his  native  city. 

BOSTON,  the  capital  of  the  commonwealth 
of  Massachusetts,  the  chief  city  of  New  England, 
and  the  second  of  the  United  States  in  point  of 
commerce,  is  situated  in  lat.  42°  21'  24"  N.,  long. 
71  ^^  8'  68"  W.,  at  the  western  extremity  of  Massa- 
chusetts bay.  It  dates  from  Sept.  7  (O.  S.),  1680, 
when  the  &8t  settlement  w&s  made  there  by  a 
portion  of  the  company  which  came  from  Eng- 
land that  vear  with  John  Winthrop.  The  Ply- 
mouth pilgrims  became  acquainted  with  the 
peninsula  in  1621,  and  regretted  that  it  had 
not  sooner  been  known  to  them.  The  only  per- 
son residing  there  in  1680  was  William  Black- 
stone,  or  Blaxton,  supposed  to  have  been  an 
Episcopal  clergyman,  and  to  have  arrived  about 
1625.  David  Thomson  and  Samuel  Maverick 
lived  on  2  islands  in  what  is  now  Boston  har- 


bor. It  was  by  invitation  from  Blftckstcnie 
that  Winthrop  and  his  associates  removed  from 
Charlestown  to  the  peninsula,  the  exceUenee  of 
the  water  at  the  latter  place,  and  its  abundance, 
being  the  chief  inducement  to  the  change 
Blackstone  soon  left  the  colony,  and  his  la^ 
were  purchased  by  the  settiera.  More  than  60 
years  later,  the  last  Indian  daim  to  any  portion 
of  the  territory  was  extinguished  by  the  pay- 
ment of  ^^a  valnable  mm  of  money"  to  the 
claimants.  The  Indian  name  of  the  peniDsols, 
according  to  Mr.  Drake,  the  highest  aathoritf, 
was  MutkaufMmuk,  Shawmut,  he  Bays,  *^is 
merely  an  abbreviation.  The  meaning  of  the 
name  is  probably  free  country,  free  land,  or 
land  unclaimed.  I  have  been  led  to  this  con- 
clusion by  a  comparison  of  certun  Indian 
phrases  with  their  corx^esponding  English.  The 
notion  that  the  name  signified  a  spring  of  fresh 
water  appears  to  be  entirely  conjectonL" 
Trtmauntain,  or  Tramaunt,  was  tLe  name 
given  to  the  peninsula  because  of  the  bold  ap- 
pearance of  certain  eminences  on  it^  Some  of 
tiie  most  noted  of  the  colonists  were  frxMu  lia- 
colnshire,  and  it  had  from  the  first  been  their 
intention  to  give  the  name  of  Boston  to  thor 
chief  settlement,  in  honor  of  the  Rev.  Jolia 
Cotton,  vicar  of  St.  Botolph's  chnroh,  in  the 
Lincolns9re  Boston.  Boston  is  a  contraetiofi 
of  BotolphVtown,  and  the  English  Boston,  or 
Bostonstow,  took  its  name  from  a  monastery 
founded  by  the  Saxon  St.  Botolph,  A.  D.  654 
So  that  the  capital  of  Puritanism  derived  its 
name  from  a  Catholic  saint ;  but  inasmiu^  si 
Botolph  is  the  tutelar  saiut  of  mariners,  and  his 
appduLtion  comes  from  2  Saxon  words  ngmfy- 
iug  boat  and  help,  the  name  is  not  inappro- 
priate to  a  place  which  has  become  <ll«tingnwhed 
for  its  commerce.  Much  of  the  eariy  bistofy 
of  the  town  belongs  to  the  history  of  the  cokoy 
of  Massachusetts,  and  will  be  found  under  tint 
head.  We  have  the  usnal  accounts  of  hardships 
endured  from  severity  of  climate,  searcity  of 
food,  and  human  contention.  The  growtiiof 
the  place  was  slow,  and  some  time  elspeed 
before  Boston  had  a  decided  predominance  over 
some  other  towns  in  the  colony.  Waftertown, 
in  1681,  was  assessed,  for  a  spedal  purpose,  ss 
high  as  Boston,  and  Charlestown  and  Dmches* 
ter  but  10  shillings  less  eac^.  Even  in  1688  the 
place  is  called  a  hamlet,  and  stated  to  have  bat 
20  or  80  houses,  by  one  who  then  visited  iL 
Tet  it  was  thought  much  of  iiy  the  m<M^  ars- 
tocratio  doss  of  Puritans  in  Eng^d,  and  bat 
for  the  outbreak  at  home,  occasioned  by  Land*^ 
interference  with  the  religion  of  Scotland,  raasT 
of  them  would  probably  have  there  tak«i  ^ 
their  abode.  The  town  records  begin  abool 
1684,  and  the  ink  with  which  some  of  the  en- 
tries were  then  made,  by  John  Winthrop^s  own 
hand,  is  yet  bright,  at  the  end  of  fi^  oentnries» 
an  emblem  of  his  name.  The  officers  who  sah- 
seqnently  were  known  as  ^' selectmen,^'  were  in 
existence  in  1684,  but  how  the  institntioa 
originated  is  unknown,  though  it  is  impossbte 
to  magnify  its  importance.   The  selectmen  i 


BOSTON 


647 


aged  local  affiurg  much  after  the  same  waj  that 
is  now  done  in  most  New  England  towns.  The 
town  meetings  begin  to  be  of  importance  at  this 
date.  There  were  agrarian  laws  adopted,  ac- 
cording to  the  true  meaning  of  the  words,  the 
division  of  lands  receiving  mnch-  attention. 
Specnlation  in  land  was  early  commenced  in 
Boston.  The  first  grand  jory  of  the  country 
met  at  Boston,  Sept.  1, 1685,  and  presented  100 
offences.  The  church  of  Boston  was  much 
troubled  about  Roger  Williams  and  his  heresy, 
and  finding  him  resolute,  handed  him  over  to 
the  general  court,  which  satisfeuitorily  demon- 
strated the  evil  nature  of  his  opinions  by  ban- 
ishing him.  The  Antinomian  controversy  broke 
out  in  1636,  the  occasion  of  it  being  the  action 
of  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  a  woman  of  superior 
understanding,  whose  conduct  greatly  vexed 
the  church.  Boston  took  the  liberal  side,  and 
the  controversy,  by  causing  her  to  lose  some  of 
her  best  citizens,  retarded  her  growth.  Free 
schools  were  established,  the  town  paying  lib- 
erally for  their  support,  and  Indians  being 
taught  gratis.  Negro  slaves  were  first  brought 
to  the  town  in  1645,  much  to  the  people's  an- 
ger. A  malignant  disease  raged  in  1646,  and 
the  colonists  were  much  plagued  by  the  Episco- 
palians, who  were  so  unreasonable  as  to  de- 
mand equality  of  privileges  with  their  neigh- 
bors. In  1651,  the  place  is  described  by  an 
eye-witness  as  very  flourishing,  and  the  streets 
as  filled  with  children.  The  first  great  fire 
occurred  in  1654^  but  no  light  is  thrown  on  its 
ravages.  Mrsw  Anne  Hibbins,  a  widow,  and  said 
to  have  been  a  sister  of  Governor  Belluigham, 
was  hanged  in  1656  for  witchcraft  When,  two 
years  later,  the  general  court  made  a  law  for 
the  punishment  of  Qaakers,  2  of  the  Boston 
members  dissented ;  but  8  Quakers  were  exe- 
cuted on  the  common,  for  which  the  colony 
generally,  and  not  Boston  specially,  is  to  be  held 
responsible.  When  Goffe  and  Whalley,  the 
two  regicides  best  known  in  America,  came  to 
Boston,  in  1660,  they  were  openly  entertained 
by  the  principal  inhabitants.  Boston  sullenly 
acquiesced  in  the  restoration,  but  Charles  II. 
was  not  proclaimed  there  until  14  months  after 
his  arrival  at  London.  The  town  became  the 
head-quarters  of  that  opposition  to  the  home 
government  which  was  to  last  until  the  separa- 
tion of  the  two  countries.  Down  to  the  dute  of 
the  English  revolution  there  was  a  constant  an- 
tagonism, sometimes  fierce  in  its  manifestation, 
between  the  cohmy  and  the  royal  government, 
and  which  was  most  intensely  felt  in  Boston. 
A  description  of  Boston  in  1671  shows  that 
the  town  had  much  increased  in  numbers  and 
wealth,  inasmuch  as  8  meeting-houses  hardly 
sufficed  for  its  spiritual  wants,  and  church-go- 
ing was  then  all  but  universal.  The  streets 
were  large,  and  many  of  them  paved  with 
pebble  stones.  The  buildings  were  fair  and 
handsome,  some  being  of  stone,  and  one  is 
mentioned  that  cost  £8,000.  The  town  is  said 
to  be  rich  and  populous.  The  next  year  a 
report  was  made  to  the  English  government 


in  which  the  number  of  families  is  stated  at 
1,500,  and  it  is  added  that  not  20  houses  con- 
tained 10  rooms  each.  When  the  general  court 
voted  £1,890  for  the  rebuilding  of  Harvard 
college,  Boston  paid  £800.  In  anticipation 
of  attacks  from  the  Dutch,  in  1672,  extensive 
fortifications  were  commenced.  ^^Philip^s 
war"  began  in  1675,  when  Indian  sceJps 
were  for  the  first  time  brought  to  Bos- 
ton, as  also  were  the  heads  of  some  of  the 
unfortunate  natives.  Some  Indians  having 
been  tried  at  Boston,  and  acquitted,  the  people 
were  with  difficulty  prevented  from  lynohh^; 
them ;  and  one  Indian  was  put  to  death  by 
torture,  to  appease  the  mob.  Quakers,  and 
others  of  the  townsmen  who  refused  to  serve 
against  the  natives,  were  compelled  to  run  the 
gauntlet.  They  were  Boston  men  who  led  the 
van  in  the  famous  attack  on  the  Narraganset 
fort,  and  the  town  is  said  to  have  suffered 
nearly  5  times  as  much  as  any  other  place 
fi*om  the  war.  Liberty  to  establish  a  printing 
press  in  the  town  had  been  granted  m  1674, 
with  2  ministers  for  censors;  and  a  printing 
house  was  opened  in  1676  by  John  Foster,  a 
graduate  of  Harvard  college.  He  printed  the 
nistories  of  the  Indian  wars  written  by  Hub- 
bard and  Mather.  In  Nov.  1676,  happened 
a  fire,  which  destroyed  46  dwellings,  a  church, 
and  other  buildings.  There  being  no  fire  de- 
partment, the  inhabitants  were  favored  with  a 
rain,  or  the  conflagration  would  have  been 
more  extensive.  A  fire  department  was  then 
organized,  but  not  with  much  immediate  effect ; 
for,  in  1679,  another  conflagration  swept  away 
80  dwellings  and  70  warehouses.  The  loss 
was  estimated  at  £200,000.  The  cry  of  ^'in- 
cendiaries" then  commenced,  and  ever  since 
has  been  kept  up.  These  evils  were  regarded  as 
direct  visitations  for  the  sins  of  the  town.  The 
war  waged  by  the  house  of  Stuart  against  the 
English  constitution,  was  severely  felt  in  Boston, 
and  during  the  reign  of  James  II.,  and  under 
the  rule  ot  his  proconsuls,  Dudley  and  Andros, 
the  town  lived  under  a  tyranny.  Yet  James's 
^^declaration  of  indulgence*^  was  well  re- 
ceived there,  and  the  churches  held  a  thanks- 
giving on  its  account.  On  April  18,  1689, 
the  people  of  Boston  rose  against  the  gov- 
ernment, and  overthrew  it.  In  no  part  of  the 
British  empire  was  the  revolution  of  1688  more 
warmly  supported  than  in  Boston.  An  acces- 
sion to  the  population  was  made  during  the 
rule  of  Andros,  by  the  arrival  of  some  of  the 
Huguenot  exiles^  among  them  being  Pierre 
Baudoin,  ancestor  of  the  Bowdoins,  one  of  the 
nation's  historical  families.  Piratical  depreda- 
tions having  caused  much  loss  to  the  place,  an 
armed  vessel  was  despatched,  which  succeeded 
in  bringing  in  the  depredators,  ten  of  whom 
were  hanged.  The  witchcraft  delusion  raged  in 
1692  in  Boston,  as  in  other  parts  of  New  Eng- 
land. In  1695,  the  town's  churches  were  much 
agitated  by  the  discussion  of  the  question, 
whether  it  is  lawful  for  a  man  to  marry  the 
sister  of  his  deceased  wife^  and  they  decided  it 


548 


BOSTON 


in  the  negstlre,  which  decision  was  followed  hy 
the  enactment  of  severe  laws  against  marriages 
of  affinity,  bj  the  general  court  The  winter 
of  1^97-98  was  long  remembered  for  its  sever* 
ity,  snow  falling  more  than  20  times,  and  the 
harbor  being  frozen  np  quite  out  to  the  sea^  for 
2  months.  Trade  snffered,  and  the  people  were 
reduced  to  the  verge  of  famine.  A  bitter  ac- 
count of  the  place,  written  by  an  En^ishman 
who  visited  it  at  the  close  of  the  century,  speaks 
of  the  buildings  being  lilte  the  women,  neat  and 
handsome,  and  of  the  streets  being  of  pebble, 
like  the  hearts  of  the  men.  Lord  Bellamont,  who 
came  over  as  royal  governor  in  1699,  was  very 
popular  with  the  Bostonians.  A  list  of  all  the 
streets,  lanes,  and  alleys  was  made  in  1708,  and 
they  were  found  to  be  110  in  number.  Long 
wharf  was  commenced  in  1710,  running  800 
feet  into  the  harbor.  A  severe  fire  happened  in 
1711,  burning  100  edifices,  including  the  first 
church  that  had  been  erected  in  Boston,  after 
the  rude  hut  which  had  witnessed  the  primi- 
tive devotions  of  the  earliest  settlers.  Several 
persons  were  killed,  and  others  wounded,  by 
tbe  blowing  up  of  houses,  and  a  number  of 
Bailors  perished  while  piously  endeavoring  to  save 
the  church  bell.  Mail  routes  were  at  this  date 
established  at  Boston,  running  both  east  and  west. 
John  Campbell  was  appointed  first  postmaster, 
under  an  act  of  narliament  establishing  a  general 
post  office  in  North  America.  He  had  previ- 
ously been  colonial  postmaster.  What  is  known 
as  "  the  great  snow  storm'*  occurred  Feb.  1717, 
and  for  the  time  suspended  intercourse  of 
neighbor  with  neighbor.  Some  of  the  Scotch- 
Irish  settled  in  Boston  in  1720,  and  introduced 
the  linen  manufacture,  which  excited  much  in- 
terest^ and  was  greatlv  encouraged,  spinning 
schools  being  established.  Boston  had  often  been 
ravaged  by  the  small-pox,  one  of  the  severest 
scourges  of  our  ancestors,  and  when,  in  1721,  it 
again  broke  out  virulently,  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Zabdiel  Boy Iston  determined  to  introduce  inocu- 
lation. He  encountered  an  opposition  as  savage 
and  malignant  as  ever  waited  on  any  benevolent 
reform,  and  which  will  even  disadvantageously 
compare  with  that  which  was  experienced  by 
Lady  M.  W.  Montagu  in  England.  The  medical 
men  were  especially  venomous.  It  was  owing 
to  the  influence  of  Cotton  Mather  that  Dr. 
Boylston  was  allowed  to  proceed,  a  fact  that 
should  be  remembered^  when  that  eccentric 
divine's  hallucinatioos  about  witchcraft  are 
dwelt  upon.  Of  286,  on  whom  the  doctor  oper- 
ated, 6  only  died,  while  844  died  of  the 
5,769  who  took  the  disease  naturally.  As  the 
population  of  Boston,  at  the  extent,  could  not 
have  been  above  12,000,  half  the  people  were 
attacked.  The  first  insurance  office  was  estab- 
iislied  in  1724.  The  traffic  in  slaves  prevailed  to 
some  extent  in  1727,  but  the  action  of  the  town 
was  strongly  against  it  on  many  occasions.  The 
town  was  divided  into  12  wards  in  1736.  The 
year  1740  saw  Whitefield  in  Boston,  where  he 
preached  to  immense  crowds ;  his  farewell  dis- 
course, delivered  on  the  common,  being  at- 


tended by  20,000  persons.  The  town  was  the 
scene  of  great  riots  in  1747,  in  consequence  of 
some  of  uie  citizens  having  been  impressed  by 
Com.  Enowles,  and  then  was  displayed  that 
fierce  spirit  which,  80  years  later,  and  under 
proper  guidance,  was  destined  to  accompli^ 
such  great  things.  The  first  Bibles  that  were 
published  in  Bcoton  are  supposed  to  have  ap- 
peared in  1749,  clandestinely,  owing  to  Eng&h 
restrictions.  The  first  theatrical  perfomoance  was 
in  1750,  Otway's  **  Orphan"  being  the  piece  se- 
lected. This  led  to  the  passage  of  a  law  whidi 
prevented  any  more  draznatic  exhibitions  for  25 
years.  The  list  of  letters  remaining  in  the  Bos- 
ton post  office,  containing  851  names,  was  pub- 
lished for  the  first  time,  Jan.  80,  1755.  Xov. 
18, 1755,  the  town  was  '^dreadfuUy  shaken  ^  by 
the  occurrence  of  an  earthquake,  perhi^)s  the 
severest  ever  known  in  New  England,  and  by 
which  great  damage  was  done,  and  much  fright 
caused.  It  seems  to  have  belonged  to  the  series 
of  shocks  which  at  that  time  were  shaking  a 
large  part  of  our  globe,  from  Lake  Ontario  to 
Fez,  and  the  most  terrible  of  which  took 
place  at  Lisbon.  Boston  experienced  her  full 
share  of  the  effects  of  the  "  old  French  war,** 
and  at  one  lime  a  large  force  was  assembled 
there.  March  20,  1760,  "the  great  fire'' 
broke  out,  c<Misuming  849  buildings,  the  entire 
property  destroyed  beiug  valued  at  £100,000. 
Kelief  was  sent  to  the  sufferers  from  the  other 
colonies  and  from  England.  The  case  of  writs  c^ 
assistance,  which  began  what  we  ^cifically  call 
the  American  revolution,  was  tried  at  Bo^on  in 
1761.  James  Otis  so  distinguished  himself 
therein,  that  he  became  the  most  infldential  man 
of  the  town,  and  was  said  to  have  governed  it 
for  the  next  10  years.  At  the  first  news  of  the 
intention  of  the  British  government  to  apply  its 
revenue  system  comprehensively  to  the  colonies. 
Boston  assumed  that  determined  stand  in  behalf 
of  liberty  and  law  which  gave  her  so  impos- 
ing a  part  in  the  birth  of  the  nation,  and  brought 
upon  her  the  weight  of  England's  power.  The 
town  meetings  of  the  ten  years  that  preceded 
the  battle  of  Lexington  were  among  the  most 
important  public  assemblies  mentioned  in  his- 
toiy,  tried  by  the  consequences  of  their  language 
and  deeds,  while  the  action  of  the  prindpal  m^ 
of  Boston,  including  the  cleigy,  was  saoh  as 
would  have  done  honor  to  tihe  leaders  of 
the  country  party  in  the  long  pariiaznent^ 
*'The  Boston  massacre"  happened  March  5, 
1770,  when  8  persons  were  Killed  by  the  fire 
of  the  soldiery,  and  8  wounded.  The  de- 
struction of  the  tea,  in  1778,  was  prononnoedby 
the  tory  governor  of  the  ju^vinoe  the  boldest 
stroke  which  had  been  stmck  in  Arnica.  It 
was  an  act  of  defiance  to  the  home  government, 
and  was  accepted  in  that  sense.  The  promi- 
nence which  George  III.  and  his  ministers  gave 
to  Boston,  and  the  special  proscription  of  her 
two  most  eminent  citizens,  were  tributes  to  her 
power  and  position  that  could  not  be  withheld. 
American  and  Bostonian  were  then  convertible 
terms.    The  passage  of  the  Boston  -part  bill 


B0ST02T 


549 


was  the  practical  retort  of  the  imperial  goyera- 
meat  to  the  proceedings  of  the  Bostonians. 
Bat  though  the  commerce  of  the  town  was  for 
the  time  destroyed,  and  the  independence  of 
the  local  goyemment  suspended  for  nearly  2 
years,  other  places  refusea  to  profit  from  Bos- 
ton's sufferings ;  and  her  people  received  from 
all  parts  of  the  country  warm  sympathy  and 
solid  assistance.  In  the  early  months  of  1775, 
there  were  about  4,000  British  troops  in  Bos- 
ton, and  several  armed  vessels  in  tne  harbor. 
The  battle  of  Lexington  roused  the  country, 
and  in  a  short  time  Boston  was  beleaguered  by 
a  large  American  force,  full  of  spirit,  out  desti- 
tute of  all  the  other  essentials  of  war.  Gen. 
Washington  arrived  in  the  besieging  camp 
July  2,  and  assumed  command  the  next 
day.  The  siege  was  prosecuted  with  all  the 
vigor  that  could  be  displayed,  but  it  lasted 
nearly  a  year.  On  the  night  of  March  4, 
1776,  the  bedegers  seized  and  occupied  Dor- 
chester heights,  which  commanded  both  town 
and  harbor.  The  English  made  preparations  to 
recover  the  heights,  but  were  prevented  from 
assailing  them  by  the  severity  of  the  weather, 
which  was  extreme  until  the  7th,  by  which 
time  the  American  fortifications  had  been  ren- 
dered impregnable  to  any  force  the  enemy  were 
in  a  condition  to  bring  against  them.  The 
British  commander  was  compelled  to  abandon 
the  place  March  17,  taking  1,000  tories  and 
upward  with  him,  of  whom  nearly  J  were 
Bostonians.  He  sailed  for  Halifax,  leaving  a 
few  vessels  at  Nantasket  These  were  driven 
off  June  14,  the  anniversary  of  the  last  day 
on  which,  2  years  before,  trading  vessels 
were  allowed  to  enter  or  leave  Boston,  under 
the  port  bill.  Since  that  time  Bostonians  have 
never  seen  the  smoke,  of  an  enemy's  camp. 
Civil  government  was  immediately  resumed  in 
full  force.  Washington  entered  Boston  (which 
he  had  yisited  20  years  before)  immediately 
after  the  enemy's  retreat.  Purine  the  war, 
Boston  supported  the  reputation  3i&  had  ac- 
quired in  the  earlier  stages  of  the  contest  In 
tne  tronbloos  years  that  immediately  followed 
the  peace,  the  town  was  the  scene  of  important 
erents,  aoconnts  of  which  belong  to  the  history 
of  Massachusetts.  Her  people  energetically 
Bopported  the  policy  that  ended  in  the  ^option 
of  the  federal  constitution.  In  the  material 
prosperity  that  followed  the  inauguration  of 
the  new  government  Boston  largely  shared. 
Her  bnsioess  increased.  Her  commerce  was 
extended  to  almost  every  part  of  the  world. 
Her  history  since  1789  is  not  fruitftd  of  salient 
eyents.  0[>naeryative  sentiments  soon  began  to 
disphiy  themselves,  and  obtained  an  ascendency 
that  has  sometimes  been  shaken,  but  never 
overthrown.  In  1822,  Boston  was  made  a  city. 
170  years  after  ^e  change  had  been  first  talked 
of,  and  118  aflll  the  failure  to  have  the  place 
incorporated  in  1709. — ^Boston's  grow^  for  2 
oentnries  was  not  ra^id.  We  have  no  exact 
figures  for  her  population  during  the  first  4  gen- 
erations of  her  existence.    It  is  supposed  to 


have  been  7,000  at  the  dose  of  the  I7th  cen- 
tury, and  the  supposition  is  not  unreasonable. 
In  1742  it  was  placed  at  18,000,  probably  an 
exaggeration,  as  she  is  known  to  have  had  only 
about  that  number  50  years  later.  In  the  year 
1764-^5,  during  the  administration  of  Grov. 
Barnard,  the  first  colonial  census  was  taken, 
and  under  it  the  population  of  Boston  was  re- 
turned at  15,520.  Mr.  Bancroft  says  the  popu- 
lation was  "  about  16,000  of  European  origin^' 
at  the  close  of  1768 ;  and  Mr.  Frothingham 
puts  it  at  about  17,000  in  1774.  The  first  na- 
tional census,  1790,  showed  it  to  be  18,088; 
that  of  1800,  24,937;  of  1810,  83,250;  of 
1820, 43,298 ;  of  1880,  61,892 ;  of  1840, 93,883 ; 
and  of  1850, 186,884.  If  the  returns  under  the 
census  of  1764-^5  were  correctly  made,  Boston 
was  40  years  in  doubling  her  population  after 
that  date.  The  revolution,  and  the  troubles 
which  followed  it,  retarded  her  growth.  Down 
to  1790,  Boston  did  not  increase  so  fast  in  num- 
bers as  the  colony,  province,  or  state  of  which 
she  was  or  is  the  capital ;  but  since  that  time 
the  increase  has  been  in  her  favor,  and  largely 
so.  Had  all  Massachusetts  incr^sed  at  the 
same  rate  with  Boston,  between  l7oa  and  1850, 
the  state's  population  at  the  latter  date  would 
have  been  considerably  above  2.000,000,  instead 
of  being  less  than  1,000,000.  The  local  census 
of  1855  made  the  population  160,508.  It  is  now 
(May,  1858)  about  170,000.  The  character  of 
the  population  has  much  changed  during  the 
last  80  years.  Formerly  it  contained  but  few 
foreigners,  and  was  singularly  homogeneous, 
but  now  nearly  -^  of  it  is  composed  of  foreign- 
ers, or  of  persons  whose  parents  were  for- 
eigners. The  number  of  births  in  1857  was 
5,881,  the  parents  beinc  foreign-born  in  8,801 
cases,  while  in  546  oUiers  1  of  the  parents 
was  of  foreign  birth.  The  deaths  were  8,968, 
or  one  for  every  42.95  of  the  population,  esti- 
mating the  latter  at  170,000.  Boston  has 
several  places  in  her  immediate  vicinity,  so 
closely  connected  with  her  as  almost  to  be- 
long to  her.  These  are  the  cities  of  Charles- 
town,  Chelsea,  Roxbury,  and  Cambridge,  and 
the  towns  of  Dorchester,  Somerville,  North 
Chelsea,  and  Winthrop.  Their  united  popula- 
tions nearly  equal  the  population  of  Boston,  and 
they  may  be  considered  as  forming  one  com- 
munity. Chelsea  has  sought  to  be  annexed  to 
Boston,  and  the  project  of  uniting  Roxbury  to 
her  larger  neighbor  is  now  under  discussion. — 
The  original  territory  of  Boston  embraced  only 
some  600  acres,  but  it  has  been  quadrupled  by 
acts  of  annexation  and  reclamation,  a  large 

Oof  the  city  standing  on  '^  made  land.^^  The 
division  of  the  city  is  into  12  wards,  but 
usage  has  divided  it  into  certain  districts. 
North  Boston,  or  <^  the  North  End,"  is  the  oldest 
part  of  the  place,  and  still  retains  much  of  the 
irregular  appearance  that  characterized  it  in 
colonial  times.  Some  of  the  streets  are  crooked, 
and  very  narrow,  a  few  being  little  better  than 
lanes.  Many  old  buildings  yet  stand  there. 
But  change  is  there  steadily  at  work,  and  every 


550 


BOSTON- 


year  sees  the  work  of  alteration  going  on ;  yet 
it  is  by  no  means  probable  that  that  quarter  will 
ever  again  become  so  important  as  it  was  in  the 
earlier  days  of  Boston.  It  comprised  the  larger 
portion  of  the  Boston  which  makes  so  grand  a 
ngnre  in  onr  revolutionary  histoiy.  West 
Boston  is  mostly  new,  and  contains  the  "fash- 
ionable quarter"  of  the  town.  It  lies  between 
Canal  street  and  the  common,  and  west  of  Tre- 
mont  and  Hanover  streets.  It  contains  many 
public  edifices,  among  them  being  the  state 
nouse,  and  the  building  of  the  Boston  Ath- 
enaBum.  Most  of  the  houses  are  of  brick  or 
stone,  and  many  of  them  are  costly  and  elegant 
It  contains  many  historical  sites.  The  popula- 
tion is  numerous  and  dense.  "  The  South  End" 
includes  all  that  part  of  Boston  which  lies  to  the 
south  of  Winter  and  Summer  streets,  and  run- 
ning to  Rozbury.  South  Boston  was  originally 
the  north-eastern  part  of  the  town  of  Dorches- 
ter, and  was  annexed  to  Boston  in  1804,  except 
Washington  Village,  which  was  annexed  in  1856. 
It  is  separated  from  old  Boston  by  an  arm  of 
the  harbor  that  runs  to  Roxbury.  With  the 
exception  olEast  Boston,  it  is  the  newest  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  but  it  has  increased  rapidly,  and 
its  appearance  is  strikingly  different  from  old 
Boston,  being  open,  airy,  and  cheerful.  Two 
bridges  connect  it  with  Boston  proper.  It  forms 
ward  12,  in  connection  with  Washington  Village. 
East  Boston  is  an  island,  formerly  known  as 
Noddle's  Island,  but  more  commonly  bearing 
the  name  of  Maverick,  from  Samuel  Maveric^ 
who  lived  there  230  years  ago,  in  an  armed  fort. 
It  dates  from  1880,  when  its  "improvement" 
was  commenced.  It  now  contains  some  17,000 
inhabitants.  It  is  a  place  of  much  enterprise. 
and  is  united  by  the  Grand  Junction  raUroad 
with  all  the  railroads  that  proceed  from  the 
city.  The  depot  of  the  Grand  Junction  is  con- 
nected with  the  wharves,  which  have  great 
depth  of  water.  The  ^ water  frontage  is  almost 
20,000  feet,  and  the  wharves  are  the  best  in 
the  city.  The  Ounard  steamships  have  their 
berth  there.  Ship-building  is  one  of  the  most 
important  branches  of  the  business  of  the  place. 
"  The  Great  Republic,"  the  largest  sailing  ship 
in  the  world,  was  there  built.  Ferries  connect 
this  quarter  with  old  Boston. — ^The  position  of 
Boston  is  highly  favorable  to  commercial  pur- 
suits. The  harbor  is  spacious,  containing  about 
75  sq.  m.,  and  extending  from  the  city  to  Med- 
ford,  and  to  Nantasket  roads.  Beside  smaller 
streams,  there  fall  into  it  the  Manatticut,  the 
Neponset,  the  Mystic,  and  the  Charles  rivers. 
There  are  more  than  50  islands,  or  islets,  in  the 
harbor,  most  of  which,  however,  are  of  little 
consequence,  except  as  affording  protection  to 
it.  Boston  light  stands  on  Light-house  island, 
where  it  has  stood  for  almost  a  century  and  a 
hal^  and  marks  the  line  of  the  harbor  in  that 
direction.  Northerly  from  the  light-house  run 
a  chain  of  islands,  rocks,  and  ledges,  8  miles  long, 
to  the  Graves.  George's  island  commands  the 
open  sea,  and  Fort  Warren,  a  very  strong 
fortification,  is  boilt  on  it,  the  island  being 


national  property.  It  is  expected  to  render  the 
harbor  impregnable  at  that  point;  and  it  is 
susceptible  of  defence  there  from  other  spots, 
on  some  of  which  are  yet  to  be  found  the  remains 
of  fortifications  erected  in  the  last  century.  Cas- 
tle island — so  called  from  a  fortress  which  was 
erected  there  in  1688,  and  which  subsequently 
was  rebuilt,  and  called  Castle  William  in  honor 
of  William  III. — ^lies  further  up  the  harbor,  and 
is  the  site  of  Fort  Independence,  belonging  to 
the  United  States.  Governor's  island  is  a  mile 
to  the  north  of  Castle  island,  and  Fort  Winthrop, 
a  strong  fortification,  stands  there.  This  island 
passed  into  the  possession  of  John  Winthrop  in 
1682,  and  for  a  long  time  was  known  as  "  the 
Governor's  garden."  It  is  still  in  the  possession 
of  the  Winthrop  family,  except  that  portion  ci 
it  which  has  been  ceded  to  the  national  govern- 
ment Long  island  is  large,  and  attempts  have 
been  made  to  render  it  a  place  of  residence,  but 
with  little  success,  though  a  fine  hotel  stands  on 
it.  Deer  island  is  now  occupied  bv  city  institu- 
tions, and  Rainsford  island  by  state  hospitals.  On 
Thompson  island  is  the  Boston  asylum  and  farm 
school  for  indigent  boys.  Many  of  the  idands, 
if  not  all  of  them,  are  gradually  disappearing 
under  the  action  of  the  sea;  and  water  now 
covers  places  where  cattle  were  pastured  within 
the  memory  of  persons  now  living.  The  har- 
bor affords  ample  anchorage  for  500  ships  of  the 
largest  class.  Boston  early  became  distinguished 
for  her  commerce.  In  less  than  half  a  century 
after  the  foundation  of  the  place,  its  merchants 
traded,  not  only  with  other  parts  of  America, 
and  the  leading  nations  of  Europe,  but  with  the 
Canaries,  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  Madagascar. 
Their  wealth  was  the  subiect  of  remark  to  all 
visitors.  The  first  vessel  belonging  to  Boston, 
of  American  build,  was  the  bark  "  Blessing  of 
the  Bay,"  built  at  Mystic,  for  Gov.  Winthrop, 
and  launched  July  4,  1681.  She  was  of  30  tons, 
and  her  first  voyage  was  to  Long  island  and 
New  York.  The  first  ship  built  at  Boston  was 
the  Trial,  in  1644,  which  immediately  made  a 
voyage  to  Spain.  The  same  yearaftir  company, 
composed  of  Boston  merchants,  was  formed. 
During  the  year  ending  Dec.  25,  1748,  480  ves- 
sels entered  the  port,  and  540  were  cleared. 
A  century  earlier  the  arrivals  of  ships  were  only 
about  1  a  month,  but  even  then  large  quantities 
of  country  produce  were  exported,  20,000 
bushels  of  corn  being  mentioned  among  the 
exports  of  1645.  The  coining  of  money  in 
Boston,  in  1652,  by  order  of  the  colonial  govern* 
ment,  is  regarded  as  evidence  of  the  town's 
success  in  commerce,  bullion  having  accumulated 
there  from  the  profits  on  foreign  trade.  This 
commercial  character  had  much  to  do  with 
shaping  the  history  of  Boston,  and  had  also  im- 
portant effect  on  the  current  or  American  events. 
The  efforts  of  the  later  soverekps  of  the  house 
of  Stuart  to  shackle  the  C(nnmerce  of  the 
colonies  were  met  by  a  spirit  of  resistance  in 
Boston  that  rendered  them  of  little  avail ;  and 
when,  late  in  the  next  century,  *^  the  tea"  was 
thrown  into  the  harbor,  the  act  was  in  no  respect 


BOSTON 


551 


AFerent  from  what  I)ad  been  done  at  a  much 
earlier  period,  bo  far  as  the  spirit  of  resistance 
waa  oonoerned.  After  the  English  revolation, 
the  oooTBe  of  the  home  government  was  mild, 
though  its  theories  were  iliiberali  It  was  not 
until  1761  that  was  commenced  that  policy,  the 
end  of  which  wonld  have  been  the  destraction  of 
the  commerce  of  the  colonies,  had  it  not  encoun- 
tered a  stubborn  opposition.  It  so  happened  that 
Boston  became  the  scene  of  the  earliest  attempts 
that  were  made  to  coerce  the  colonial  merchants ; 
and  her  mercantile  classes  were,  therefore, 
forced  to  nuUce  themselves  oonspixmoos  as  rev- 
olutionists. The  revolution  was  entered  upon 
as  much  for  the  vindication  of  the  fi'eedom  of 
commerce  as  for  that  of  personal  rights.  After 
the  revolution,  and  when  order  had  been  re< 
stored,  Boston  rapidly  attained  to  eminence  in 
commerce,  and  her  merchants  to  fame.  The 
number  of  foreign  arrivals  for  the  years  1789 
and  1790  is  not  to  be  had,  but  they  were  899 
in  1791,  and  2,985  in  1857.  In  1806  they  were 
1,088,  and  but  83  in  1814,  the  last  year  of  the 
second  war  with  England.  For  the  year  end- 
ing March  81,  1858,  the  number  of  coastwise 
clearances  was  2,281,  exclusive  of  those  coasters 
which  sailed  under  license.  The  custom-house 
at  Boston  is  a  large  and  costly  edifice,  and  was 
12  years  in  building,  1887*  49,  at  an  expense 
of  $1,076,000,  including  every  thing.  It  is  of 
the  Boric  order,  and  is  140  feet  long  from  north 
to  south,  95  feet  through  the  centre,  and  75  feet 
at  the  ends.  The  porticoes  are  67  feet  long,  and 
project  10  feet  on  each  side.  The  height  is  95 
feet.  It  stands  at  the  head  of  a  dock  between 
Central  and  Long  wharves,  fronting  east  on  the 
dock,  west  on  India  st  The  form  is  that  of  the 
Greek  cross.  Arthur  W.  Austin,  Esq.,  is  now 
collector  of  Boston,  and  Ool.  Charles  G.  Greene 
is  naval  officer.  The  whole  number  of  persons 
employed  in  the  collection  district  is  198,  at  an 
annual  cost  of  $273,861.  The  revenue  collected 
in  the  district  for  the  month  ending  April  80. 
1858,  was  $321,888  61,  which  is  a  decrease  or 
$800,272  14^  as  compared  with  the  correspond- 
ing month  of  1867.  The  shipping  of  Boston 
amounts  to  625,000  tons.  The  trade  of  Boston 
with  British  India  is  very  great,  and  has  princi- 
pally grown  up  since  1880.  The  number  of 
ships  that  arrived  in  Boston  fh>m  Calcutta,  in 
1866,  was  78,  bringing  goods  of  the  value 
of  more  than  $7,000,000.  The  exports  to  Oal- 
entta,  including  foreign  goods,  were  of  the  value 
of  $686,891,  among  which  were  12,179  tons  of 
ice.  Tne  ice  trade  is  a  Boston  invention,  and  is 
principally  carried  on  thence.  Frederic  Tudor, 
£sq^  member  of  a  family  which  has  con- 
tributed several  eminent  men  to  the  service  of 
the  country,  originated  the  trade,  in  1806,  when 
he  shipped  180  tons  to  Martinique.  For  20  years, 
the  losses  were  great,  but  success  was  finally 
won  by  talent  and  perseverance.  Mr.  Tudor 
had  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  for  80  years,  when, 
its  brilliant  suocees  having  become  known  to  all, 
he  found  competitors.  It  is  believed  that,  but 
ft>r  Ihe  ice  trade,  the  Calcutta  trade  of  Boston 


never  could  have  become  important.  The 
freight  paid  by  Mr.  Tudor  on  ice  to  India 
amounts  to  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  the 
earnings  for  the  whole  run  of  the  ship  out  and 
home,  and  it  is  oU  clear  profit.  The  value  of 
the  ice  sent  to  Calcutta  inl866'was  $117,266. 
The  whole  cost  of  the  ice  shipped  at  Boston  is 
$800,000,  and  the  amount  is  about  150,000  tons. 
The  average  freight  is  $2  50  ^r  ton.  This 
business,  indeed,  has  added  immensely  to  New 
England  industry  and  profits,  in  various  ways. 
With  southern  Europe  Boston  carries  on  a  large 
trade,  and  there  is  not  a  port  of  any  note  in  com- 
merce, in  the  Mediterranean,  the  Adriatic,  and 
the  i£g»aD,  which  her  ships  do  not  visit.  The 
Turkish  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  her  merchants,  mainly  through  the  ancient 
port  of  Smyrna.  The  imports  from  Great 
Britain,  in  1866,  were  of  the  value  of  more 
than  $17,000,000 ;  from  Cuba,  $6,046,968 ;  from 
Chili,  $2,047,760;  ftom  the  Philippines,  $2,047,- 
199 ;  from  British  North  American  possessions, 
$1,969,126 ;  from  France,  $930,809 ;  from  Rus- 
sia, $931,930;  ftom  Hayti,  $780,077;  from  the 
Dutch  East  Indies,  $710,287;  from  Turkey, 
$681,080 ;  from  Holland,  $688^69>;  fi>om  the 
Two  Sicilies,  $499,107;  from  Buenos  Ayres 
and  Argentine  republic,  $664,609;  from  Brazil, 
$689,664 ;  from  Sweden  and  Norway,  $461,430 ; 
from  China,  $829,781.  The  total  value  of  im- 
ports that  year  was  $48,014,900.  The  value 
of  the  fishing  trade  was  about  $6,000,000,  Bos- 
ton being  at  the  head  of  the  business,  which 
she  commenced  in  1688.  The  exports  for 
1866,  including  $12,063,582  in  coin  and  bullion, 
were  $24,580,676. — ^The  industry  of  Boston  is 
great  and  various.  According  to  the  returns 
of  the  industry  of  Massachusetts,  made  June  1, 
1865,  the  value  of  the  articles  manufactured 
was  $48,188,966  82,  under  94  heads,  for  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  -f^  of  which  must  be  credited 
to  Boston,  being  more  than  4  of  the  whole  in- 
dustrial production  of  Massachusetts.  The 
number  of  vessels  launched,  in  1866,  was  26, 
of  28,844  tons ;  and  7  were  on  the  stocks  at  the 
close  of  that  year,  of  6,960  tons.  Of  these,  80 
vessels,  of  81,484  tons,  were  of  East  Boston 
build.  Much  of  the  city *s  prosperity  is  due  to 
the  8  great  lines  of  railoads  that  run  from  it, 
all  of  which  are  fed  by  a  large  number  of  lesser 
lines,  and  connected  by  the  Grand  Junction 
raiboad.  There  are  four  horse  railroads  which 
connect  it  with  Boxbury,  Dorchester,  Cam- 
bridge, Charlestown,  and  other  places.  Other 
horse  railroads  are  soon  to  be  constructed,  and 
those  existing  are  to  be  extended.  The  num- 
ber of  passengers  carried  over  all  these  roads, 
in  1867,  was  12,687,111.  Communication  with 
Chelsea  is  by  the  Winnisimmet  ferry,  established 
in  1681,  and  believed  to  be  the  oldest  ferry  in 
the  union.  The  Western  avenue,  from  the  foot 
of  Beacon  street  to  Sewall^s  Point  in  Brookline, 
was  completed  in  1821,  at  a  cost  of  over  $600,- 
000,  and  is  H  mile  long.  Charles  river 
bridge,  made  in  1786,  and  Warren  bridge,  in 
1828,  connect  Boston  with  Charlestown,  and 


552 


BOSTON 


have  just  become  free.  West  Boston  bridge  to 
Cambridge,  and  Oanal  bridge  to  East  Cam- 
bridge, were  made  free  in  1858.  Federal  street 
bridge  and  South  Boston  bridge  are  between 
old  Boston  and  South  Boston.  Washington 
avenue  leads  to  South  Boston,  Dorchester  ave- 
nue to  Dorchester,  and  Harrison  avenue  to  Rox- 
bury.  Two  lines  of  ferry-boats  run  between 
Boston  and  East  Boston.  There  are  lines  of 
steamboats  th&t  ply  between  Boston  and  the 
principal  ports  of  Maine,  and  some  portions  of 
British  North  America.  Others  connect  Bos- 
ton with  some  of  the  southern  ports,  and  nu- 
merous lines  of  sailing  packets  are  established 
between  the  city  and  the  principal  places  of  the 
union.  The  number  of  banks  is  87,  with  capi- 
tals of  $82,960,000.  There  are  6  savings  banks, 
having  deposits  to  the  amount  of  $9,578,426  86, 
and  68,274  depositors.  There  are  18  stock,  8 
mutual  fire,  6  mutual  marine,  and  2  life  insur- 
ance companies.  The  city  debt  is  $8,422,- 
999.77,  of  which  $5,001,961  11  constitutes  the 
water  debt,  and  $3,421,088  66  the  ordinary 
debt.  Boston  long  felt  the  want  of  a  supply 
of  water,  but  it  was  not  until  1848,  during  the 
mayoralty  of  Josiah  Quincy,  jr.,  that  the  want 
was  met.  Water  is  brought  from  Long  Pond 
(Lake  Cochituate),  in  Framingham,  Wayland, 
and  Natick  (Middlesex  co.),  20  miles  west  of 
Boston.  The  lake  covers  659  acres,  and  drains 
some  14,400  acres.  Water  is  conveyed  by  a 
brick  conduit,  nearly  15  miles  long,  to  a  grand 
reservoir  in  Brookline,  and  thence  to  distribut- 
ing reservoirs  in  Boston,  East  Boston,  and  South 
Boston.  The  quantity  conveyed  is  11,000,000 
gallons  daily.  1  he  Brookline  reservoir  will  hold 
100,000,000  gallons,  sufficient  for  14  days*  con- 
sumption, it  is  estimated,  though  the  average 
daily  consumption  in  1857  was  12,726,000  gal&. 
Entire  length  of  pipe,  14  inches  and  npwsffd, 
119^  miles;  number  of  service  pipes,  20,484; 
hydrants,  1,808;  takers  of  water,  21,602;  re- 
ceipts of  water  rents,  $289,828  88.  The  enter- 
prise of  bringing  water  into  the  city  encountered 
a  vigorous  opposition,  which  was  for  years  suc- 
oes^ul,  tlie  cause  of  monopoly,  filth,  and  disease 
not  lacking  able  champions.  The  valuation  of 
the  city's  property  in  1857  was  $258,111,900, 
being  an  increase  of  about  $225,000,000  in  50 
years.  The  tax  authorized  for  1858  is  $2,- 
170,000,  or  $280,188  lees  than  that  of  1857, 
$180,000  of  which  reduction  is  due .  to  the 
diminution  of  the  state  tax.  The  number  of 
polls  is  88,168,  from  whom  a  revenue  of  $49,743 
is  derived.  The  rate  of  taxation  is  $9.80  per 
$1,000.  The  number  of  streets,  squares,  courts, 
lanes,  and  alleys,  is  950. — ^The  most  noted  public 
building  is  Faneuil  hall,  which  has  a  historical 
reputation,  because  of  the  meetings  of  the  revolu- 
tionary patriots  that  were  there  held.  Most  of 
the  Boston  political  meetings  are  held  in  it 
now,  when  ^ey  are  meant  to  be  of  a  compre- 
hensive character.  The  hall  was  originally  com- 
menced in  1740,  by  Peter  Faneuil,  a  gentleman 
of  Huguenot  descent,  and  a  native  of  New 
BkKshelle,  JST.  Y.,  and  by  him  given  to  the  town. 


It  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire  in  1761.  RebndC, 
and  enlarged  in  1805,  it  now  covers  nearly  twice 
its  first  area.  The  hall  is  76  feet  square,  and 
28  feet  high.  It  is  adorned  with  portraits  of 
eminent  Americana,  conspicuous  among  which 
is  an  original  one  of  Wa^iington  by  Stuart.  There 
is  a  full  length  of  Peter  Faneuil,  a  copy.  The  room 
over  the  hall  is  used  by  the  city's  military  com- 
panies for  drill,  and  has  several  smaller  rooms  at- 
tached to  it,  which  are  used  as  armories,  &c.  The 
basement,  which  formerly  was'a  market,  is  now 
a  series  of  stores.  The  assessors,  overseers  of 
the  poor,  &c.,  have  their  offices  in  the  building. 
Faneuil  hall  market  was  built  in  1824-^5,  during 
the  mayoralty  of  Josiah  Quincv,  sen.  It  stands 
between  North  and  South  Market  streets,  is  586 
feet  by  50,  and  contains  128  stalls.  It  is  of 
Quincy  granite,  and  cost  upward  of  $1,000,000. 
The  merchants^  exchange  is  on  State  street,  and 
was  completed  in  1842,  the  building  alone  coat- 
ing $175,000.  Its  front  is  76  feet,  and  runs  250 
feet  to  Lindall  street  and  is  70  feet  high.  It 
covers  18,000  feet  or  land,  and  the  front  is  of 
Quincy  granite.  The  reading-room  is  80  by  58 
feet,  and  the  roof  is  supported  by  18  oolunma 
in  imitetion  of  Siemia  marble,  with  Corinthian 
capitals.  The  post  office  is  in  it,  but  it  is  in 
contemplation  to  remove  it  to  Summer  street.' 
The  city  hall,  containing  the  municipal  offices, 
is  in  Court  square.  The  court  house  is  also  in 
Court  square,  was  finished  in  1885,  is  of  Quincy 
granite,  and  cost  about  $200,000.  The  new 
gaol,  completed  in  1849,  cost  $409, 545,  is  70  feet 
square,  and  85  feet  high,  with  4  wings.  The  ex- 
terior is  of  Quincy  granite,  and  the  remaining 
portions  of  brick,  stone,  and  iron.  The  building 
of  the  Massachusetts  general  hospital  (incorpora- 
ted 1811)  is  at  the  comer  of  Allen  and  Blossom 
streets.  It  is  of  granite,  and  has  a  front  of  168 
feet  and  a  depth  of  54  feet,  with  a  portico  of  8 
Ionic  columns.  It  was  much  enlarged  in  1846. 
The  medical  college  is  in  North  Grove  street 
and  is  connected  with  Harvard  college.  The 
state  house,  which  is  on  Beacon  street,  and 
near  the  centre  of  the  city,  was  commenced  in 
1795,  when  Samuel  Adams  was  governor,  and 
was  finished  and  occupied  in  January,  1798.  Its 
form  is  oblong,  178  feet  front  by  61  deep.  To 
the  top  of  the  dome  the  height  is  110  feet,  and 
the  hill  on  which  it  stands  is  upward  of  100  feet 
above  the  water  of  the  harbor.  The  view  from 
the  dome  is  very  fine,  as  it  includes  the  harbor 
with  the  ocean  beyond,  an  immense  extent  of 
country  in  various  directions,  covered  with 
towns  and  villages,  and  the  misty  blue  hills  of 
Milton.  The  hall  of  the  house  of  representa- 
tives, the  senate  chamber,  the  rooms  of  the 
governor  and  council,  the  offices  of  the  secretary 
of  state,  steto  treasurer,  adjutant- general,  and 
auditor,  and  the  state  library,  together  with 
some  minor  concerns,  are  in  the  state  house.  A 
statue  of  Washington,  by  Ohantrey,  was  placed 
in  the  state  house  in  1828,  by  the  Washington 
monument  association.  Large  additions  have 
been  made  to  the  state  house  since  1852,  for 
the  accommodation  of  the  government.     Th# 


BOSTON 


658 


new  Kbrary  room  is  88  by  87  feet,  and  86^  feet 
high.  The  cost  of  the  original  baildingwas 
$188,000,  and  the  additions  have  cost  upward 
of  $204^000.  The  land  was  purchased  bj  the 
city  of  Boston  of  the  Hancock  &mily,  and 
given  to  the  state.  It  was  then  known  as  ^^  Gbv. 
Hancock's  pasture.'*  The  old  state  house  was 
erected  in  1748,  and  was  for  half  a  century  the 
scene  of  government,  being  the  building  which 
is  of  such  frequent  mention  in  the  revolutionary 
history.  It  is  in  Washington  street,  at  the 
head  of  8tate  street,  dividing  the  latter,  and 
obstructing  a  beautiful  view.  Masonic  temple, 
in  Tremont  street,  has  been  purchased  by  the 
U.  S.  government  for  a  court  house.  Tremont 
temple  was  erected  in  place  of  the  building 
burned  in  1862,  which  had  been  made  from  the 
Tremont  theatre.  The  main  hall  is  130  feet  by 
78,  and  is  45  feet  high,  with  8  galleries.  Music 
hall,  completed  in  1^2,  fronts  on  Winter  street 
and  on  jBumstead  place.  The  central  baU  is 
120  feet  by  80,  and  65  feet  high.  There 
are  2  tiers  of  galleries  on  8  sides.  It  contains 
Crawford's  statue  of  Beethoven.  The  almshouse 
on  Deer  island  is  a  vast  structure,  built  with  a 
just  regard  to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  as- 
signed, and  is  admirably  governed.  There  are 
houses  of  reformation  at  South  Boston  and  on 
Deer  island,  and  the  house  of  correction  and 
lunatic  hospital  are  at  South  Boston.  The 
Massachusetts  charitable  mechanics'  association 
are  now  erecting,  at  the  corner  of  Bedford  and 
Chauncey  streete,  a  building  which  promises  to 
be  an  ornament  to  the  city.  It  is  to  be  of  light 
freestone,  and  of  Romanesque  style.  The  station 
house  of  the  Boeton  and  Fitchburg  railroad 
company  is  the  finest  edifice  of  the  kind  in 
America,  being  gigantic,  strong,  and  beautiful. — 
The  press  of  Boston  is  the  oldest  in  tiie  United 
States.  The  first  Journal  published  in  North 
America  was  ^  The  News  Letter,"  which  was 
commenced  i^ril  24, 1704,  by  John«  Campbell, 
postmaster:  It  was  published  72  years,  ceasing 
in  1776,  with  British  rule.  The  second  paper 
was  the  *^  Boston  Gazette,"  commenced  1719, 
of  which  James  Franklin  was  printer.  In  1721 
Franklin  commenced  the  publication  of  the 
^^  New  England  Oourant."  Benjamin  FranUin 
was  an  apprentice  to  his  brother,  and  wrote  for 
the  ^  Courant"  at  the  age  of  16.  The  paper  was 
for  some  time  published  in  Bei^amin's  name. 
Many  newspapers  were  founded  in  the  last  cen« 
tury,  and  several  magazines.  Samuel  Adams 
was  a  contributor  to  the  "  Independent  Adver- 
tiser," a  paper  founded  in  1748.  There  are  now 
117  newspapers,  of  which  9  are  published  daily, 
and  49  periodicals  published  at  intervals  of  14 
days  and  upward,  including  the  **  North  Amer- 
ican Review,"  the  *^  Christian  Examiner,"  and 
the  "^  Atlantic  Monthly."— The  schools  of  Bos- 
ton have  a  high  reputation.  Beside  the  Latin 
school,  the  English  high  school,  and  the  girls' 
high  and  normal  school,  there  are  18  grammar 
schools,  and  211  primary  schools.  The  number 
of  scholars  in  the  winter  of  1857  was  24^231, 
andin  the  summer  it  was  28,855.  The  amount  of 


ordinary  expenditure  for  the  support  of  schools 
is  $333,700.— The  first  literary  institution  of 
Boston  is  the  Athen»um.  It  dates  from  1804,  its 
germ  being  '*  the  Anthology  club."  The  associa- 
tion was  incorporated  in  Feb.  1807.  The  beauti- 
ful building  now  used  by  the  Athenieum  was 
completed  in  1849.  It  stands  on  the  south  side 
of  Beacon  street,  and  between  Bowdoin  and 
Somerset  streets.  Its  length  is  114  feet,  and  its 
breadth  is  irregular ;  the  height  is  60  feet.  The 
material  is  the  Patterson  freestone.  The  1st  story 
contains  the  sculpture  gallery  and  two  reading- 
rooms.  The  library  is  in  the  2d  story,  and  the 
picture  gallery  in  the  8d.  The  building  cost 
$136,000.  and  $55,000  was  pdd  for  the  land. 
The  numoer  of  shares  is  1,000,  of  the  par  value  of 
$300,  under  which  price  none  have  ever  been  is- 
sued. The  value  of  the  entire  property  is  $485,- 
000.  The  amount  expended  for  statuary  and 
paintingsis$19,871.  The librair contains 70,000 
volumes,  and  2,000  are  annually  added  to  it,  at 
an  expense  of  $5,000.  The  gross  yearly  expenses 
are  $12,000.  Thomas  6.  Cary  is  president  of 
the  Athenssum,  and  William  F.  Poole  librarian. 
The  chief  benefactors  of  the  institution  are: 
James  Perkins,  who  gave  it  a  house  on  Pearl 
street,  which  was  used  as  a  library,  d^).,  for  27 
years,  and  then  sold  for  $45,000 ;  John  Brom- 
neld,  who  beoueathed  it  $25,000 ;  Samuel  Ap- 
pleton,  who  bequeathed  it  $25,000;  James 
Perkins,  Jr.,  who  gave  it  $8,000 ;  Thomas  H. 
Perkins,  who  gave  it  $8,000 ;  and  T.  W.  Ward, 
who  gave  it  $5,000.  Many  other  persons  have 
given  or  bequeathed  lesser  sums,  or  books,  or 
articles  for  the  picture  and  sculpture  galleries. 
No  institution  oi  the  kind  in  America  is  better 
managed,  or  in  a  more  catholic  spirit,  or  has 
done  more  for  the  advancement  of  letters,  sci- 
ence, and  the  arts.  The  American  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  incorporated  1780,  and  of 
which  Dr.  Jacob  Bigelow  is  president,  has  its 
rooms  in  the  Athen»um  building,  and  its  li- 
brary (9,000  vols.)  is  there.  The  public  library 
is  a  new  institution.  Joshua  Bates,  a  wealthy 
banker  of  London,  whose  early  life  was  passed 
in  Boston,  having  oflfered  the  city  $50,000  to- 
ward the  purchase  of  books,  if  a  suitable  build- 
ing shoula  be  provided,  in  1852  his  offer  was 
accepted,  and  an  edifice  was  erected  on  Boylston 
street  opposite  the  Common,  which  was  com- 
pleted and  delivered  to  the  trustees  Jan.  1, 
1858.  The  cost  of  the  land  and  building  was 
$365,000.  Abbott  Lawrence  gave  $10,000,  and 
Jonathan  Phillips  the  same  amount,  to  the  in- 
stitution; and  lesser  sums,  and  books,  were 
given  by  other  gentlemen.  The  number  of 
volumes  is  60,000.  The  institution  is  liberally 
and  efficiently  managed.  The  mercantile  li- 
brary association  has  rooms  in  a  building  at  the 
comer  of  Summer  and  Hawley  streets,  includ- 
ing reading  room,  hall  for  literary  exercises  and 
general  meetings,  and  a  library  of  18,000  vol- 
umes. It  was  founded  in  1820,  and  has  lectures 
in  the  winter.  The  number  of  members  is  1,600. 
The  library  of  the  Boston  library  society  is  in 
Essex  street,   ond  has   15,000   volumes.    It 


554 


BOSTON 


was  fonnded  in  1794.  The  Historical  Sooiety'fl 
rooms  are  in  Tremont  street  lu  library  and 
collections  are  Taloable.  The  Lowdl  insti- 
tate  was  fonnded  by  John  Lowell,  jr.,  who  be- 
queathed $250,000  to  provide  regular  conrsea  id 
me  lectares ;  aod  his  plan  has  been  carried  out 
with  great  snccess. — ^Tbe  benevolent  institntions 
of  Boston  are  namerous,  and  effective  in  their 
operations.  There  are  89  societies  which  come 
under  this  special  head.  The  Massachusetts 
asylum  for  the  blind,  though  it  is  largely  aided 
bv  the  state,  and  is  in  part  the  work  of  other 
pmcea,  is  of  Boston  origin,  and  has  derived  much 
of  its  means  from  the  liberality  of  Boston  peo- 

Ele.  Under  the  charge  of  Dr.  8.  G.  Howe,  it 
as  been  a  most  effective  means  for  alleviating 
some  of  the  worst  evils  to  which  humanity  is 
exposed.  At  the  date  of  the  last  annual  re- 
port^ it  contained  114  inmates.  Indigent  persons 
are  admitted  gratuitously.  The  Massacnusetts 
school  for  idiotic  and  feeble-minded  vonth,  at 
South  Boston,  also  under  Dr.  Howe,  has  been 
very  successful.  The  pupils  are  63  in  number. 
The  eve  and  ear  infirmary,  exclusively  for  the 
poor,  IS  on  Charles  street,  and  is  provided  with 
every  thing  necessarv  for  the  efiicient  treatment 
of  the  sick.  The  building  and  land  cost  $54,000. 
The  Boston  asylum  and  farm  school  for  the 
relief  and  instruction  of  poor  boys  destitute  of 
proper  control,  is  on  Thompson's  island,  in  the 
WW.  It  has  been  very  useful.  At  the  last 
session  of  the  legislature,  the  city  was  author- 
ized  to  establish  and  maintain  a  free  hospital 
for  the  reception  of  persons  who,  through 
poverty  or  other  misfortune,  may  require  relief 
during  temporary  illness.  The  people  of  no 
city  in  the  world  have  exhibited  more  liberality, 
both  in  public  and  private  charities,  than  those 
of  Boston.— The  number  of  churches  in  Boston, 
in  1857,  WAS  99,  and  others  are  now  building. 
There  are  888  physicians,  of  whom  26  are  ^o- 
men.  Boston  common  is  a  small  park,  of  48 
acres,  surrounded  by  an  iron  fence,  erected  in 
1886,  at  a  cost  of  more  than  $100,000.  Itisoon- 
sidered  to  date  from  1 634,  and  by  a  clause  in  the 
city  charter  it  is  made  the  public  property  for- 
ever, and  'the  city  cannot  sell  it,  or  cnange  its 
character.  The  malls  are  singularly  spacious,  and 
are  shaded  by  magnificent  trees,  some  of  which 
were  set  out  considerably  more  than  a  century 
ago.  There  are  nearly  1,800  trees  on  the  com- 
mon, which  are  kept  in  admirable  order,  at  a 
large  annual  expense.  The  public  garden,  which 
was  once  a  portion  of  the  common,  is  now  sep- 
arated from  it  by  a  part  of  Charles  street,  but 
will  soon  become  a  place  second  only  to  the 
common  itself  for  beauty  and  nsefUness. — ^The 
government  of  the  city  is  lodged  in  the  mayor, 
board  of  aldermen  (12),  and  common  council 
(48).  Frederic  W.  Lincoln,  Jr.,  is  now  mayor  ; 
his  term  of  service  commenced  with  the  year 
1858.  He  is  the  16th  mayor.  The  police  force 
contains  268  men.  The  fire  department  oon- 
'  sists  of  a  chief  engineer  and  9  assistants,  and  18 
companies  with  engines,  with  668  members. 
There  are  21,475  feet  of  leading  hose,  838  of 


BQCtion  hose,  188  reservoirs,  and  1,874  hjdranta. 
A  fire-Alarm  telegraph  has  beeo  est^isbed, 
having  49  signal  stations,  and  ao  oflloe  m  the 
city  building.  Number  of  alarms  in  1857,  IS4; 
loss,  $258,231 ;  insoranoe,  $288,785.  There  are 
17  military  companies  in  Boston,  beside  the 
*^  ancient  and  honorable  artillery  eompaoj," 
which  is  the  oldest  oi^ganization  of  the  land  ia 
the  United  States,  dating  from  1688,  and,  wish 
the  exception  of  two  regiments  in  the  Aostria 
service,  and  some  of  the  English  regimento  that 
served  on  the  continent  in  the  early  part  of  ths 
17th  century,  there  are  no  older  military  organ- 
izations  in  the  Christian  worid.  There  are  3 
theatres  in  Boston.  Boston  electa  86  members 
of  the  state  hoose  of  representatives,  eadi  ward 
constituting  a  district,  «id  each  distriet,  excepts, 
electing  2  members---the  exceptions  electing  3 
each.  All  the  wards,  except  the  2d,  form 
4  senatorial  districts,  and  each  cUstrict  dects  i 
senator.  Ward  2  is  a  part  of  the  5th  senatorial 
district  mostly  made  up  of  the  rest  of  Sofidk 
county.  The  basis  is  legal  voters,  of  whom  there 
were  22,678  in  Boston  at  the  censos  taken  ia 
1857.  The  4th  oongresnonal  district  is  fanned 
of  the  second  6  wards  of  Boston,  the  citjr  ol 
Roxbury,  and  the  town  of  Brookline,  and  the 
5th  of  the  first  6  wards,  the  rest  of  Soffidk 
county,  and  the  city  of  Cambridge. 

BOSTON,  a  seaport  town  and  pariiamect- 
ary  borough  of  England,  in  linoolnaime, 
107  miles  N.  from  London,  on  both  aides 
of  the  river  Witham,  6  miles  from  the  sea. 
It  had  in  1851,  14,783  inhabitants^  within  the 
municipality,  17,518  within  the  parliameot- 
ary  boundaries,  and  is  represented  by  2  mess- 
bers  in  parliament.  The  2  divisions  <tf  the 
town  are  connected  by  an  iron  hridge,  of  a 
single  arch,  86^  feet  in  span,  erected  in  1804-7, 
after  a  design  by  Rennie.  Boston  is  noted  f<3 
the  neatness  of  its  streets,  ia  lighted  bygss, 
supplied  with  excellent  water  from  n  distuoe 
of  14  miles,  and  built  almost  entirely  of  briek, 
there  being  no  stone  quarries  in  the  Tieim^. 
The  most  remarkable  of  its  edifices  is  the  pazi^ 
church  of  8t.  Botolph,  the  largest  without  traa- 
septs  in  the  kingdom,  built  in  180$l,  and  having 
a  tower  282  feet  in  height^  on  the  plan  d 
that  of  the  cathedral  at  Antwerp.  T^ 
tower  is  surmounted  by  an  ootagonal  Isntaa, 
visible  at  sea  for  nearly  40  miles.  A  windov 
of  stained  glass  has  been  recently  pinoed  ia 
this  church  as  a  memorial  of  the  catians  of 
Boston,  in  honor  of  the  Rev.  John  Oottoa, 
who  was  vicar  of  St.  Botcdph^a,  and  nfterwari 
first  minister  of  Boston  in  America.  B»- 
neath  the  window  is  an  inscriptioa  in  Laiia, 
written  by  Mr.  Edward  Everett.  There  an 
numerous  charitable  inatitutiona,  a  grammsr 
school  founded  by  Philip  and  Maiy  in  155i»  2 
subscription  libraries,  and  oommodions  salt- 
water baths,  established  in  1880.  The  mana- 
factures  are  unimportant,  but  there  is  n  consid- 
erable foreign  trade,  chiefly  with  the  Baltk, 
whence  timber,  iron,  hemp,  and  tar  are  impart- 
ed, and  lai^e  quantitiea  of  grain  are  transforted 


BOSTON 


BOSWELL 


555 


benoe  to  London.  A  monastery  was  fonnded 
here  in  654,  by  the  Saxon  St.  Botolph,  and  de- 
Btroyed  by  the  Danes  iu  870;  **hence,^'  as 
Lombard  says,  **the  name  of  Botolph^s  town, 
commonly  and  corrnptly  called  Boston." 
During  the  civil  war,  Boston  was,  for  a  time, 
the  head-qnarters  of  Cromwell's  army.  Its 
decline,  subsequent  to  the  16th  centnry,  was 
cansed  by  the  preyalenoe  of  the  plagne,  to 
which  its  low  situation  particularly  exposed 
it,  and  by  the  gradually  increasing  difficul- 
ty of  the  Witham  navigation.  Recently  the 
healthiness  of  the  place  has  been  improved 
by  draining  the  surrounding  fens,  to  an  ex* 
tent  of  70,000  acres,  and  its  commercial  pros- 
perity has  been  in  some  degree  restored  by 
great  improvements  in  the  channel  of  the 
river. — ^Mr.  Pishey  Thompson's  "History  and 
Antiquities  of  Boston"  appeared  in  1856. 

BOSTON,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  Presbyterian 
divine,  bom  at  Dunse,  March  17,  1676,  died 
May  20, 1732,  famous  for  his  ultra-Presbyterian 
views,  and  for  the  strong  practical  piety  of  his 
writings^  He  is  best  known  by  his  "Four- 
fold State."  He  commenced  his  ministerial 
labors  as  a  licentiate  in  1697;  was  ordained 
minister  of  Simprin,  Sept.  21,  1699,  and  after- 
ward translated  to  the  parish  of  £ttrick.  In  1708 
he  was  a  member  of  the  Presbyterian  general 
assembly.  The  control  of  the  throne  over  the 
Scottish  church,  which  was  regarded  as  merely 
nominal  in  point  of  practical  effect,  was  exer^ 
cised  that  year  in  a  somewhat  positive  and  per- 
emptory manner.  The  royal  commissioner,  who 
formally  sits  in  the  assembly,  dissolved  that 
ecclesiastical  body,  because  it  had  engaged  in 
some  discussions  not  likely  to  be  palatable  to  the 
orown.  The  moderator  conceded  the  point,  and 
declared  an  acUournment  This  appeared  to 
Boston,  and  many  otliers,  as  an  unworthy  com- 
promise of  the  dignity  of  the  Scottish  establish- 
ment^ and  he  violently  opposed  it.  He  waa  also 
opposed  to  the  oath  of  abjuration. 

BOSWELL,  Sir  Alexander,  eldest  son  of 
the  biographer  of  Johnson,  born  in  Scotland, 
Oct  9,  1775,  died  March  27, 1822.  Lockhart 
mentions  him  as  having  been  one  of  Scott's 
most  intimate  friends,  ^'  who  had  all  his  father 
Bozzy's  cleverness,  good  humor  and  joviality, 
without  one  touch  of  his  meaner  qualities." 
In  1821,  the  leading  tories  of  Edinburgh  raised 
ftmds  to  establish  a  newspaper  called  the  *^  Bea- 
con," which  was  fiercely  and  offensively  per- 
sonal, and  to  which  Sir  Alexander  Bosweil  was 
a  literary  contributor.  The  newspaper  was 
disoontinned  after  6  months,  but  in  the  neigh- 
boring city  of  Glasgow  a  successor,  the  **  Sen- 
tinel,'' arose  out  of  its  ashes,  and  bitterly 
kept  up  the  personal  enmities  of  its  predeces- 
sor. Its  conductors  quarrelled,  and  one  of 
ihem  betrayed  to  the  late  Mr.  James  Stuart, 
of  Duneam  (a  leading  Edinburgh  whig),  a  box 
of  mamnscripts  which  revealed  Sir  Alexander 
as  *'the  writer  of  certain  truculent  enough 
pasquinades"  (to  use  Lockhart's  words),  one 
among  them,  which  had  been  published,  direct- 


ly imputing  cowardice  to  Mr.  Stuart  The  re- 
sult was  a  challenge.  Sir  Alexander,  who  had 
just  returned  from  attending  the  funeral  of 
his  only  brother,  in  London,  accepted  it,  and 
in  the  duel  which  ensued,  March  26,  1822,  at 
Auchtertool.  in  Fife,  he  received  a  wound,  of 
which  he  died  the  next  day.  Mr.  Stuart  was 
tried  for  killing  his  opponent,  and  acquitted. 

BOSWELL,  Jambs,  the  biographer  of  Samuel 
Johnson,  bom  in  Edinburgh,  Oct  29, 1740,  died 
in  London,  June  19,  1795.  He  studied  at  the 
universities  of  Edinburgh  and  Ghisgow.  Early 
in  life,  he  became  a  high  churchman  and  a 
tory,  although  his  father  was  a  rigid  Presby- 
terian and  a  whig.  At  the  age  of  18,  he 
showed  that  ambition  for  intimacy  with  dis- 
tiuffuished  men,  that  love  of  English  society 
and  numners,  and  that  predilection  for  author- 
ship, which  characterized  him  through  life. 
These  tastes  were  fostered  on  his  first  visit  to 
London,  in  1760,  and  it  was  with  difficulty  that 
his  father  prevailed  upon  him  to  give  up  the 
notion  of  going  into  the  guards,  and  to  return 
to  the  stu^  of  law,  which  he  had  previously 
commenced.  After  a  course  of  civil  law  at 
Utrecht,  he  travelled  through  the  continent, 
visiting  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  other  men  ot 
note.  From  Italy  he  crossed  to  Corsica,  in 
order  to  see  Gen.  Paoli,  then  fighting  for  free- 
dom against  Genoa.  In  1766  he  returned  to 
Scotland,  where  he  was  admitted  to  the  bar, 
and  soon  afterward  published  a  pamphlet  con- 
cerning the  celebrated  Douglas  cause,  which  is 
the  sole  memorial  of  his  having  been  a  lawyer, 
with  the  exception  of  a  pamphlet  published  in 
1774^  containing  a  report  of  the  decisions  of 
the  court  of  session  on  the  question  of  literary 
property.  He  had  come  home  so  full  of  Cor- 
sica that  he  was  nicknamed  Paoli  Bosweil,  and 
appeared  at  a  Shakespeare  jubilee  in  the  dress 
of  a  Corsican  chief^  with  viva  la  Ubertd  in  gold 
letters  on  his  cap,  and  at  another  time  during 
the  festival,  it  is  said,  with  **  Corsican  Bosweil'' 
inscribed  upon  his  hat,  though  this  latter  cir- 
cumstance is  denied  on  good  authority.  His 
journal  of  his  tour  to  Corsica  appeared  in 
1768,  was  praised  by  Hume,  Johnson,  Gray, 
and  walpole,  was  translated  into  several  lan- 
guages, and  was,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
means  of  obtaining  for  Gen.  Paoli  a  pension 
of  £2,000,  and  other  honors,  when  he  arrived 
in  London.  In  1769,  Bosweil,  after  numerous 
love  adventures  with  ladies  of  almost  every 
civilized  nation,  married  a  cousin.  Miss  Marga- 
ret Montgomery,  who  died  in  1789,  leaving  him 
5  children.  In  1768,  Bosweil  made  the  ac- 
qucuntance  of  Dr.  Johnson,  who  liked  him  so 
well  that  he  went  down  to  Harwich  on  purpose 
to  see  him  off  for  Utrecht  In  1769,  this  ac- 
quaintance ripened  into  an  intimacy.  In  1778, 
Bosweil  became  a  member  of  the  famous  Turks- 
head  dub,  mainly  through  the  influence  of 
Johnson,  with  whom  he  made  a  tour  to  the 
Hebrides  in  the  course  of  the  same  year,  of 
which  both  published  narratives.  Boswell's, 
whioh  appeared  in  1785,  soon  after  his  idol's 


556 


BOSWORTH 


decease,  contains  valuable  records  of  Johnson's 
conversation,  and  is  exceedingly  entertaining. 
Between  1778  and  1785,  Boswell  only  enjoyed 
sach  snatches  of  Jobnson^s  company  and  con- 
versation as  were  afforded  by  occasional  visits 
to  London  in  vacations.  These  visits  were  but 
a  dozen  in  all,  and,  added  to  the  time  spent  in 
the  northern  jonrney,  make  the  whole  period 
during  which  the  biographer  eigoyed  inter- 
course with  his  subject  only  276  days.  But  the 
^^Life  of  Johnson,'*  which  was  published  in  1791, 
is  universally  conceded  to  be  the  most  entertain- 
ing biography  ever  written,  and  to  render  its 
subject  better  known  to  us  than  any  other  hu- 
man being  who  has  been  more  than  70  years  in 
the  grave.  Having  succeeded  to  his  father's 
estate  in  1782,  Boswell  removed  to  London  in 
1786.  In  1700  he  stood  for  parliament,  but 
was  defeated.  In  addition  to  the  works  already 
mentioned,  he  published  several  political  pam- 
phlets and  a  series  of  pi^rs  in  the  *^  London 
Magazine,''  entitled  the  **'  Hypochondriac,"  ex- 

Sressive  of  the  feelings  of  a  man  subject  to  a 
epression  of  spirits  such  as  was  common  to 
himself  and  to  Dr.  Johnson.  A  newly  dis- 
covered collection  of  letters  purporting  to 
have  been  written  by  Boswell  was  published 
during  the  last  year  in  London.  The  weak- 
nesses of  Boswell's  character  lie  on  the  surface, 
and  were  known  to  himself.  An  amusing  and 
inordinate  egotism  and  vanity,  which  showed 
themselves  in  his  dress,  his  conversation,  and 
his  writings;  habits  of  self-indulgence  which 
hastened  his  death ;  mean  tastes,  such  as  a  love 
of  seeing  executions;  obsequiousness  to  great 
men,  which  sometimes  quenched  aelf-respect, 
were  his  worst  and  most  obvious  characteristics. 
But  the  writer  of  the  best  biography  extant  could 
not  have  been  the  most  contemptible  of  men,  and 
the  affection  with  which  he  inspired  some  of 
the  greatest  wits  of  his  time,  obliges  us  to  be- 
lieve that  there  was  in  him  a  vein  of  good  sense 
and  good  fellowship.  He  was  a  £sciple  of 
those  only  who  deserved  to  have  disciples. 
He  worshipped  real  heroes. 

BOSWORTH,  or  Market  Bosworth,  a  coun- 
try town  of  Leicestershire,  in  England,  1 1  miles 
due  W.  of  Leicester;  pop.  in  1851,  2,449.  It 
is  famous  for  being  the  scene  of  the  pitched 
battle  of  Aug.  22,  1485,  which  brought  to  a 
conclusion  the  wars  of  the  Rosea,  and  set  on 
the  throne  of  England,  in  the  person  of  Henry, 
earl  of  Richmond,  the  house  of  Tudor,  in  place 
of  the  legitimate  house  of  York.  The  battle 
was  of  short  duration,  though  fierce  and  bloody 
while  it  lasted.  The  army  of  Richard  consist- 
ed of  between  8,000  and  9,000  men,  that  of 
Richmond  of  about  5,000 ;  and  the  feudal  array 
of  the  Stanleys,  which  they  took  care  to  hold 
at  a  distance,  and  independent  of  either  army, 
until  the  crisis  of  the  day  should  dedare  itself 
of  about  3,000  more.  The  vans  of  both  armies, 
which  were  separated  by  a  morass  lying  some- 
what to  the  right  of  Richmond's  array,  and 
covering  that  flank  of  his  army,  consisted  of 
archery ;  that  of  the  king,  commanded  by  the 


duke  of  Norfolk,  headed  by  the  eail  of  Sorrej; 
that  of  the  earl  led  by  the  earl  of  Oxford,  nH 
Sir  Gilbert  Talbot  on  his  right  wing,  and  Sir 
John  Savage  on  his  left ;  himself  and  his  uocie, 
the  earl  of  Pembroke,  being  in  the  centre,  vitli 
a  few  horsemen,  in  which  the  invadeR  v«r 
weak,  in  reserve.  The  first  assault  of  tbe  arcfa 
ers,  buckling  on  their  helmets,  poshing  up  their 
plumes,  baring  their  right  arms,  and  benduig 
their  puissant  bows,  is  picturesquely  described 
by  the  old  chroniclers.  Richard's  deep  and 
strong  vanguard  passed  the  morass  uodei 
a  cloud  of  arrows,  and  fell  on  the  tiiin  aad 
shallow  van  of  Oxford  with  their  terrible  bilb 
and  batUe-azes;  and,  both  sides  bdng  eqiullj 
armed,  and  men  of  the  same  bold  and  stabbon 
blood,  the  battle  was  fought  desperatelj,  bind 
to  hand,  with  no  advantage  on  either  side;  tbd 
wings  of  neither  party  having  joined  actios. 
At  this  crisis,  Richard,  who  had  a  few  bo:% 
about  him,  suddenly  espying  his  adTersarT, 
whom  he  rightfully  regarded  as  his  persoDs! 
and  wanton  enemy,  liud  his  hmce  ui  rest  aad 
rode  at  him  at  full  speed,  almost,  it  woold  seso, 
unsupported.  The  first  person  who  encogc- 
tered  him  was  Sir  William  Brandon,  Ridi' 
mond's  standard-bearer,  and  him  he  trans^cd 
with  his  lance,  in  full  career,  and  harled  }m 
dead  to  the  ground.  Sir  John  CheDev  oeit 
rode  at  him,  a  man  of  greaj;  size  and  streogtii. 
and  they  fought  for  some  seconds  hand  to 
hand  with  their  swords;  but  the  slender  and 
low-framed  king  cut  him  down,  and  clore  bis 
way  onwurd  through  the  press  by  dint  of 
sheer  blows  with  the  oold  steel,  until  be  wa 
within  a  horse's  length  of  Henry,  who  was  ad- 
vanclng  to  meet  him,  when  Sir  William  SUskj 
broke  in,  unexpecieu  by  the  men-at-anos  of 
Richard,  on  their  unguarded  flank,  and  tbror- 
ing  every  thing  into  confusion,  separated  the 
rival  warriors  in  time  to  save  the  life  of  Ri^b- 
mond,  who  it  is  likely  oonld  not  have  witii- 
stood  the  prowess  of  a  champion  like  hiseoesif. 
who  had  Iteen  literally  bom  in  the  din  of  anj^ 
and  had  been  educated  from  his  boyhood  aisB 
the  perils  and  horrors  of  pitched  battles,  in  do 
less  than  12  of  which  he  had  been  persooaiij 
engaged.  His  friends,  it  seems,  rallied  about 
him,  rescued  him,  and,  remounting  him  on  > 
swift  light  horse,  would  have  conveyed  ban 
firom  the  field;  but  he,  closing  his  visor, and 
crying  that  he  would  there  make  an  endof  b» 
battles  or  of  his  life,  rushed  into  the  thickea 
of  the  press,  and  died,  careless  to  snryiTelas 
dignity,  which  he  despaired  of  maintaimng,  «»• 
prodi^  of  his  own  blood,  as  he  had  sbofli 
himself  regardless  of  that  of  others.  Hisviciof 
was  declared  king  by  acclamation  of  ti>e  sa- 
diery,  and  crowned,  on  the  field,  by  Lord  waa* 
ley  with  a  circlet  or  precious  stones,  taken  m 
the  bascinet  of  the  Men  king.  The  corpse 
of  Richard  was  disgracefully  treated,  stnp; 
ped  naked,  thrown  crosswise  over  awretcbw 
cart^  covered  with  dust  and  acre,  his  long  b»ir 
dragging  in  the  mire,  and  his  head  stnb^ 
against  the  barriers^  as  he  was  borne  m 


B08W0RTH 


BOTANIC  GARDENS 


557 


the  gates  of  Leicester,  amid  the  roars  of  the 
rabble. 

BOS  WORTH,  Joseph,  D.D.,  an  Afl|?lo-Sax- 
on  lexicographer,  bom  in  Derbyshire,  England, 
in  1788 ;  graduated  at  the  university  of  Aber- 
deen; mastered  the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
and  Arabic  Inngnages.  In  1815  he  became  cn- 
rate  of  Raddington.  He  firet  wrote  some  pamph- 
lets on  the  poor  laws,  and  elementary  Latin  and 
Greek  school-books.  In  1823  he  published  his 
** Elements  of  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,"  which 
brought  him  into  communication  with  Grimm, 
Bask,  and  other  philologists  of  the  continent. 
His  greatest  work,  the  *^  Dictionary  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Language,"  was  published  in  London, 
1888.  It  contains  an  introductory  essay  on  the 
connection  between  the  various  Teutonic  and 
Scandinavian  dialects,  and  the  elements  of 
An^o-Saxon  grammar.  The  equivalents  of  the 
vocables  are  given  in  English  and  Latin.  His 
latest  work  is  "  King  Alfred^s  Anfflo-Saxon  ver- 
mon  of  the  History  of  the  World,  written  in 
Latin  by  the  Spanish  monk  Orosius." 

BOTANIO  GARDENS,  establishments  for 
the  culture  of  plants  with  a  view  to  their 
study,  application,  acclimation,  and  dissemi- 
nation. Nearness  to  cities,  great  variety  of 
situation  and  of  soil,  numerous  green-houses 
and  ho^houses,  beside  other  things  used  in  com- 
mon agriculture  and  horticulture,  are  required, 
together  with  conveniences  for  all  operations 
with  seeds,  and  for  collections  of  manifold 
kinds.  There  is  a  great  diversity  in  their 
scope  and  extent:  as  witness  the  gardens  of 
Semiramis ;  the  paradises  of  Gyrus ;  the  grove 
ontheOrontes;  tne  school-garden  of  Theophras- 
tus;  the  poison  gardens  of  Attains  Philometor 
and  of  Mithridates  Enpator;  the  xtfiroi  of 
Athens ;  the  parks  of  Lucullus,  Mracenas,  Sal- 
lust,  and  of  many  rich  Romans,  full  of  roses 
and  other  gorgeous  plants ;  the  garden  of  Anto- 
nius  Castor,  containing  rare  exotics,  visited  by 
Pliny ;  the  nartului  of  the  monk  Walafrid  Stra- 
bos ;  the  palatial  gardens  of  Charlemagne ;  and 
the  magnificent  gardens  of  the  Arabs  in  Spain. 
— After  a  long  period  of  darkness  in  European 
civilization,  we  find  the  garden  of  Hatthasus 
Sylvaticus,  at  Salerno,  in  1310.  Venice  founded 
a  public  medical  garden  in  1888,  whose  plants 
were  painted  by  Amadei.  The  duke  Alfonso 
d^te  founded  several  with  oriental  plants.  Er- 
coled'Este  established  the  finest,  which  he  called 
the  Belvedere,  on  an  island  of  the  Po.  The 
nobles  of  Ferrara  followed  their  example.  Pa- 
dua and  Pisa  established  academic  gardens  in 
1538.  Cosmo  de*  Medici  founded  one  for  the  uni- 
versity of  Pisa  in  1544 ;  Ferdinand  founded  the 
Florentine  garden,  and  had  plants  brought 
from  Asia.  Bologna,  in  1568,  and  Naples  soon 
after,  were  similarly  endowed.  Italy  soon  de- 
clined from  the  noble  pursuit.  Rome  had  2 
botanical  gardens,  one  founded  by  Cardinal 
Odoardo  Famese;  the  other,  that  of  the  col- 
lege Delia  Sapienza.  Messina  had  2 ;  one  dat* 
ing  from  1689,  the  other  about  1690,  founded 
by  the  prince  Delia  Cattolica.    Every  large  city 


had  at  least  one  garden,  many  of  which  exist 
yet,  though  more  attractive  from  their  archi- 
tecture and  picturesqueness  than  from  genuine 
merit.  There  are  24  public  and  25  private 
establishments  distinguished  by  various  literary 
and  artistic  works.  The  most  prominent  at 
present  are  those  of  Naples,  Florence,  Turin, 
and  Milan.  The  last  is  of  enormous  extent, 
traversed  by  the  river  Lambro,  and  abounds 
in  trees,  shrubs,  orangeries,  and  exotic  plants. 
— Conrad  Gesner  had  a  garden  at  Zurich,  and 
wrote  a  work  on  those  of  Germany,  in  the 
first  half  of  the  16th  century.  Out  of  10,  all 
of  them  private,  that  of  Camerarius,  of  Nu- 
remberg, was  xhe  most  important.  About 
1580,  a  public  botanic  garden  was  founded 
near  Leipsic,  soon  followed  by  one  at  Altorf, 
near  Nuremberg;  another  at  St.  Wilibald, 
which  was  very  celebrated ;  an  academic  gar- 
den at  Giessen ;  another,  of  the  physicians  at 
Nuremberg ;  others  at  Halle,  Berlin,  &c. ;  so 
that  every  university  and  large  city,  every 
potentate,  and  many  rich  men,  vied  with  each 
other  in  foundmg  botanic  gardens,  of  which 
about  100  (more  than  40  being  public)  figure  in 
literature.  The  Viennese  gai^en  was  directed 
by  Jacquin  and  Stephan  Endlicher.  That  of 
Schdnbrunn,  near  Vienna,  excels  by  its  extensive 
hothouses  and  greenhouses,  by  exquisite  taste 
in  grouping,  and  by  its  numberless  exotics, 
especially  American  tropical  plants.  Berlin  is 
also  rich  in  hothouses,  some  being  devoted  to 
single  tribes  of  New  Holland  and  south  African 
plants;  the  conservatory  on  the  Pfaueninsel 
yields  in  height  only  to  those  at  Schdnbrunn 
and  St.  Petersburg.  The  gardens  of  Munich 
and  Nymphenburg  excel  in  palms.  Bohe- 
mia also  has  many  fine  botanic  gardens,  espe- 
cially that  at  Prague,  and  that  of  Count  Camaila 
de  CanaL  In  Hungary,  the  oldest  described 
garden,  1664,  which  belonged  to  the  prince 
primate,  at  Presburg,  exists  no  longer ;  that  of 
the  university  at  Pesth  was  modelled  in  1788 ; 
and  that  of  Prince  Eszterhazy  at  Kis-Martony, 
with  70,000  species  of  plants,  is  one  of  the  rich- 
est known.  Poland  possesses  8:  at  Warsaw, 
founded  in  1651,  at  Cracow,  and  at  Eremenets. 
Dthuania  has  1  at  Wilna.  In  Russia,  there  is 
the  Demidoff  garden  at  Solikamsk,  in  Perm, 
described  in  1774 ;  another  at  Moscow,  describ- 
ed bv  Pallas  in  1781,  is  now  destroyed ;  the  aca- 
demic at  Abo,  in  Finland,  which  flourished 
under  Tillands,  about  1683 ;  that  of  Count 
Alex.  Razumoffsky,  at  Gorinka,  near  Moscow, 
one  of  the  most  important  in  modern  times ; 
and  the  imperial  Paulof^  garden,  founded  by 
Alexander  I.,  on  Apothecaries'  island  in  the 
Neva,  with  very  large  glass  houses,  about  7,000 
feet  long,  and  some  of  them  40  feet  high  in  the 
centre.  The  garden  of  Leyden,  established  in 
1577,  long  surpassed  all  others  in  riches;  it 
is  now  again  restored  to  a  high  condition  under 
Vries,  especially  as  to  Japanese  plants.  Among 
the  other  7  public  and  10  private  gardens  of 
the  Netherlands,  that  of  George  Clifibrt,  at 
Harderwick,  was  honored  by  being  reformed 


S58 


BOTANIC  GARDENS 


BOTANY 


by  Linnffias.  Of  the  8  public  and  eeveral 
known  private  gardens  of  Belgium,  those  of  the 
horticultural  society  at  Brussels,  and  of  Lud. 
van  Houtte,  at  Ghent^  are  most  remarkable. 
Dutch  gardens,  though  rich  and  well  adminis- 
tered, are  mostly  ^tiff  in  their  plans. — ^England 
is,  however,  the  country  of  gardens  of  all 
kinds,  all  of  them,  except  that  at  Kew,  being 
private  establishmeots,  unassisted  by  the  gov- 
ernment In  England  more  than  40,000  phan- 
erogamous plants  of  all  climes  are  now  culti- 
vated. The  oldest  botanic  garden  was  founded 
by  Queen  Elizabeth  at  Hampton  court,  contin- 
ued under  Charles  IL  and  William  III.,  and  ren* 
dered  illustrious  by  Leonard  Plukenet,  the  most 
active  of  plant  collectors.  Among  the  10  pub- 
lic and  13  private  botanic  gardens  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  historically  known,  the  following  de- 
serve particular  notice :  that  at  Chelsea,  found- 
ed in  1673,  owned  by  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  for  84 
years  under  the  direction  of  Philip  Miller,  whom 
LinnsBus  called  the  prince  of  gardeners;  that  at 
Oxford,  founded  in  1640 ;  the  renowned  Eltham 
garden,  which  belonged  to  the  brothers  Sherard ; 
that  of  Kew,  the  richest  of  all  in  New  Holland 
plants,  which  are  there  kept  in  small  hothouses ; 
that  of  Edinburgh,  which  abounds  in  heaths ;  2 
at  Dublin,  one  belonging  to  Trinity  college,  and 
the  other  2  miles  distant  at  Glasnevin,  80  acres 
in  extent,  and  very  picturesque,  rich,  and  well 
managed.  The  garden  of  the  London  horticul- 
tural society,  founded  in  1821,  excels  in  trees 
more  than  any  other,  and  supplies  the  country 
with  plants ;  it  subjects  gardeners  to  an  exami- 
nation.— In  France  gardening  has  never  been 
very  flourishing.  Een6  Bellay,  bishop  of  Mans, 
established  the  first  French  botanical  garden. 
P.  Richier  de  Belleval  founded  one  at  Mont- 
pellier,  about  1590.  He  firat  mixed  soil  to  suit 
plants.  After  many  plans  and  intrigues,  con- 
tinuing from  1626  to  1633,  a  royal  Jardin  des 
Flantes  was  laid  out  in  Paris,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Guy  de  la  Brosse.  It  was  solemnly  in- 
augurated in  1640,  and  after  being  much  neg- 
lected, it  was  revived  by  Colbert,  who  ordered 
Eobert,  the  court  punter,  to  paint  its  rarest 
plants.  Though  it  could  boost  of  Toumefort, 
and  of  3  of  the  6  Jussieus,  this  garden  is  sur- 
passed in  many  particulars  by  some  in  England, 
Germany,  and  Bussia.  Of  25  French  public  gar- 
dens, of  which  about  10  are  known  in  literature, 
we  notice  that  of  J.  and  Y.  Robin,  at  Paris, 
where  plants  were  cultivated  to  serve  as  patterns 
to  court  embroiderers,  as  early  as  1590 ;  that  of 
Gaston  d'Orleans,  at  Blois,  whose  plants  were 
painted  on  velvet  by  Robert,  under  the  direction 
of  Robert  Morison,  afterward  professor  at  Ox- 
ford; that  of  the  empress  Josephine  at  Malmai- 
son,  the  plants  of  which  were  drawn  by  Redout^ 
the  most  skilful  of  artists  in  this  department. 
The  last  3  exist  no  longer. — Spain  and  Portu- 
gal, notwithstanding  their  maritime  commerce 
and  riches,  have  done  little  for  botanic  science. 
Garcias  ab  Horto,  however,  founded  an  officinal 
garden  on  Bombay  island,  about  1563.  There 
are  but  2  public  gardens  in  Spain,  one  at  Mad- 


rid and  one  at  Barcelona,  and,  in  Portagal, 
one  at  Coimbra,  worthy  of  notice.  Switzerland 
has  5  botanic  gardens;  Denmark  4r-that  at 
Copenhagen  was  founded  in  1640 ;  SwedeQ  5— 
the  oldest,  at  Upsal  (one  of  the  finest  establish- 
ments of  the  kind  in  the  world),  was  catalogued 
by  Rudbeck  in  1668,  and  described  by  LinDsiis 
in  1745.  There  are  also  botanic  gardens  at  Ba- 
tavia,  Bombay,  and  Calcutta,  one  of  them  laid 
out  by  Roxburgh,  enlarged  by  Wallicb,  oq  Tar 
ble  mountain,  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  at 
Canton,  Hamme  near  Algiers,  Havaiia,  Ja- 
maica, Madras,  Mexico,  Rio  Janeiro,  San  Jago 
do  Chili,  Serampore,  8idney,  on  the  island  of 
Bourbon,  Ceylon,  Mauritius,  Tenerifie,  and  St 
Vincent.  In  the  United  States  there  was  one 
at  Elgin,  Kew  York,  founded  by  Dr.  Hoeack  in 
1801 ;  another  at  Lexington^  Kentacky,  caU- 
logued  by  Rafinesque,  1824.  Some  attempts 
have  also  been  made  at  Cambridge,  Mak, 
Philadelphia,  and  elsewhere. 

BOTANY  (Gr.  fioravuai,  from  /Sonin^.aplant 
or  vegetable)  is  the  science  of  plants.  Theoretic 
or  pure  botany  is  either  special,  a  part  of  nata- 
ral  history,  consisting  of  horismolcgy,  or  as  it  is 
usually  called,  terminology,  phytography  (the 
description  of  plants),  and  taxonomy,  orsjstem- 
atology  (the  laws  of  arrangement);  or  it  is  gene- 
ral, comprbing  organography  (the  description  of 
the  organs  of  plants,  in  relation  to  their  extenal 
appearance),  and  histology  (the  science  of  the 
elementary  tissues  of  the  organs),  together  con- 
stituting phytotomy  or  the  anatomy  of  plants, 
and  with  phytochemistry  forming  the  basis  of 
phytophysiology  (the  science  of  their  vital 
phenomena),  and  of  phytopathology  (the 
science  of  their  diseases).  In  ancient  times 
special  botany  formed  the  whole  science;  bat 
general  botany  comprehends  the  developments 
of  modern  investigation.  Practical  botany  is 
the  application  of  the  science,  either  to  other 
departments  of  science,  such  asmedidne,  agri- 
culture, and  horticulture ;  or  to  the  indostri&l 
arts,  such  as  dyeing,  weaving,  and  the  like;  or 
to  esthetics,  as  in  landscape  gardening.  IsiW- 
tant  accessory  branches  of  study  are  found  in 
the  science  of  the  distribntion 


of  plants  over  the  globe ;  phy  toOryctology,  or.  ^ 
Endlicher  calls  it,  phytohistory,  the  science  ol 
their  fossil  remains ;  and  the  history  of  botany 
itself.  Man  first  knew  plants  only  as  food  for 
himself  and  for  animals.  Instinct  and  accident 
taught  him  to  use  them  as  remedies  in  sickness. 
The  Egyptians  also  knew  the  use  of  aromatic 
plants  in  embalming,  and  even  wrote  treatises 
attributing  the  discovery  to  Thoih,  or  Hennes 
Trismegistus.  The  Hebrew  Scriptures  mention 
about  70  species  of  plants  which  can  be  asce^ 
tained,  beside  others  which  it  is  impossible  to 
determine.  Several  plants  are  mentioned  inft« 
Sanscrit  literature.  The  Greeks  attribnted  the 
invention  both  of  botany  and  medicine  to 
Chiron,  the  wisest  of  the  Centaurs,  a  pupil  of 
Apollo.  Jason,  Achilles,  and  other  heroes,  and 
also  Medea,  were  believed  to  have  been  skulej 
in  the  use  of  medicinal  plants,    ..£sculapius  and 


BOTANY 


659 


the  Asol^iadiB  cured  dieeasesmainly  with  plants, 
of  which  about  200  are  mentioned  in  the  works 
ascribed  to  Hippocrates  of  Ck>s  (about  400  B.  G.)« 
Herodotns  relates  that  in  Babylonia  male  palms 
were  tied  aroond  female  ones  to  make  them 
bear  Arait  A  century  later,  Aristotle  wrote 
8  books  on  plants,  known  only  from  Latin  and 
Arabic  versions.  Theophrastus,  his  pnpil, 
wrote  2  great  botanic  works  in  10  books;  he 
divided  plants  according  to  their  size  and  con- 
sistency, distiugnishing  about  400  species. 
Craterns,  a  rhizotomist,  gave  more  details 
than  Hippocrates.  Pedanins  Diosoorides  (about 
A.  D.  100}  treats,  though  less  correctly  than 
Theophrastus,  of  about  600  species,  150  of 
which  we  can  determine.  The  Alexandrian 
school  neglected  the  natural  sciences.  Among 
the  Romans^  0.  Valgins,  the  brothers  Musa  and 
Eupliorbus,  Mm.  Macer,  JuL  Bassus,  and  Niger, 
most  of  whom  were  phyviciana,  left  some  botan- 
ical observations;  M.  P.  Oato,  the  learned M.  T. 
Yarro,  and  the  diligent  compiler,  L.  J.  M.  Colu- 
mella, wrote  on  agriculture  with  allusions  to 
botany ;  and  Virgil's  Georgics  must  also  be  men- 
tioned. Pliny  the  Elder  devoted  to  botany  16 
books  of  his  HUtoria  Naturalu^  8  on  the  science 
in  general,  and  8  on  botanical  medicines,  describ- 
ing almost  1,000  plants,  many  of  which  are 
now  undeterminable ;  his  method,  however, 
is  inferior  to  that  of  Theophrastus.  Galen 
wrote  on  materia  fnediea;  OribaaiuB  copied 
bim ;  Paul.  i£gineta,  about  A.  D.  650,  gave  a  mere 
collection  of  botanical  names.  The  Arabs  not 
only  preserved  many  ancient  authors,  but  added 
to  the  1,200  species  known  before  the  9th  cen- 
tury, about  200  oriental  plants,  mostly  officinal 
and  aromatic.  Wahab  and  Abuseid  visited 
China,  and  described  the  tcha  or  tea  plant.  Ali 
Massudi,  Edrisi,  Alvardi,  Abnlfbda^  Batnta,  all 
geographers  and  travellers,  also  treated  of  plants. 
Abu  Zachariah  ebn  Aloa  wrote  a  very  learned 
-work  on  rural  subjects.  Ebn  Beithor  is  the 
most  learned  Arabian  botimist,  having  travelled 
through  roost  eastern  countries  for  the  purpose 
of  studying  plants.  Abubeker  Mehemed  Rhazi, 
a  physician  at  Bagdad ;  Ebn  Sina  (Avioenna), 
Abul  Fadli,  Job.  Serapion,  Averroes,  and 
Mesueh,  also  enriched  the  science.  Meanwhile 
the  thickest  darkness  covered  all  the  rest  of 
Europe,  till  in  1458  Constantinople  fell  into  the 
power  of  the  Osmanlis,  and  the  hidden  Greek 
literary  treasures  were  dispersed  over  Italy 
first.  Then  arose  (1450-1550)  a  host  of  trans- 
lators, commentators,  and  copyists  of  the  an- 
cients, such  as  Ermolao  Barbaro,  Georg.  Valla, 
Marc.  Virgilio,  Nicol.  Leonioenus,  Gio  v.  Monardi, 
Ant  Brasavola,  Jean  Ruel,  and  others,  who 
added  but  little  of  their  own  to  the  inheritance  of 
about  1,400  species  of  plants  known  to  botany. 
Botanic  gardens  then  began  to  be  founded, 
printing  (1436),  woodcut^  paper,  and  other 
recent  inventions,  hastened  the  revival  In 
Germany,  Olto  Brunfels  first  published  good 
woodcuts  of  living  plants  in  1680;  for  those  in 
the  work  incorrectly  attributed  to  i£ro.  Macer 
(1480),  and  even  in  that  of  Peter  de  GrescentiuB, 


are  all  of  inferior  value.  Hieron.  Bock  (Tragus) 
discovered  some  plants.  Earic.  Gordus,  and 
his  son  Valerius,  visited  Italy,  commented  on 
Dioscorides  and  other  Greeks,  and  promoted 
tlie  science.  Leonh.  Fuchsius  tirst  attempted  an 
arrangement  of  all  known  plants,  illustrating 
tliem  with  good  figures  and  descriptions.  -  P. 
Andr.  Mattioli,  physician  of  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many ;  Auger.  Gislen.  Busbequius,  imperial 
ambassador  at  the  Sublime  Porte,  and  Dodoens 
Bembert,  professor  at  Ley  den,  discovered,  col- 
lected, and  described  many  new  species.  Ron- 
wolf  travelled  in  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  &o.,  and 
sent  many  plants  to  tlie  European  gardens. 
Prosp.  Alpini,  Venetian  consul  at  Cairo,  and 
Melon.  Guilandinus,  examined  Egypt.  The  dis- 
covery of  America  in  1492,  and  the  doubling  of 
the  cape  of  Good  Hope  in  1498,  opened  to  bo- 
tanical science  extensive  new  regions.  Gar- 
cias  ab  Horto  founded  a  botanic  garden  at 
Bombay.  Cbr.  Acosta,  Nic.  Monardes,  Fr. 
Hernandez,  and  other  Spaniards,  Portuguese, 
and  Frenchmen,  explored  the  newly  discovered 
East  and  West.  Conrad  Gesner  of  Zarich 
(1516-^65),  a  great  cultivator  of  the  natural 
sciences,  promoted  botany  by  establishing  gen- 
era from  the  flower  and  fruit^  and  by  approach- 
ing toward  a  natural  clas^fication.  The  tables 
of  his  great  work,  containing  many  new  plants, 
were  published  by  Joaoh.  Camerarius,  in  a 
synopsis  of  Mattioli^s  commentary,  in  1586. 
Charles  de  TEcluse  (Clusius)  visited  Hungary 
and  other  countries  of  southern  Europe,  be- 
caiJie  director  of  the  imperial  garden  at  Vienna, 
and  described  accurately  and  elegantly  many 
new  plants ;  he  wrote  on  aromatics,  and  was  a 
martyr  to  his  zeal ;  he  was  the  best  botanist 
up  to  his  epoch  (1526-1609).  Lobelias  of 
lille  (1538>1616)  drew  well  the  rudiments  of 
several  natural  families  (1570) ;  he  was  the  first 
to  distinguish  mouocotyledonous  from  dicotyle- 
donous plants,  taking  into  account  characteris- 
tics of  a  more  definite  nature  than  those  em- 
ployed by  his  predecessors.  Andr.  CaBsalpinus 
of  Arezzo,  an  Aristotelian  (born  in  1519),  es- 
tablished the  first  memorable  system  from  fruc- 
tification, divided  trees  according  to  the  direction 
of  the  germ,  mode  a  better  distinction  in  the 
«ex  of  diflocions  plants  (giving  masculine  names 
to  staminate,  feminine  ones  to  pistillate  individ- 
uals), and  first  analyzed  several  of  the  important 
organs  of  vegetation.  Most  distinguished  among 
other  botanists  of  Uiot  time  are :  Jac.  Dalechamp ; 
Jac.  Theod.  Tabernismontanus,  who  reproduced 
the  figures  of  more  than  8,000  plants  which 
had  l^n  described  before  him ;  Joach.  Cam- 
erarius, who  traveled  in  Italy  ,and  sent  his 
nephew,  Joach.  Jungermann,  on  a  botanical 
journey  to  the  East;  Fab.  Colonna,  a  good  ob- 
server, who  first  published  delicate  copper- 
plates of  plants;  Basil  Besler,  who  divided 
plants  by  the  color  of  the  fiowers ;  Ad.  Zalu- 
zianski,  a  Bohemian,  who  wrote  on  the  sexes 
of  plants,  and  exactly  described  the  floral 
organs.  All  of  these  made  discoveries  of 
new  plants.    The  2  brothers  Bauhin,  of  Bgsel, 


56a 


BOTANY 


contribnted  mucli  to  the  progress  of  botany. 
John,  born  in  1541,  a  pnpil  of  Fuchsias,  laid  oat 
the  garden  of  the  auke  of  Wtirtemberg  at 
Mtimpelgard,  wrote  a  nniyersal  history  of  plants, 
describing  more  than  5,000  species,  illustrated 
by  8,577  figures,  distributed  them  into  trees  and 
herbs,  and  subdivided  them  according  to  their 
habits,  but  less  precisely  than  Gassalpinus.  Gasp. 
Bauhin,  born  in  1560,  tried  to  reform  the  con- 
fused synonymy  of  the  6,000  species  then 
known,  denoted  each,  species  by  a  phrase  ex- 
pressive of  its  characteristics,  and  collected 
(though  not  strictly)  all  species  into  genera. 
His  method,  together  with  that  of  Ctesalpinus, 
was  used  for  the  determination  of  plants  until  the 
introduction  of  Linnssus^s  system.  Dnrins  the 
wars  that  distracted  Germany,  France,  England, 
&c.,  there  was  a  lull  in  all  scientific  pursuits. 
Marggraf  described  the  vegetable  riches  of  Bra- 
zil ;  others  those  of  the  Dutch  colonies.  The  in- 
vention of  the  microscope  by  Leeuwenhoeck 
(1682-1723),  who  examined  the  evolution 
of  seeds,  opened  another  vista  into  the  se- 
crets of  nature.  Bobert  Hooke  examined 
the  cellular  tissue  and  the  organs  of  mossea. 
Kehemiah  Grew,  bom  in  1658,  an  eminent 
anatomist  of  all  organic  bodies,  publbhed  in 
1682  an  anatomy  of  plants,  full  of  ingenious 
observations;  he  describes  vegetable  cellulose 
matter,  especially  the  pith,  the  cortical  pores, 
and  many  other  important  subjects.  Marcello 
Malpighi,  though  bom  in  1628,  before  Grew, 
whom  he  preceded  also  in  the  publication  of 
his  works,  is  posterior  to  the  Englishman  as  to 
phytotomic  discoveries.  He  observed,  by  using 
the  microscope  and  maceration,  the  innermost 
veg^etable  as  well  as  animal  tissues,  seeds,  and 
their  germination ;  erring,  however,  in  the  be- 
lief that  the  trachea,  or  spiral  vessels,  serve  for 
respiration,  and  that  the  vegetable  vessels  are 
analogous  to  animal  veins.  He  and  Grew  are 
the  founders  of  phytophysiology.  Several  mem- 
bers ^/  the  French  academy  of  sciences  made 
further  discoveries,  as  Beneaulme  on  the  leaves 
as  organs  of  transpiration,  absorption,  and  nu- 
trition; 01.  Perrault  on  the  movement  of  the 
sap;  Den.  Dodart  on  the  direction  of  growth; 
Lahire  on  the  growth  of  trees.  Experiments 
on  tlie  nutrition  of  plants  were  made  by  Ya^i 
Helmont  and  John  Woodward;  on  the  move- 
ment of  liquids  by  Ed.  Hariotte.  The  system 
of  Ocesalpinus  was  superseded  by  Bob.  Horison, 
(born  at  Aberdeen  in  1620,  director  of  the  gar- 
den at  Blois,  a  friend  of  Bobin,  and  fiiuilly 
Erofessor  at  Oxford),  who  wrote  a  universal 
istory  of  plants,  divided  the  umbeUiferso  more 
accurately,  and  devised  a  method  of  distribution 
according  to  fractification.  Jac.  Bobart  imi- 
tated that  method.  John  Bay,  born  in  1628, 
in  Essexshire,  had  a  clear  conception  of  the 
true  principles  of  classification,  and  in  his  JSTm- 
toria  Plantarum  laid  the  foundation  of  the 
views  developed  by  Jussieu,  for  his  first  division 
is  identical  with  liiat  of  the  Frenchman,  viz. : 
into  fiowerless  or  imperfect,  and  flowering  or 
peifect  plants.    The  latter  he  subdivided  into 


monocotyledons  and  dicotyledons,  and  still 
further,  according  to  imperfect  or  perfect  flow- 
ers and  fruit  His  meUiod  was  perfected  by 
Ohristoph  Knant,  of  Halle,  who,  however,  in- 
verted its  sequence,  by  proceding  from  the 
fruit  to  the  flower,  ioiificial  methods  were 
arranged,  by  P.  Hermann  from  the  froit;  by 
Bivinus,  in  1690,  from  the  corolla ;  by  the  Jesmt 
Kamel,  in  1693,  from  the  fruit ;  by  Magnol,  in 
1720,  from  the  position  of  the  calyx  and  corolla. 
J.  P.  Pitton,  who  was  also  named  Toumefort 
(1656-1708),  travelled  in  southern  Europe  and 
western  Asia,  collected  a  fine  herbarium,  and 
left  a  method  of  arrangement,  in  which  Uie 

Slants  are  divided  into  herbs  and  shrabs  (sub- 
ivided  into  flowering,  flowerless,  and  both 
flowerless  and  fruitless;  the  first  again  5  times 
sabdivided),  ^d  into  trees,  which  he  twice  sub- 
divided as  to  the  flower ;  the  whole  oompriaing 
22  natural  groups,  distributed  into  genera  and 
species.  A  poor  physiologist,  he  scorned  the  idea 
of  sexes.  His  method  was  improved  by  P.  A.  Mi- 
cheli,  a  sagacious  cryptogamist,  who  discovered 
the  internal  corolla  of  grasses ;  and  also  by  Guiart 
Boerhaave  tried  to  combine  Bay^s  and  Tonr- 
nefort^s  views;  Pontedera  those  of  Bivinus  and 
Toumefort.  Dillenius,  who  described  the  gar- 
den of  the  brothers  Sherard,  at  Eltham,  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  study  of  cryptogamoua 
plants  in  1717.  Oharles  Plnmier  published, 
from  his  own  observations,  a  catalogue  of  110 
new  genera  of  American  plants  (especiidly  of 
the  Antilles)  in  1708,  and  a  treatise  on  feraa. 
Oryptogamology  was  further  improved  by  the 
Transylvanian,  J.  Hedwig.  L.  Teuille^  trav- 
elled in  Asia  in  1690,  and  in  America  in  1705, 
and  A.  Fr.  Fr^zier  in  Spanish  America ;  both 
enriching  botany  with  new  plants. — A  gigantto 
step  was  taken  in  phytology  by  Oharles  Iin« 
naus,  born  in  1707,  who,  undaunted  by  ex- 
treme poverty,  had  acquired  such  information 
as  to  become  associated  with  Olaus  Oelsiua,  a 
writer  on  biblical  plants,  in  his  botanic  re- 
searches, and  soon  after  a  substitute  of  the 
learned  Budbeck,  in  his  botanic  chair.  His 
Mora  LapoTdca^  the  best  of  all  hitherto  pub- 
lished workS)  was  the  frait  of  an  adventuroos 
ioumey  on  foot  in  that  dismal  r^ion.  Troubled 
by  rivals,  he  betook  himself  to  Holland,  where 
he  was  well  treated,  being  especially  patroniaed 
by  Oliffort,  whose  garden,  at  Harderwick,  he 
reformed  and  described  in  1737.  The  8  king^ 
doms  of  natural  history  were  reorganized  by 
him  in  a  precise  and  elegant  nomendaUire^ 
with  specific  names  instead  of  vague  phrases. 
After  having  visited  France  in  1788,  where  he 
made  botanic  excursions  with  Antoine  and 
Bernard  de  Jussieu,  although  urged  to  re- 
main, he  returned  home,  and  was  most  honor- 
ably treated  until  his  death.  We  subjoin  a 
key  to  his  sexual  system,  which  has  been  so 
identified  with  the  history  of  botanical  scienoe, 
and  has  exerted  such  a  marked  influence  in 
its  development,  that  a  brief  explanation  of 
it  is  necessary  to  the  completeness  of  this 
article. 


BOTANY 


561 


'OndHa  (manhood^ 


MABBIA0B8  OT  PLAIiTTB. 
6«ii6ratioii  of  plAOtflu 
FlorMoenee. 
PuBLio,  manifest,  phanuroffomcut. 
Flowers  Ttatblei 

Mimoelin4a  iiM¥os,  ob«,  icXtrn,  thaUmni,  eondk). 
Malen  and  feniales  od  tne  same  ^^^ftln"?"* 
Flowers  hermaphrodite :  stamens  and  plsttto  in  one 

flower. 
mmnUy  (no  affinityX 
Malee  not  eognate. 

Stamens  altogether  nneonneeted  with  eadh  oth«L 
Jndi^^nUam  fno  subordination  of  males). 
Stamens  of  indetenninato  length. 
1.  Jfon-  a  Oct- 

5.  iH-  9.  Eniu- 
&  7W-          10.  DtG- 
4.  TOr-        11.  Dodto- 

6.  Pwl-        12.  /cos- 
&  H€a»^         18.  i^ojy. 

7.  ffeU- 
,8ttbortUnatU>n  (oertain  males  preferred  to  othefB> 

8  stamens  shorter  than  the  others. 

15:%r2.\4)   f-tfynomla  (power). 

Males  related  and  cognate. 
Stamens  adhering  among  themselres  or  with  tha 
pisUL 
It  Mtm-  (1)        ) 

17.  m-  (i)  y-adOphia  (brotherhood). 

lii»o/y-(many)) 
19.  3ynffm49ia  (births  together). 
90.  (fyiamdria  (wife-manhood). 
"^JHoUnia  (S(t,  twice). 

Males  and  females  on  distinct  thalaml. 
Several  males  and  females  In  the  same  q>edea. 

Is!  ^Mei^^  }  -fl^  (household). 

88.  Polyqamia  (many  weddings). 

CLAVDnriRa,  bidden,  erfptoqamotu. 

Flowers  scarcely  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

iL  Crvptoffomia  (secret  wedding). 

The  nnmber  oi  classes  coincides  -with,  that  of 
the  stamens  up  to  the  11th  class,  which  has  12 
stamens.  The  12th  class,  ieatandria  (20  sta- 
mens), differs  from  the  18th,  polyandria  (manj 
stamens),  not  hy  the  numher,  hut  hj  the  inser- 
tion of  ti^e  stamens,  which  is  on  the  inner  side 
of  the  calyx  in  the  former,  and  on  the  reoeptaole 
in  the  latter.  Didynamia  has  4,  tetraclyna' 
mia  6  stamens,  of  which  2  are  shorter  in  each 
class.  In  the  monadelphia^  the  brother-hns- 
band,  they  arise  from  one  basis,  in  diadelphia 
from  a  doable  one,  in  polyadelphia  from  many. 
In  jyn^aiMna  the  stamens  cohere  by  the  an- 
thers (rarely  by  the  filaments)  in  a  hollow  cylin- 
der. In  gynandria  the  stamens  sit  on  the 
pistils  (not  on  the  receptacle).  MoncBoicky 
males  with  females  in  the  same  plant,  bat  on 
distinct  thalami;  in  duxeia^  they  are  on  dis- 
tinct plants;  polygamia^  males  with  females, 
on  one  thalamoS)  while  they  are  also  on  dis- 
tinct thalami  in  one  species. — ^The  orders  are 
taken  from  the  pistils  (1st  to  13th  class),  thus: 
moTMh^  di-^  &a  gynia;  in  the  14ih  from  the 
fruit :  gymruh  (naked)  and  anguh  (covered)  sper- 
fnia  (seeds);  so  in  the  15tb,  nliquoM  (pod^d) 
and  nliculoM  (with  podlets).  In  the  16th,  ITth, 
18th,  20th,  2l0t,  and  22d  classes,  orders  are  de- 
nominated from  the  number  of  the  stamina 
(in  the  16th,  17th,  18th,  20th,  from  diandria 
upward ;  in  the  21st  and  22d  from  manandria). 
The  19th  dass  contains  mostiy  compound  flow- 
ers,  and  the  orders  are  called  polygamia :  Poly- 
gamia  (Bqualia,  florets  all  hermaphrodite, 
and  of  similar  form ;  P.  iupetfluck^  flower  ra- 
VOL.  m. — 36 


diate,  disk  with  hermaphrodite  florets,  ray 
with  fertile  ones;  P.Jhutranea,  disk  with  fer- 
tile hermaphrodite  florets,  ray  with  barren 
females ;  P,  necesBtma,  disk  with  barren  her- 
maphrodite florets,  ray  with  fertile  female 
florets;  P.  Mgregata^  beside  common  perianth, 
each  floret  with  its  own  calyx.  Monogcmia  is  an 
order  of  not  compound  plants.  Beside  the  or- 
ders of  the  21st  and  22a  classes,  from  stamens, 
there  are  2  ordc^rs,  moTMdelphia  and  &yngenena^ 
and  the  last  order  of  both  classes  is  gynandria^ 
because  in  the  males  a  production  resembling 
a  style  bears  the  stamens.  In  the  23d  class 
the  orders  are  mono-^  di-^  tri-oBcia,  The  last 
dass  has  the  following  4  orders:  fiUen  (ferns); 
mtMoi  (mosses) ;  alg<B  (seaweeds) ;  fungi  (mush- 
rooms), dM).  The  number  of  the  lannaan 
classes  has  been  reduced  by  some  to  21  by 
cancelling  dodecandaia^  polyaddlphiOy  toad  poly- 
gamia.  His  qrstem  contains  T,800  species 
m  the  flrst  edition,  and  8,600  in  the  second.  In 
his  Philoiophia  hotanica^  1T51  (where  he  says 
that  the  natural  method  "/Snif  «8t  et  erit 
lotanicMy^^  that  '*  all  plants  show  affinity  both 
ways,  like  a  country  on  a  map,"  and  whose 
fragments  were  published  by  his  pupil  Gisecke),^ 
Iinn»us  proposes  6T  certain,  and  1  vague,  frag- 
ments of  natural  groups  (redaced  later  to  68 
oertain  and  1  miscellaneous).  The  testimony 
of  Herodotus  on  the  sexes  of  palms,  Zaluzian- 
ski's  description  of  floral  organs,  Thomas  Mill- 
ington's  (1676)  and  Bobart's  observations  on  the 
fertilizing  power  of  anthers,  Crew's  assertion  of 
the  same  power,  Rud.  Jac.  Oamerarius's  demon- 
stration (1694)  of  the  same,  Bocoone's  experi- 
ments with  palms  (1697),  Ray's  assertion  of  the 
theory  of  sexes,  Jo.  H.  Burckhard's  letter  to 
Leibnitz  (1702),  proposiuff  an  arrangement  of 
plants  by  sexes,  Seb.  Yaifiant's  (172*0  work  on 
the  sexes,  &c.,  led  Linn»us  to  the  development 
and  svstematic  application  of  the  sexual  theory 
to  aU  plants.  Not  content  with  his  own 
knowledge,  he  labored  most  zealously  to  extend 
the  science  of  Flora  by  sending  her  apostles,  at 
the  expense  of  the  Swedish  treasury,  to  all 
parts  of  the  globe.  Solander  thus  explored 
iiapland.  Archangel,  &c.,  and  circumnavigated 
tiie  globe  with  Oook  and  Banks;  PdterKalm 
exploI^^d  Finland  andK  America;  Peter  Loefling, 
Portugal,  Spain,  and  New  Spain ;  Hasselquist, 
Asia;  P.  Forskal,  Arabia ;  Temstroem,  the  East 
Indies;  Osbeck,  Ohma;  Rolander,  burinam; 
others,  several  provinces  of  Sweden  and  Europei^ 
countries.  The  system  of  Linnaus  was  repu- 
diated by  Buffon,  Alb.  Haller  (who  distinguished 
plants  by  numbers  and  a  phrase),  Adanson,  Al- 
ston, Bern,  de  Jussieu,  and  0.  G.  Ludwig.  Its  ex- 
odlence  was  demonstrated  by  J.  K.  Eoelreuter ; 
it  was  improved  by  K.  Sprengel — ^in  the  lower 
families,  by  L.  0.  Schmidel  and  J.  Hedwig ;  en< 
riohed  with  new  plants  by  Ch.  F.  Persoon,  K. 
L.  Willdenow,  M.  W  ahl,  J.  J.  R^mer,  and  J.  A. 
Schultes;  and  modified  by  M6rat,  Richard,  and 
others.--Oontemporaneously  with  the  activity 
of  Linnssus  and  his  many  followers,  other  vo* 
taries  of  the  science  extended  its  domain  with 


562 


BOTAKY 


mnch  zeal  and  sacceas.  John  Bannann  (170T- 
'80),  and  his  son,  Nicbol.  Lawrence,  collected  and 
described  almost  1,500  new  species  from  the 
Eaat  Indiefs  Oeylon,  and  Africa,  which  they  had 
received  from  travellers.  John  Oommelin,  and 
his  son,  Gaspar,  published  the  Hortus  Malabar- 
icuB  of  the  governor,  Van  Rheede  Draakensteen. 
John  Ghr.  Buzbanm  (1694'l7d0)  discovered 
and  described  manjr  Russian  species  of  plants. 
Kew  botanic  gardens  were  founded,  and  old 
ones  improved,  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of 
newly  found  plants,  and  of  clearer  views  of  their 
nature.  Jos.  Gaertner  published  an  admirable 
Carpologia  (treatise  on  fruit)  in  1768,  which  was 
but  little  improved  by  L.  G.  Richard  and  others. 
The  constellation  of  the  Jussieus  had  risen  in 
Lyons,  with  Antoine  (1686-1758),  successor  of 
Toumefort  in  the  Paris  museum  of  natural  his- 
tory, and  editor  of  his  Inatitutianes  Bei  Her- 
baria  (1694).  His  brother  Bernard  (1699* 
1776),  inspector  of  the  royal  garden  of  the 
Trianon,  elaborated  a  system  based  upon  the 
seed,  which  was  developed  by  his  nephew. 
The  other  brother,  Joseph  (1704-79),  travelled 
alone  through  the  Andes  to  the  sources  of  La 
PlatfL.  and  having  been  forced  to  work  at 
the  building  of  a  bridge  at  Lima,  became 
deranged,  and  died  at  PariSb  But  the  star  of 
the  first  magnitude  is  their  nephew,  Antoine 
Laurent  (17&-18d6),  professor  m  the  museum, 
chancellor  of  the  university  of  Paris,  &o.,  who 
published  the  Oenera  Flantarum  iecundtan  Or- 
dins8  naturalei  diapoHta  (Paris,  1789),  a  work 
containing  almost  20,000  species,  and  celebrated 
alike  as  a  monument  of  wonderful  sagacity  and 
of  the  profoundest  research,  and  for  the  elegance 
andjprecision  of  its  style.  J.  B.  de  Lamarck,  St. 
P.  Ventenat,  L.  0.  Richard,  J.  G.  K.  Batsch, 
L.  Trattinnick,  &c.,  modified  this  prototype  of 
all  subsequent  natural  systems,  of  which  a  short 
synopsis  will  follow.  The  5th,  Adrien  Henri 
Lanr.  de  Jussieu,  son  of  the  last  named  (bom  at 
Paris,  1797),  professor  at  the  museum,  wrote  on 
'the  thiphorbia  and  Malpighiacem^  on  Chilian 
and  (with  N.  Hilaire  and  Gambessades^  on 
Brazilian  plants.  Beside  the  methods  of  classi- 
fication already  spoken  of^  J.  Jung,  Boerhaave, 
Waehlendorf,  Adanson,  Oeder,  Granz,  Scopoli, 
and  Batsch,  had  made  different  arran^ments 
before  that  of  A.  L.  Jussieu  in  1789. — We  will 
now  take  a  rapid  survey  of  the  natural  systems 
elaborated  since  that  time.  Jussieu  applies  the 
primary  divisions  of  Ray  to  the  method  of 
Toumefort  (1694),  and  uses  for  subdivisions 
the  positions  of  the  stamens  with  respect  to 
the  ovary.  Of  his  16  classes  there  are  1  of  acoty- 
ledons,  8  of  monocotyledons,  and  11  of  dicoty- 
ledons ;  and  all  are  distributed  into  100  orders. 
Robert  Brown,  a  precise  observer,  follows 
(1810)  these  orders,  changing  their  sequence, 
considering  the  classes  often  artificial,  and 
pointing  out  the  importance  of  ssstivation  for 
the  natural  orders.  A.  P.  de  Gandolle's 
scheme  (1818),  in  9  series,  is  easv  and  simple, 
but  a  mere  scaffolding.  In  1819  he  made  new 
groups  of  alliances  under  the  name  of  cohorts. 


In  his  view  plants  are  either  Tsscolar,  ooty- 
ledonous  (exogens,  dicotyledonous,  containing 
thalamifioras^  etUieyifiarOy  eorolliflorm,  which 
are  all  dichlamyds,  and  the  collection  of  mo- 
nochlamyds,  or  endogens,  monocotyledonona, 
comprising  phanerogams  and  cryptogams),  or 
cellular,  acotyledonous  (leafy  or  leafiess),  all  in 
161  orders.  His  Prodromm^  an  admirable  d^ 
scription  of  genera,  is  most  used  in  France. 
He  also  established  16  rather  loose  classes  of 
plants,  according  to  their  locality,  such  as  sea, 
water,  marsh,  and  meadow  plants,  &c  His  son 
broke  up  the  cohorts  in  1844,  and  altered  the 
succession  of  the  orders  in  the  former  ^stem. 
G.  von  Agardh,  a  Swede  (1825),  groups  orders 
into  classes,  after  the  example  of  Batsch,  with 
9  primary  divisions;  relying  on  fructification, 
but  more  on  affinity  than  on  characters.  O.  J. 
Perleb  proposed,  in  1826,  an  arrangement, 
which  he  carried  out  in  1838,  in  9  classes,  with 
48  g^ups  or  alliances,  with  the  primary  divi- 
sion of  De  GandoUe ;  in  all  482  orders,  in  which 
880  natural  families  occur ;  he  does  not  specify 
genera  under  them.  B.  G.  Dumortier,  without 
accounting  for  his  principles,  gives  8  classes : 
Mtaminada  in  18  orders,  pollinacia  in  4  orders, 
and  fluidacia  in  8  orders.  Reichenbacb  pub- 
lished his  natural  philosophical  system  in  1828. 
Fr.  Th.  Bartling  (1830)  has,  under  the  Do  Gan- 
dollian  primary  division,  60  classes  with  245 
orders,  paying  especial  attention  to  the  seed. 
John  Lindley  began  in  1830  with  a  slight  mod- 
ification of  De  GandoUe,  making  2  classes  in  7 
tribes,  without  minor  groups  or  alliances ;  then 
imitating  (1888)  Agardh  and  BarUing,  he  re- 
duced the  orders  into  groups  called  nixus  (ten- 
dencies), and  made*  some  modifications.  Fol- 
lowing almost  the  same  arrangement,  he  at- 
tempted in  1886  a  reform  in  noraendatare ; 
modifying  his  views  on  exogens,  he  formed  an 
albuminous  group,  and  subdivided  those  with 
little  or  no  albumen  into  the  epigynous,  poly- 
carpous,  dicarpous,  and  diclinous  groups  (1888) ; 
then  he  made  8  classes,  of  which  6  in  the 
sexual  state,  and  2  in  the  asexual  (1839);  and, 
finally,  he  reached  his  6th  arrangement  in 
the  ''Vegetable  Kingdom''  (1845,  dd  edition, 
1858),  which  he  divides  into  2  states,  viz. :  the 
asexaal  or  fiowerless  plants,  contiuning  2  classes 
(thcdlogent  and  acrogens^  each  with  8  allianoesX 
and  the  sexual  state  or  fiowering  plants,  com- 
prising 5  classes  (rhi2ogen8  or  one  alliance,  endo^ 
gens  with  11  alliances,  dietyogens  or  one  alliance, 
gymnogens  or  one  alliance,  and  exoaens  in  39  al- 
fiances).  He  counts  56  alliances,  but  when  we 
add  the  8  classes  in  single  alliances,  we  count 
59,  ultimately  divided  into  303  orders.  If  we 
wish  to  understand  the  reciprocal  infiuence  of 
the  views  of  each  author,  we  must  examine 
the  chronological  sequence  of  their  books ;  for 
thus  we  shall  see  that  during  these  metamor- 
phoses of  Lindley's  efforts  in  classification,  the 
works  named  below  have  been  published, 
which  he  of  course  has  made  use  of.  J.  Hess 
(1832)  imitates  De  GandoUe,  attempts  no  high* 
er  groups,  and  gives  families  ieriatim,    G.  H, 


BOTANY 


663 


Schnltz  n883)  resembles  De  Oandolle,  has  2 
primary  divisions,  viz. :  homargana  in  4  classes, 
and  heterorgana  (sabdivided   into  synargana 
and  dichorgana)  in  11  classes,  based  npon  flori- 
fication.    P.  Horaninow  (1884)  divides  the  or- 
ganic world  into  4  kingdoms,  vegetable,  phy- 
tozoic,  animal,  and  man,  and  in  his  Tetractyi 
Naturm  (1843)  separates  plants  into  4  circles  by 
frnctification,  and  suffixes  <uira  to  the  names  of 
his  orders  (as,  for  instance,  rutoitrOj  instead 
of  rutaeea).    The  Swede,  Elias  Fries  (1886), 
ranks  germination  highest,  frnctification  lowest, 
and  has  8  classes  (dieotyledansj  monocotyledons, 
and  nemecB,  or  cryptogams)  with  20  sub-classes, 
containing  about  96  orders.     0.  F.  Ph.  von 
Martius  goes   by  fruit  (1886),  invents   new 
terms,  and  has  2  provinces,  viz.:    primitive 
vegetation  (in  4  classes,  subdivided  into  sub- 
classes, then  series,  cohorts,  and  lastly  orders) 
and  secondary  vegetation,  consisting  of  fungi 
alone.    Sir  E.  F.  Broinhead  (1836  to  1840) 
proceeds  by  induction  to  establish  a  continuous 
series  of  alliances,  in  2  parallel  series  (one  of 
algeo,  the  other  of  fungi),  meeting  in  the  cyti- 
nales  alliance  (Lindley^s  rhizogeus),  and  having 
at  equal  distances  in  each  series  analogous  alli- 
ances to  the  number  of  86  in  each  (beside  the 
common  one  of  cytinales),  in  a  quasi  circular, 
or   ratlier  spiral  figure.     Stephan   Endlicher 
{  Genera  Flaniarum  secundum  Ordines  naturae 
le$  disposUOj  Yindob.,  1836-'40)  has  published 
the  most    important   systematic  work   since 
A.  L.  de  Jussieu's  of  1789.     His  classes  an- 
swer  to  Liudley's  alliances.     We  subjoin  a 
summary  of  his  method,  ftom.  his  CoTtepecttu 
diagnostieus : 

Two  regions  eoDtain  dl  plants:  1.   ThaUopKyla  (Qt. 
^aAAbi,  to  palluUte,  to  green,  grow,  bloom,  sprout;  tbe  thai' 
lus  being  either  a  leafy  branched  tnft  or  frond,  or  a  flat-lobed 
mass  of  green  matter  upon  the  ground,  a  bed  of  fibres ;  and  8. 
Cornu>]^lfUi  (Or.  Kopitot^  Lat  corpUM^  trunout^  stem,  stalk ; 
tho  cormua  being  the  Ueua  of  Da  Petit-Tbooara,  plateau  of 
I>e  Candolle,  bulSotuber  of  Ker,  and  so  called  bulb%M9oUdu% 
of  others:  In  short,  a  stem,  whether  subterranean  or  super- 
teiTancan)u    The  ihaUophjfta  (having  no  opposition  of  stem 
and  root,  no  spirsl  vessels  nor  sexes,  bat  spores  lengthened 
in  all  directions)  he  divides  into  two  sections,  viz. :  1.  ProUh- 
phifUt  (nptrof^  first), born  without  soil,  feeding  by  the  sur- 
Aiee,  fractiflcation  vsgue;  containing  2  classes,  namely,  o/^a 
In  7  orders  and  122  genera,  and  Uchenet  in  4  orders  and  57  gen- 
era. 2.  Ififtterophuta  (fa  rtp  i$,  posterior,  later),  born  on  lan- 
guid or  dead  organisms,  feeding  firom  within,  developing  all 
org^ana  at  once. perishing  definitively;  constituting!  class, 
fuitQi  ;  birth  hidden ;  sporldianone  or  within  osci  ipubvUti) ; 
In  &  orders,  274  genera.     In  this  reslon  there  are  16  orders 
and  4SA  genera.    Tho  eormophyta  (navlng  polar  oppoeitloa 
of  stem  to  root ;  vessels  and  distinct  sexes  in  the  more  per- 
fect Individuals)  he  dlvidee  into  8  sections    The  1st  section 
ia  cusrobrya  (m/w^  uppermost,  hlgbeet,  extreme,  and  /?i>iku, 
to  germinate,  emanate,  be  bred) :  stem  growing  only  at  tbo 
top,   lotver  part  only  n>od-beanng ;  comprising  8  cohorts, 
namely :  1.  Anophyta  (ai^ca,  upward) :  no  vesseb :  hermaphro- 
dite ;    spores  free  within  q>orangia;   with  2  clssses,  hepa- 
ticcBy  in  borders  and  80  genera,  and  mxud.  In  8  orders  and 
26  irenera;  1  Protophyta:  bundles  of  vesseb  more  or  lest 
peneot ;   no  male  sex:  spores  tree  within  noranda  of  one 
or   mora  lodges;  &  classes:    a,  emUBeta  (horsetails),  In  1 
order,    S   genera;   &,  ;C/iee«  (ferns),  7  orders,  72  genera; 
C    hydropUrUUt  (water-wings),  in  2  orders,  29  genera ; 
SL  mti^oQlfiM^  In  8  orders,  11  genera ;   «,  aaiRfcs,  1  order, 
cvccLdM€Cb^  10  genera ;  8.  ITjftterophyta  :  both  sexes  perfect ; 
eoeda  sv'itlioutembiTo,  many-spored;  parasites,  with  1  class, 
rAi»nntA^a  (root-flowering),  in  8  orders  and  14  genera. 
Tbe  2d  section  Is  arnpMbrya  :  stalk  ffrowing  peripberically ; 
^'itb  11  classes,  viz. :  a,  ^Iwnacem^in 2 orders,  gramifu^B^ 
grra^Ki&,    2^   genera,   and  eyperacsm^  sedges,  47  genera: 
^     ^n4trUioM<ut<B  (cyuyrtoK,  against,  pXaoroit  germ),  in  0 


orders,  88  genera;  ei,  hslobim (eXof,  pool, marsh,  5(0f,  life), 
in  2  orders,  10  genera ;  d,  eoronaria  (from  the  ooroUine 
perigonium),  in  9  orders,  4A  genera ;  e,  artorhiKB  {doron 
otMy  ((i(a,  root),  in  2  orders,  17  genera ;  /,  Muata  (Lat 
easts,  sword),  in  7  orders,  110  genera :  q,  gynandra  (female 
with  male),  in  2  orders,  805  genera ;  ^  tcUaminsm  (Lat 
§oiktnUna^  dainties).  In  8  orders,  88  genera ;  i,  JlwiiaUt^  in 


1  order,  naiadew^  6  genera ;  i,  BMutleiJlorm^  in  8  orders,  M 

Snera ;  and  k^  prineipen^  in  1  oraer,  painuB^  02  genera.  The 
section  is  tho  acramphibrya :  stem  growing  Doth  at  top 


and  peripberically :  divided  into4cohorts:  hOymnoapemuB . 
ovules  naked,  fortliizod  immediately  through  the  open  fruit- 
leaf  or  permeable  disk,  with  1  cuss,  ooaf^ro,  in  4  orders, 
28  genera ;  2.  Ap«takB :  no  perigonium.  or  a  rudimentary  or 
simple  one,  calydne  or  colored,  fkee  or  adhering  to  the  ovary; 
with  6  cUsses :  a,  ptp6riU»^  in  8  orders,  28  genera ;  6,  aqu<p- 
Uo49,  m  8  orders,  10  genera ,  c^ju^fiorm  (Lat.  itdui^  catkin), 
in  15  orders  and  1  sub-order,  72  genera ;  <£,  oUraeea  (Lat. 
ojtts,  a  kitehen-plantX  In  4  orders,  60  genera ;  si,  thymdtm 


a  disorder  in  the  eves,  which  some  species  were  believed  to 
cureX  in  2  orders,  10  genera ;  6,  aggrtgak^  in  8  orders,  859 
genera ;  e,  campawuMMCby  in  5  orders,  69  genera ;  d,  eaprU 
folia  (from  climbing  like  a  goat,  Lat.  capra\  In  ST  or- 
ders, 246  genera :  «,  eontorU»  (twisted),  tn  7  orders,  227 
genera;  ^  »iMntf(^er«s,  In  8  orders,  219  genera;  ^,  <ii»a- 
H/lorm,  in  5'  orders,  90  genera ;  A,  per90tua»  (masked).  In 
7  orders,  818  genera ;  i,  petalantha,  in  4  orders,  70  genera  ; 
4,  bieome*,  in  2  orders,  89  genera;  4^  JHalypaalm  (^aXuciir, 
to  dissolve,  separate):  perigonium  double,  outer  calyeine 
(with  leaflets  distinct  or  coalesced,  free  or  cognate  with 
ovary,  sometimes  colored^  Inner  corolUne  (parts  distinct  or 
seldom  united  by  base  of  stamens,  hypo-,  perl-,  or  epigynons), 
sometimes  abortive ;  with  28  classes,  viz. :  a,  ducaniha  (disk- 
flowering),  in  7  orders,  262  genera;  btcomiculata^  in  8  or- 
ders, 77  genera;  e,  polyearpioa (many-lhUted).  in  8  orders, 
182genera;  d,  rhaadsa^  (poia),  pomegranate,  here  misap- 
plied), in  6  orders,  201  genera;  e,  nelumbia  (Cingalese,  as- 
lumbo^  water-lily),  in  8  orders  and  1  sub-order.  10  genera;/ 
parUtalM,  in  18  orders,  94  genera;  g,  pepim^rm,  in  8  or- 
ders,  88  genera;  A,  oputMa.  in  1  order,  eaeUa^  9  cenera;  i, 
earyophytliMa  (Kapveif  walnut,  and  ^oXXov,  leairfit>m  tho 
appearance  of  the  flower-buds  of  pinks),  in  4  orders,  108  gen- 
era; ^,  eolumni/kn»,  in  4 orders.  126  genera;  *,  gutUfirm. 
In  9  orders,  98  genera;  /,  heimeridet  {rodutt^  more  fragrant 


in  the  evening  svnpot),  in  6  orders,  78  genera ;  m,  actra 
(maples),  tn  6  orders,  86  genera;  n,  polygaUnsa  {ynXcL 
milk,  believed  to  fiivor  milk-secretion  when  fed  upon),  in  9 


orders,  16  genera ;  o^frangulacto^  in  7  orders,  100  genera ;  9, 
tricocom,  in  8  orders,  129  genera;  9,  UrtMfOhinsc^  in  10 
orders,  166 genera;  r,  aruinale9  (like  crane-billsX  In  6  or- 
ders, 22  genera;  «,  ealyci/lorc^  in  8  orders,  102  genera;  t, 
myrtiflorc^\n  2  orders,  179  genera;  a,  roM/Corcs,  in  6  or- 
ders, 77  genera ;  9,  Ugumino9c^  in  8  orders,  ^1  ceners.  An 
appendix  of  67  doubtfril  and  of  68  not  yet  described  genera, 
with  a  supplement,  follows  the  above-described  system, 
which  contains  61  classes  in  277  orders  and  6,888  genera. 
Adding  tho  doubtftil  and  not  described,  we  arrive  at  6,958 
genera  (In  1840),  estimated  at  8,985  by  J.  Lindloy  in  1858, 
comprising  92,920  species;  so  that  we  are  not  fu  from  the 
mark  in  taking  the  round  numbers  of  10,000  genera,  with 
100,000  species,  more  or  less  known  at  the  present  time. 

Thomas  Baskerville  (1839)  made  some  good 
remarks  on  the  Bupp<»ed  saperioritj  of  some 
plADts  over  others ;  when,  in  reality,  every  one 
is  perfectly  fitted  for  its  place  in  the  series  of 
heing.  K  Chr.  Trautvetter  (1841),  more  of  a 
philosopher  than  of  a  hotanist,  stadics  plnnts  in 
the  spirit  of  the  ancients^  and  divides  them  into 
semi-plants  (subdivided  mto  fa/oi^  hives,  acoty- 
ledons  \  and  trunculi^  stalks,  monocotyledons), 
and  genuine  plants  (subdivided  into  herbs  ana 
trees).  L.  Oken  (1810  and  later),  in  his  Lehr- 
huch  der  NaturphUosaphie,  arranges  plants  ac- 
cording to  a  correspondence  with  the  animal 
kingdom  and  the  bodies  of  animals.  Adulphe 
Brongniurt  enumerates  the  genera  of  plants 
cnltivated  at  the  mnsenm  of  natural  history' in 
Paris  (1848);  abandons  JusaievL^a  apetaks ;  in- 
sists npon  the  impracticability  of  a  lineal^  ar- 
rangement ;  puts  very  high  value  on  the  various 


564 


BOTANY 


kinds  of  albumen;  hai  2  chief  dirinons,  erypUh 
gamm  (branching  into  amphigena  and  aerogena). 
and  phoMTogamuM  (branching  into  mono-  and 
dieotyledoM^\  in  ail  68  claMee,  with  249  cer- 
tain and  27  vague  orders.  0.  F.  Meisner'a 
PlatUarum  VaKularium  Genera^  ke,  (1B48),  is 
a  large  and  nseflil  work,  whose  beginning  is  in- 
consistent with  the  great  balk  of  what  follows. 
He  intended  to  follow  De  OandoUe,  and  makes 
47  classes  of  vascular  (dicotyledonous  and 
monootyledonous)  plants,  in  268  certain  and  7 
▼ague  orders.  Adrien  de  Jussieu^s  Coun  iU- 
fnentcdre  d^histoire  natureUe  (1844)  is  a  little 
work,  with  an  analysis  of  characters;  the  ar- 
rangement, however,  is  artificial,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  finding  a  plant  easily.  Lindley  also 
gives  an  artificial  analysis  of  the  natural  orders, 
on  pages  801-^10  of  his  **  Vegetable  Kingdom." 
K  J/Kunth  (1847}  imitates  die  principfi  divi- 
sion of  Endlioher,  but  makes  subdivisions  espe- 
cially according  to  the  floral  organs. — Some  of 
the  most  distinguished  botanic  travellers  are: 
M.  Adanson  on  the  Senegal,  Ch.  P.  Thunberg 
(successor  of  linnasus)  on  the  cape  of  Good  Hope, 
Kaempfer  in  Japan,  Buiz  and  Pavon  in  Chili 
and  Peru,  MuUs  in  equatorial  America,  Jaoquin  in 
South  America,  Swartz  in  Uie  Antilles,  Aublet 
in  Guiana,  Jao.  Lonreiro  in  Oochin-Ohina,  Oom- 
merson  almost  all  over  the  globe,  Roxburgh  in 
Ben^^  Desfontaines  in  Algeria^  Maason  at  the 
cape  of  Good  Hope,  Le  Dru  ana  Riedel  around 
the  ^obe,  LabiUardldre  and  Yentenat  in  Ocea- 
nia (the  former  also  in  Yan  Diemen^s  Land  and 
Few  Caledonia),  Du  Petit  Thenars  in  Madagas- 
car, A.  Miohauz  in  North  America,  Alex,  von 
Humboldt  and  Aim6  Bonpland  in  South  America, 
Bob.  Brown,  with  the  painter  Bauer,  in  Austra- 
lia, Ehrenberg  in  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Dongola 
and  Arabia  (where  he  collected  47,000  speci- 
mens). Lesson  in  Oceania,  Baron  HOgel  in  the 
East  Indies  and  Oceania,  Bussegger  in  Syria,  Cor- 
dofan  in  littoral  Arabia,  J.  D.  Hooker  in  Polyne- 
eia  and  the  South  sea,  Leschenault  de  la  Tour 
twice  in  Hindostan,  Giiffith  in  India  and  Boo- 
tan,  Y.  Jacquemont  in  East-India,  Siebold  7 
years  in  Japan,  Ed.  BQppel  and  Schimper  in 
i^ubia  and  AbyssiDia ;  Otto  in  the  Cordilleras, 
on  the  Orinoco,  and  in  North  America;  Biedel, 
Aug.  de  St.  Hilaire,  Spiz  and  Martins,  Moritz,  G. 
Gardner  in  Brazil  and  Ghiiana ;  Schombrnvk  in 
Guiana  and  Louisiana.  Nuttall  in  the  Ilnited 
States,  Tweedie  on  tne  pampas  in  Buenos 
Ayres,  Jo.  Frazer  and  Thomas  Drummond  in 
the  United  States,  Bertero  and  01.  Gay  in 
Chili,  Allan  Cunningham  in  New  Zealand  and 
New  Holland,  M.  Chamiaso  in  Oceania  and 
around  the  globe,  Meyen  around  the  globe,  which 
C.  Gaudichaud  circumnavigated  8  times  with 
Freycinet.  The  empire  of  Bussia  was  examined 
by  S.  Pallas  in  the  south ;  by  Baer  in  Nova 
Zembla;  by  Dr.  Schrenck  in  Samoyed;  by 
Buprecht  and  Saveliew  in  the  polar  regions; 
by  Fred.  Parrot  in  the  southern  regions  which 
had  not  been  visited  by  Pallas ;  by  Ehrenberg 
(with  Alex,  von  Humboldt  and  Bose)  in  parts 
of  Siberia  not  visited  by  Gmelin  and  PaUas. 


The  flora  of  Asiatk  Rnsda  also  owes  much  to 
the  labors  of  Ledebonr. — ^Among  the  remsrk- 
able  floras,  or  works  exhibiting  the  plants  of 
various  countries,  the  following  may  be  men- 
tioned :  Flora  Suecim  (1647),  by  Magnus  NiooL 
Celsius;  F.  Laponica^  by  O.  Linnsous ;  F.  Sd- 
leruity  by  Jo.  C.  Buxbanm;  F,  Indiea^  by  N.  L 
Bnrmann  (1768);    F.  Camiolimy   hj  Soopoli: 
F.  AnglitBy  by  Hudson  (1762);  F.  Londineuit, 
by  Curtis  (1774) ;  F.Scotia^  byLightfoot(1777); 
the  splendid  Flcra  Ikmia  (begun  in  1761.  at 
the  order  of  KingFrederic  Y.)  by  Oeder MuUer, 
M.  Yahl,  and   Homerman;    F.  AuUrim^  l/j 
Jacquin  (5  vola.,  500  plates);  Bumia^  hj  PaUas; 
of  Piedmont,  by  AUioni ;  VHerbur  de  Fmu» 
(l780-'98),  by  Bulliard ;  the  fine  French  ion, 
byDe  Lamarck  and  De  Candolle,  axid  another 
by  Mntel.    Magnificent  works  are:  the  hotM 
FlatUarun  rartorum,  by  Jacqmn,  who  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  emperor  Frauds  L ;  the  SUrpa 
nofXB,  bv  L'H^riter  de  Bmtelle  (l784r-'5),  with 
plates   by  the   celebrated   Bedoat^,  abe  his 
SertumAnglieawum;  Philip  Miller's  Gard^ei^ 
and  Florist's  Dictionary,  oommenoed  aa  early  as 
1724,   the  forerunner  of  Curtis^s    ooDee&oo, 
whidi  began  in  1787,  and  is  still  oontinoei 
The  latter  is  rich  in  good  plates  of  plants  cnl^ 
vated  in  the  United  Kingdom.    From  coane 
woodcuts,  the  best  among  which  are  those 
of  Clusius,  Dodoens,  C.  Banhin,  and  Bodbec^ 
or  impressions  of  plants  with  printers*  iak 
in  Hoppers,  Sowerby'a,  Crew's,  and  other  aid 
works,  and  from  mere  outline  drawings,  m  ia 
Plumier,  Linnseus,  jr.,  &o.,  there  has  be^  a  con- 
stant improvement  in  the  artistio  represeatatipa 
of  plants,  which  keeps  pace  with  the  growth  ef 
the  science,  until  we  reach  the  performances  of 
Redouts  and  his  successors.    Beside  the  flom 
and  pictorial  representations  of  plants,  and  d 
tiieir  parts,  mentioned   above^  almost  evcxr 
province  of  Europe  abounds  in  many  other, 
often  magnificent,  literary  and  artistic  dispkn 
of  its  vegetation.    The  literature  of  these  wurb 
is  recorded  in  C  A.  PritzePs  2%emttrtu  Ui- 
eratura  Botaniea   omnium   Oontium^   15,W 
Operwn  recemoM  (Leips.,  1851).    This  fruit  d 
the  assiduous  labor  of  8  years  comprehends  al 
that  is  valuable  in  the  works  of  A.  Haller,  Lb^ 
naaus,  S^uier  (on  the  general  literatore  c^ 
botany) ;  in  those  of  J.  Dryander  (on  &  *. 
Banks^s  library),  in  the  monographs  of   Wk- 
stroem  (Sweden),  Adamski  (Poland),  Haberis 
(Hungary),  8tembei^  (BohemiaX  Trantveos 
(Russia),  in  the  botanic  departments  of  all  gretf 

Eublic  libraries,  and  in  the  private  bcitfx 
braries  of  the  emperor  of  Austria  (probably  tha 
richest  of  all,  tiianks  to  the  efforts  of  S.  findlid^ 
and  Fenzl),  of  Link,  Schechtendal,  Kiznz,  Be 
Candolle,  Jussieu,  Delessert,  B.  Webh,  Gsf.^ 
Leveill6,  Montagno,  Grisebach,  &c  Worthy  cc* 
mention  among  the  oldest  herbaria  (cidled  abo 
horti  ncci)  are  those  of  Ranwol^  CsBsalpic^Ss 
Plukenet,  Petiver,  Toumefort,  Linne«iB,.  Box- 
baum,  Rurapf,  Bnrmann,  Ammann,  Farkiosoo. 
FeuiU^e,  Commelin,  Sloane,  and  St.  Flacoert. 
Hales*s  "^  Vegetable  Staticks''  (London,  17S7>,  as 


BOTANY 


666* 


exoelleiit  work,  iranslnted  into  Frenoli  by  BniTon 
(1 735Xis  full  of  most  sagacioos  remarks  on  the  ia- 
ternal  stractare  of  plants,  although  it  contains 
bat  little  on  the  motion  of  the  nutritive  liquids. 
Together  with  Malpighi^s,  Grew^s,  and  Hedwig's 
works,  it  inaognrateu  a  new  era  in  natural 
soienceu  Robert  Hookers  *^  Micrographia^'  (Lon- 
don, 1667),  however,  is  the  first  work  in  which 
the  vegetal  cell  is  noticed.  Malpighi  (1670) 
next  describes  it,  leading  the  phalanx  of  acute 
observers,  snob  as  Mirbel,  Dutrochet,  Amici, 
Moldenhawer,  Yon  Hohl,  linger,  &c.,  to  Schlei- 
den, who  has  best  described  the  primitive  utricle, 
naming  it  cytoblast  or  germinating  cavity.  The 
Hollander  Mulder  and  the  German  Schacht  are 
now  in  the  front  rank  of  those  who  trace  all  vege- 
tation from  the  cell-producing  cytoblast.  The 
rotation  of  the  oeUular  sap  was  first  described  by 
OartA  in  1772,  and  afterward  better  observed 
by  Biot,  De  la  Baise,  and  later  bj^  Fontana,  L.  0. 
l>evirana<i,  Heyen,  &c. ;  a  similar  circulation 
was  named  cyolosis,  by  Gassini,  Schultz,  Horren, 
^BO,  Only  the  principal  observers  or  experi- 
menters in  phvtotomlc  details  can  here  be  men- 
tioned, vijc :  of  organic  mucns,  Brongniait,  MohL 
Yalentm;  of  membrane,  R6per  and  Link;  or 
elementary  fibre,  Pnrkii\je  and  Morren ;  of 
parenchyma,  Gozzi  and  Mulder;  of  fibro-cellular 
tissue,  Moldenhawer  (1779);  of  spiral  vessels, 
Katzing,  Bisoho£  andOken;  on  woody  tissue, 
Labillardidre,  Duhamel  {FhyHqus  des  (irbrea) ; 
on  laticiferous  tissue  (cinencnyma),  Schultz 
(1829,  which  disooveiy  explains  the  principal 
phenomena  of  the  motion  of  the  sap  or  cyciosiG^ 
according  to  the  French  school,  but  is  denied  by 
Meyen);  on  the  ascension  of  sap,  Sarrabat, 
Bonnet,  and  Link ;  on  the  epidermis,  £roker 
and  his  son  (1800);  on  the  bark,  Dnhamel, 
6enebier,  and  PoUini ;  on  cork,  Sprengel ;  on 
leaves.  Bonnet,  the  Bravais,  Steinheil,  and  T. 
Hanstein  (also  on  the  stem  and  root,  1848) ;  on 
floral  organs,  Dunal ;  on  the  anther,  Purkime 
and  Kunth;  on  the  pollen,  R.  Brown.  A. 
Brongniart,  Fritzsche,  Griffitli,  Mohl,  Scnlei- 
den,  and  Wimmel;  on  the  ovary,  Bchykoffsky 
tfid  Grisebach ;  on  the  ovule,  R.  Brown,  Thos. 
Smith,  Turpin  de  Mirbel,  Brongniart,  and  Tre- 
viranus.  Smoe  Hedwig,  Yaucber,  Persoon, 
Agardh,  Nees  von  Esenbeck,  FAes,  Yiriani,  J. 
Brodie,  and  other  oirptogamists,  the  finest 
anatomic  observations  m  this  department  have 
been  made :  on  fungi,  by  Ehrenberg,  Leveill4, 
Montague,  Berkeley,  Klotzsh,  Tulasne,  and 
Pringsheim ;  in  mycology,  by  Bonorden  ^  on 
hepatica),  by  Gottsohe;  on  lichens,  by  G.  von 
Holle,  S|)eersohneider,  J.  D.  W.  Baverhoffer; 
on  algce,  by  Kateing,  Decaisne,  Naegeli,  Thnret, 
Perb&,  and  Oohn. — Phytochemistiy  dates  from 
the  foundation  of  org^ic  physics  by  De  Sans- 
snre,  A.  von  Humboldt,  and  Ghiy-Lnssac,  and  es- 
pecially from  the  demonstration,  in  1804,  of  the 
mvariable  ratio  of  oxygen  to  hydrogen  in  our  at- 
mosphere, under  au  circumstances.  Further 
observations  on  the  variable  quantitieB  of  car- 
bonic gas,  of  water,  ammonia,  hydrogen  gas,  and 
sulphuretted  by drc^gen  gas  (singly  and  independ- 


ently of  each  other,  and  but  oocasionally  present 
in  the  atmosphere),  together  with  those  on  the 
conditions  of  the  atmospheric  air  over  the  seas 
and  over  other  large  bodies  of  water,  as  well  as 
on  the  conditions  of  all  sorts  of  water,  and 
on  the  constituent  elementary  parts  c^  various 
soils — all  these  conquests  of  modern  science 
form  the  basis  on  which  the  chenucal  properties 
and  phenomena  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  have 
been  scrutinized.  Moreover,  since  Galileo  con- 
quered the  Torricellian  horror  of  a  vacuum,  the 
reason  why  the  root  receives  one  matter  in 
preference  to  another  must  be  attributed  to 
affinity  of  its  exterior  membrane  to  the  matters 
which  surround  it  in  the  soil.  Nollet  first  ob- 
served (1748)  that  2  different  liquid  mixtures, 
separated  by  a  permeable  wall,  mutually  ex- 
change the  matters  solved  in  them.  Dutrochet 
named  these  mutual  transits  endomnosU  and  ocot- 
mofiU  ^-giving  and  out-going).  Chevreul,  lie- 
big,  Yierordt,  and  the  clear-headed  Jac  Mole- 
Bchott,  with  many  others,  have  made  many  exper- 
iments concerning  this  transudation.  On  these 
premises  other  observations  and  experiments 
nave  become  safer  and  their  results  more  trust- 
worthy than  they  could  have  been  otherwise. 
Trinchetti  and  Yogel  studied  the  reception  of 
inorganic  matter  by  the  root  J.  Mailer,  find- 
ing fungi  and  confer v»  in  the  lungs  of  birds,  and 
others  seeing  confervas  on  goldfishes,  frogs,  &C., 
studied  the  reception  of  orsonio  substances  by 
plants.  The  reason  of  the  dry-rot  was  found  to 
be  a  fungus  {meruUu»  dettrtieiar).  The  salts 
present  in  the  humus  were  found  by  Soubeiran 
and  Moleschott  to  part  with  their  acids,  which 
are  sucked  in  by  the  roots.  The  ingenious  Dr. 
Draper,  of  New  York,  has  made  many  experi- 
ments on  the  reception  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen 
into  plants.  Grischow  had  long  before  called 
attention  to  the  absorption  of  oxygen  by  plants 
at  night.  Senebier  (1788)  most  conclusively 
prov^  in  his  FhyHohgie  vegStale^  that  the 
carbonic  add  of  the  atmosphere  is  an  aliment 
of  plants.  Priestley,  Spallanzani,  Ingenhooss,  De 
Saossure,  Davy,  and  Draper,  have  illustrated  the 
exhalation  of  oxygen  in  the  day,  and  ito  reception 
at  night,  or  even  in  the  shade.  Boussinganlt 
has  made  experiments,  on  the  largest  scale,  on 
the  mutual  influence  of  aur,  water,  earth,  and 
plants.  Mulder  discovered  the  prote'ine,  upon 
which  he  built  a  theory  of  his  own,  explaining 
many  phenomena  of  vegetation,  although  it  is 
now  proved  that  the  protei'ne  is  not  a  radical 
The  cereals  were  studied  by  Beocaria ;  the  pro- 
portions of  the  amylaceous  bodies  in  plants 
(such  as  cellular  matter,  inuline,  dextrine,  the 
sorts  of  sugar,  mannite,  pectme,  &a),  by  B6- 
rard,  P61igot,  Braconnot,  £ichhof;  Payen,  and 
Pereira ;  oily  substances,  bv  Hartig,  Mulder, 
Dondei-s,  IHenko  and  Laskowsky,  PlayfiEiir, 
GOrgey,  and  especially  by  Dumas;  wax,  by 
Brodie ;  the  chlorophyl  and  its  modifications, 
by  Berzelius,  Girardin,  Huber.  and  Avequin; 
the  ashes  of  vegetables,  by  Levi,  Bichon,  Kich- 
ardson,  and  Herapath.  The  most  delicate  dis- 
covery in  phytochemistry  was  made  by  Pasteur, 


566 


BOTANY 


Tu.,  of  a  donble  salt  of  ^pe-acid  (with  natron 
and  ammonia)  in  2  kinds  of  crystals,  which 
yield  2  acids  that  are  distingnishable  only  by  the 
one  refracting  solarized  light  toward  the  rights 
the  other  toward  the  left,  but  agreeing  x>erfect]y 
in  all  other  respects.    An  apparatus  for  the  mi- 
croscope, to  be  used  with  oolarized  light,  was 
contrived   by   Boeck,    a   T^orwegian«     Biot, 
Ehrenberg,  Schacht,  and  others,  experimented 
with  the  polarized  ray. — ^Phytopathology  has  as 
yet  bat  a  scanty  literature :  W.  Focke,  J.  Man- 
ter,  and  P.  Hartinff,  have  written  on  the  potato 
disease ;  Von  Mohl  on  the  grape  disease  (1852) ; 
on  the  sleep  of  plants,  we  have  Hoffmann  and 
GOppert;  on  parasitic  fungi,  De  Bary  and  Tu- 
lasne ;  on  the  action  of  ether  and  chloroform 
on  plants,  F.  0.  Clemens.    The  best  written 
treatise  on  fermentation  and  the  decay  of  or- 
ganic  matter   is  by  Liebig  (2d  part  of  his 
**  Chemistry  applied  to  Agriculture  and  Physi- 
ology," 1846),  who  defines  putrefaction  as  an 
intermingling  of  2  or  more  metamorphoses. 
An  admirable  work  on  the  metamorphoses  of 
plants  was   written    by   Goethe,   1790;    and 
'*  Aphorisms  on  Chemical  Phytophysiology,"  by 
A.  von  Humboldt,  in  1794.    On  symmetry  in 
the  form  of  plant's  we  have  Chatin  andMoquin-i 
Tandon.    All  great  chemists,  such  as  Fourcroy, 
Yauquelin,  Berzelius,  Sir  H.  Davy,  Faraday, 
and  Lampadius,  Am).,  treat  on  the  constituent  parts 
of  plants,    finally,  the  following  phytotomists 
ana  phytophysiologists,  not  mentioned  above, 
also  deserve  particular  notice :  Aug.  St.  Hilaire^ 
Desfontaines,  Desvauz,  Oh.  Gaudichaud,  Cou- 
verchel,  Becquerel,  Macaire-Prinsep,  Bory  de  St. 
Vincent,  Palisot  de    Beauvois,   Thomson,   R 
Barimont,    A.  Comparetti,   Keith,  Rudolphi, 
Kieser,  Meyer,   linger.    With  regard  to  the 
uses  of  plants,  the  principal  authors  are :  Dier- 
baoh,  F6e,    Geiger,  Guibourt,  Von   Martins, 
Nees  von  Esenbeck,  Pereira,  Richard,  Royle, 
and  especially  Stephan  Endlicher,  in  his  ErichU 
ridion,  H.  Schacht  has  written  on  the  textures 
of    conunerce;    Reisseck   on   fibrous   tissues 
(1852).    J.  J.  Rousseau  contributed  much  tow- 
ard   popularizing    the    knowledge  of  plants. 
Among  ladies  who  have  devoted  themselves  to 
botany,  it  may  suffice  to  mention  Mrs.  GriffithSi 
of   Devonshire,  Eng.,  who  discovered  many 
plants^  and  Miss  Dri^e,  whose  drawings  are  ad- 
mirable. On  the  affinities  of  plants,  Arnott,  Aug. 
St.  Hilaire,  Bennett,  Bentham,  Cambassades,  De- 
caisne,  Von  Martins,  Miers,  and  Richard,  may 
be  consulted. — ^We  will  now  give  an  alpha- 
betical list  of  natives  and  foreigners  who  have 
promoted  the  botany  of  the  United  States  and 
of  British  America: 

Wm.  Baldwtv,  Msistod  EUiott  in  the  sketch  of  the  botany  of 
8.  C.  and  Oa.  ' 

Bkij.  B.  Bastoit  profeawT  of  botany  In  Phllaclolphla,  "Col- 
leetions  for  an  Essay  toward  a  Materia  Medica  of  tho 
U.  8./  ni>8-1804;  "FraRmcnts  of  tho  Natural  History 
of  Pa^"  ITW,  foL ;  "  Projtroas  of  Vegetation,"  1T91 :  '*  Elo- 
mento  of  Botany/*  revised,  and  with  additions  of  British 
examples,  Ac,  Lond.  1S04;  Flora  Virginica  (reaching  onlr 
to  the  tstrctndria  of  Linna)U8,  but  an  enlarged  and  mod- 
Ifled  edition  of  the  work  of  Clayton  and  Gronovius).  Phila., 
1312 :  "  Specimen  of  a  Qeogranhlc  View  of  Trees,*'  &c.,  of 
North  America  between  laL  U*  and  75'  (inoompletoX 


W.  P.  a  B Anon ,  •  Fkm  ef  PWIadriphla,*  wItUn  U  nfles 
aroand  (hasty  and  inacenrate). 

JoHM  Bastbax  collected  (about  1780)  and  sent  many  pbats 
and  Bee<b  to  Pet  Coilinson  and  other  botaaiaU ;  estabiisbed 
the  first  botanic  garden  on  the  Bchuylklll,  below  Phiiaikl- 
Phla,  and  did  very  mnch  for  natural  history. 

WM.  Bactbam  travelled  In  the  <}arolliiaa,  Gc«w;gia,  as-i 
FloridaSi  and  wrote  on  their  toil  and  prodnctloaa,  17$1- 

L.  C.  BsoK  oontrlbnted  toward  the  botany  of  nUnoii  sad 
Missouri  (not  beyond  the  mooadelphia  of  Ltaoms:; 
''  Botany  of  the  United  States  north  of  Virgiiiia, '  1S3S,  U 
edition,  18i3. 

Jacob  Bioblow,  FkntUa  Bottonitmsis^  ISl^-'BI-'Ifl; 
**  American  Medical  Botany,"*  ISU-'Sl,  d  voU.,  «»  oMiKd 
plates :  **  On  the  Forwardness  of  Spring  In  different  psra 
oftheU.8..''lS13. 

W.  BinolbtIb  ''  Useftal  Knowledge"  treata  of  v«geCatka  ia 
the  8d  ToL,  1903. 

F.  Boot  compared  American  plants  with  BpedBaeas  ia  the 
old  herbaria  now  in  Europe. 

J.  A.  Bbbbbtoit,  Prodromus  Jlorts  OolumbiantB  (of  WtA- 
ington),  ISSa 

Bbowm,  ""List  of  PUnts  collected  on  the  Co«st  of  BaOa'^ 
and  PosMMsioB-Bayr  I^d^  181»;  OMaris  MtMUituM, 
1S23. 

J.  BaowxB,  SyUoa  Amtrieana^  1882  (does  not  contria  sD  ' 
trees). 

J.  Cabbt  described  thecarieet  in  A.  Orny^a  "Manoal  ef 
Botany." 

Mabk  Gatbsbt,  **  Natnml  History  of  GaiollDB,  Florida,  s^ 
the  Bahamas,^'  9  vols.  foL,  1748;  also  lioHus  BHL  Af»tr- 
icaniM,  treatlngof  trees  fit  for  England  (also  nnder  the 
title  of  ffoHusEurmHB  Am«rioamus\  17»-*7. 

T.  Clatton,  of  Yirglnta,  ajmat  botanist,  had  hla  diseover- 
ios  published  in  the  2d  edition  of  Gronorins  1176«)l 

CADWAU.ADBB  CoLDBK  WTOto  PionUa  OoldmUkomim,  kz^ 
(near  Newbunh,  N.  Y.),  published  in  (he  Atia  $^ 
vpsal^  1748.  He  corresponded  aasidDoiuly  with  Gi«)o- 
vfua,  Llnnans,  Coilinson,  and  all  other  great  bofaiiist^  of 
the  time.  His  work  does  not  go  beyond  tlie  ISttt  dass  sf 
Llnnseua.  Hla  daughter,  wilb  of  the  8ooteh  Dr.  Farqahs. 
described  the  Hyptriomm  Fi/vsnievm,  made  buet 
drawings  of  plants,  was  admired  by  bbcd  of  aaeaee,  sed 
left  her  won,  Flom  Jfovi  Mbcrnet^  to  Wangeaheiei, 
from  whom  it  came  Into  tho  handa  of  BaMlngrr,  anL  A 
last  into  the  llbnry  of  8ir  Jos.  Banks. 

P.  CoLLinsoN,  of  London,  a  friend  of  limuena,  Ineirirvd  JL 
Bartram  and  others  with  a  love  of  nataro ;  m«de  experi- 
ments on  lyehtUi  diesciOt  corroboratire  of  thoae  of  L^aa, 
concerning  the  sex  of  plantsi 

J.  Cobnutos,  a  French  physician,  pnU 
PiarUarutn  nutcria^  Paris,  IOS. 

The  Abbd  CoBBBA  reduced  Miihlenbeig^  genera  to  Jm- 
sleu's  system,  for  his  classes  at  Philadelphia,  la  lSt& 

H.  B.  Cboom's  monograph  on  &MTaoei»Me  appealed  ia  fiie 
**■  Annals  of  the  N.  Y.  Lyceum,"  yoL  & 

M.  CvTLBB  wrote  an  account  of  the  TegeCmble  p>odBcttwM 
of  New  Enghmd,  178S,  probably  the  lint  eaaaj  of  a  anea- 


tlflc  description. 
J.  Dabbt  wrote  on  the  yeicetable 
em  States,  and  (1S41)  a  **Mani 


loBsof  theaoBth- 

of  Botany.* 


W.  DABLnroTON,  an  '*  Essay  on  the  Derelonnent  of  the  Ex- 
ternal Forms  of  Plants,"  oompilod  fh>m  Qoetlie,  1689 :  oa 
graminses^  as  Importan!  to  man ;  a  Flarula^  1896,  azKl  a 
Flora  CMirica  (of  West  Chester,  Pa.),  1887;  on  ^  Acricsl- 
tural  Botany,"  and  *'  Memorials  of  J.  Bartzam,  i£  Mir- 
shall,"  Ac,  PhU^  1S49. 

Dbwbt,  on  carict^fraphy,  *'6illbnan^  Jonmal,"  toL  TIL 

J.  W.  Dbapbb,  on  the  *^  forces  prodndng  the  < 
of  Plants,"  on  capillary  attractran,  electricity,  s 
action  of  light,  isk 

A.  Eaton  "a  **•  Manual  of  Botany  fbr  North  America.**  on  the 
system  of  Llnnieus,  1st  ed.  in  ISIS,  8th  In  1840  (in  the  last 
eid^on  Wright  oo6peratedX  and  some  elementmry  boob; 
marked  an  epoch  in  the  progreas  of  tho  adeiice  is  Ma 
country. 

A.  Elliott  issued  lnnnmbers(181^'94),aTB]aable  '^ 
of  the  Botany  of  Sooth  (Carolina  and  Qeoigia." 

O.  B.  EMBBSoir,  on  ** Trees  and  Shmbs  of  Maiwmln 
1846. 

O.  ENOBLVAmr  wrote  on  CiftimttB  in  ISIS^  and  with  A 
Gray  on  Llndheimer*s  Texan  phmta,  184Sl 

A  Florida  CWnm^isiwit  apptered  at  Washington  In  ISS, 
anonymously. 

J.  R.  FoBSTBB^  Flora  AmsHem  StptmiriomtOi*,  1771  (afas 
in  Bos8u*s  travels,  vol.  8). 

J.  Frasbb,  an  indofhtlgable  collector,  on  Agreaiis  Chrmee- 
pics,  London,  1789.  and  on  7%alia  doaibatA,  17M,  witii 
a  table  drawn  ana  colored  by  J.  Sowert>y,  an  eminent 
artist 

J.  C.  Fbbmoitt'b  "Plants  of  the  Bodsy  Mountains**  (ISfi^ 
published  by  Torray. 


Sketch 


BOTANY 


667 


Dr.  Awl  OAmmnr,  ofClmlaitoii,  eoRMpondad  witli  Lin- 
nteos,  Golllnson  and  EiliB. 

A.  Qbat,  an  eminent  botanist  of  the  United  States:  elemen- 
tary boolUf  monograplu  of  Amerioan  Rhynoho^porm^ 
a  revision  of  MelarUhaeea^  remarks  on  CeratophyUdcea  ; 
has  eatalogned  American  Oramina  and  CyMracea;  re- 
viewed J.  Damas,  J.  B.  Boussingault,  Johnston,  and 
Draper,  on  the  Chemistry  of  YeKetation ;  notes  on  the 
mountains  of  North  Carolina ;  noticos  on  Kaflnesqae,  and 
on  Kuropean  herbaria;  OhiorU  £oreali-Amerieana,  11- 
lostrating  rare  plants:  also  a  complete  *' Manual  of  the 
Botany  of  the  Northern  United  SUtes,*'  2d  ed.  1858 ;  ''  In- 
troduction to  Structural  and  Systematic  Botany  and  Vege- 
table Physiolosy,*"  1858;  bedm  in  1849  his  gresl  work, 
Oenera  florm  Americanm  BoreaUs  iUustrala,  which  Is 
to  be  in  10  Tols.  Many  of  his  short  works  have  been 
poblished  in  American  literary  periodicals.  He  was  asso- 
ciated with  G.  Engelmann  in  a  work  on  Lindhelmer*s 
plants  of  Texas;  with  W.  S.  SulUrant,  who  wrote  ontho 
mosses  and  lirerworts  of  the  U.  8.  east  of  the  Mississippi ; 
with  J.  Torrey,  in  the  *•  Flora  of  North  America.'^  an 
abridged  description  of  indigenous  and  naturalized  plants, 
north  of  Mexico,  3  vols,  18l3-'4a. 

Jo.  Fa.  QsoNOTius  published  JFJora  Fir^nieo,  Lugd.  Bat 
1789-'48;  Sd  edition,  1708,  by  his  son,  aunnented  with  the 
observations  of  Clayton,  Colden,  Mltchei,  Kalm,  dbo. 

W.  Jackson  Hookbk,  one  of  the  best  European  botanists, 
published  lists  of  plants  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Oreen- 
land,  1828;  an  account  of  a  collection  of  Arctic  plants  by 
£dw.  Sabine,  1824;  with  Walker- Amott,  the  Botany  of 
Oapt.  Beechey's  voyage  to  the  Pacific  and  Behring's  Strait, 
1841;  a  Itora  BoreaH-Anuricana^  1888-'40,  8  vols.  4to, 
288  plates  (Including  Texas).  His  agents  were  Douglas, 
Drummond,  BleharoBon,  ana  others. 

J.  Jackson,  a  neighbor  of  H.  Marshall,  collected  and  cul- 
tivated many  rare  plants  at  his  estate  of  Londoogrove, 
near  Philadelphia,  about  1T77. 

J.  Jossbltn's  *' New  England's  Baretles,"  London,  1872,  and 
an  account  of  two  voyages  to  New  England  (1688-74), 
contain  many  marvellous  botanical  observations. 

Pkrb  Kaui,  sent  out  by  Llnnnus,  1748,  travelled  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Canada  for  8  years,  and  published  his  obser- 
vations at  Stockholm,  1751,  and  again  in  1758 -'61. 

Ad.  Kumf,  of  Pennsylvania,  another  of  the  puplb  of  Un- 
niens,  was  the  first  American  professor  of  botany  (1768)  in 
Philadelphia,  but  he  did  Utile  for  the  science. 

Lamabok,  in  the  Journal  cPhistoire  naturelU,  voL  1,  gave 
notices  of  rare  plants  observed  by  Mlcbaux. 

The  collections  of  plants  made  by  Lbwis  and  Clabk  on  their 
western  ezpedition  were  mostly  lost 

Jambs  Looan,  secretary  to  Wm.  Penn,  experimented  with 
Indian  com,  concerning  the  sexuality  of  plants.  His  £b> 
perivMtUa  et  MtUUmata  de  Plantarum  QeruraUone 
(also  on  the  refhwtion  of  light,  Lugd.  Batav.  1789X  were 
translated  into  English  by  Fothergill  (1747^  who  states 
that  B.  Morland  said  (about  1696)  that  the  pollen  entered 
the  ovary  through  the  style. 

HnicraBBT  Mabsiiall,  a  native  American,  published  an  al- 
phabetic Art>u$tum  Amertoanum,  Philadelphia,  178S,  and 
established  the  2d  botanic  garden  on  this  continent,  on  the 
site  of  the  present  village  of  Marshall  ton,  in  Chester  co., 
Pennsylvania. 

Mbtbb,  D»  JHantia  LabradoricU  libri  8,  was  published, 
Llpri880.  -^  ^         r  ^ 

ANDBi  MioHAirz,  ffUMre  dst  chinet  de  VAfnMqus^  pub- 
lished by  his  son  Franc  Andr^  Paris,  1801,  with  80  plates 
by  the  renowned  P.  J.  Bedoutd.  The  son  published,  more- 
over, Vayags  d  Voustt  d€»  mant*  AlUghany%  U  reUmr 
d  CharistUm  par  Ua  havtea  OarcHnse,  Aa,  Paris,  1804; 
MimairM  war  la  naturalisation  dea  arbreajbrMtierg  de 
rAm,  Sept,  Aa,  1805;  NifUceeewtee  Uee  Bermudee,  1806; 
Bietotre  dee  arbree  /breetiere  de  FAm.  Sept,  (discussing 
their  uses  in  arts,  commerce,  Ac.),  1810-*18.  8  vols.  4to, 
with  145  plates;  and  in  connection  with  C.  L.  Bichard,  a 
Flora  BoreaH'AmorieanOy  containing  the  discoveries  of 
his  Ihther,  1808,  with  51  phites,  repubfished  with  a  mer» 
change  of  UUe  in  1820.  An  English  epitome  of  the  **  Oaks,"* 
1810-^2^  containing  26  block  plates;  and  the  imitotion  un- 
der the  name  of  the  *' North  American  Sylva,  or  Forest 
Tiees  of  the  United  SUtes,  Canad^  and  Nova  Scotia,"  150 
colored  engravings.  Paris,  1817-U8,  4  vols.  2d  edition,  at 
New  Harmony,  Ind.,  1840, 8  vols.  An  edition  was  printed 
at  Paris  for  Philadelphia.  (See  Nuttallforthe  supplement) 

J.  MiTOHBU.  of  England,  settled  In  Virginia,  sent  collections 
of  plants  to  Linnieus,  Collinson,  Aa 

H.  M0HLBNBBBG  of  Lancaster,  Ps.,  catalogued  the  plants  of 
that  region,  described  fframintf  and  jp2antasea«amttrias 
of  NorUi  America,  1817 ;  his  works  wero  partly  repub- 
lished by  his  son. 

Maximiuan,  prince  of  Wied,  travels  in  BrazIL  1815-MT. 
and  in  North  America,  1882-'84,  were  published  at  Cob- 
lentx,  1889,  and  their  botanical  contents  were  described  by 
Chr.  G.  Nees  von  Esenbeck,  8  vols. 


Tboxab  KfTRALL  published  genera  of  North  Amerieaa 

Slants,  and  a  catalogue  of  species  (1317-18),  2  voU ;  a 
escriptlon  of  new  species  and  genera  of  composttie,  col- 
lected on  a  voyage  across  this  continent,  in  Oregon,  Upper 
Cahfornia,  and  on  the  Sandwich  Isles,  In  lS84-'5  (''Trans- 
act Amer.  PhUos.  Soc,"  1841) ;  and  a  supplement  to  F.  A. 
Mlchauz*s  North  American  Sylva,  with  additions  of  the 
trees  observed  in  the  Bocky  mountains,  Oregon,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Pacific,  dec,  PblL,  1842,  with  122  colored 
plates ;  beside  the  works  noticed  elsewhere. 

Ambb.  M.  F.  J.  Palisot  de  Bbauvoib,  author  of  the  magni- 
flcent  fZore  (TOware  et  de  Benin  en  Afrique  (Latin  and 
French,  1804-7),  wrote  also  on  American  plants  (In  the 
above-named  **  Transactions.") 

The  brothers  Joshua  and  Samubl  Pbibob  cultivated  (about 
1800  and  later)  perhaps  the  finest  trees  In  this  country,  at 
East  Mariboruugh,  Pa. 

BajlPbtivbb's  Herbarium  Virffinianum  (in  the  "  Memoirs 
for  the  Curious,"  1707X  Hortue  Sioeue  Pfantarum  Amet' 
ieanarum,  with  plates,  are  at  London. 

Fb.  Tbauoott  Pctbsoh  ^anglicized  Pursh),  Itora  Ameriom 
Septent^  2  vols.,  London,  1814-16,  Is  a  good  work.  He 
also  wrote  Hortue  Orlovieneie  (on  an  island  near  St 
Petersburg),  1815 ;  and  a  list  of  plants,  Im  Plauiechen 
Orunde,  near  Dresden,  1799.  foL 

Db  la  Ptlaib:  Ftore  de  file  de  Terre^neuee^  Paris, 
1829. 

C.  8.  BATiNBBgB-SoincALTX  published  many  works  on  natu- 
ral history,  in  Italian  and  French,  at  Palermo  (1810''15), 
before  his  arrival  in  the  United  States,  where  tnere  were 
brought  to  light  many  more,  and  some  of  them  volumi- 
nous (1816-'1») ;  among  whlctk  we  notice  the  **  Annals  of 
Nature ;"  the  Ifeogenyton  (describing  66  new  genera  of 
North  American  plants) ;  a  "  Medical  Flora  of  the  United 
States,"  with  more  than  100  figures ;  the  *"  Herbarium  ;"* 
and  the  **  New  Flora  and  Botany  of  North  America** 
(supplemental  to  all  American  botanical  works,  as  well  as 
to  those  of  the  great  European  botanists,  Ac.)  All  these 
were  written  eccentrically.  He  resided  mosUy  at  Lex- 
ington, Ky. 

BtoHABDSON,  **  Botanical  Appendix  to  Sir  J.  Franklln*s 
Ni^«tive  of  a  Journey  on  the  Shores  of  Hudson's  Bay 
iii«ie  Polar  Sea." 

J.  imBn>DBLL,  **  Synopsis  of  the  Flora  of  the  Western 
States,"  1885. 

Jban  Bobin,  nutoire  dee  plantee  nowoeliee  trouviee  d 
rUe  de  Virginie,et  autree  Ueu»,  Paris,  1620 ;  published 
with  Linocier's  Sietoire  deeplaniee. 

J.  D.  SoHOBPP,  Materia  Medica  Americana,  See^  Erianga, 
1787. 

L.  D.  VON  Sou  w  BIN  I'll,  of  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  wrote,  beside  what 
is  noticed  elsewhere,  a  monograph  of  the  American  viola, 
and  of  the  species  of  carices,  and  a  synopsis  of  native  ftmgi ; 
a  **  Narrative  of  the  Expedition  to  tne  Souroe  of  St  Peter's 
river,  to  Lake  Wlnnep«ck,"  Ac.,  London,  1828;  Specimen 
Flora  Amer.  Sept  Oryptoqam.,  Boleigh,  1821. 

J.  L.  E.  W.  Sqxout,  Flora  OaroUneneie,  Aa,  collected  or 
compiled,  Charleston,  1806, 2  vols. 

C.  W.  SaoBT,  Florula  LeooinaUmieneie,  Ky.,  1880 ;  a  sup- 
plemental catsloffue  of  the  phanerogamous  plants  and  foras 
of  Kentucky,  lie  sent  many  plonto  and  seeds  to  the  At- 
lantic states  snd  to  Europe. 

Vr.  S.  SuLLiTANT  and  I*  LBsgunuBux,  on  the  mosses  of 
North  America. 

JohnTobbbt  published,  beside  odier  works,  a  **  Flora  of 
the  Northern  and  Middle  Seotlonsof  the  United  States" 
(not  beyond  the  ieoeandria  of  LinnnusX  1824, 2  vols. ;  a 
catalogue  of  the  North  American  genera,  according  to 
Lindley's  **  Introduction,"  1881:  a  monograph  of  the 
North  American  cypenicee ;  a  flora  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  with  a  fiill  description  of  all  indigenous  and  nato- 
nllzed  plants,  remarks  on  economy  and  medicine.  Alb. 
1848-'4  fin  the  8d  part  of  the  Natural  History  of  New 
York,  1889 ;  being  a  Beport  on  the  Bot  Department  of 
the  Oeolog.  Survey  of  the  Stote,  1886),  with  161  colored 
plates ;  loonee  ineditee  ad  Horam  Fhiladelphice  itlue- 
Irandam,  180  colored  plates.  Some  of  Torrey's  writings 
are  found  in  the  Americhn  sdentlflc  periodicals. 

Edwabo  Tucxbbman  arranged  the  carices,  184%,  and  gave 
a  synopsis  of  the  lichens  of  the  Northern  States  and 
British  America,  184a 

T.  Waltbb  :  Fhra  OarbUmlana^  Ac,  cum  emendationi^ 
&1M,  London,  178a 

Fx.  Ad.  Jul.  ton  Wanoxniikim  published  In  Qermaa  de- 
scriptions of  some  North  American  trees  and  shrubs,  with 
a  view  to  their  naturalization  in  Germany,  Getting. 
1777-'80;  and  another  work  in  1767,  foL  (See  above  un- 
der C.  Colden.) 

Caspab  Wistab,  pTofbssor  of  snatomy  in  Philadelphia,  was 
honored  by  Nuttall's  naming  a  genus  of  the  papllionaoeir, 
EndL,  Wieteria,  which  Is  the  Tkvreanthue,  Elliott  or 
'IheAmerioai 


jrr€»unMa^  Baflnesque. 
have  thus  been  ImmortsUzed. 


Many  of  the  American  botanists 


668 


BOTANY 


BOTETOURT 


We  now  give  a  list,  in  chrooologieal  order,  of 
oaUlogaee  of  the  plants  of  the  Tariona  regions 
of  America: 
Jon  BAVvm,  la  VlrdnU,  1680  (In  B40i  EUL  Ifamtar^ 

II,  parU,  London,  imi, 
J>ArrSUAOK.  HorL  lOgfnmtstiy'im-'ll.  .  ,    ,„ 

C  W.  £oDT,  FlanUB  Ptandommm*  (aiooiid  J.  L.  Mlt- 

cheirs  ooutttiy  teaU  1807. 
J.  Ln  CoMTi,  on  the  Uland  of  New  Tork,  1S1L 
H.  liuBLBNBSBO,  CoUik  Plontor.  Amsr.  Sept.,  1818-1& 
J.  TosEST,  ofpUnta  within  aOmUee  of  New  York  dtjr,  1619. 
C  8.  RAriMMQUK,  of  the  botamcel  gnrdea  of  the  oaiTenltjr 

of  Tnuuylvnnin,  1824. 
Lk  D.  voM  BcHWBtif nz»  of  pUate  collected  In  the  north- 
west territory  (In  the  nemtlTe  of  the  cxpedltionX  LoikL, 

182& 
J.  TousT'k  ecoonnt  of  a  ooUection  of  plants  from  the  Bockj 

moantalna,  Ac- 1827. 
X.  UiTOHoooK,  of  the  vidnitr  of  Amhent  oolkgOi  182S,  and 

of  Maaaachuaettt,  1885. 
H.  U.  EATOXf  a  few  specimens  from  near  Tror,  188L 
H.  B.  Cboom  and  LoomSi  of  the  aeighboiliood  of  Ncwbani, 

N.  C^  1888. 
J.  Baobmam,  abottt  Charloston,  B.  C,  1884, 
T.  NoTTALL,  collection  toward  a  flora  of  ArkanasSi  1884 
IL  A.  OuBTia,  about  Wilmington,  JX.  C,  1684. 
h.  B.  GiEB V,  phanerogamous  phmts  ^oat  Colnmbla»  S.  0., 

Db.  Amir,  abont  Baltimore,  1888. 

J.  L.  BiDDBLi,  aapplementaiy  catalogue  of  plants  cf  Ohio, 

'  J.  A.  Lahlui,  near  llllwankle,  1888. 
W.  S.  BuLUTAKT,  about  Columbus,  O.,  1840. 
DxwBT^  report  on  plants  of  Massachusetts,  1840. 
8.  T.  OufBT,  Bhode  Island  plants,  1844 
Botanical  Society  of  Wilmington,  Del,  plants  of  Newcastle 

CO.,  1844 
8.  F.  Baibd,  contrtbuttotts  toward  a  catalogue  of  trees  and 

shrubs  of  Cumberland  co.  Pa.,  1846l 
A.  W.  Chapman,  a  lUt  of  pUnts  abont  Qutncy,  Fla.,  1840^ 
F.  B.  Houon,  pUnts  In  Lewis  co.,  C,  184S.  M 

IL  P.  Babtwbu,  of  Western  N.  Y.,  1840.  ^ 

The  following  writers,  in  addition  to  those  al- 
ready named,  may  be  consulted  by  the  student : 

XNOUSH. 

J.  C.  LoiTDOif,  author  of  14  valnsble  works,  ftt>m  1804  to 
1841 :  and  Mrs.  J.  W.  LoimoK,  author  of  some  7  popular 
ones,  especially  for  ladies,  1840-^57. 

BxB  J.  Paxtozi's  » Magazine  of  Botany,"  1884-'48,  8  toIa, 
with  600  Ublea,  and  (assisted  by  J.  Lindley)  a  pocket  bo- 
tanical dlcUonary,  18A8. 

Jonn  LnroucT  (beside  the  greater  works  mentioned  abovel 
**  OuUlnes  of  the  First  Principles  of  Botany,"  1880 ;  **  Key 
to  Structural,  Physiological,  and  Bystomatlo  Botany,'** 
1885;  *"  Ladles'*  Botany,**  1887;  **  Introdnctioa  to  Botany,** 
8d  ediUon,  1889 ;  "*  Klemento  of  Botany,"  184L 

FBBNOIL 

BrasBAV-MiBBn.,  AnaivM  d€%  pianiet, 

Db  Candollb,  7%eorU  iUmMUUre  (U  la  botani^uet  edit,  8». 

par  Alphonse  de  CandoUe,  1844 
Adb.  x>b  Jussiku,  JBUmmtt  d4  botaniauSt  1845;  translated 

into  English  by  J.  H.  Wilson.  1B49. 
Lbbouidbb-Dblalamob,  DraiU  iUmeniairsde  pkvtMoaU 

MuTB^  mimenU  ds  hotand^ue^  1847. 

BicBABD,  Novkttanm  eUmenU  ds  MaiU^u^  U  eddL^  184& 

OERMAN. 

Bhouorxb  and  UKOBB,^run<lfa^a  cfer  Bc^aniis,  1848. 

N.  J.  DB  JAcquxir,  MnMiunff^  1785-lSOO;  reylsed  by  hia 

K.  bTKuictb,  Lehrhudi,  1847. 

C.  O.  Nebs  ton  Eseivbbck. /TiMuf^ffcA,  18Sa 

O.  A.  Peitzbl'b  Iconum  hot.  indeos  looupltHUHnvu^y  con- 
taining a  list  of  all  botanic  works  of  the  18th  and  19th  cen- 
turies, 1855. 

M.   BoHLBiDBir,    QrMmdattQA,  1845-*6:    Orundrim,  1846; 


ish,  by  Ontadt,  1689;  MMcn  Qrsek,  br  Fmi,  lOr.  » 
other  work  of  1845;  Dutch,  by  Hall,  1888;  ItaUsii.  by 
Partatore,  1884-^85 tPoHshTby  Jnndxil],  ISM-^S;  Eu- 


LSPBBiroB 


K.  8PBBM0BL,  Ouehichts  d4r  Botanik,  1817-*18w 

Btsudbl,  yomenelator  biftanicut. 

Ft.  {JnQtM,0rund»tkg4  der  AnatomU  und  Pky%iologUdmr 


PltanMcn.  1848. 
K.  L.  WiLLDuow,  Gntndritt4  d4r  Xrdut&rkmnd*.  Tth 

edit,188L  ^^ 

OTHBR  NATIONS. 
iRstor.  nakir,  Arm&niaea   MeehUaHttarum.  toL   tL, 

A»taii4ca,  Vienna,  1844;  Bohemian,  by  Prasl,  1846;  Dan- 


sian,  by  Ambodlk,  1796,  and  by  Dwlgnbaky,  IfiiT,  beta  ia 
LaUn ;  Spanish,  by  Blanco,  1884-V^;  Bwediah,  by  Aixhs- 

For  other  natioBs  there  kaTc  been  written:  *^ OatflBcs «l 
the  System  of  UnuMU  for  the  Use  of  the  Sti^aleae.*  by 
Moon,  1884;  ** Elements  of  Natnral  Fltfloaophy,'*  8aa- 
serit,  by  Yates,  1886;  and  XeetarwMr  TAML  natmrOU  d* 
IMUi,  by  Jfiger,ie86L 

BOTANY  BAY.  a  bay  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  New  Holland.  Onacoonntof  the  adyanlages 
which  appeared  in  the  plaoe  from  a  Tery  cor- 
sory  examination  by  Cvpi.  Oook,  it  was  dedded 
to  form  a  oonviot  settlement  there.  In  1788  a 
squadron  with  a  nomber  of  convicts  waa  ssot 
out.  Botany  Bay  was,  however,  found  mismt- 
able,  and  the  settlement  wss  made  on  the  ate 
of  thepresent  dty  of  Sydney.  For  years  the 
term  Botany  Bay  was  better  known  to  iIm 
world,  and  a  host  <tf  unpleasant  and  onfonnded 
associations  were  conveyed  by  words  in  them- 
selves enphonions, 

BOTETOURT,  a  oentrsl  county  of  Yhrgiiua. 
It  is  intersected  by  James  river,  and  contains 
the  sources  of  Onug^s  and  Catawba  creeks.  Be- 
side the  Blue  Bidge,  which  forms  its  8.  £. 
boundary,  there  are  other  high  ridges  within  iti 
limits.  The  famous  Peaks  of  Otter  are  near  the 
dividing  line  between  this  and  Bedford  oounty. 
The  James  river  canal  has  been  opened  from 
Ridimond  to  Buchanan,  and  the  Virginia  and 
Tennessee  railroad  also  passes  ihrongh  the  latter 
town.  Its  real  estate  was  valued  in  1860  at 
$2,419,186 ;  in  1866  at  $d,066,32S,  showing  an 
increase  of  26  per  cent  The  productions  in  1850 
were  868,141  bushels  of  Indian  com,  121,694 
of  wheat,  164.068  of  oats,  6,631  tons  of  hay, 
140,886  pounds  of  butter,  166,188  of  tobaeeo. 
There  were  6  flour  and  grist  mUls,  6  saw-miQs, 
2  iron  founderies^  8  frumaoes,  1  foi^e,  1  woollen 
factory,  2  newspaper  offices,  21  churches^  and 
828  pupils  attend[ing  publio  schools.  Pop.  in 
1860,  whites  10,746,  free  colored  426,  dares 
8,786;  total  14,908.  Coital,  Fineastle.  The 
county  was  organized  in  1769,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Governor  Botetourt 

BOTETOURT,  Nokbobhx  Bbkkblbt,  krd, 
a  conspicuous  actor  in  American  colonial  his- 
tory, died  in  1770,  was  the  descendant  of 
John  Berkeley,  the  cavalier,  who  was  en- 
nobled by  Chiurles  II.  in  1660.  He  was  sent  to 
Virginia  as  royal  governor  in  1768,  iust  8  years 
before  the  declaration  of  independence.  His 
birth  cannot  be  ascertained,  but  contemporary 
records  speak  of  him  as  being  about  84  when  be 
came  to  Virginia.  He  had  ftdl  instnictions  from 
the  crown  and  directions  to  assume  more  d^- 
nity  than  had  been  the  wont  of  colonial  govern- 
ors, and  accordingly  he  naraded  the  streets  of 
Williamsburg  with  guards,  a  coach,  and  other 
requisites  of  vice-reg^  pomp.  Conflicdng  duties 
to  the  king  and  the  people  made  bis  sitoation 
most  unpleasant  In  1769  the  assembly  took 
into  consideration  the  incipient  troubles  with 
England,  and  on  May  16  passed  firm  but  re- 
q>ectful  resolutions  remonstrating  against  par* 
liamentary  taxation  9Xid  the  right  clainoed  to 


BOTH 


BOTS 


&69 


lend  them  to  England  for  trial.  So  firm  wer^ 
they  that  Lord  Botetourt  summoned  the  i^)eak- 
er  and  burgesses  before  him  and  dissolved  them. 
The  result  was  Uiat  a  convention  met  in  a 
private  house  and  took  the  incipient  steps  for 
the  revolution.  The  convention  did  not  attempt 
to  legislate,  but  simply  remonstrated  with  par- 
liament, sending  its  resolutions  to  the  other 
colonies  and  to  England.  Under  the  influence 
of  tiiese  resolutioDS  Lord  Hillsborough  wrote  a 
letter  to  Lord  Botetourt^  assuring  Mm  that  it 
was  not  the  intention  of  government  to  tax  the 
colonies,  and  that  the  obnoxious  imposts  would 
be  withdrawn,  which  letter  Lord  Botetourt 
communicated  to  the  assembly.  All  these  an- 
ticipations, however,  were  destroyed  by  the 
policy  of  Lord  North,  who  succeeded  Charles 
Townsend,  and  the  promise  was  not  fulfilled  in 
full,  the  duty  on  tea  being  retained.  Botetourt 
was  deeply  mortified,  and  soon  died  of  disease 
aggravated  by  mental  suffering.  He  was  de- 
plored by  men  of  all  classlds  in  the  colony,  and 
the  legi^tnre  erected  a  marble  statue  to  his 
memory,  which  is  still  standing  in  the  college 
of  William  and  Mary. 

BOTH,  JiiN  and  Andreas,  eminent  Dutch 
painters,  brothers,  and  natives  of  Utrecht ;  the 
elder  was  bom  1610,  died  in  1660,  and  Andreas 
was  accidentally  drowned  at  Venice  in  1646. 
After  studying  awhile  with  Abraham  Bloem- 
art,  they  went  to  Italy,  where  they  continued 
to  reside  until  the  tragical  event  which  separated 
them.  Jan  Both,  whose  tsste  inclined  to  land- 
scape painting,  studied  much  the  works  of 
Claude  Lorraine.  His  landscapes  are  warm, 
tender,  and  harmonious,  and  the  atmoroherio 
effects  are  rendered  with  such  fidelity  to  Italian 
scenery,  that  he  was  called  by  his  contempora- 
ries the  Both  of  Italy.  Andreas,  on  the  other 
hand,  painted  figures,  whidi  he  introduced  into 
nearly  all  his  brother*s  landscapes,  and  with 
such  admurable  skill,  that  the  whole  picture 
seems  to  be  the  work  of  a  single  hand. 

BOTHNIA,  a  large  ffulf,  constituting  the 
northern  arm  of  the  Baltic  sea^  from  lat  60*^ 
to  66"^  40"  N.,  neariy  400  miles  in  length,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  100  miles.  It  extends 
from  the  island  of  Aland,  about  66  miles  north 
of  the  latitude  of  Stockholm,  at  which  point  it 
is  entered  by  2  channels,  24  and  14  miles  in 
width,  from  the  Baltic  to  the  gulf  or  bay  of 
Tomea.  It  is  gatJiered  into  a  channel  much 
narrower  than  its  main  body,  about  midway  of 
itB  extent,  called  the  straits  of  Quarken.  The 
channel  is  also  further  intercepted  at  this  place 
by  several  small  islands,  the  pnncipal  of  whidi 
is  Holmon.  The  portion  lying  south  of  Quarken 
is  called  the  sea  of  Bothnia,  and  that  to  the 
north  the  gulf  of  Bothnia.  The  entire  coast  line 
of  the  gulf  is  very  irregular.  There  is  a  strong 
current,  er  gulf  stream,  setting  constantly  from 
the  head  of  the  gulf  southward,  through 
Quarken,  to  Aland,  where  it  divides  into  2,  one 
passing  £.  and  the  other  W.,  to  reunite  again, 
and  also  with  a  8d  current  from  the  gulf  of 
Finland,  near  the  island  Eokar,  whence  it  seta 


southward  through  the  Baltic.  The  gulf  is 
usually  completely  frozen  in  the  winter,  so  that 
armies  have  marched  across  it  The  strong 
current  above  mentioned,  and  the  abundant 
supply  of  fresh  water  from  a  shed  of  an  average 
breadth  of  160  miles  throughout  its  entire  extent 
of  coast  line,  give  the  waters  of  this  gulf  great 
freshness.  The  gulf  of  Bothnia  is  interesting  in 
a  geological  point  of  view,  as  presenting  an 
undoubted  instance  of  slow  upheaval  and  sub- 
sidence of  its  eastern  and  western  coasts,  now 
taking  place  without  volcanic  action,  at  the 
probable  rate  of  about  2  or  8  feet  in  a  century. 
The  coast  south  of  Quarken  is  generally  pre- 
cipitous, while  those  north  of  the  straits  are 
generally  low  and  sandy.  A  kind  of  herring, 
called  itronuningy  is  taken  in  abundance,  and 
constitutes  a  prominent  article  of  food,  especially 
among  the  lower  classes.  The  region  about  this 
gulf  was  formerly  a  Swedish  province,  under  the 
name  of  Bothnia.  The  portion  K  of  Tomea  is 
now  a  part  of  the  grand  duchy  of  Finland,  and 
that  W.  of  that  river  forms  the  Swedish  govern- 
ments of  Umeaand  Pitea. 

BOTHWELL,  a  Scottish  parish,  co.  of  Lanark, 
on  the  Clyde,  with  extensive  iron  works  and 
collieries,  sufllcient  to  yield  an  annual  income 
of  nearly  $800,000,  anew  church,  and  a  tower 
120  feet  high,  the  remains  of  Bothwell  castle, 
and  famous  in  history  by  the  sanguinary  battle 
fought  onBothwell  bridge  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
IL,  June  22,  1679,  between  the  covenanting 
whigs  of  Scotland  and  the  royal  troops,  in  which 
the  former  were  defeated  with  great  loss. 

BOTHWELL,  Jamzs  Hepbubn,  earl  o^  after- 
ward earl  of  Orkney,  a  Scottish  nobleman  of 
the  16th  century,  notorious  in  history  fi>r  the 
part  which  he  took  in  the  murder  of  Damley, 
and  for  his  infamous  conduct  toward  the  un- 
happy Mary  of  Scotiand.  After  Damley^s  death 
he  forced  the  queen  to  marry  him,  but  forfeiting 
her  affection  by  his  brutality,  he  soon  had  to 
withdraw  before  the  wrath  of  the  Scottish  nobles, 
who  Uberated  the  queen  from  his  power.  He 
escaped  first  to  the  Orkneys,  thence  to  Denmark, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  on  a  charge  of  piracy, 
and  died  in  his  dungeon,  in  1677,  tormented,  it 
is  said,  by  all  the  agonies  of  an  evil  conscience, 
and  leaving— as  it  has  been  asserted,  but  not 

E roved — a  confession,  in  which,  while  owning 
is  own  crimes,  he  ^lly  exonerated  ICaiy  and 
exposed  the  regent  and  confederated  lords. 

BOTRYOIDAL  (Gr.  /Sorpvj,  a  bunch  of  grapes, 
and  ffidor,  form),  a  term  much  used  in  mineralogy 
for  describing  the  form  of  minerals  which  are 
made  up  of  l^|^omerated  bunches,  like  grapes. 
Malachite,  the  carbonate  of  copper,  often  occurs 
in  this  shape. 

BOTS,  the  larv©  of  a  species  of  gadfiy, 
cutruB  equL  The  following  is  the  account  of 
the  natural  history  of  this  insect  as  given  in 
Youatt's  work  on  the  horse ;  on  all  the  details 
of  whic^  all  the  medical  authorities  on  the 
horse  are  entirely  agreed.  "  A  species  of  gad- 
fly, the  mtniM  efui^  is  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
aummer  exceedingly  busy  about  the  horse*    It 


570 


BOTS 


BOTTA 


is  observed  to  be  darting  with  great  rapidity 
toward  the  knees  and  sides  of  the  animal.  The 
females  are  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  hair, 
which  adhere  to  it  by  means  of  a.glntinons 
fluid  with  which  they  are  surronnded.  In  a 
few  days  the  eggs  are  ready  to  be  hatched,  and 
the  slightest  application  of  heat  and  moisture 
will  liberate  the  little  animals  they  contain. 
The  horse,  in  licking  himself,  tonches  the  egg; 
it  bursts,  and  a  small  worm  escapes,  which  ad- 
heres to  the  tongue,  and  is  conveyed  with  the 
food  into  the  stomach.  There  it  clings  to  the 
cuticular  portion  of  the  stomach  by  means  of  a 
hook  on  either  side  of  its  mouth ;  and  its  hold 
is  so  firm  and  so  obstinate,  that  it  must  be 
broken  before  it  can  be  detached.  It  remains 
'there  feeding  on  the  mucus  of  the  stomach 
during  the  whole  of  the  winter,  and  nntil  the 
end  of  the  ensuing  spring;  when,  having  at- 
tained a  considerable  dze,  and  being  destined 
to  undergo  a  certain  transformation,  it  disen- 
gages itself  from  the  cuticular.  coat,  is  carried 
into  the  villous  portion  of  the  stomach  with  the 
food,  passes  out  of  it  with  the  chyme,  and  is 
evacuated  with  the  dung.  The  larva,  or  mag- 
got, seeks  shelter  in  the  ground,  and  buries  it- 
self there ;  it  contracts  in  size,  and  becomes  a 
chrysalis,  or  grub,  in  which  state  it  lies  inactive 
a  few  weeks,  and  then,  bursting  from  its  con- 
finemen  t,  assumes  the  form  of  a  fly.  The  female, 
becoming  impregnated,  quickly  deposits  her 
eggs  on  those  parts  of  the  horse  which  he  is 
most  accustomed  to  lick,  and  thus  the  species 
is  perpetuated.  There  are  several  plain  con- 
clusions to  be  drawn  from  this  history.  The 
hots  cannot,  while  they  inhabit  the  stomach  of 
the  horse,  give  the  animal  any  pain^  for  they 
have  fastened  on  the  cuticular  or  insensible 
coat.  They  cannot  be  injurious  to  the  horse, 
for  he  enjoys  the  most  perfect  health  while  the 
cuticular  part  of  his  stomach  is  filled  with  them, 
and  their  presence  is  not  suspected  until  they 
appear  at  the  anus.  They  cannot  be  removed 
by  medicine,  because  thev  are  not  in  that  part 
of  the  stomach  to  which  medicine  is  usually 
conveyed ;  and  if  they  were,  their  months  are 
too  deeply  buried  in  the  mucus  for  any  medi- 
cine, that  can  safely  be  administered,  to  affect 
them ;  and,  last  of  all,  in  due  course  of  time 
they  detach  themselves  and  come  away.  There- 
fore, the  wise  man  leaves  them  to  themselves, 
or  contents  himself  with  picking  them  off  when 
they  collect  under  the  tail  and  annoy  the  ani- 
mal." In  a  word,  all  the  stories  about  horses 
being  destroyed  by  hots  eating  through  the 
coats  of  the  stomach,  are  utterly  impossible  and 
absurd.  When,  after  death,  the  coats  of  the 
stomach  are  found  to  be  corroded  and  peifo- 
rated,  and  when  hots  are  found  either  in  the 
perforations,  or  already  passed  through  them, 
other  causes  have  destroyed  the  stomach ;  and 
the  hots,  which  have  no  longer  any  sustenance 
when  the  hoi-se  is  dead,  are  on  the  move  for 
other  quarters.  The  treatment,  therefore,  for 
horses  diseased,  as  ignorant  practitioners  wiU 
constantly  affirm  that  they  are,  with  bote,  is 


*iii  itself  founded  in  error,  useless,  absurd,  and 
often  fatal  to  the  animal  under  treatment  For, 
in  the  first  place,  the  true  ailment,  whatever  it 
be,  is  progressing  unimpeded,  while  the  horse 
doctor  is  fighting  with  a  shadow;  and  in  the 
second  place,  the  remedies^  which  certainly  will 
not  kill  the  bots,  are  exceedingly  likely  to  kill 
the  horse.  This  will  easily  bo  understood,  when 
it  is  stated  that  bots  have  lived  for  many  days 
together  in  olive  oil,  and  even  in  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, and  that  tobacco  and  nitrous  and  snlpbnrio 
acids  do  not  immediately  kill  them. — The  above 
is  the  result  of  all  the  best  knowledge  of  the 
best-informed  men  on  the  subject,  who  all  agree 
that  bots  are  never  dangerous  to  the  horse, 
but  that  tlie  treatment  to  remove  them  is  so 
almost  invariably. 

BOTTA,  Anns  Ouablottb  (Lynch),  a  living 
American  poetess,  bom  at  Bennington,  Vt 
Her  father  belonged  to  the  association  of  united 
Irishmen,  participated  at  the  age  of  16  yeara  in 
the  rebellion  of  '98,  was,  by  reason  of  his  youth, 
offered  pardon  if  he  would  swear  allegiance  to 
the  British  government,  refused,  was  imprisoned 
for  4  years,  and  then,  being  banished  for  life, 
came  to  America.  Miss  Lynch  was  educated 
in  Albany,  New  York,  began  early  to  contribute 
to  hterary  journals,  and  in  1841  published,  in 
Providence,  the  "  Rhode  Island  Book,"  a  taste- 
ful selection  of  prose  and  verse  from  the  writers 
of  that  state.  She  soon  after  removed  to  the 
city  of  New  York,  where  her  house  was  opened 
weekly  for  assemblies  of  persons  connected  with 
literature  and  the  arts.  A  collection  of  her 
poems,  which  are  all  short  and  gracefully  writ- 
ten, and  indicate  depth  of  feeling,  has  been  pub- 
lished in  an  elegant  volume,  furnished  with 
illustrations  by  Dnrand,  Barley,  Huntington, 
Brown,  and  other  artists.  Her  prose  writings 
in  periodicals,  consisting  of  essays,  tales,  and 
criticisms,  are  numerous. — She  was  married  in 
1866  to  ViNOENzo  BoTTA,  a  native  of  Piedmont^ 
formerly  doctor  of  philosophy  and  divinity  in 
the  university  of  Turin,  and  professor  of  philos- 
ophy in  the  royal  and  national  colleges  of  that 
city.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Sardinian  pariia- 
ment  in  1849,  and,  after  having  visited  Germany, 
published,  in  connection  with  another  member 
of  the  parliament*,  and  under  the  patronage  of 
the  government,  a  work  on  public  education. 

BOTTA,  Cablo  Giuseppe  Guolisioio,  an  Ital- 
ian historiaiK  bom  at  San  Giorgio  Oanavese,  in 
Piedmont,  Nov.  6,  1766,  died  in  Paris,  Aug.  10, 
1887.  He  was  educated  as  a  physician  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Turin,  and  employed  the  leisure  inci- 
dent to  a  young  practitioner  in  the  study  of  liter- 
ature, botany,  and  music.  In  1792,  during  the 
political  excitement  consequent  on  the  beginning 
of  the  French  revolution,  he  was  accused  by  one 
of  his  own  companions,  thrown  into  prison,  put 
to  the  torture  in  order  to  make  him  confess  his 
imputed  crime,  and,  though  noticing  could  be 
proved  against  him,  and  his  friends  did  all  that 
they  could  for  him,  subjected  to  a  rigorous  con- 
finement, alleviated  only  by  the  kindness  of  a 
turnkey,  who  treated  him  mih  aU  poesible  ten- 


BOTTA 


671 


derness,  and  onoe,  at  the  riak  of  severe  pnnisli- 
ment,  brought  his  dearest  friend  to  see  binu 
His  only  resource  during  his  imprisonment  was 
bis  flute  and  reading.  He  had  a  treatise  on 
geometry,  of  which  he  was  very  fond,  a  copy  of 
Tristram  Shandy,  and  Gnicdardini's  history  of 
Italy.  At  last  bis  innocence  was  established, 
and,  after  17  months  in  a  dungeon,  be  was  set  at 
liberty.  He  immediately  went  to  France,  and  was 
soon  after  employed  as  surgeon,  first  in  the 
army  of  the  Alps,  and  afterward  in  that  of  Italy. 
He  thus  became  an  eye-witness  of  many  of  the 
events  which  be  has  recorded  in  bis  history 
of  Italy,  and,  altbougb  be  was  never  present  at 
any  of  the  battles  of  those  wonderful  campaigns, 
was  constantly  with  the  army,  and  in  sucn  inter- 
course with  men  of  all  ranks  and  parties,  as 
enabled  jiim  to  collect  and  compare  statements 
and  opinions.  It  was  at  this  period  that  be 
wrote  nis  first  work — a  plan  of  government  for 
Lombardy.  Toward  the  close  of  1796  he  was 
sent  witb  a  division  of  tlie  French  army  to  tbe 
Venetian  islands  of  tbe  Adriatic,  where,  re- 
calling his  early  studies,  be  wrote  his  ^^  Histor- 
ical and  Medical  Description  of  the  Island  of 
Oorfu."  Meanwbile  tbe  conquest  of  Italy  was 
completed,  its  kingdoms  and  duchies  overthrown, 
and  new  republics  founded.  Botta,  whose  bopes 
bad  been  excited  by  tbe  prospect  of  reform,  had 
watched  tiie  course  of  events  with  a  keen  and 
anxious  eye.  He  saw  witb  indignation  tbe  per- 
fidious destruction  and  barter  of  tbe  republic  of 
Yenice,  tbe  confiscation  of  private  property, 
and  tbe  plunder  of  galleri^  museums,  and 
libraries ;  and  finally  lost  faith  in  tbe  political 
regeneration  of  Europe.  In  1798  be  was  ap- 
pointed a  member  of  tbe  provisional  govern- 
ment of  Piedmont,  wbicb  was  soon  overthrown 
by  the  Austro-Russian  invasion.  He  went  to 
irance  and  took  up  bis  residence  at  Obamb^ry, 
where  he  formed  the  acquaintance  of  the  lady 
wbo  afterward  became  bis  wife ;  and  bad  for  bis 
daily  companion  the  poet  Monti.  Bemadotte, 
then  minister  of  war,  soon  restored  bim  to  bis 
rank  in  the  medical  staff  of  tbe  army  of  Italy. 
After  the  battle  of  Marengo  be  was  made  a 
member  of  tbe  council  wbicb,  witb  6  commis- 
sioners, was  to  reorganize  and  administer 
the  government  of  Piedmont.  A  few  months 
later  a  new  government  was  instituted  under 
tbe  name  of  tbe  executive  commission,  and 
confided  to  8  Italians,  of  whom  Botta  was 
one.  Two  acts  connect  bis  name  favor- 
ably witb  this  commission.  Tbe  informer, 
by  whose  accusation  be  bad  been  subjected 
to  imprisonment  and  torture,  was  himself 
in  prison ;  Botta  immediately  procured  bis  re- 
lease, signing  tbe  decree  witb  bis  own  hand,  as 
president  of  tbe  commission.  Tbe  other,  in 
which,  bowever,  the  honor  must  be  eoually 
divided  witb  bis  colleagues,  was  tbe  estaolish- 
ment  of  a  permanent  fund  with  an  income  of 
600,000  francs  for  public  instruction.  In  1802, 
Piedmont  was  reannexed  to  France,  and  be  be- 
came a  member  of  tbe  council  of  general  admin- 
istration for  Uie  27tb  military  division;  and 


when,  in  tbe  following  year,  a  deputation  was 
sent  to  Paris  to  thank  Bonaparte  for  the  defin- 
itive annexation  of  Piedmont  to  France,  he  was 
cbosen  to  represent  his  department.  It  was 
then  that  be  published  bis  Precis  hutariqtie  ds 
la  ma%8on  de  Savoie  et  du  PUmont,  On  Aug. 
10, 1804,  be  was  cbosen  to  represent  tbe  depart- 
ment of  the  Dora  in  tbe  legislative  body,  and 
from  that  time  became  a  resident  of  Paris. 
The  American  war  of  independence  having 
been  suggested  in  the  bouse  of  Madame  Man- 
zonl,  as  the  best  subject  for  an  epic,  Botta^s  at- 
tention was  called  to  tbe  grandeur  of  that 
event,  and  be  resolved  on  becoming  its  histo- 
rian. Lafayette,  Marbois,  and  other  promi- 
nent actors  in  tbe  scene,  wbo  were  living  at 
Paris,  cheerfully  lent  bim  books  and  maps  and 
private  documents,  and  answered  bis  questions; 
and  tbe  public  libraries  contained  large  collec- 
tions of  pamphlets  and  official  reports.  Thus 
surrounded  witb  a  rich  array  of  materials, 
nothing  remained  but  to  give  them  a  shape 
wbicb  would  msJce  them  useful  to  tbe  pause 
of  Italy.  He  bad  always  been  an  entbusi- 
astic  student  of  bis  native  literature,  and 
be  now  conceived  the  bold  design  of  appealing 
to  tbe  patriotic  instincts  of  bis  countrymen  by 
writing  in  the  classic  Italian  of  tbe  14tb  and* 
16tb  centuries.  His  success  was  complete.  Tbe 
first  edition,  whicb  appeared  in  Paris  in  1809, 
was  immediately  reprinted  in  Italy,  where  it 
ran  tbrougb  several  editions  in  various  forms, 
giving  rise  to  discussions  and  researches;  and 
thus  the  history  of  the  war  of  American  inde- 
pendence became  a  contribution  to  the  independ- 
ence of  Italy.  It  was  translated  into  Englisb 
by  Mr.  G.  W.  Otis  of  Boston,  and  at  once 
made  tbe  author's  name  familiar  in  this  conn- 
try.  Meanwhile,  in  1808  be  was  cbosen 
vice-president  of  tbe  legislative  assembly, 
and  reelected  to  tbe  same  office  tbe  foUowing 
year.  In  Dec.  1809,  he  was  proposed  as  candi- 
date for  the  questorsbip,  but  set  aside  hj  Napo- 
leon, wbo  was  dissatisfied  wit^  some  criticisms 
which  the  historian  of  Washington  (for  this  was 
tbe  bgbt  in  wbicb  Botta  always  regarded  bis 
bistory)  bad  made  upon  the  imperial  govern- 
ment On  Jan.  8, 1810,  be  was  a  member  of  tbe 
deputation  from  the  academy  of  sciences  of 
Turin,  wbicb  presented  to  the  emperor  tbe  last 
2  volumes  of  their  acts.  On  tbe  fall  of  Napo- 
leon Piedmont  was  agun  separated  from  France, 
and  Botta  returned  to  private  life.  During  tbe 
Hundred  Days  be  was  made  rector  of  tbe  acad- 
emy of  Nancy,  but  lost  bis  place  again  upon  the 
return  of  tbe  Bourbons.  Piedmont  was  now 
not  a  safe  residence  for  a  man  of  bis  opinions, 
and  be  remained  at  Paris.  His  wife  fell  into  a 
decline,  and  when  ber  physicians  prescribed 
a  change  of  air,  he  was  obliged  to  sell  to  an 
apothecary,  at  the  price  of  waste  paper,  the  last 
500  copies  of  bis  bistory,  in  order  to  raise  the 
means  of  paying  the  expenses  of  ber  Journey. 
She  went  to  Chamb^ry  and  died.  In  1815 
be  published  an  epic  poem  in  12  cantos,  en- ' 
titled  II  OamillOf  o   Ve}o  canquUtata^  which 


672 


BOTTA 


BOTTICELLI 


met  with  oonnderabk  fliioo«00.  In  1817  he 
vas  made  rector  of  the  academy  of  Boaen,  where 
he  remained  till  1622,  when  he  was  removed. 
At  Bouen  he  had  written  his  seoond  history, 
the  "  History  of  Italy  from  1789  to  1814 ;"  hot  it 
was  not  till  1824  that  he  was  able  to  publish  it^ 
and  even  then  he  was  indebted  to  thegenerosity 
of  a  personal  friend,  Poggi,  of  Parma,  for  the 
means  of  defraying  the  expensea  of  the  publi- 
oation.  This,  too,  like  the  nistory  of  the  Amer^ 
lean  war,  was  immediately  repalmshed  in  Italy. 
The  8th  and  last  volume  of  a  German  transla- 
tion appeared  in  1881.  Bnt  the  want  of  a  law  of 
copyright  deprived  the  author  of  all  the  pecu- 
niary profits  of  his  work,  and  the  only  compen- 
sation that  he  ever  received  was  a  certain  num- 
ber of  copies  from  Bosini  of  Pisa,  who  had  pro- 
daced  a  beautiful  edition  in  8vo,  and  a  set  of 
Latin  and  Italian  classics  from  Molini  of  Flor- 
ence, who  had  added  it  to  his  edition  of  the 
most  distinguished  Italian  authors.  In  1826  he 
was  appHed  to  by  a  Frendi  publisher  to  write 
a  general  history  of  Italy  for  a  oolleotion  of 
popular  histories.  It  was  a  contract  for  money, 
accepted  and  executed  under  the  pressure  of 
want.  But  it  led  to  his  Mstory  of  the  people 
of  Italy,  a  work  not  free  from  errors  nor  uniform 
in  execution,  bnt  written  with  life  and  warmth, 
8  volumes  in  8  months,  the  manuscript  passing 
sheet  by  sheet,  as  fast  as  it  was  written,  from 
the  author^s  desk  to  the  hands  of  the  printer. 
Another  interval  of  trial  and  struggle  ensued, 
during  which  some  of  his  friends  were  endeav- 
oring to  form  an  association  for  the  purpose  of 
enabling  him  to  resume  his  pen  and  connect  his 
history  of  Italy  with  the  great  work  of  Guicoiar- 
dini.  As  soon  as  the  arrangements  were  complet- 
ed he  set  himself  to  the  welcome  task,  and  in  6 
years  was  ready  for  the  press  with  the  10  volumes 
of  his  history  of  Italy  from  1582  to  1789.  This 
was  the  last  of  his  works.  The  remainder  of 
his  life  was  passed  in  Paris,  with  the  exception 
of  a  short  visit  to  Piedmont  In  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  he  derived  from  Oharles  Albert  a 
pension  of  $600,  which  was  afterward  raised  to 
1800.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  in  Paris 
by  6  of  his  admirers,  2  of  whom  were  French,  2 
Italians,  and  2  Americana. — ^Paxtl  Emilb,  eon 
of  the  preceding,  a  French  archssologist,  bom 
near  the  beginning  of  the  present  century.  He 
made  in  his  youth  a  voyage  round  the  world, 
and  formed  on  the  western  coast  of  America  a 
collection  of  natural  curiosities.  In  1880  he 
accompanied  the  expedition  of  Mehemet  Ali  to 
Sennaar,  and  completed  a  rich  zoological  col- 
lection. He  was  tnen  appointed  French  consul 
at  Alexandria,  and  in  1887  made  a  Journey 
through  Yemen,  of  which  a  very  interesting  ac- 
count was  published  in  1844.  In  1848,  being 
consular  agent  at  Mosul,  he  began  the  excava- 
tion of  Assyrian  antiquities  from  the  sand  hills 
on  the  banks  of  the  Tigris.  The  French  govern- 
ment commissioned  several  eminent  scholars 
and  academicians  to  assist  him  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  magnificent  work  entitled  Monumenti 
de  Mni9^  deeauverU  et  deeritaparF.  K  JSoUa^ 


mmw^  H  dmnnh  par  E,  IVtndim,  which  wai 
iflsuedatPariSfind  volumes  in  1849-'50.  Many 
of  the  discovered  monuments  were  traosported  to 
Paris,  and  iriaoed  in  the  Louvre.  The  laboncf 
Bottalaid  the  foundation  for  the  still  more  impof- 
taut  results  which  have  been  obtained  by 
Layard. 

BOTTABI,  GiOTAJDn  GiJeeakq,  a  ksned 
Italian  preUte,  bom  ai  Fkirence,  Jan.  15, 1689, 
died  in  Bome,  June  8, 1776.  He  was  direetor 
of  the  grand-daoal  press  of  Tuscsnj,  and  sob- 
sequently  keeper  of  the  Vatican  library,  fiUiag, 
at  the  same  time,  important  eoclenastkal  foBO- 
tions.  He  was Jprindpal  editor  of  the  nev 
edition  of  the  VietiMano  deila  Onuea,,  and 
crowned  the  labors  of  his  life  by  his  8pleii£d 
edition  of  the  Vattcan  Virml,  pablished  in  174L 

BOTTESINI,  LniGi,  an  Italiaii  oomposer  aad 
eontrabaasist,  bora  in  1828,  at  Orema,  Lon- 
hardy.  He  was  taught  the  doaUe-baas  k 
Milan,  by  Luigi  Boasi,  according  to  the  method 
of  Andreoli  and  Dragonetti,  and  soon  becaoM 
a  first  rate  performer;  meanwhile  stndyiag 
musical  composition  undor  several  di<itmgnwhri 
masters.  When  acaroely  28,  he  was  enangedas 
contrabasaist  for  t^e  Italian  opera  in  Havns, 
where  in  a  few  seasons  he  rose  to  the  post  of 
maei^o  and  musical  director  of  the  oompanj^ 
During  the  6  years  of  his  stay  in  fiavsna,  he 
paid  occasional  visits  to  the  Umted  States,  wbrn 
he  secured  oonsideraUe  &me  by  his  woodsiM 
performancea  in  the  oonoert^room.  His  me- 
terly  handling  of  the  huge  instnuneiit  took 
everybody  b^  surprise,  while  his  style,  at  onee 
elegant  and  impressive,  won  the  admiratkn  of 
all  critics  and  amateurs.  Hissaooess  onhiBrs- 
tum  to  Europe,  in  1851,  was  not  leas  ood- 
plete;  the  concerts  he  gave  in  Londoo  aad 
Paria  estabUsbed  his  reputation  as  the  first  liv- 
ing oontrabassist.  In  1868  he  returned  to  tfai 
United  States  with  M.  JuUien,  and  afierwd 
accompanied  Madame  Sontag  to  Meyieou  8eb- 
sequratly  he  became  director  of  the  ordMSba 
at  the  Italian  opera  in  Paris,  where  his  spoi 
L'AMedio  di  Firmua  wss  suooesafully  pecfonHi 
during  the  spring  of  1855.  He  has  sinee  re- 
sumed his  ins&umental  performaaoBa,  and 
travelled  in  Geormany,  and  more  reeeotiiy  k 
Bussia. 

BOTTGEB,  or  BdrroBBB,  also  written  Bdi- 
TfOBB,  JoHAmr  Fbdedbiob,  a  Saxon  sldiemiBt, 
born  at  Schleitz  about  1581,  died  in  JkfB^ 
den,  March  18, 1719,  whose  {MVftended  diseov- 
ery  of  the  philosopher's  stcme  resulted  in  ibi 
naeital  invention  of  Saxon  porcelain.  After  va- 
rious vicissitudes  he  handed  over  to  KiagAa- 
gustus  n.  an  account  of  his  diaoovery,  whatk  b 
BtiU  preserved  in  the  archives  of  Sasony.  Th» 
king,  however,  not  availing  himself  of  his  ssg^ 
gestions,  they  were  put  in  application  by  Coaai 
Tschimhansen,  who  establisned  a  mannfaolwy 
at  Weissen  in  1705,  employing  Bottger,  who 
succeeded  in  producing  of  the  reddish  brows 
day  which  abounds  in  the  vicinity  of  Weksea 
a  porcelain  of  remarkaUe  beanty  and  aolifitjr. 

BOTTICELLI,  ATjmATmiro^  an  Italian  psiitfr 


BOTTIGiSR 


BOTTOMEY 


573 


er,  born  at  Ilorenoe,  1487,  died  1615,  was  a 
pnpil  of  Filippo  lippi.  One  of  his  earliest  fres- 
coes, eatiUea  '*  St  Augustine  in  Ecstasy,''  is  still 
to  be  seen  in  All  Sdats'  ohureh,  Florence,  where 
he  was  buried.  He  decorated  for  Siztns  IV. 
a  chapel  in  the  Vatican.  Beside  numerous 
figures  of  the  popes  in  the  niches,  he  painted  8 
large  frescoes, "  Moses  slaying  the  Egyptian,"  the 
"Punishment  of  £orah,  DaSian,  and  Abiram," 
and  the  *^  Temptation  of  Ohrist."  He  was  loaded 
with  fsivon  by  the  pope,  but  spent  all  in  disaipa* 
tioD^d  returned  to  Florence  poorer  than  he  left 
it.  He  now  abandoned  paintmg,  became  one  of 
tiie  most  zealous  partisans  of  Savonarola,  and 
Boffiered  severe  privations  in  consequence.  He 
was  acquainted  with  the  newly  discovered  art 
of  engraving,  and  engraved  the  first  19  prints 
fiv  the  famous  edition  of  Dante's  If^emo^ 
printed  at  Florence  by  Nioolo  Lorenzo  della 
magna  in  1481. 

BOTTIGEB,  Earl  AvarsT,  a  German  archie- 
olo^st,  born  at  Beichenbach,  June  8, 1760,  died 
in  Dresden,  Nov.  17, 1885,  wrote  extensively  on 
his  science,  and  was  chief  contributor  to  the  lead- 
ing literary,  artistic,  and  sdentifio  periodicals  of 
his  day.  He  was  held  in  high  regard  by  the 
great  German  poets,  and  for  some  time  resided 
at  Weimar  and  subsequently  at  Dresden. 
Three  years  before  his  death  he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  French  institute,  an  honor  to 
which  he  was  well  entitled  by  the  remarkable 
variety  of  his  attainments,  by  his  miscellaneous 
pablioations,  and  by  his  general  influence  on 
literature  and  art. 

BOTTLE^  now  understood  to  mean  a  vessel 
made  of  glass,  with  a  more  or  less  narrow  neck 
and  mouth.  In  ancient  times,  however,  the 
bottle  was  nothing  more  than  a  skin  of  some 
animal  When,  in  the  Bible,  we  read  of  put- 
ting new  wine  into  old  bottles  as  an  illustration 
of  folly,  we  are  to  nnderstand  that  they  were 
made  of  skin,  and  thus  that  it  would  not  be 
wise  to  trust  a  new  wine,  while  yet  active  with 
fbnnentation,  to  the  chance  of  bursting  a  leath- 
ern vessel  necessarily  weakened  by  use  and  age. 
In  Spain,  to  this  day,  various^kins,  and  espe- 
daOy  that  of  the  goiri^  are  used  for  containing 
wine.  The  hide  is  stripped  from  the  animal  as 
entire  as  possible,  and  the  various  natuial 
openings  having  been  sewed  up,  with  the  ez- 
oeption  of  that  of  one  of  the  legs,  which  is  re- 
tidned  as  a  nozzle,  the  vessel  is  ready,  after  a 
oertain  preliminary  curing  of  the  skin,  for  the 
reception  of  the  wine.  The  peculiar  taste  of 
Amontillado  sherry  is  supposed  to  be  owing  to 
the  ftct  of  ita  being  kept  in  leather.  The  ordi- 
Bary  bottle  is,  however,  of  glass,  and  usually  of 
the  coarsest  kind  of  that  material.  In  Great 
Britain  a  law  prevailed,  until  within  a  very  few 
years,  prohibiting  any  thing  but  common  river 
sand  and  soapboilers'  waste  in  the  manufacture 
of  bottie  glass.  To  make  a  single  bottie  re- 
quires ordinarily  6  men.  The  "  gatherer,"  as 
he  is  called,  first  dips  and  turns  around  his  long 
iron  tube,  some  5  feet  long,  into  a  melted  mass 
of  glass,  mitil  a  ball  of  the  material  is  farmed  at 


the  end,  and  then  he  takes  it  out  to  allow  it  to 
cool  for  a  moment.  This  is  repeated  for  several 
successive  times,  until  a  sufficiency  of  the  mate- 
rial is  gathered.  Now  the  ^^  blower"  takes  hold 
of  the  tube  and  rolls  on  a  smooth  surface  of 
stone  or  metal  the  molten  glass,  until  it  is  well 
pushed  toward  the  end  of  his  iron  instrument. 
He  then  puts  the  glass  into  an  open  mould,  which 
is  shut  by  his  foot,  and  holding  his  tube  verti- 
oaUy,  blows  into  it  This  being  effected,  the  foot 
is  removed,  the  mould  opens,  and  the  glass  is 
found  to  have  assumed  its  bottle-like  form.  The 
tube  is  now  removed,  with  the  glass  still  at  the 
end  of  it,  and  it  is  passed  over  to  the  ^'finisher," 
who  with  a  cold  iron  snaps  off  the  bottle 
smoothly  at  the  mouth.  The  otiber  workmen 
then  complete  the  process  by  slow  cooling  and 
pi^yishing.  An  inffeniouB  piece  of  mechanism 
lias  been  contrived,  however,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  bottles,  and  many  are  now  made  by  its 
means.  The  botties  manufactured  in  this  way- 
have  the  advantage  of  allowing  of  exact  grad- 
uation in  capacity,  a  matter  of  no  slight  impor- 
tance, since  they  are  so  frequenUy  used  in  trade 
as  a  measure.  The  common  bottle  is  supposed 
to  hold  a  quart,  but  there  are  infinite  subdi- 
visions, from  a  pint  downward.  The  various 
botties  used  for  different  well-known  purposes 
are  generally  distinguished  by  peculiar  shapes 
and  sizes,  as,  for  example,  the  English  wine, 
beer,  ale,  and  soda  botties,  the  French  cham- 
pagne, Burgundy,  and  claret,  and  the  Rhenish 
wine  botties.  Port  wine  is  occasionally  put 
into  very  large  botties,  called  magnufMj  and 
adds  in  still  larger,  termed  carboys.  The  larg- 
est glass  bottie,  perhaps,  ever  manufactured,  was 
that  blown  at  Leith,  in  Scotiand.  It  was  in  di- 
mensions 40  inches  by  42,  and  was  capable  of 
holding  2  hogsheads  in  quantity  of  liquid. 
There  is  a  curious  act  of  special  legislation  still 
in  the  statute  book  of  the  state  of  New  York, 
prohibiting  the  sale  of  soda-water  bottles.  The 
soda-water  manufacturers,  who  were  in  the  hab- 
it of  lending  their  botties  to  dealers  until  their 
contents  were  disposed  of,  found  that  their 
property  was  frequentiy  made  away  with  by 
dishonest  servants,  and  accordingly,  in  order  to 
protect  themselves,  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
passage  of  the  law  alluded  to.  At  Folembray,  in 
France,  there  is,  probably,  the  largest  bottle 
manufactory  in  existence,  which  is  said  to  pro* 
duoe  aonually  the  enormous  number  of  8,000,000. 
BOTTOMBY,  in  maritime  law,  a  contract  by 
which  the  owner  of  a  ship,  or  the  master  as  his 
agent,  hypothecates  or  binds  the  ship  as  secu- 
rity for  the  repayment  of  money  advanced  for 
the  use  of  the  ship.  The  name  is  derived  from 
bottom,  that  is,  keel,  a  figure  by  which  the 
vessel  itself  is  designated  (jnun  pro  toto).  In 
form  it  is  a  bond,  bv  which,  in  consideration  of 
the  money  lent^  tne  borrower  undertakes  to 
repay  it  if  the  ship  accomplishes  its  voyage,  and 
pledges  the  ship  for  the  performance  of  the  un- 
dertaking. If  the  ship  should  be  lost  the  debt 
would  be  lost,  that  is,  so  far  as  it  depends  upon 
the  bottomry  bond ;  and  in  consideration  of  this 


674 


BOTTS 


BOU  SADA 


risk,  a  higher  rate  of  iDterest  may  be  agreed  for 
than  is  allowed  in  other  contracts.  In  case  of 
partial  damage  to  the  ship,  it  is  usually  pro- 
vided that  the  lender  shall  bear  his  proportion 
of  it,  which  will  be  tlie  proportion  the  amount 
lent  bears  to  the  whole  value  of  the  vessel. 
The  lender  is  not  entitled  to  possession  of  the 
vessel,  nor  even  to  take  possession  of  it  when 
the  debt  becomes  due  (unless  it  should  be 
so  expressly  stipulated  in  the  bond),  but  may 
enforce  payment. of  the  debt  by  a  decree  of  a 
court  of  admiralty  «for  sale  of  the  vessel.  The 
principle  peculiar  to  thi^  species  of  contract  is 
that  it  is  a  case  of  necessity,  usually  when  the 
vessel  is  in  some  foreign  port,  and  the  owner 
has  no  other  resources  for  obtaining  the  neces- 
sary supplies.  It  would  impair  the  obligation 
of  the  bond  if  there  were  in  fact  other  means 
of  getting  such  supplies  without  hypothecation 
of  the  vessel,  and  this  was  known  to  the  lender. 
From  the  nature  of  the  case  supposed,  that  is, 
the  necessity  of  having  supplies  which  cannot 
be  obtained  except  upon  the  pledge  of  the  ves- 
sel, the  master  is  authorized  to  execute  the  bond 
for  such  a  purpose.  A  bottomry  bond  is  a 
pledge  of  the  ship  and  freight ;  a  respandsntia 
bond  is  a  pledge  of  the  cargo ;  but  both  ship 
and  cargo  may  be  included  in  the  same  instru- 
ment. As  respects  the  cargo,  there  is  not 
strictly  a  lien  for  the  money  lent,  except  in 
case  of  partial  loss ;  but  if  the  voyage  is  suc- 
cessfully performed,  the  obligation  is  merely 
personal,  unless  an  express  provision  be  inserted 
in  the  bond  for  a  specific  lien  upon  the  roods. 

BOTTS,  John  Minor,  an  American  politician, 
bom  in  Dumfries,  Prince  William  co.,  Va., 
Bept.  16, 1802.  When  the  whig  party  assumed 
its  definite  form,  in  1834,  he  became  one  of  its 
most  ardent  and  prominent  supporters.  As 
early  as  1888  he  was  elected  from  Henrico 
county  to  the  legislature  of  Virginia,  and  was 
afterward  several  times  reelected.  In  18S9  he 
was  returned  to  the  27th  congress,  and  there 
advocated  most  of  the  points  of  Mr.  Clay^s  pro- 
gramme— a  national  bank,  a  protective  tariff 
and  the  distribution  among  the  states  of  the 
proceeds  of  the  public  lands.  Though  long 
a  warm  and  intimate  friend  of  John  Tyler,  Mr. 
Botts  at  once  abandoned  him  on  his  secession 
from  the  whig  party ;  and  in  the  presidential 
election  of  1844  he  supported  Mr.  Clay.  In 
1843  he  had  been  left  out  of  congress,  but  in 
1847  was  returned  to  that  body  for  the  third 
time.  After  the  death  of  Mr.  Clay,  and  the 
dissolution  of  the  whig  party,  he  became  at- 
tached to  the  American  party.  He  was  op- 
posed to  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  compromise, 
and  sympathized  with  those  southern  members 
of  congress  who  opposed  the  passing  of  the  Le- 
compton  bill  in  1858. 

BOTZBERG  (Moru  Voceticus),  a  mountain 
of  the  Jura,  in  the  Swiss  canton  Aargan, 
whose  culminating  point,  1,850  feet  above 
the  sea,  commands  a  superb  view  of  the  Alps. 
The  Helvetians  were  defeated  here  by  Alienua 
Oaecina,  A.  D.  79.    The  Bomans  construct^  a 


highway  across  tlie  Bdtzberg^  and  a  new  road 
was  laid  out  in  1780. 

BOTZEN,  BozEN,  or  Bolzano,  a  town  in  the 
Austrian  circle  of  Brixen,  in  Tyrol,  on  the  junc- 
tion of  the  river  Talf  with  the  Eisach,  32  miles 
N.  N.  R  of  Trent;  pop.  9,700,  chiefly  Italians. 
It  is  built  amid  mountains,  at  more  than  1,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  contains  a  castle,  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  several  churches  and  convents,  and 
various  manufactories  of  cloths.  It  has  4  yearly 
fairs,  which  were  of  great  importance  in  former 
times.  The  Austrian  archduke  Bainer  spent 
here  the  latter  pa^^  of  his  life. 

BOU  MAZA,  a  fanatic  Arab  warrior  of  Al- 
geria, bom  about  1820  among  the  tribes  who 
inhabit  the  country  between  Tlemcen  and  Mas- 
cara. From  his  childhood  he  was  a  devoted 
member  of  the  religious  sect  of  which  the 
sherif  Muley  Taieb,  a  kinsman  of  the  emper- 
or of  Morocco,  is  the  recognized  head.  For 
several  years  he  led  the  austere  life  of  a  der- 
vis,  when  the  battle  of  Isly  took  place,  which 
gave  the  death-blow  to  the  Arab  power  in 
Algeria,  and  forced  Abd  el  Kader  to  seek 
refuge  in  Morocco.  Bou  Maza,  availing  him- 
self of  the  excitement  which  then  prevailed 
among  the  Arabs,  came  forth  from  his  seclu- 
sion to  preach  a  crusade  against  the  French. 
The  entire  population  of  Dahr  was  roused  by 
his  inflammatory  appeals,  and  the  first  aggres- 
sive act  took  place  on  April  20,  1845,  when  an 
attack  was  made  by  Bou  Maza  and  his  follow- 
ers upon  the  people  whom  they  met  on  the 
road  from  Tenez  to  Orleansville.  This  was 
followed  by  sharp  confiicts  between  the  insur- 
rectionary tribes  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  aa- 
thorities  of  Morocco  and  their  allies^  the 
iVench,  on  the  other.  On  Sept.  21,  1845, 
when  Abd  el  Kader^s  insurrectionary  move- 
ment broke  out  in  Morocco,  he  was  assisted  by 
Bou  Maza,  who  inflicted  losses  upon  the  Fren<£ 
army  on  several  occasions.  Bou  Maza  was 
finaUy,  April  18,  1847,  compelled  to  surrender 
himself  to  St.  Amaud,  by  whom  he  was  sent 
to  Paris.  Here  a  pension  of  $3,000  was  settled 
upon  him  by  th#  government,  and  apartments 
in  the  Champs  ElysSes  were  put  at  his  dispo- 
sal. At  one  time,  it  was  even  contemplated  to 
give  him  the  conmiand  of  one  of  the  Arab 
regiments  in  Algeria.  He  availed  himsdf^ 
however,  of  the  excitement  of  the  revolution 
of  1848,  to  make  his  escape  from  Paris  during 
the  night  of  Feb.  23,  but  was  arrested  at  Brest 
and  removed  to  the  fortress  of  Ham,  and  de- 
tained there  until  July  22,  1849,  when  he  was 
liberated  by  order  of  Louis  Napoleon,  under 
condition,  however,  that  he  would  not  leave  the . 
city  of  Ham.    He  was  set  entirely  free  in  1852. 

BOU  SADA,  a  town  of  Algerian  Sahara, 
among  the  AUas  mountains,  situated  in  a  fer- 
tile tract  surrounded,  by  a  desert  plain,  and 
containing  about  500  houses,  with  5  mosques. 
It  is  singularly  laid  out,  each  of  tlie  8  divisions 
into  which  it  is  cut  up  being  encompassed  by 
its  own  gardens  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the 
town  the  appearance  of  a  cluster  of  8  villages. 


BOUOHEB 


BOUDINOT 


575 


BOUOHER,  Alexandbb  Jkak,  a  Frenoh 
violiuist,  born  la  Paris,  April  11,  1770.  He 
gained  distinction  before  he  was  20;  he  was 
called  the  **"  Alexander  of  the  violins**  in  France, 
and  the  French  Paganini  in  Germany.  He  was 
remarkable  for  his  personal  resemblance  to  Na- 
poleon I. 

BOUOHER,  FRANgois,  a  French  painter, 
bom  in  Paris,  Sept  29,  1708,  died  there  May 
80,  1770.  He  painted  with  remarkable  facility, 
and  the  number  of  his  pictares  and  drawings  is 
said  to  have  exceeded  10,000,  while  at  the  same 
time  he  practised  the  art  of  engraving.  His 
tendency  to  pander  in  his  prodaotions  to  the 
licentious  taste  of  his  times,  made  him  ex-  < 
oeedingly  fashionable  and  popular,  and  caused 
him  to  be  called  the  painter  of  graces.  Binoe 
the  first  revolution  his  works  have  been  un- 
salable, until  within  the  last  30  years,  when 
they  have  again  been  sought  for,  especially  by 
English  amateurs,  from  the  light  which  they 
shed  upon  the  taste  of  the  18th  century.  His 
most  remarkable  portrait  is  that  of  the  fomous 
l£adame  de  Pompadour,  and  his  best  mvtho- 
logical  picture,  **  Diana's  Bath,'*  was  purchased 
by  one  of  the  Rothschilds  in  1851  for  $700, 
and  ceded  by  him  at  the  same  price,  as  a  mat- 
ter of  generosity,  to  the  French  museum  in 
1852. 

BOUCHER,  Jonathan,  a  learned  English 
clergyman,  born  in  Cumberland,  March  12, 
I788j  died  at  Epsom,  April  27, 1804.  He  came 
to  Virginia  about  1754;  officiated  first  as  pri- 
vate teacher,  and,  after  receiving  episcopal  ordi- 
nation in  England,  as  rector  in  Virginia  and 
ICaryland  until  1775,  when  he  returned  to  his 
native  country,  his  anti-revolutionary  senti- 
ments having  given  umbrage  to  his  American 
congregation.  From  1784  to  the  time  of  his 
death  he  officiated  as  vicar  of  Epsom  in  Surrey. 
He  is  the  author  of  a  glossary  of  provincial  and 
arohflsologioal  words,  which  was  intended  by 
him  as  a  supplement  to  Dr.  Johnson's  diction- 
ary. In  1 799  he  published  2  assize  sermons,  and 
15  sermons  which  he  had  delivered  during  his 
ministry  in  America,  and  which  treated  of  the 
American  revolution.  These  he  dedicated  to 
IfTashington ;  they  are  interesting  from  the  po- 
litical anecdotes  which  they  contain. 

B0UCHE8-DU -RHONE,  a  south-eastern 
maritime  department  of  France,  consbting  of 
a  part  of  ancient  Provence,  situated,  as  its  name 
implies,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Rhone;  area,  2,195 
aq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856,  478,866.  Its  surface  is 
uneven,  being  intersected  on  the  E.  by  the  last 
ofi&ets  of  the  maritime  Alps.  It  is  drained  by 
the  Rh6ne  (which  receives  the  Durance  and 
several  minor  branches),  a  violent  stream,  fre- 

nitly  overflowing  its  banks  and  causing  great 
age.  Some  20  miles  after  entering  the  de- 
partment on  the  north,  and  25  miles  from  the 
sea,  it  divides  into  2  branches,  forming  a  delta 
called  the  island  of  Camargue,  which  is  partly 
cultivated  and  in  pasture,  partly  occupied  by 
marshes  and  lagoons.  On  the  north  of  tiie  la- 
goons is  La  Crauy  a  dreary  plain,  mostly  of 


gravel,  stretching  to  Aries ;  during  the  summer 
it  is  entirely  arid  and  waste,  though  in  winter  it 
furnishes  pasture  to  large  flocks  of  sheep  and 
goats.  These  flocks,  which  are  said  to  amount 
to  nearly  1,000,000,  form  the  principal  wealth 
of  the  department;  they  are  sent  to  tlie  moun- 
tains about  the  beginning  of  the  spring,  and  re- 
turn in  the  autumn.  Their  migrations  offer  a  cu- 
rious spectacle,  as  sheep  are  sometimes  gathered 
to  the  number  of  25,000,  under  the  guidance  of 
a  small  body  of  shepherds  picturesquely  ac- 
coutred. The  horses  and  cattle  are  few  and  of 
poor  breed.  The  unfavorable  nature  of  the 
soil,  the  minute  division  of  land,  and  the  attach- 
ment of  the  proprietors  to  routine,  have  con- 
siderably hindered  the  progress  of  agriculture; 
the  quantity  of  com  gathered  in  the  department 
is  insufficient  for  home  consumption,  while  the 
produce  of  wine,  estimated  at  820,000  hecto- 
litres, leaves  a  large  surplus  for  exportation. 
Silkworms  are  raised  in  large  quantities;  olives 
cultivated  on  a  great  scale,  being  partly  ez- 

?3rted  as  fruit,  and  partly  converted  into  oil. 
here  are  manufactories  of  soap,  hosiery,  and 
silk,  suear  refineries,  and  oil-mills.  The  trade 
is  mainly  carried  on  through  the  port  of  Mar- 
seilles. Beside  Marseilles,  the  principal  towns 
of  the  department  are  Aries,  Aiz,  Tarascon, 
and  Aubagne. 

BOUCHOTTE,  Jean  BAPnarrK  Norl,  a 
French  minister  of  war,  born  at  Metz,  Dec. 
25,  1754,  died  there  in  June,  1840.  He  en- 
tered the  army  at  the  age  of  16,  and  when  the 
revolution  began  was  only  a  captain  of  cavalry. 
He  soon  became  a  colonel,  and  after  the  defec- 
tion of  Dumouriez  he  distinguished  himself  b^ 
preventing  the  Austrians  from  seizing  Courtrai. 
The  convention,  by  a  unanimous  vote,  April 
4 1793,  made  him  minister  of  war  in  place  of 
IBeurnonville,  whom  Dumouriez  had  surren- 
dered to  the  enemy.  There  was  a  scarcity 
of  munitions;  the  frontiers  had  been  pene- 
trated at  several  points;  there  was  an  in- 
surrection in  the  Vendue.  Bouchotte  by  his 
activity  aided  the  committee  of  public  safe^ 
ty  to  organize  and  to  furnish  supplies  to  the 
armies.  His  name  is  read  beneath  the  orders 
promoting  Massena,  Eleber,  Augereau,  Moreauj 
J^emadotte,  and  Napoleon  himself,  with  more 
than  80  other  generfds,  afterward  famous.  He 
had  U^en  an  active  part  in  the  troubles  of 
1798,  and  during  the  reign  of  terror  was  ac- 
cusea  of  having  cried,  Vive  le  roi.  At  a  later 
date,  after  tibe  9th  Thermidor,'he  was  persecuted 
as  a  terrorist 

BOUDINOT,  ELiAfl,  an  American  revolu- 
tionary patriot,  bom  in  Philadelphia,  May  2, 
1740,  died  in  Burlinffton,  N.  J.,  Oct.  24, 1821. 
He  was  descended  from  a  fEunily  of  French 
Huguenots  who  came  to  America  after  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes.  He  re- 
ceived the  greatest  advantages  of  education, 
the  colonies  could  afiford,  after  which  he 
studied  law  and  commenced  the  practice  in 
New  Jersey.  He  was  early  a  devoted  advocate 
of  th^  patriot  cause,  and  in  1777  was  appointed 


676 


BOUTFfi 


BOUGAINVILLK 


bj  oopgroao  oommissary-general  of  prisonen, 
and  danng  the  same  year  was  elected  a  member 
of  that  body.  In  1782  he  became  presideDt  of 
congreflSj  and  as  snch  signed  the  treaty  of  peace. 
In  1789  he  resamed  the  practice  of  the  law,  bat 
in  1796  was  appointed  by  Qen.  Washington  sn- 
perintendent  of  the  mint,  an  office  he  held  notil 
1805,  when  he  resigned  all  pablio  employments 
and  retired  to  Borlington.  The  rest  of  his  life  he 
devoted  to  his  own  afiEairs  and  to  the  coltivation 
of  literature.  He  became  a  trnstee  of  Prince* 
ton  college  in  1806,  and  endowed  it  with  a 
ralnaUe  cabinet  of  natural  history.  In  1812  he 
beaune  a  member  of  the  American  board  of 
commissioners  for  foreign  •missions,  and  in  1816 
was  made  the  first  president  of  the  American 
Bible  society.  To  these  and  other  institutions 
he  made  munificent  donations.  Early  in  life 
he  married  the  sister  of  Richard  Stockton,  who 
was  the  mother  of  a  daughter  that  survived 
him.  He  was  author  of  many  works,  among 
which  was  '*  The  Star  of  the  West,  or  an  £ffi>rt 
to  discover  the  Lost  Tribes  of  Israel,''  in  which 
be  seeks  to  show  that  the  American  aborigines 
are  Jews. 

BOnFF£,  a  French  comedian,  bom  in  Paris. 
Sept.  U,  1800,  died  in  1858.  He  was  employed 
in  the  workshop  of  a  gilder,  when  a  new  thea- 
tre of  the  BauUnard  du  Temple  tempted  him 
to  try  his  fortune  upon  the  stage,  and  he  accent- 
en  an  engagement  to  play  the  traitors  in  melo- 
dramas, at  the  rate  of  $60  a  year.  This  salary 
was  soon  raised  to  $250,  and  afterward  to 
$1,000.  His  reputation  in  a  larger  sphere,  how- 
ever, was  not  made  until  Feb.  28, 1824^  when  his 
humorous  and  grotesque  personifications  were 
favorably  received  at  the  thMre  de  la  GaietS, 
From  that  period  until  1849,  when  declining 
health  interfered  with  his  acting,  Bouffb  de- 
lighted his  audiences,  especially  in  the  Oamin 
de  Pari^  La  Mile  de  VAt^are,  L'onde  Baptiete^ 
and  in  Mkhel  Perrin,  The  latter  was  his  most 
popular  performance. 

BOUFLERS,  Louis  FnAvgois,  nuvquis,  and 
afterward  duke,  marshal  of  France,  born  Jan. 
10,  1644,  died  Aug.  22,  1711.  His  mother 
was  the  mistress  of  Stanislas,  king  of  Poland. 
He  first  served  from  1662  to  1676  under  Beau- 
fort, Or^qui,  and  Turenne,  and  distinguished 
himself  during  the  retreat  of  the  French  army 
before  Montecuculli.  He  was  created  marshal 
in  1698,  and  duke  in  1696.  In  1708  he  held 
Lille  for  8  months  with  unfiinching  courage, 
and  preserved  the  city  against  the  besiegers. 
At  Malplaquet,  he  served  as  a  volunteer  un- 
der Marshal  Villars,  although  he  was  his 
senior  in  rank.  When  the  latter  was  wounded, 
Bouflers  was  constrained  to  retreat ;  but  he 
succeeded  in  saving  all  the  guns,  and  left  only 
80  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy. 

BOUFLERS,  Stakislas,  marauis,  fint  known 
as  the  abb4,  then  as  the  chevalier  de  Bouflers, 
born  in  1787,  at  Luneville,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  18, 
1816.  His  wit  and  elegant  manners,  aided  by 
a  facility  in  versification,  rendered  him  a  favor- 
ite among  the  ladies  at  the  court  of  Louid  XY. 


Bjb  little  poems,  suggested  by  liie  oocasian, 
sparkling  with  fiinpy  and  originafity,  wen 
eagerly  sought  for  in  that  lioentions  sodetj. 
With  the  revolution  he  became  a  man  of  sense ; 
held  an  honorable  rank  among  the  deputies  to 
the  constituent  assembly;  and  snpported  the 
decree  by  which  the  ownership  of  their  disooT- 
eriee  is  secured  to  inventors.  He  afterward 
went  to  Prussia,  where  he  received  fimnn  ^ 
king  a  grant  of  lands  to  establish  a  French  col- 
ony; but  the  plan  failed.  He  returned  to  Fraace 
in  1800,  and  in  1804  he  was  admitted  to  dM 
French  academy.  He  was  a  fervent  apolopsE 
of  Napoleon  and  his  iamUy. 
.  BOUGAINYILLB,  Loots  Ahtoesk  is,  a 
French  soldier  and  navigator,  son  of  a  notary 
at  Paris,  bom  Nov.  11,  1729,  died  April  31, 
1814.  While  still  veiy  young,  he  acquired  a 
remarkable  proficiency  in  the  exact  scaense^ 
and  published  in  1764  a  treatise  on  the  in- 
tegral calculus.  Meanwhile  he  had  entered 
the  military  service  as  aide-de-camp  toQie- 
vert.  In  1764  he  went  to  London  as  secre- 
tary of  the  French  embassy;  in  1756  he  was 
sent  to  Canada,  where  he  served  with  diatino- 
tion  under  Montcalm,  whose  aide-de-camp  lie 
was.  After  the  death  of  that  general,  Bougain- 
ville returned  to  France^  and  in  1761  & 
played  such  courage  in  the  campaign  on  the 
Rhine,  that  he  received  from  Uie  ki^  the  gi& 
of  2  cannon,  which  he  had  taken  from  the 
enemy.  Peace  being  concluded,  he  entered  the 
navy,  and  in  a  few  years  he  reached  a  high  de- 
gree of  eminence  in  that  service.  He  under- 
took to  establish  a  French  colony  in  one  of  the 
Falkland  islands,  and  there  was  some  prc^ieel 
of  success,  when  8pain  objected  to  the  nndenak- 
ing  as  an  encroachment  on  her  rights.  The 
Fronch  government  agreed  to  give  up  the  col- 
ony, on  payment  of  an  indemnity  to  Bougain- 
ville. Oonsequently  in  Nov.  1766,  he  auled  from 
St.  Malo,  wiui  a  frigate.  La  Boudens^  and  sbve 
ship,  to  the  FalkLmd  islands,  where  he  offidslly 
surrendered  his  odony.  After  payii^ashcft 
visit  at  Montevideo,  he  sailed  southward,  pas^ 
through  the  straits  of  Magellan  and  altered 
the  South  8^  which  was  still  for  the  most 
-p&et  a  fnare  ineognUum.  He  looked  firsts  but  in 
vain,  for  Davis^s  land,  then  steered  through  the 
Paumotu  archipelago,  where  he  diaooTered  sev- 
eral yet  unknown  islands,  and  arrived  atTahit], 
April  6, 1768,  where  he  remained  for  a  fewdaj^ 
Pursuing  his  exploration,  he  viewed  tb»  Hamoa 
archipelago^  to  which  he  gave  the  name  of 
Navigator's  islands,  and  saw  the  northeim  psit 
of  that  cluster,  which  received  a  few  yeaa 
later  from  Captain  Cook  the  appeUaUon  of  Nev 
Hebrides.  He  then  reconnoitred  the  eai^ea 
coast  of  New  Holland ;  but  on  account  of  his 
scanty  provisions  and  the  health  of  his  €TOt% 
he  thought  it  more  prudent  to  sail  northward. 
He  doubled  Louisiade  ishmds  vrith  the  greatest 
difficulty,  and  passed  the  large  Solomon^  ardur 
pelago,  which  had  not  been  visited  since  its  di^ 
ooveiT  by  Mendana,  and  put  in  at  Port  PrasliD, 
New  Ireland,  where  he  r^aired  his  ships,  but 


BOUaiAH 


BOUILLfi 


§77 


iTBB  TOiable  to  find  anj  proTisions.  He  then 
took  bis  course  westward,  discovering  on  his 
passage  some  small  islands,  and  viewing  the 
northern  shore  of  New  Guinea.  Finally  he 
reached  Booro,  one  of  the  Moluccas,  where  he 
succeeded  in  procuring  a  fresh  supply  of  provi- 
sions, which  his  men  were  in  great  need  of. 
He  then  resolved  to  return  to  his  native  coun- 
try, from  which  he  had  been  absent  nearly  24- 
years;  and  on  March  14,  1769,  reached  6t. 
Mala  Two  years  later,  he  published  his  Voyage 
autouT  du  monde^  a  very  interesting  account  of 
his  adventures,  with  a  graphic  description  of  the 
countries  he  visited ;  it  was  immediately  trans- 
lated  into  English,  and  in  1783  into  German* 
Bougainville  had  scarcely  completed  this  work, 
when  he  planned  a  voyage  to  the  north  pole. 
He  wrote  a  memoir  on  the  subject,  proposing 
2  distinct  routes,  but  expressing  a  decided  pref- 
erence for  one  of  them.  This  memoir  was 
submitted  to  the  royal  society  of  London,  of 
which  he  had  been  admitted  a  member;  and 
very  probably  his  observations  were  of  some 
avail  to  Oapt.  Phipps  (afterward  Lord  Mul- 
grave),  who,  in  1778,  imdertook  a  voyage  to  the 
Arctic  sea,  where  he  got  as  far  as  lat.  80*^  N« 
In  1778,  when  the  French  took  part  in  the 
American  war  of  independence,  Bougainville 
was  appointed  to  the  command  of  a  ship  of  the 
line,  and  distinguished  himself  in  all  the  ^gage- 
ments  between  the  fleets  of  Franoe  and  Eng- 
land* In  the  memorable  conflict  in  which  the 
count  de  Graase  was  defeated  by  Admiral  Bod- 
ney,  April  12, 1782,  the  Auguste,  the  ship  com- 
mandea  by  Bougidnville,  suffered  roost  severely, 
but  maintained  its  station  in  the  line  to  the  last 
extremity ;  when  no  hope  of  retrieving  the  for* 
tune  of  the  day  was  left,  by  a  judicious  and 
decisive  movement,  he  succeeded  in  rescuing  8 
8<ul  of  his  own  immediate  division,  which  he 
conducted  safely  to  8t.  Eustace.  Beturned  to 
iVance,  he  resumed  his  project  of  a  voyage  in 
the  Arctic  seas,  but  received  no  encouragement^ 
and  finally  left  the  naval  service  in  1790,  to 
return  entirely  to  the  scientific  pursuits  of  hia 
early  life.  In  1795  he  was  admitted  to  the 
French  institute,  and  subsequently  became  a 
member  of  the  board  of  longitude.  On  the  or* 
ganization  of  the  senate,  he  was  made  a  mera* 
ber  of  that  body  by  Napoleon,  who  also  enno* 
bled  him. 

BOUGIAH,  BtroiA,  or  Botjjatah  (Fr.  Bou* 
aie)y  a  town  of  Algeria,  district  of  Constantine. 
It  is  a  coast  town  between  Algiers  and  Bona, 
with  an  excellent  roadstead.  The  trade  of  Little 
Eabylia  and  of  the  plain  of  Me^ana  centres  in 
Bougiah,  and  the  movement  in  oil  and  wax  is 
important — wax-candles  deriving  their  name 
(baugU)  from  this  town.  The  arrivals  of  vessels 
in  1852  were  245,  with  8,620  tons.  8tationaiT 
population  1,800,  of  whom  700  are  French,  with 
about  500  other  Europeans.  The  desert  winds 
are  very  prevalent^,  and  are  laden  with  the 
seeds  of  disease  from  marshes.  Bougiah  was 
formerly  a  strongly  fortified  town;  Uie  forti- 
fications had  fallen  into  decay,  but  they  have 
VOL.  m. — 37 


been  renewed  since  the  French  occupation, 
which  took  place  Sept.  29, 1883.  The  political 
administration  of  the  French  government  in 
Bougiah  dates  from  1888. 

BOUGIE,  a  long  slender  wand  used  in  sur* 
gery.  It  is  usually  made  of  slips  of  waxed 
linen,  coiled  into  a  cylindrical  or  slightly  coni- 
cal form,  by  rolling  them  on  any  hitfd  smooth 
surface.  It  is  also  sometimes  made  of  catgut^ 
and  of  elastic  gum  and  metaL  The  instrument, 
after  being  lubricated  with  sweet  oil,  is  intro- 
duced into  the  urethra,  and  passed  into  the 
bladder,  to  relieve  stricture  and  remove  ob- 
structions to  the  passage  of  the  urine.  It  is  also 
used  for  dilating  the  oesophagus  and  rectum  in 
cases  of  stricture.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first 
invented  by  Aldereto,  a  Portuguese  surgeon; 
but  his  pupil,  Amatus,  first  described  the  form 
of  the  instrument  and  the  mode  of  using  it,  in 
1554. 

BOUGUER,  PisBBB,  a  French  mathemati- 
cian, bom  at  Croisio,  Feb.  16,  1698,  died  Aug. 
15,  1758.  After  holding  professorships  of 
hydrc^aphy  at  Oroisio  and  Havre,  he  auo- 
oeeded  Manpertuis  as  associate  geometer  of 
the  academy  of  sciences,  and  was  afterward 
made  pensioned  astronomer.  He  was  absent 
10  years  on  the  South  American  expedition 
to  measifts  an  arc  of  a  meridian  near  the 
equator,  and  on  his  return,  edited  the  Jour- 
nal de9  MvanU,  His  works  are  on  optics,  astron- 
omy, and  navigation.  His  principal  claim  to 
fame  is  his  invention  of  the  heliometre. 

BOUTTJiH,  FiUNQoiB  Qlaxsde  Amoub,  mar- 
quis de,  a  French  general,  bom  Nov.  19, 1789, 
in  the  province  of  Auvergne,  died  in  London, 
Nov.  14,  1800.  He  was  governor-general  of 
the  French  Antilles  at  the  be^^ing  of  the 
American  war  of  independence,  and  not  only 
preserved  those  islands  against  tne  English,  but 
succeeded  in  taking  several  others  from  the  en- 
emy. He  distinguished  himself  by  his  magna- 
nimity no  less  than  by  his  prowess ;  so  that,  on 
the  conclufidon  of  the  peace,  «ii^hen  he  visited 
England,  he  received  tokens  of  admiration 
from  the  merchants  and  the  court  In  1789  he 
was  in  command  of  the  eastern  military  division 
of  France,  and  had  great  difficulties  firom  the 
rebellious  dispodtion  of  the  population.  Being 
commissioned  to  punish  the  mutinous  regiments 
at  Nancy,  he  attained  his  object  by  self-posses- 
sion and  shrewdness  no  less  than  by  personal 
courage.  When  Louis  XYL  projected  his  flight 
from  France,  he  consulted  Bouilld,  who  en- 
tered into  Uie  plan  with  the  utmost  zeal, 
and  made  all  the  neoessa^  preparations;  but 
notwithstanding  all  the  efforts  of  BouillS,  the 
king  was  arrested  at  Yarennes.  Thereup- 
on, Bouill6  left  Franoe  and  went  afterward 
to  Bussia,  where  the  empress  Catharine  IL 
promised  him  an  army  of  80,000  men  to  invade 
France;  but  the  pronuse  was  never  fulfilled, 
and  Bouill4  repaired  to  England,  where  ho 
wrote  his  excellent  Memoirei  wr  la  revolution 
FranffaisSy  first  printed  in  English,  at  Lon- 
don, in   1797,  then  translated   into  Gterman. 


57& 


BOUILLON 


They   were   not  pabluhed  in  Prenoh  vntil 
180L 

BOUILLOK,  It  large  district  in  the  Ardennes, 
fonnerly  a  portion  of  an  independent  prin- 
eipality,  on  the  borders  of  Li^ge  and  Luxem- 
bourg. The  capital  of  the  principality  was 
Sedan,  a  strongly  fortified  town  on  the  banks 
of  the  Meuse;  beside  which  it  contained  the 
town  of  Bouillon,  which  had  a  strong  castle 
standing  on  a  rock  overhanging  the  rirer  Semois, 
famous  as  having  once  belonged  to  the  cele- 
brated Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  the  crusader. 
The  town  of  Bouillon  contained  about  2,000  in- 
habitants, (present  pop.  2,960),  and  in  the  district 
were  several  large  ^i^S^  ^^  population  of 
which  amounted,  in  all,  to  above  20,000  souls 
(present  pop.  of  the  domain  of  Bouillon, 
16,000).  This  district  of  the  principality  was 
mortgaoed  by  Godfrey  to  the  bishops  of  Li^ge, 
and  baa  been  held  for  many  generations  by  &e 
occupants  of  that  episcopal  principality,  when 
it  was  claimed  by  the  house  oi  La  Marck  and  La 
Tour  d'Auvergne,  but  was  relinquished  by  them 
in  the  year  1641,  on  consideration  of  the 
sum  of  150,000  Brabant  guilders,  paid  to  them 
by  the  bishop  of  Li^ge.  In  the  war  of  1672, 
£^ce  conquered  Bouillon,  when  Louis  XIY. 

Save  it  to  his  chamberlain,  the  chevalier  La  Tour 
^Auvergne,  in  whose  family  it  condked  until 
the  French  revolution,  when,  in  1792,  it  was 
taken  from  thenLby  confiscation.  The  last  pos- 
sessor, Oharles  Henri  de  la  Tour  d^Auvergne, 
died  at  Paris  in  1812.  By  the  peace  of  Paris, 
1814,  Bouillon  was  included  in  tne  dukedom  of 
Luxembourg^  which  was  assigned  to  the  kingdom 
of  the  Netherlands.  The  title  of  prince  of 
Bouillon  was  assumed  in  1792,  the  same  year 
with  the  confiscation  and  abolition  of  the  title, 
by  Philip  d'Auvergne,  a  captain  in  the  British 
navy,  and  was  borne  by  him  until  his  death,  in 
1816.  The  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  ap- 
pointed commissioners,  who  should  decide  on 
the  respective  claims  oi  this  nobleman  and  of 
Prince  Charles  de  Bohan,  and  these  decided  in 
favor  of  the  ktter  nobleman,  the  posterity  of 
whom  still  bear  the  title.  Bouillon  has  be- 
longed to  Belgium  since  1887,  forming  part  of 
the  province  of  Luxembourg. 

BOUILLON,  FsiDtBio  Maubicb  db  l4 
Tour  d^Auvbbqnb,  duo  de,  a  French  soldier, 
brother  of  Marshid  Turenne,  born  at  Sedan, 
Oct  22,  1605,  died  at  Pontoise,  Aug.  9,  1G52. 
He  was  brought  up  in  the  Oalvinistic  creed,  and 
learned  the  profession  of  arms  under  his  uncle, 
Maurice  of  Nassau.  In  1635  he  entered  the 
service  of  France,  but  6  years  later,  from  aver- 
sion for  Cardinal  Bichelieu,  concluded  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Spaniards.  At  the  battle  of  La 
Marflte,  July  6, 1641,  he  displayed  extraordinary 
ability,  but  the  retreat  of  the  Spaniards  render- 
ed victory  useless.  He  then  made  peace  with 
the  cardinal,  was  appointed  lieutenant-general, 
but  the  next  year  was  arrested  as  an  accomplice 
in  Cinq  Mars  conspiracy.  He  would  probably 
have  been  executed  if  his  wife,  who  was  in 
possession  of  Sedan,  had  not  threatened  to  de- 


liver it  up  to  the  Spaniards ;  he  was  then  liber- 
ated.   After  the  death  of  Louis  XUL  he  weut 
to  Rome,  was  converted  to  Catholicism,  and 
nroraoted  to  the  command  of  the  pope*s  troopa 
in  1649  he  rotnrned  to  France,  where  he  aotire- 
ly  participated  in  the  civil  war  against  Mazarin. 
BOUILLON,  GoDFSKT  db,  the  hero  of  the 
first  crusade,  the  son  of  the  count  of  Boulogne, 
margrave  of  Antwerp,  duke  of  Bouillon  and  of 
Lotheir,  and  king  of  Jerusalem,  bom  in  lOSl, 
died  July  18, 1109.    Godfrey's  £imily  was  de- 
scended from  Oharlemagne,  and  had  already 
gone  through  great   and   ngnal   nnafiMtanoL 
His&ther,  Eustache  of  Boulogne,  was  brother- 
in-law  to  Edward  the  Confmor,  and  mi^t 
have  succeeded  him  as  king  of  England,  had  he 
proceeded  thither  at  his  sunmions,  to  oppose 
William  the  Conqueror.    His  maternal  gnnd* 
father,  Godfrey  with  the  beard,  had,  in  like 
manner,  failed  to  become  master  of  LorrauM^  in 
which  he  carried  on  a  80  yom^  war  against  the 
emperors  of  Germany,  and  in  the  oonrse  of  it 
burned  the  palace  of  the  Oarlovingian  kings,  at 
Aix  la  Chappie.    When,  however,  Heniy  lY. 
of  Germany  was  penecuted  by  the  popes,  and 
deserted  by  his  friends,  Godfrey  of  the  crosade, 
grandson  of  the  banished  antagonist  of  the 
Ussars,  was  true  to  his  suzerain.    The  imperial 
standaijd  being  confided  to  him,  he  slew  Bodot^ 
the  rival  Gfldsar,  with  the  banner  spear,  witiibb 
own  hand  planted  the  banner  on  the  walb  of 
Bume,  which  he  was  the  first  to  aoale,  and  re- 
covered all  that  was  in  debate  for  the  Caesars. 
The  idea,  however,  that  he  had  committed 
sacrilege  by  violating  the  city  of  St.  Peter,  sat 
heavy  on  his  soul ;  add  to  this,  that  it  had  been 
a  day-dream  of  his  early  boyhood  that  he  wodd, 
one  day,  march  with  an  army  to  libcOrate  Jere* 
salem,  and  redeem  the  sepulchre  of  Christ.    6o 
soon  as  the  crusade  was  proclaimed,  he  aoAd  hn 
lands  to  iho  bishop  of  Li^ge,  in  order  to  procon 
funds  for  the  enterprise,  and  set  out  for  the  Holy 
Land,  at  the  head  of  70,000  foot  and  10i»0Q0 
horse,  French,  Germans,  and  Lorrainers.    God* 
frey  belonged  to  both  naUons,  the  French  and 
the  Germans,  and  spoke  both  tongnes  witii  ^st 
and  fluency.     He  was  not  tal^  his  brother 
Baldwin  was  taller  by  a  head,  hut  hk  strength 
was  prodigious.    It  is  sdd  that^  with  one  blow 
of  his  sword,  he  unseamed  a  horseman  from 
head  to  saddle,  and  vrith  one  back  stroke  would 
cut  ofTan  ox^s  or  camePs  head.    When  in  Aax 
having  one  day  lost  his  way,  he  fomid  one  of 
his  companions  in  a  cavern  engaged  with  a  bear; 
he  drew  the  beast's  rage  upon  hiii»ei£  and 
slew  it,  but  the  serious  bites  he  reoeivea  kepi 
him  long  to  his  bed.  When  he  readied  JerosakiB, 
out  of  his  enormous  army  he  had  remaining  bst 
25,000  men ;  tiiese,  however,  were  all  kn^hts 
and  their  immediate  attendants.    At  first,  they 
thought  to  take  the  holy  city  easily,  by  as- 
sault; but  being  repulsed  with  loes,  they  w«rs 
compelled  to  have  recourse  to  the  slow  proceed- 
ings of  a  siege,  after  the  forms  of  the  olden  day. 
Machines  were   erected,  and  movable  towers 
built,  of  the  few  olive  trees  which  were  to  be 


BOUILLON 


BOIILAINYILLIEBS 


679 


found  in  that  arid  and  rooky  neighborhood, 
some  of  them  Bupposed  to  have  witnessed  the 
pasnon  of  the  Say lonr.  For  8  days  the  omsaders 
walked  baretbot,  clad  in  sackcloth  and  ashes, 
round  the  walls  of  the  holy  city.  On  the  9th, 
they  assaulted  it  on  all  sides,  with  invincible 
bravery  and  zeal.  The  bridges  were  let  down 
from  the  movable  turrets  upon  the  summit  of  the 
walls,  and  Godfrey  was  the  first  man  upon  the 
ramparts.  A  fearful  massacre  followed ;  for  it 
is  said  that  many  of  the  crusaders,  in  their  igno- 
rance, foraetfal  of  the  lapse  of  time,  believed 
that  the  f  atimites  and  Saracens,  who  defended 
the  dty,  were  the  identical  men  who  had  crucified 
tiie  Messiah,  and  that  they  were  personally 
avenging  his  death  on  the  murderers.  Soon, 
however,  the  military  frenzy  passed  away,  or 
was  changed  into  a  religions  madness.  Bare- 
headed, on  their  bare  knees,  with  streaming 
eyes,  and  bloody  hands  uplifted,  the  victors 
crept  through  the  streets,  whose  kennels  ran 
deep  with  human  gore,  to  gain  remisaon  of 
their  sins,  before  that  mysterious  tomb,  to  re- 
deem which  they  had  steeped  their  souls  in 
carnage.  Aft^r  the  capture,  or,  as  it  is  called, 
the  redemption  of  the  holy  city,  the  next  thinff 
was  to  determine  who  should  have  the  painfid 
honor  of  ruling  and  defending  the  newly  ac- 
quired sovereignty.  The  choice  fell  on  God- 
frey, who  probably  estimated  the  honor  at  its 
true  value.  Tet  he  resigned  himself  to  the 
burden.  He  would  not,  however,  assume  a 
kingly  crown  on  the  spot  where  the  Saviour  had 
been  crowned  with  thorns,  and,  accepting  only 
the  title  of  baron  and  defender  of  the  holy 
city,  willingly  surrendered  to  the  patriarch  ^e 
kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  while  he  retamed  for 
himself  only  the  possessioD,  or  in  other  words 
the  defence,  of  the  city.  He  had  enough  to  do 
to  defend  it.  In  the  very  first  year  he  had  to 
fight  an  innumerable  army  of  Egyptians,  who 
had  attacked  the  crusaders  at  Ascalon.  It  was 
all  he  could  do  to  gaard  his  city  gates  against 
the  Arabs,  who  infested  the  whole  open  coun- 
try, from  the  very  day  of  the  conquest,  render- 
ing it  hardly  possible  to  till  the  land.  Tancred 
was  the  only  leader  who  remained  with  God- 
frey,  and  he  with  difficulty  retained  800  knights 
and  2,000  foot  soldiers  to  defend  his  new  con- 
quest. All  the  others  returned,  disgusted  with 
Uie  toils,  or  corrupted  with  the  luxuries,  of  the 
Holy  Land.  Bohemond  alone  was  a  gainer  bv 
the  war,  who  had  taken  and  retained  AnHoch 
and  many  cities  of  Greece.  To  Godfrey  his 
kingdom  was,  in  a  worldly  sense,  an  irremediable 
misery— a  protracted  martyrdom,  which  ter- 
minated only  with  his  life.  But  it  was  not  of 
long  dnration;  for  having  been  elected  king, 
in  1099,  he  died,  probably  of  care  and  anxiety, 
and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Baldwin 
I.,  king  of  Jerusalem — Robert  Ourthose,  duke 
of  Normandy,  and  eldest  son  of  William  the 
Oonqueror,  having  refused  the  office — ^in  the 
following  year,  1100.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon 
was  a  sincere,  honest,  and  pure-minded  man, 
and,  according  to  his  own  ideas^  and  those 


of  his  Ume,  the  model  of  a  Christian  prince  and 
soldier*  ^^  Distinguished,^'  says  an  old  con- 
temporary chronicler,  "  by  his  humility,  clem- 
ency, sobriety,  justice,  and  chastity,  he  shone 
rather  the  light  of  monks  than  the  leader  of 
soldiers."  The  feudal  Frankish  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  which  endured  yet  a  long  while 
through  constant  difficulty  and  disaster,  by  the 
intercourse  which  it  brought  about  between  the 
learned,  scientific,  polished,  and  accomplished 
Saracens  and  the  wild  Franks  and  fiery  Normans, 
did  more  than  any  other  cause  to  soften  I'^^tf*"^ 
down  the  iron  men  of  the  West,  and  to  civilize 
the  whole  semi- barbarous  European  world. 

BOUILLON,  Henbi  db  la.  Toub  D'AuvsnamE, 
due  de,  marshfd  of  France,  born  Sept.  28, 1555, 
died  March  25, 1628.  During  the  first  part  of 
his  life  he  was  known  as  viscount  of  Turenne. 
He  was  brought  up  under  the  superintendence 
of  his  grand^ther,  the  old  constable  of  Mont- 
morency, and  his  education,  of  course,  was 
military.  When  still  voung  he  was  con- 
verted to  Oalvinism,  and  became  an  adherent 
of  Henry  of  Navarre.  After  his  accession  to 
the  throne  of  France,  Henry  conferred  on  him 
the  hand  and  estates  of  Oharlotte  de  la  Marok, 
the  heiress  of  the  duchy  of  Bouillon,  and  thus 
he  became  a  powerful  prince  and  assumed  the 
title  of  dufce  of  Bouillon.  On  the  very  evening 
of  his  nuptials,  bidding  adieu  to  his  bride  for  a 
few  hours,  he  hastened  to  the  fortress  of  Btenay, 
which  was  held  by  the  Lorrainers,  and  stormed 
it.  "  Ventre  Saint  Orie,^^  said  Henry,  when  he 
heard  of  that  prowess,  ^^  I  would  make  mar- 
riages every  day  if  I  could  be  sure  of  such 
wedding  presents;  I  should  soon  get  full  pos- 
session of  my  kingdom.^'  He  afterward  partici- 
pated in  the  conspiracy  of  Biron,  and  fied  to 
Geneva,  where  he  remained  till  1608.  During 
the  regency  of  Maria  de'  Medici,  Bouillon  en- 
gaged in  the  intrigues  by  which  France  was 
then  troubled,  sometimes  siding  with  the  queen, 
sometimes  with  her  opponents;  now  support- 
ing the  Oalvinists,  then  making  peace  with  the 
court.  Amid  all  political  perturbations  he  es- 
tablished at  Sedan  a  large  library  and  a  colle^ 
fiimi^ing  pensions  to  many  illustrious  Oalvm- 
ists.  After  the  death  of  his  first  wife  he  mar- 
ried Elizabeth  of  Nassau,  daughter  of  William 
prince  of  Orange,  by  whom  he  had  2  sons,  the 
younger  of  whom  was  the  illustrious  Turenne. 

BOUILLT,  Jean  Nicolas,  a  French  dramsr 
tlst  and  novelist,  born  in  1768,  died  at  Paris, 
April  14, 1842.  The  poems  of  many  operas 
were  composed  by  him,  such  as  Lejeune  JBenri, 
by  Mehul,  the  overture  of  which  is  considered  a 
masterpiece  of  symphony,  and  Les  deuxjoum^ 
ofOherubinL  He  is  also  the  author  of  several 
comedies  and  dramas,  and  of  several  ccdlections 
of  tales  for  young  persons,  which  was  translaled 
into  G^erman. 

BOULAINVILLIERS,  Henbi,  oomto  de,  a 
French  historian,  born  in  Normandy,  Oct  11, 
1658,  died  Jan.  23,  1722.  He  asserted  that 
France,  as  a  nation,  was  indebted  for  its  power 
to  the  feudal  system,  which,  according  to  his 


580 


BOULAT  DE  LA  MEUETHE 


BOULOGNE 


opinion,  was  the  "masterpiece  of  hnmaii 
genias.''  His  HiaUnre  de  Vameien  gowoerMmmt 
de  la  France  set  forth  this  theory. 

BOULAY  DE  LA  MEURTHE,  Antoinb 
Jaoqubs  Giaudb  Jobbph,  cotmt,  a  French  law- 
yer and  politician,  born  Feb.  19, 1761,  in  Lor- 
raine, died  in  Paris,  Feb.  2, 1840.  Daring  tiie 
revolution  he  serred  as  a  volonteer  in  the  army, 
and  as  a  ladge  on  the  bench,  nntil  the  reign  of 
terror,  when  he  was  outlawed.  After  the  9th 
Thermidor,  he  was  appointed  presiding  Judge 
of  the  civil  court,  and  afterward  held  the  office 
of  attorney-general  at  Nancy.  He  sat  in  the 
council  of  600.  was  active  in  the  coup  ePitat  of 
the  18th  Fructidor,  and  aided  in  the  revolution  of 
the  18th  Brumadre.  Being  appointed  chairman 
of  the  leg^lative  section  in  the  council  of  state, 
he  took  an  active  part  in  digesting  the  code 
civil.  On  the  first  restoration,  he  kept  aloof 
from  public  afEairs ;  during  the  Hundred  Days, 
he  was  again  a  minister  of  state ;  on  the  abdi- 
cation of  Napoleon  I.  he  caused  his  son  to  be 
proclaimed  as  Napoleon  U.,  and  was  appointed 
minbter  of  justice  bv  the  commission  of  govern- 
ment. He  was,  of  course,  outlawed  by  the 
returning  king,  and  for  4^  years  was  an  exile. 
In  1819  he  was  permitted  to  return  to  France. — 
Hknbi  Gsobqb,  count,  son  of  the  preceding, 
vice-president  of  the  French  republic  of  1848, 
born  July  16,  1797,  at  Nancy.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  revolution  of  1880.  In 
1887  he  was  elected  to  the  chamber  of  dep- 
uties. In  1843  he  voted  for  the  repeal  of  the 
decree  of  banishment  against  the  Bonaparte 
fi&mily.  In  Feb.  1848,  he  sided  with  the  moderate 
republicans,  was  elected  to  the  oonstituent 
assembly,  and  there  again  supported  the  motion 
for  the  return  of  the  Bonaparte  family.  When 
Louis  Napoleon  was  elected  president,  the  name 
of  Boulay  de  la  Meurthe  was  placed  by  him  at 
the  head  of  the  list  of  candidates  for  the  vice- 
presidency  ;  and  the  assembly  almost  unani- 
mously chose  him.  After  the  e(mp  d*itat  of 
1861  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  senate. 

BOIJLBON,  or  RAoirssBT-BonLBON,  Gastoit 
Baoulx,  comtede,  a  French  adventurer,  bom  in 
Avignon,  in  1817,  executed  near  Guayamas^ 
Aug.  12, 1864.  He  repaired,  in  1862,  to  Califor- 
nia, where  he  induced  a  number  of  other  ad- 
venturers to  Join  him  in  an  expedition  to  SononL 
after  having  squandered  his  estate  in  Paris  and 
Algiers.  Having  overcome,  at  the  ^int  of  the 
bayonet,  the  opposition  of  the  Mexicans  to  his 
designs  upon  the  gold  mines,  Boulbon  became 
flashed  by  his  temporary  victory,  and  rallying 
round  him  600  men,  he  seized  Arispe,  the  capi- 
tal of  Sonora,  and  proclaimed  a  republic  De- 
feated by  the  Mexicans,  Jan.  4,  1868,  he  re- 
tnrned  to  California,  from  whence  he  planned  a 
new  invasion  in  April,  1864,  but  again  repulsed 
by  the  Mexicans,  July  18,  he  was  captured  and 
put  to  death.  Jules  de  la  Madeline  published 
an  account  of  his  lifb  and  adventures  (Paris, 
1866). 

BOULEVARDS  (originally  bulwarks  or  ram- 
parts), the  famous  public  avenues  in  Paris.  The 


principal  of  them  is  the  northern  boulevard^ 
forming  a  semi-circle  of  about  4  miles  in  length. 
The  Boulevard  Italian  is  the  most  celebrated 
for  its  brilliancy  and  fashionable  appearance; 
and  the  Boulevard  du  Temple  is  the  most  popu- 
lar boulevard,  and  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  small  theatres  which  it  contains.  The  Bou- 
levard Bonne-N&uvelle  and  Poieeonni^  also 
present  a  constant  appearance  of  bustle  and 
animation.  Among  the  more  quiet  and  stately 
boulevards  must  1m  mentioned  the  Boulevard 
dee  Oapucinee  and  the  Boulevard  de  la  Made- 
leine.  The  Boulevard  de  Sebaatapcl  was  opened 
by  Napoleon  III.,  April  6, 1868. 

BOULOGNE,  or  BouLoaNiE-fiUB-HEB,  a  sea- 
port town  of  France,  department  of  Pas  de 
Calais,  situated  on  the  English  channel,  near 
tiie  mouth  of  the  small  river  Dane.  During 
the  dominion  of  the  Romans,  it  was,  under  the 
name  of  Geeoriacum,  the  port  most  frequented 
by  travellers  crossing  to  Britain,  with  which  it 
already  had  considerable  intercourse.  Subse- 
quently it  was  called  Banonia,  and  finally  Bo- 
tonia^  whence  the  present  name.  During  the 
middle   ages,  it   was   possessed   by    various 

Srincely  houses,  until  it  fell  to  that  of  Burgmi- 
y.  On  the  death  of  Charles  the  Bol{  in 
1477,  it  was  united  to  the  French  crown  by 
Loms  XI.  In  1644,  it  was  taken  by  King 
Henry  VIH.  of  England,  but  surrendered  to 
France  6  years  later.  Charles  Y.  nearly  de- 
stroyed it  in  1663,  after  a  siege  of  6  weeks. 
Having  been  at  various  times  the  starting  point 
of  naval  expeditions  against  Great  Britun, 
Boulogne  rose  to  celebrity  in  the  beginning 
of  this  century,  by  being  the  centre  of  the 
tremendous  armament  prepared  by  Napoleon 
against  that  country.  A  magnificent  column, 
164  feet  high,  has  been  erected  on  a  hill  situ- 
ated nearly  a  mile  from  the  town,  to  preserve 
the  memory  of  that  great  but  futile  effort 
That  period  was  the  b^inniuff  of  the  prosper- 
ity of  Boulogne,  which  was  nirther  enhanced 
by  the  return  of  peace.  It  was  then  mnch  re- 
sorted to  by  English  visitors  and  families,  many 
of  the  latter  havins  made  it  a  permanent  resi- 
dence. It  is  divided  into  the  lower  and  the 
upper  towns.  The  latter,  although  irregnlariy 
laid  out,  is  pretty  well  built,  and  contains  2 
squares  ornamented  with  fountains,  a  cathe- 
dral, an  ancient  episcopal  palace,  a  city  hall, 
and  palace  of  justice.  It  is  surrounded  by 
ramparts,  which  have  been  transformed  into 
beautiful  promenades  planted  with  trees,  and 
affording  a  magnificent  view  that  extends  to 
the  coast  of  EnglaiM,  which  is  distinctly  visi- 
ble in  clear  weather.  The  lower  town,  situ- 
ated at  the  bottom  of  the  hill,  watered  by  the 
Liane,  and  laid  out  with  great  r^ularity,  b  the 
most  populous  and  commercial  The  bath 
house  is  a  fine  establishment  The  general 
hospital,  founded  in  1692,  the  barracks,  tiie 
public  library  (with  80,000  vols.),  and  the  the- 
atre, deserve  also  to  be  noticed.  The  port  is 
difiicult  of  access,  and  is  left  dry  twice  a  day 
by  the  tide ;  and  men-of-war  have  to  moor  iq 


BOULOGNE 


681 


fit  John^B  roads,  where  they  are  perfectly  safe 
and  protected  against  western  winds.  The 
harbor  was  greatly  improyed  by  Napoleon,  in 
1804,  when  2  large  basins,  connected  by  a 
qnay,  were  constracted«  The  number  of  per- 
sons who  disembark  here  annually  is  estimated 
between  100,000  and  160,000.  A  steamboat 
starts  every  day  for  Folkestone  and  Dover,  2 
others,  twice  a  week,  for  London  and  Brighton, 
and  another  once  a  week  for  Rye.  There  are  4 
trains  daily  on  the  northern  railway,  which  takes 
6  to  8  hours  to  p>  from  Boulogne  to  Paris.  The 
foreign  trade  is  considerable.  Almost  all  the 
1,800  vessels  belonging  to  Boulogne  are  en- 
gaged in  the  fish  trade ;  the  herring,  mackerel, 
and  cod  fisheries,  are  vigorously  prosecuted, 
while  the  town  has  manufactures  of  coarse 
woollen  goods,  sail-cloth,  bottles,  and  earthen- 
ware for  the  colonies,  with  tanneries,  rope- 
walks,  &c.  The  Boulogne  fishing  boats  are 
the  largest  and  best  in  the  channel.  The  fish- 
ermen occupy  a  separate  part  of  the  town,  are 
in  dress  and  manners  distinct  from  the  rest  of 
the  population,  speak  a  distinct  patois,  and 
rarely  intermarry  with  the  other  townsfolk. 
There  are  various  establishments  of  learning, 
societies  of  agriculture,  conmierce,  art,  and 
science;  a  museum  of  antiquity  and  natural 
history,  a  free  school  for  navigators,  2  English 
chapels,  an  English  reading-room,  and  numer- 
ous boarding-schools  for  girls  and  boys,  many 
of  them  under  English  prmcipals.  Le  Sage, 
author  of  "Gil  Bias,"  died  here  in  1T47,  in  a 
house  No.  8,  rue  de  Oh&teau ;  and  the  English 
poet  Campbell's  death  occurred  here  in  1844. 
rop.  in  1856,  82,742,  among  whom  are  about 
7,000  permanent  English  residents. 

BOULOGNE.  Bora  dr,  a  public  park, 
about  2  miles  rrom  Paris.  It  was  of  old  a 
hunting  ground  for  the  French  kings,  and 
became  fashionable  in  the  18th  century.  In  it 
was  situated  the  abbey  of  Longohamp,  where 
a  melodious  choir  of  nuns  attracted  the  at- 
tention of  amateurs,  particularly  during  Pas- 
sion week.  The  Longchamp  pilgrimage,  as  it 
was  called,  was  interrupted  by  the  revolution ; 
but  after  the  18th  Brumaire,  the  place  again 
became  a  favorite  walk  and  drive.  On  the  ap- 
proach of  the  allied  armies  in  1814,  great  num- 
oers  of  trees  were  felled  to  make  palisades. 
The  place  was  bought  in  1852  by  the  munici- 
pality of  Paris,  and  has  undergone  a  transfor- 
mation at  the  hands  of  a  landscape  gardener. 
The  inclosure,  which  is  now  no  less  than  6 
miles  in  circumference,  contains  an  artificial 
river  nearly  2  miles  long,  fed  by  a  powerful 
steam-engine  from  the  Beine.  The  scenery  is 
otherwise  charming,  and  the  views  from  differ- 
ent points  are  admirable.  The  wall  which  sur- 
rounds this  park  has  11  gates. 

BOULOGNE,  Camp  Bs.  Such  is  the  common 
appellation  of  the  large  and  powerftil  armament 
raised  from  1808  to  1806  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boulogne,  by  Napoleon  Bonaparte^  with  the 
design  of  invading  England*  After  his  election 
as  flrst  ooDsal,  he  took  up  the  plan  devised 


by  the  directory  to  threaten  England  with  in- 
vasion ;  the  preparations,  which  had  been 
goinff  on  around  Boulogne,  were  prosecuted ; 
the  fleet,  mostly  consisting  of  flat-boats  suitable 
for  a  landing,  was  rednforoed;  fortiflcations 
along  the  coast  repaired,  and  troops  encamped 
in  the  vicinity.  The  English  government  or- 
dered Nelson  to  that  coast,  who  arrived  off 
Boulogne  Aug.  4, 1801,  and  attacked  the  French 
vessels,  under  Latouche  Treville,  and  again  on 
the  15th  and  17tb,  but  without  success.  The 
peace  of  Amiens  did  not  last  long  enough  to 
disband  either  the  French  troops  or  the  naval 
forces;  and  on  the  outbreak  of  new  hostilities, 
the  project  of  invading  England  was  revived 
and  energetically  carried  forward.  The  depart- 
ments and  cities  of  France,  taxing  themselves 
according  to  their  capacity,  presented  the  flrst 
consul  with  large  sums  of  money,  ships,  guns, 
and  ammunition.  The  city  of  Paris  voted  a  ship 
of  120  guns;  Lyons  one  of  100;  Bordeaux  one 
of  80  ;  Marseilles  one  of  74.  The  department 
of  Gbronde  subscribed  over  $800,000  in  addition 
to  the  ship  from  Bordeaux ;  tne  others  from 
$40,000  to  $200,000  each.  The  department  of 
06te  d'Or  sent  100  pieces  of  ordnance  from  the 
Creuzot  foundery.  rrivate  citizens  also  contrib- 
uted largely ;  and  the  Italian  republic  gave 
4,000,000  livree,  to  be  employed  in  the  build- 
ing of  2  frigates  and  12  gunboats.  The  whole 
contribution  amounted  to  $8,000,000,  which, 
added  to  $14,000,000,  the  net  proceeds  of  the 
sale  of  Louisiana  to  the  United  States,  fur- 
nished ample  means  for  the  purpose.  Several 
camps  were  fixed  at  points  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  northern  sea,  the  British  channel,  and 
the  Atkmtic,  the  principal  of  which  was  near 
Boulogne,  the  centre  and  starting  point  of  the 
projected  expedition.  This  was  hdd  out  with 
the  regularity  of  a  town ;  it  conmsted  of 
frame  houses  forming  streets,  thoroughfares, 
and  squares,  ornamented  with  fountains  and 
other  monuments.  Beside  regular  drillings  and 
exercises,  the  soldiers  were  employed  in  various 
works  of  fortification  or  construction.  They 
were  ready  for  embarkation  at  any  moment 
The  port  of  Boulogne,  as  well  as  those  of  Etaples, 
Yimereux,  and  Ambleteuse.  had  been  enlarged, 
deepened,  and  improved,  and  fortifications  were 
erected  along  the  coast,  and  protected  by  for- 
midable artiUery.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  the 
Enelish,  the  numerous  vessels  which  had  been 
buut  at  the  several  ports  of  France  and  Holland, 
succeeded  in  reaching  the  harbor  of  Boulogne. 
Beside  ordinary  ships,  they  consisted  of  gun- 
boats, gun-barges,  and  pinnaces^  all  of  very  light 
draught,  particularly  the  last.  The  gun-boats, 
however,  carrying  4  guns  and  half  a  company 
of  soldiers,  were  also  intended  for  fighting,  600 
being  equal  to  26  ships  of  100  guns.  The  whole 
fleetnumbered  from  1,200  to  1,600  crafts,  capable 
of  carrying  120,000  troops.  It  was  to  sail  fh>m 
Boulogne,  while  squadrons  would  also  start  from 
Brest  and  Texel.  It  was  calculated  that  the 
whole  force,  amountmg  to  150,000  men,  could 
be  landed  in  a  few  hours  on  the  English  shore. 


582 


BOULONNAIS 


BOUKBON 


In  August)  1804,  every  thiiu^  was  ready  for  em- 
barkation. Nai>oleon,  lately  proclaimed  em- 
peror, repaired  in  state  to  Boulogne,  and,  seated 
on  a  throne,  sorronnded  by  his  j^rinces  and 
marshals,  his  face  turned  toward  England,  dis- 
tributed to  his  soldiers  crosses  of  the  legion  of 
honor  and  banners.  The  troops  were  partly  on 
board  the  barses  and  pinnaces ;  the  rest  could 
be  embarked  m  less  than  2  honrs  ;  and  for  the 
last  signal,  Napoleon  only  waited  for  Admiral 
yi]leneuye,who,  after  a  cruise  in  the  West  Indies, 
where  he  had  successfully  ayoided  the  chase  of 
Nelson,  had  set  sail  for  Europe,  and  was  to 
reach  the  entrance  of  the  English  Channel,  and 
there  keep  the  English  fleet  at  bay,  or  fight  it, 
if  necessary,  in  order  to  give  time  to  the 
Boulogne  armament  to  cross  to  England  and 
land.  But  while  Napoleon  was  impatiently 
looking  for  Yillenenve,  the  latter  nad  en- 
countmd  the  English  admiral  Oalder,  opposite 
Ferrol,  and,  although  not  unsuocessAil,  mstead 
of  keepiuff  on  hia  course  toward  the  north,  had 
put  into  Vigo.  When,  after  long  days  of  anxiety, 
Napoleon  learned  at  last  that  YUleneuve  was 
not  coming,  that  the  English  fleet  was  cruising 
within  the  strait,  and  all  hope  of  now  success- 
fully attacking  England  was  gone,  he  turned 
toward  continental  Europe ;  and,  sending  his 
army  through  Germany,  undertook  that  cam- 
paign which  was  marked  by  the  victory  of 
Austerlitz  and  the  taking  of  Vienna,  and  ended 
with  the  treaty  of  Presburg.  From  England 
Admiral  Keith  was  sent  with  a  number  of 
flre  ships  to  bum  the  Boulogne  fleet  On 
Oct.  8,  he  was  off  the  port  and  made  hia  first 
attetQpt,  but  was  repelled  by  the  French.  For 
two  days  the  struggle  continued;  on  the 
night  of  Uie '4th  the  sea  itself  seemed  on  fire. 
Keith  was  compelled  to  retire,  having  caused 
but  comparatively  trifling' damage.  Events  did 
not  allow  Napoleon  to  renew  his  project ;  but 
he  was  reluctant  to  give  it  up  ;  he  entertained 
it  as  late  as  1806,  and  often  regretted  in  after- 
days  that  fate  had  not  permitted  him  to  carry 
it  through.  A  column  half  a  mile  from  Bou- 
logne is  now  the  only  material  record  of  this 
fiimous  camp. 

BOULONNAId,  a  district  of  France,  the 
chief  town  of  which  is  Boulogne,  in  the  an- 
cient province  of  Picardy,  now  a  part  of  the 
department  of  Pas  de  Oal^. 

B0nLTER,Hu6H,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  Ire- 
land, bom  in  London,  Jan.  4, 1671 ;  died  there 
in  8ept  1742.  On  leaving  Oxford,  he  was  suc- 
cessively chaplain  to  the  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury; rector  of  St.  Olaves,  Southwark; 
archdeacon  of  Surrey ;  chaplain  to  George  I., 
and  tutor  to  Frederic,  prince  of  Wales.  He 
was  made  bishop  of  Bristol  in  1719,  at  the 
same  time  obtaming  the  deanery  of  Christ 
Church,  Oxford.  In  1724  he  was  made  arch- 
bbhcnp  of  Armagh,  and  ^'  primate  of  all  Ire- 
land." He  expended  jBdO,000  in  augmentinff 
the  incomes  of  the  poorer  clergy ;  erected  and 
endowed  hospitals  at  Armagh  and  Drogheda 
for  the  reception  of  dergymen^s  widows; 


largely  oontribated  to  the  establiahmeat  of 
Protestant  charter  schools;  and  during  the  great 
famine  of  1740,  provided,  at  his  own  expense, 
2  meals  a  day  for  2,600  distressed  persons^ 
For  19  years  he  fllled  the  <^oe  of  lord  Jua- 
tice  of  Ireland. 

BOULTON,  Matthbw,  an  English  engineer, 
born  at  Birmingham,  Sept.  8,  1728,  died  at 
Aston  Hall,  near  Birmingham,  Aug.  17,  1809. 
Having  received  a  good  ]^ain  education,  which 
included  drawing  and  mathematics,  he  joined 
his  father  in  the  manufacture  of  hardware,  and 
at  an  early  age  discovered  a  new  process  for 
inlaying  steel  in  shoe-buckles,  watch  chaina, 
buttons,  &c.,  which  articles,  exported  to  the 
continent,  were  sold  there  to  English  trave- 
lers, as  the  frait  of  French  ingenuity.  The 
death  of  his  father  gave  him  ample  means  to 
extend  his  business,  and,  in  1762,  having  pur- 
chased a  large  tract  of  barren  heath,  at  Sobo, 
near  Handsworth  (one  of  the  suburbs  of  Bir- 
mingham), he  expended  a  large  sum  in  erecting 
the  works  still  known  as  the  Soho  manufacto- 
ry, capable  of  employing  1,000  workmen. 
Having  only  an  inadequate  supply  of  waters 
power,  Mr.  Boulton  constmcted  a  steam-en- 
gine, in  1767.  on  the  original  plan  of  Savery. 
Two  years  axterward,  he  ente^d  into  partner- 
ship with  James  Watt^  and  the  Soho  ateam-«n- 
gine,  gradually  improved  and  simplified,  be- 
came known  all  over  Europe.  Its  powers 
were  first  applied  to  the  purpose  of  coining  in 
1783,  from  80,000  to  40JOOO  milled  coins  bSng 
strack  off  in  an  hour,  boulton  and  Watt  sent 
two  complete  mints  to  St  Petersburg,  and  for 
many  years  executed  the  entire  copper  coinage 
of  England.  Mr.  Boulton  expended  £47,000 
on  the  steam-engine,  before  Watt  had  so  com- 
pletely constructed  it  that  its  operation  yielded 
profit  One  of  the  Soho  inventions  was  a 
method  of  copying  oil  paintings.  Mr.  Boulton 
also  patented  a  discovery  of  raising  water  and 
other  fluids  by  impulse.  He  was  extremely 
well  informed,  and  had  great  eonyersational 
powers.  It  was  to  James  Boswell,  who  visit- 
ed Soho  in  1776,  and  not  to  George  HI.  (as 
commonly  reported),  that  he  said,  ^^  I  sell  here 
what  all  the  world  desires  to  have,  power." 

BOUNTY,  a  premium  g^ven  by  governments 
for  the  enoonragement  of  special  branches  of  inr 
dustry  or  invention,  or  of  particular  enterprises 
which  are  thought  to  be  of  national  importance 

BOURBON,  a  county  of  Kentucky,  area  about 
800  sq.  m.,  bounded  on  the  N.  E.  by  the  South 
Licking  river,  and  drained  by  Hinkston,  Stoner^ 
and  Stroad^s  creek.  The  surface  is  gently  nndijh 
lating,  and  the  soil,  of  fine  limestone  derivation, 
is  remarkably  rich,  producing  large  quantities 
of  com,  and  affording  pasturage  to  extenave 
flocks  of  sheep.  Lead  ore  is  found  in  amall 
quantities ;  sulphur  and  chalybeate  springs  are 
numerous.  One  of  those  curious  monuments 
of  the  aboriginal  tribes,  which  occur  throughout 
the  Mississippi  valley,  has  been  discovered  on 
Stoner's  creek,  at  the  mouth  of  flat  Run,  in 
this  county.    It  is  a]q>arent]y  a  work  of  de- 


BOURBON 


688 


£moe»  a&d  consists  of  an  earUien  wall  9  or  4 
feet  high,  enclosing  an  area  of  21  acres,  within 
which  are  a  number  of  mounds,  excavations,  and 
about  20  raised  outlines,  2  or  3  feet  broad  and  1 
foot  high.  Outside  the  wall  are  14  structures 
similar  to  those  within.  This  county,  which 
forms  part  of  the  region  called  the  **  Garden  of 
Kentucky,**  was  organized  in  1785,  and  named 
after  the  royal  family  of  France.  In  1850  it 
yielded  1,705,599  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  78,183 
of  wheat,  180,582  of  oats,  78,621  pounds  of 
wool  (the  greatest  quantity  produced  by  any 
county  of  the  State),  and  1,205  tons  of  hemp. 
There  were  9  com  and  flour  mills,  7  saw  mills,  3 
woollen  factories,  1  cotton  &ctory,  28  churches, 
1  newspaper  office,  and  281  pupils  attending 
public  schooL  Value  of  real  estate  in  1855, 
$7,737,017.  The  capital  is  Paris,  and  the  pop- 
ulation amounts  to  14,466,  of  whom  7,066  are 
•laves. 

BOUBBON  (Ft.  2l4  de  la  JUunian,  or  lU 
Baurban)j  an  island  of  the  Mascarene  group,  in 
the  Indian  ocean,  under  the  sway  of  France.  It  is 
88  miles  in  length  and  28  in  breaddi.  Fop.  115,* 
000,  of  whom  about  65,000  were  formerly  slaves 
(59, 1 15  employed  on  the  plantations).  The  isle 
of  Bourbon  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
navigator  Mascarenhas,  in  1545,  and  received 
the  name  of  its  discoverer.  In  1 642  the  French 
took  possession  of  it,  and  formed  a  permanent 
colony  in  1649,  when  the  name  of  Bourbcm  was 
given  to  the  island.  During  the  revolution, 
and  under  the  empireLit  was  called  Reunion, 
and  He  Bonaparte.  The  English  seized  it  in 
1810,  but  restored  it  to  France  by  the  treaty  of 
Pans,  April  2, 1815.  In  1848  the  name  was 
a«dn  changed  from  Bourbon  to  B^union.  The 
island  has  been  formed  from  2  volcanoes,  one  of 
which,  called  Le  Gros  Mome,  has  long  been  ex- 
tinct ;  the  other,  the  Piton  de  la  Fournaise,  is  per- 
petually emitting  either  smoke  or  flame.  The 
nrinoipal  rivers  are  the  St.  Etienne,  Galets, 
K&ta,  and  Marsouins.  There  are  no  extensive 
plains;  the  entire  suxiace  is  covered  with 
mountains  (of  which  the  Piton  de  Keige  is  the 
highest),  between  which  lie  narrow  valleys. 
The  soil,  save  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast,  is 
sterile,  and  the  inhabitants  are  obliged  to  de- 
pend in  great  measure  upon  imports  for  their 
•absistenoe.  The  most  important  production 
of  the  island,  is  sugar.  €k>ffee,  cloves,  dye- 
woods,  and  saltpetre  are  also  exported.  Com 
is  raised,  but  in  very  small  quantity.  The  cli- 
maite  has  recently  undergone  a  great  change* 
Once  reputed  the  most  healthy  oolcmy  in  the 
world,  Bourbon  is  now  visited  by  a  bloody  flux 
and  typhoid  fever,  which  attack  every  European 
after  a  residence  of  4  or  5  years.  Yellow  fever, 
however,  is  unknown.  Earthquakes  are  never 
felt,  but  the  island  is  subject  to  violent  hurri- 
canes, whidi  do  great  injury  to  houses,  ani- 
mals, and  men.  The  temperature  is  more  mod- 
erate than  is  usual  in  these  latitudes.  The  rainy 
season  lasts  from  November  till  April,  and  it 
is  winter  from  May  till  October.  Bourbon 
island  possesses  no  good  port,  and  anchorage  is 


insecure.  St.  Denis  is  the  capital  The  oolo* 
nial  council  is  composed  of  80  members,  who  are 
chosen  for  5  years,  and  the  island  sends  2  dele- 
gates to  Paris.  Imports  in  1854,  $5,350,000 ; 
exports  $3,250,000;  reexportations,  $350,000. 
Total  value  of  imports  and  exports,  $8,950,000. 
The  arrivals  of  vessels  were  131 — ^94  from  France, 
80  from  French  colonies,  7  from  foreign  ports. 
Clearances  143 — 94  to  France,  42  to  French  colo- 
nies, 7  to  foreign  ports.  The  coasting  trade  for 
1854  was  to  the  extent  of  $6,700,000,  showing  an 
increase  of  nearly  17  per  cent,  over  the  preced- 
ing year,  and  employing  342  vessels,  of  which 
189  entered,  and  153  left  the  port. 

BODEBON,  the  name  of  a  French  royal 
family  which  traces  its  origin  to  Louis  IX.,  and 
unce  the  beginning  of  the  14th  century  has 
played  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  annals  of  its 
own  country,  and  more  recently  of  Europe. 
For  the  sake  of  clearness,  it  is  necessary  to 
distinguish  the  ducal  family  and  the  royal 
dynasties  proceeding  from  it  I.  Dnoii.  Fax- 
TLt,  The  fief  of  Bourbon,  now  called  L'Ar- 
chambault,  seems  to  have  been  in  existence  as 
early  as  the  9th  century,  when  it  was  in  the 
possession  of  Adhemar,  who,  according  to 
genealogists,  descended  from  Hildebrandt,  bro- 
ther of  Oharles  Martel,  and  who  transmitted  it 
to  his  progeny.  In  1218  it  came  by  marriage 
to  Guy  of  Dampierre,  whose  family  held  it 
until  1272,  when  Beatriic,  the  only  heiress, 
married  the  6th  son  of  King  Louis  IX.,  Rob- 
ert, count  of  Clermont,  who  thus  became  the 
head  of  the  great  family  of  Bourbon.  The  fief 
was  then  only  a  seignory,  and  was  erected  into 
a  dukedom  by  Oharles  IV.  for  Louis,  son  of 
Robert  and  Beatrix,  who,  in  1327,  assumed  the 
title  of  duke.  He  left  2  sons :  Pierre  I.,  the 
elder,  who  continued  the  ducal  dynasty,  and 
Jacques  I.,  count  of  La  Marche,  the  younger, 
whose  descendants  were  destined  to  become 
kings  of  France,  Spain,  Kaples,  and  Parma. 
The  second  duke,  Pierre  L,  was  killed  at  Poi- 
tiers.— His  son,  Louis  n.,  disdngnished  him^- 
self  during  the  reign  of  Oharles  v .  in  the  war 
against  the  English,  was  appointed  guardian  of 
the  duke  of  Orleans,  2d  schi  of  that  king, 
who  also  appointed  him,  conjohitly  with  Philip 
the  Hardy,  duke  of  Burgundy,  to  superintend 
the  education  of  the  young  king  Oharles  YL 
He  won  the  esteem  of  Oharles^  who  had 
married  his  sister,  and  used  all  his  efforts  to 
prevent  the  troubles  during  the  reign  of  his 
nephew ;  but  though  a  man  of  some  ability,  he 
was  unequal  to  the  task.  He  sucoessfhUy  led 
a  crusade  against  the  pirates  of  Tunis  in  1891, 
and  died  in  1410.  He  was  the  true  founder  of  the 
greatness  of  his  house.  To  the  duchy  of  Bour- 
bon and  county  of  Clermont  he  added,  through 
his  2  marriages,  or  by  purchase,  the  duchy  of 
Auvergne,  the  county  of  Montpenmer,  the 
principality  of  Dombes,  and  several  other  mi- 
nor feudal  estates;  so  that  he  became  one 
of  the  most  powerful  vassals  of  the  crown,  his 
possessions  extending  from  the  banks  of  the 
Cher  to  those  of  the  Bhone,  and  from  the 


684 


BOURBOiT 


sontlieni  boundaries  of  Borgnndy  to  Langue- 
doc.— Jean  1.  succeeded  his  father  Louis  II.; 
was  taken  prisoner  at  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
and  brought  to  England;  paid  his  ransom  3 
times  without  being  able  to  obtain  his  libera- 
tion ;  and  at  last,  in  the  hope  of  being  more 
successful,  concluded  a  treaty  by  which  he 
gave  up  to  the  English  king  the  principal 
strongholds  of  his  duchy,  at  the  same  time  ac-* 
knowledging  Henry  YL  as  king  of  France; 
but  his  son,  the  count  of  Clermont,  declined  to 
abide  by  these  terms,  and  the  unhappy  duke 
died  in  1484  at  London. — ^Charles  L,  known 
until  his  father^s  death  as  count  of  Clermont, 
did  good  service  to  the  French  king  against  the 
English,  and  was  one  of  the  negotiators  of  the 
treaty  of  Arras  between  Charles  VII.  and  the 
duke  of  Burgundy  in  1485.  He  subsequently 
engaged  in  the  revolt  known  as  la  Fraguerie^ 
but  soon  made  his  peace  with  the  king,  a 
daughter  of  whom  his  son,  the  count  of 
Clermont,  afterward  married.  He  died  in 
1466. — Jean  II.,  son  of  Charles  I.,  proved  a 
faithful  servant  to  Charles  VII.  of  France, 
but  entered  the  "  League  of  the  Public  Weal" 
against  Louis  XI.  By  the  treaty  of  Conflans 
he  obtained  the  most  favorable  terms,  being 
successively  appointed  governor  of  Languedoc, 
knight  of  St.  Michael,  and  lastly  grand  consta- 
ble of  France. — ^On  his  death  in  1488,  the 
duchy  should  have  fallen  to  his  1st  brother, 
the  archbishop  of  Lyons ;  but  his  2d  brother, 
Pierre  11.  of  iSeaujeu,  got  possession  of  it  He 
married  Anne,  daughter  of  Louis  XI.  of 
France.  On  the  death  of  that  king,  Anne 
governed  under  the  name  of  her  brother, 
Charles  YHI,  She  had  but  one  daughter,  Su- 
zanne, whom  she  married  to  her  cousin,  Charles 
of  Montpensier,  the  last  duke  of  Bourbon,  bet- 
ter known  as  the  constable  of  Bourbon.  He 
belonged  to  a  younger  branch  of  the  family, 
and  by  his  marriage  with  the  heiress  of  the 
elder,  became  the  most  wealthy  prince  in 
France;  he  was,  moreover,  appointed  grand 
constable  by  Francis  I.,  and  thus  ranked  in 
power  next  to  the  king.  Although  his  wife 
was  still  living,  Charlotte  of  Savoy,  mother  of 
the  king,  fell  in4ove  with  him;  but  he  repelled 
her  approaches,  and  she  became  his  irreconcil- 
able enemy.  The  constable  was  deprived  of 
his  pensions,  which  amounted  to  the  then  enor- 
mous sum  of  76,000  livres ;  and  on  his  wife's 
death,  as  she  had  left  no  child,  Charlotte 
claimed  the  Bourbon  estates  as  the  nearest  heir- 
ess, and  a  lawsuit  was  brought  agunst  him  be- 
fore the  parliament.  A  judgment  was  ren* 
dered  in  her  favor,  and  Bourbon  entered  into 
secret  negotiations  with  the  emperor  Charles 
V.  and  King  Henry  VIIL  of  England.  It  was 
agreed  that  a  kingdom  should  be  created  for 
the  constable  in  south-eastern  France,  and  the 
remainder  of  the  countiy  given  up  to  the  oth- 
er confederates.  Francis  I.  was  informed  of 
the  plot,  and  Bourbon  fled  in  disguise  and 
raised  in  Germany  6,000  soldiers,  with  whom 
he  entered  the  service  of  the  emperor.     He 


contributed  greatly  to  the  Tietory  of  Pavia, 
where  Francis  L  was  taken  prisoner.  How-* 
ever,  he  was  not  treated  by  the  emperor  with 
the  regard  which  he  anticipated ;  and  being  at 
the  head  of  a  body  of  German  mercenaries, 
who,  for  months,  had  received  no  pay,  he  was 
obliged  to  lead  them  against  the  city  of  Rome, 
before  which  he  appeared  May  6,  1527.  The 
troops  were  eager  for  the  promised  pillage,  and 
the  attack  commenced  at  once.  Bourbon, 
while  scaling  a  wall,  was  shot  by  a  culverin ; 
and  the  soldiers,  infuriated  by  the  death  of 
their  commander,  stormed  the  city,  which  for 
2  months  was  given  up  to  pillage  and  blood- 
shed. The  body  of  Bourbon  was  taken  to 
Gaeta,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his 
memory ;  while  the  French  parliament  ordered 
the  threshold  of  his  hotel  at  Paris  to  be  paint- 
ed of  a  ydlow  color,  to  make  known  to  pos- 
terity that  the  traitor  had  died,  bearing  ann* 
against  his  native  country.  11.  RotalStkas- 
TIS8  OF  BouBBON. — France,  The  head  of  the 
younger  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  which  gava 
kings  to  France,  was,  as  we  have  said  a&ve^ 
Jacques,  count  of  La  Marche,  2d  son  of  Louis, 
1st  duke  of  Bourbon.  The  6th  descendant  of 
Jacques,  Antoine  of  Bourbon,  duke  of  Yen- 
d6me,  married  Jeanne  d^Albret,  the  heiress  of 
Navarre,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Henri,  prince 
of  B6ani,  born  in  1558,  who  succeeded  his 
father  in  1562,  and,  in  1589,  on  the  death  of 
Henri  EL,  the  last  prince  of  the  Yalois  fiunily, 
was  the  heir-apparent  to  the  crown  of  Franceu 
Henri  the  B6amaia,  as  he  was  scornfully  called 
by  the  Catholics,  made  his  claims  good  by 
courage,  energy,  and  perseverance.  At  last,  in 
1594,  be  was  acknowledged  king  of  France  as 
Henri  lY. ;  and  after  a  reign,  during  which  he 
succeeded  in  restoring  peace  to  his  country,  he 
was  assassinated  in  1610  by  RavaiUaa  Six  of 
his  descendants  in  the  direct  line  occupied  the 
throne  after  him :  Louis  XIII.,  1610-1643 ;  Louis 
XIY.,  1648-1716;  Louis  XY.,  1716-1774; 
Louis  XYL,  1774-1793 ;  Louis  XYIIL,  1816- 
1824;  and  Charles  X.,  1824r-1830.  The  reign 
of  Louis  XIY.  lasted  72  years.  This  prince's 
son  and  grandson  died  before  him ;  and  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  great-grandson,  then  a  child. 
Their  2  successive  reigns  covered  togeth^ 
nearly  a  century  and  a  half.  The  disordera 
and  corruptioji  which  prevailed  during  the  lat- 
ter part  of  that  period  prepared  the  F^ndi 
revolution,  to  which  Louis  XYL  fell  a  vic^tim. 
For  more  than  20  years  his  brothers  were  ex- 
iles from  France ;  ttkej  returned  to  their  coun- 
try under  tiie  protection  of  foreign  armies. 
Hence  the  comparative  unpopularity  of  Louis 
XYIIL  and  Charles  X.,  which  caused  at  last 
the  overthrow  of  the  latter  in  1830.  The 
younger  branch,  known  as  Bourbon-Orleans, 
traces  its  origin  to  Philippe,  duke  ofOrleans,  the 
brother  of  Louis  XIY.  It  ascended  tlie  throne 
in  1880  in  the  person  of  his  4th  descendant, 
who  was  styled  Louis  Philippe  I.,  king  of  the 
French.  He  reigned  18  years,  and  lost  his 
crown  in  the  revolution  of  February,  1848. 


BOUEBON 


BOUBBONKAIS 


585 


His  living  sons  are  the  dukes  of  ITemonrs,  An- 
male,  Moatpensier,  and  the  prince  of  Joinville. — 
Spain.  On  the  death  of  Oarlos  II.,  the  last  prince 
of  the  Austrian  house  of  Spain,  the  crown  de- 
Tolved  on  Philip,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  of 
LouiflXIV.,  who  reigned  as  Philip  v.,  1700-1746, 
and  whose  successors   were:  Fernando  YL, 
1746-1769  ;  Oarlos  III.,  1759-1788;  Carlos  IV., 
1788-1808 ;  Fernando  VII.,  1814r-1888 ;    and 
Isabella  II.,  who  is  now  in  her  29th  year.    She 
married,  when  16  years  old,  her  cousin  Don 
Francisco  de  Assiz-Maria,  by  whom  she  has 
had  only  daughters;   the  heiress-apparent  is 
Maria  Isabel  Franoisca  de  Assiz  Ohristma  Fran- 
cisoo  de  Paula,  princess  of  Asturia,  bom  Dec. 
20,  IS^h-^Naples.    Don  Oarlos,  the  8d  son  of 
Philip  v.,  kinff  of  Spain,  obtained  in  1786  the 
kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  which  he  kept 
nntu  1759,  when  he  ascended  the  throne  of 
Spain  as  Oarlos  III.,  transmitting  his  Itidian 
crown  to  his   dd  son,   Ferdinando  I.     From 
him  the  Two  Sioilies  have  derived  their  sepa- 
rate family  of  sorereigns.     He  reigned  no  less 
than  66  years,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son 
Francesco  I.,  1825-1880,  who  was  the  father  of 
Ferdinando  II.,  king  since  Nov.  8,   1880. — 
Parma.    This  is  also  a  branch  of  the  Bourbon 
family  of  Spain.    The  infante  Don  Carlos,  be- 
fore becoming  kin?  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  had 
been  for  a  time  duke  of  Parma.    In  1748,  by 
the  treaty  of  Aiz  la  Ohapelle,  his   younger 
brother  Filipo,  son-in-law  of  Louis  XV.  of 
France,  was  inyested  with  the  duchy  of  Par- 
ma, which  he  transmitted  to  his  son  Ferdinand, 
whose  heir  was  Ludovico  I.    The  last  named, 
in  1802,  exchanged  his  duchy  for  Tuscany, 
which  had  been  erected  into  a  kingdom  under 
the  name  of  Etruria.    His  son,  Ludovico  II., 
succeeded  him  in  1808,  nnder  the  guardianship 
of    his    mother,    Maria   Luisa,    daughter    of 
Oharies  IV.  of  Spain.    In  1807,  the  same  prin- 
cess, on  the  promise  by  Napoleon  of  another 
kingdom  in  Portugal,  consented  to  a  resigna- 
tion for  herself  and  son ;  but  the  promise  was 
never  fulfilled ;  and  they  had  to  be  contented 
in  1816  with  the  hereditary  duchy  of  Lucca. 
In  1847,  Ludovico  II.  was  again  put  in  posses- 
sion of  the  duchy  of  Parma,  by  the  death  of 
Maria  Louisa,  late  empress  of  the  French.    In 
1849  he  abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son,  Carlo 
[II.,  who  had,  in  1847,  married  a  French  prin- 
3ess,  Louise  Marie  Th6rdse,  daughter  of  the  late 
luke  of  Berry.    On  the  assassination  of  Carlo 
[IL,  in   1854,  his  son,  Roberto  L,  was  pro- 
claimed duke,  under  the  guardianship  of  his 
nother,  a  function  she  still  discharges. — Among 
he  dacal  houses  deriving  their  origin  from  the 
oyal    Bonrbon   family   of  France,  liiose  of 
}ond6  and  Conti  deserve  notice.  •  Tne  head  of 
he   former  was  Louis  I.,  prince  of  Cond^, 
onnger  brother  of  Antoine  de  Bourbon,  king 
f  Navarre;  its  most  illustrious  member  was 
onis  II.,  called  the  great  Cond6,  under  the  reign 
f  LfOnis  XIV. ;   the  last  of  the  Cond^s  was 
>nnd  hanged  in  his  room,  Aug.  27, 1880.    The 
ontis  were  a  younger  branch  of  the  OoiDd^ 


family ;  they  began  with  Armand  de  Bourbon, 
brother  of  the  great  Cond6,  and  became  ex- 
tinct in  1814. 

BOURBOIT,  Louis  Henki,  due  de,  the  great- 
grandson  of  the  great  Cond^,  born  in  1693, 
at  Versailles,  died  at  Chantilly,  Jan.  27,  1740. 
After  the  death  of  Louis  XIV.,  he  was  nomina- 
ted member  of  the  board  of  regency,  imd  on 
the  death  of  the  regent,  Philip  of  Orleans,  ap- 
pointed prime  minister.  Like  his  ancestors,  he 
was  extremely  rapacious — obtdned  large  sums 
from  the  public  treasury,  was  involved  in  the 
schemes  of  Law,  associated  in  many  of  the  finan- 
cial transactions  of  the  brothers  Paris,  and  thus 
succeeded  in  increasing  his  patrimony.  In 
1726  he  was  exiled  from  the  court,  and  devoted 
himself  to  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy. 

BOURBOK,  Louis  Henri  Joseph,  due  de, 
the  last  prince  of  Cond6,  bom  Auff.  18, 1756, 
died  Aug.  27,  1880.  In  his  youth  ne  fought  a 
duel  with  Count  d^Artois,  afterward  Charles 
X.,  which  caused  great  scandal.  He  served  in 
the  war  between  tne  English  and  French,  and 
was  wounded  in  1782,  at  the  siege  of  Gibraltar. 
He  was  among  the  first  noblemen  to  emigrate 
from  France,  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution^ 
and  served  in  the  armis  de  Condij  command- 
ed by  his  father.  He  returned  to  France 
on  the  restoration,  recovered  the  most  of  his 
hereditary  fortune,  received  the  title  of  grand 
master  of  the  royal  household,  and  spent 
nearly  all  his  life  in  the  country,  addicted 
to  hunting,  a  pleasure  he  was  very  fond  of.  Ho 
had  then  as  nis  mistress  the  baroness  de  Feu- 
ch^res,  who  was  in  the  interest  of  the  Orleans 
family,  and,  as  he  had  no  offspring,  induced  him 
to  settle  his  fortune  upon  the  due  d^Aumale, 
Aug.  80,  1829.  When  the  revolution  of  1830 
occurred,  ^ityinc  the  misfortunes  of  Charles  X., 
the  duke  intended  to  cancel  his  will,  and  to 
give  all  his  fortune  to  the  exiled  king.  But  on 
Aug.  27, 1880,  he  was  found  hanging  by  the 
neck,  in  his  room  at  his  chateau  of  St.  Leu, 
nnder  rather  mysterious  circumstances,  which 
were  interpreted  in  a  very  discreditable  man- 
ner against  the  baroness  de  Feuch^res  and  the 
Orleans  family.  A  legal  investigation  was  en- 
tered upon,  but  it  cast  no  light  upon  the  mat- 
ter, and  it  was  Judicially  admitted  that  the  duke 
had  committed  suicide. 

BOURBON  LANOY,  a  French  watering 
place,  pop.  8,160,  department  of  6a6ne-et- 
Loire.  Its  mineral  springs,  which  are  employed 
in  nervous  affections  and  rheumatism,  were 
known  to  the  Romans,  nnder  the  name  of 
AgtuB  NUinei, 

BOURBON  L'ARCHAMBAULT,  a  town  of 
France,  pop.  8,094,  department  of  Allier,  18 
miles  west  of  Moulins,  celebrated  for  its  mineral 
springs  and  baths,  said  to  be  of  great  efficacy 
in  cases  of  paralysis,  rheumatism,  and  gun-shot 
wounds. 

BOURBONNATS,  an  ancient  province  of 
France,  situated  about  in  the  centre  of  that 
country,  between  the  rivers  Loire  and  Cher. 
It  belonged  for  centuries  to  the  ducal  house  of 


686       BOURBONNE-LES-BAINS 


BOURDOK 


Boarbon ;  wfts  confiscated  in  1523,  hj  Francis  L, 
and  united  to  the  crown  in  1531.  Its  chief 
town,  when  a  duchy,  was  Bourbon  TArcham- 
banlt — ^when  a  royal  province,  Moulins,  on  the 
river  Allier.  It  forms  now  the  whole  of  the 
department  of  Allier,  and  a  small  part  of  that 
of  Cher. 

BOURBONKE-LES-BAINS,  a  town  of 
France,  pop.  3,700,  department  of  Haute 
Harne,  21  miles  £.  N.  E.  of  Langres,  with  hot 
springs,  which  were  resorted  to  by  the  Ro- 
mans. The  heat  of  the  water  varies  from  40*^ 
to  52**  Reaumur,  or  from  about  120**  to  156* 
Fahrenheit.  It  is  principally  employed  in 
cases  of  paralysis  and  rheumatism,  spasms,  and 
ill-reduced  fractures. 

BOURCICAULT,  Diow  (more  correctly 
written  Bouoicault),  a  British  dramatic  au- 
thor and  actor,  bom  in  Dublin,  Deo.  26, 1622, 
4th  son  of  8.  Bourcicault,  a  French  refugee, 
and  banker  and  merchant  in  that  city,  e^nt 
to  England  to  be  educated  as  a  civil  engineer, 
under  the  guidance  of  Dr.  Lardner,  he  deserted 
Euclid  for  Shakespeare,  and,  on  March  4, 1841, 
being  scarcely  more  than  18  years  of  age,  he 
produced  the  comedy  of  '^  London  Assurance," 
at  Covent  Garden  Theatre.  The  success  of  this 
work  decided  the  destiny  of  the  young  engi- 
neer. During  the  10  years  which  suc^sed^ 
he  successively  produced  ^^  Old  Heads,"  ^^  Love 
and  Money,"  "  The  Irish  Heiress,"  "  Love  in  a 
Haze,"  and  upward  of  a  hundred  pieces, 
either  original  or  translated  from  the  French, 
including  the  "  Corsican  Brothers,"  the  *'  "Wil- 
low Copse,"  "Janet  Pride,"  the  "Phantom," 
"Faust  and  Margaret,"  &o.  His  merit  as  a  dram- 
atist consists  in  constructive  power,  knowledge 
of  stage  effect,  and  epigrammatic  diflJogue.  Hb 
demerit  is  that  he  writes  rather  from  his  expe- 
rience than  his  imagination,  and  prefers  to  make 
a  successful,  rather  Uian  to  risk  an  original  play. 
In  Septembar,  1853,  he  quitted  England  for  the 
United  States,  and  made  his  debut  as  a  lecturer 
in  New  York  on  the  following  December,  but 
soon  relinquished  the  desk  for  the  stage.  As  an 
actor  Hr.  Bourcicault  ia  chiefly  known  by  his 
Grimaldi  in  "The  Life  of  an  Actress,"  Sir 
Charles  Coldstream  in  "Used  up"  and  the 
"  Phantom."  His  wife,  known  as  Wss  Agnes 
Robertson,  is  a  very  popular  actress,  and  excels 
particularly  in  the  personification  of  soubrette 
characters.  Her  last  and  perhaps  her  best  per- 
formance is  in  "  Jessie  Brown," — a  play  written 
by  Hr.  Bourcicault 

BOURDALOUE,  Louis,  one  of  the  most  elo- 
quent of  the  French  preachers,  bom  at  Bourges, 
Aug.  20, 1682,  died  in  Paris,  May  13, 1704.  At 
an  early  age  he  entered  the  college  of  the  Jes*- 
nits  in  his  native  place,  and  was  soon  distin- 
guished for  his  proficiency  in  the  various  branch- 
es of  learning  taught  by  that  society.  It  was  not 
Ions,  indeed,  before  he  was  intrusted  with  the 
professorshi])  of  rhetoric,  philosophy,  and  mor- 
al theology,  in  which  he  displayed  remarkable 
capacity  for  oral  instruction,  as  well  as  ffreat 
energy  of  character.    His  success  in  the  chair, 


perhaps,  dhrected  his  attention  and  h<^pes  to 
the  pulpit,  in  which  he  first  appeared  m  the 
provmcial  churches,  where  he  enlisted  the  ad- 
miration of  a  grand-daughter  of  Henry  lY.  to 
such  an  extent^  that  on  her  death-bed  she  put 
his  services  into  requisition.  In  1669  he  re- 
ceived a  call  to  Paris,  where  his  fertility  and 
depth  of  thought,  combined  with  the  graces  of 
his  elocution,  rendered  him  immediiU^dy  popu- 
lar ;  and,  what  was  more  important  in  those 
days  of  absolute  kingcraft,  attracted  toward 
him  the  attention  of  Lewis  XIY .  That  monarch 
became  a  personal  attendant  upon  his  ministry, 
and  on  many  different  occasions  invited  him 
to  preach  the  festival  sermons  before  the  court 
at  Versailles.  In  an  age  of  brilliant  litera- 
ture, when  Comeille,  Racine,  and  other  dasno 
dramatists,  were  charming  society  from  the 
sta^e ;  when  Turenne  was  dazzling  the  world 
wiUn  his  military  genius;  when  Bossuet  wss 
filling  the  church  with  a  blaze  of  glory,  it  is  to 
the  honor  of  Bourdaloue  that  he  made  himself 
a  celebrity,  not  by  any  meretricious  tricks  of 
style,  or  by  eccentricity  of  manner,  but  by  the 
solid  dignity  of  his  thought,  and  his  fervid,  yet 
chastened  religious  eloquence.  He  became,  to 
some  extent,  a  reformer  of  the  somewhat  the- 
atrical oratory  of  the  sacred  desk,  and  restored 
its  ministrations  to  greater  simplicity,  direct- 
ness, and  sincerity.  For  20  years  he  oontinued 
a  favorite  of  tlie  French  metropolis.  When 
Louis  XIY.  repealed  the  act  of  toleration, 
known  as  the  ^ict  of  Kantes,  Bourdaloue 
was  sent  to  Languedoc,  in  order  to  reconcile 
th<)  Protestants  to  that  measure,  and  discharaed 
the  functions  of  his  ungracious  oflico  with  scill 
and  self-respect  In  his  latter  days,  Bour- 
daloue surrendered  the  ministrations  of  the 
puli)it^  to  a  large  extent,  for  the  sake  of  engaff- 
mg  in  the  more  aative  duties  of  charity.  He 
connected  himself  with  hospitals  and  prisons, 
where  he  showed  an  energy  in  alleviating 
material  maladies,  as  disinterested  and  strenu- 
ous as  his  efforts  in  removing  moral  mal- 
adies had  been  dbtinguished.  He  was  eveir- 
where  received  and  blessed  as  a  friend«  lus 
sermons,  often  published  during  his  lifetime^ 
have  belen  translated  since  into  many  foreign 
languages.  The  edition  of  them  by  Father 
Bretonneau,  in  16  volumes,  is  generally  consid- 
ered the  most  complete  and  valuable.  Among 
the  modem  editions,  that  of  Didot,  of  1840,  in 
3  royal  octavo  vols.,  must  be  mentioned.  The 
6th  volume  of  a  new  Grerman  translation,  begun 
in  1847,  appeared  at  Ratisbon  in  1850. 

BOURDON,  PixBBB  Louis  Majub,  a  French 
mathematician,  bom  at  Alen^on,  July  16, 1799, 
died  in  Paris,  March  15,  1854.  He  was  suc- 
cessively professor  of  mathematics  at  Saint 
Cyr,  in  the  lyceum  of  Charlemagne,  and  in  the 
college  of  Henry  IV.  At  his  death  he  held  the 
office  of  inspector  in  the  university  of  Paria. 
He  published  a  ^'  Treatise  on  Mechanics,"  Paris, 
1811 ;  ''Elements  of  Arithmetic,"  1821,  which 
has  reached  its  21st  edition;  ''Application  of 
Algebra  to  Geometiy,"  1824*  and  "Elements 


BOUBDOK 


B0URGE8 


687 


of  Algebra.'*  1848,  which  has  reached  its  9th 
editioiLana  the  adaptation  of  which  by  Pro- 
fessor Davies  has  been  greatlj  used  in  the 
United  States. 

BOURDON,  SiBAsnxN,  a  French  painter  and 
engraver,  bom  at  Montpellier  in  1616,  died  in 
Paris  in  1671.  At  Borne  be  was  the  friend  and 
disciple  of  Andrea  Sacchi  and  Olande  Lorraine. 
The  "  Crucifixion  of  St  Peter,"  in  Notre  Dame, 
Paris,  is  by  many  considered  his  masterpiece.  In 
1652  he  went  to  Sweden,  where  he  became  the 
principal  painter  at  Queen  Ohristina^s  court. 
While  there  he  declined  to  receive  from  the  queen 
a  eift  of  a  fine  collection  of  pictures,  of  whose 
value  he  saw  that  she  was  entirely  ignorant. 
This  afterward  became  the  celebrated  Orleans 
collection. 

BOURG,  Anns  dti,  a  French  Protestant, 
bom  in  1521  at  Riom,  executed  in  Paris,  Dec. 
20,  1559.  Having  at  first  taken  holy  orders, 
he  quitted  the  clerical  for  the  legal  profession, 
ffreatly  distinguished  himself  as  a  teacher  of 
tne  latter  at  Orleans,  and  in  1557  was  appointed 
counsellor  to  the  parliament  of  Paris.  On  a 
viut  pud  by  King  Heniy  II.  to  that  body, 
Du  Bourg,  in  company  with  Du  Faur,  one  of 
his  colleagues,  was  bold  enough  to  undertake 
the  defence  of  the  reformers,  whose  loyalty 
and  virtue  he  praised.  The  king  had  Da 
Faur  and  Du  Bourg  immediately  arrested  and 
taken  to  the  bastife  by  Constable  Montmo- 
rency. Du  Bourg's  defence  was  skilfully  con- 
ducted ;  the  elector  of  Saxony  made  efforts  to 
save  him,  but  aU  was  in  vain:  the  court  was 
bent  on  his  condemnation,  which  was  made 
still  more  certain  by  one  of  his  Judges  being 
assassinated  during  his  triaL  The  sentence  ox 
death  was  passed  on  him;  he  was  hanged  in 
the  Place  de  la  Grdve,  and  his  body  burnt. 

BOURG-EK-BRESSE,  capital  of  the  French 
department  of  Ain,  on  the  Reyssouse,  21  miles 
£.  8.  £.  of  M&con.  Pop.  12,068.  Having  been 
a  place  of  some  importance  under  the  Roman 
empire,  it  afterward  belonged  to  the  old  Bur- 
gundian  kingdom,  passing  with  it  into  the 
hands  of  the  German  emperors,  toward  the 
end  of  the  11th  century  it  passed  to  the  house 
of  Savoy,  and  in  1601  was  ceded  to  France. 
The  streets  are  narrow  and  crooked;  many 
of  the  houses  are  built  of  wood;  but  it  pos- 
sesses some  beautiful  edifices ;  and  the  catheoraL 
the  city  hall,  and  the  monuments  in  honor  of 
Joubert  and  of  Dr.  Bichat,  are  much  admired. 
In  its  vicinity  is  to  be  seen  the  church  of  Brou, 
with  the  tomb  of  Margaret  of  Austria,  Haim- 
ret  of  Bourbon,  and  I^ilibert  of  Savoy.  The 
town  has  also  a  botanical  garden,  and  a  library 
of  19,000  vols.  Lalande  the  astronomer  was 
bom  here. 

BOURGADE,  FsAirgois,  a  French  mission- 
ary in  Algeria,  bom  at  Gaxgou,  in  1606.  In 
1838  he  obtained  from  Rome  permission  to 
exercise  the  priesthood  in  all  the  French  pos- 
aesttons  in  Algeria.  He  visited  the  hospitals 
of  Danaovada  and  Boofareek,  and  founded  at 
Tonia  a  hospital  for  poor  women,  and  schools 


for  girls.  An  accomplished  Arabic  scholar,  he 
made  valuable  antiquarian  researches,  and  has 
published  a  number  of  Punic  inscriptions. 

BOURGELAT,  Clauds,  the  father  of  veteri- 
nary schools  in  France,  bom  at  Lyons  in  1T12, 
died  in  1799.  He  first  studied  law,  and  hegaa 
to  practise  as  an  advocate,  but  having  gained 
an  uinust  suit  for  his  client  conscientious  scra- 
ples  forced  him  to  abandon  that  profession. 
He  then  served  in  the  army,  and  bemg  Joined 
to  the  cavalry,  soon  learned  to  entertain  an  un- 
usual affection  for  horses,  and  became  very 
skilful  in  their  treatment.  Veterinary  science 
did  not  yet  exist  in  France,  and  Bourgdat 
entered  with  spirit  upon  the  large  field  of 
observations  which  his  position  in  the  cavalry 
hud  open  to  him.  After  several  years  of  study 
and  preparation,  he  opened  in  1722  a  veteri- 
nary school  at  Lyons,  which  soon  received  the 
title  of  the  royal  school,  and  became  known 
throughout  Europe.  He  wrote  numerous  works 
upon  veterinary  subjects,  which  are  stiU  valu- 
able, corresponded  with  the  most  distin^ished 
scientific  men  of  his  age,  and  at  the  tmie  of 
his  death  was  member  of  the  academy  of 
sciences  of  both  Paris  and  Berlin. 

BOURGEOIS,  DoaoKiQusFBANgois,  aFrench 
machinist,  bom  in  Chatelblanc  (Franche-Comt6) 
in  1698,  died  in  Paris,  Jan.  18,  1781.  He  first 
served  in  the  workshop  of  a  clock-maker,  and 
then  in  that  of  a  locksmith.  He  made  a  cele- 
brated automaton  in  the  shape  of  a  duck 
swimming  on  water.  Then  he  invented  a 
lantem  wnich  was  approved  by  the  academy 
of  sciences.  In  1766,  tiie  academy  adjudged  to 
him  the  special  prize  for  the  best  mode  of 
lighting  a  great  city.  In  1778  he  constracted 
a  beaoon  whose  light  was  visible  at  the  distance 
of  10  miles  even  during  stormy  weathei^  and 
in  1778  he  constructed  another  improved  one 
for  lighting  the  harbor  of  St  Petersburg.  He 
died  in  the  utmost  poverty. 

BOURGEOIS,  Sib  Fsanois,  a  painter  of 
Swiss  extraction,  born  in  London  in  1756,  died 
in  1811.  He  was  made  a  royal  academician  in 
1792,  and  in  1794  received  the  appointment  of 
landscape  painter  to  the  king. 

BOURGES,  capital  of  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Cher,  124  miles  south  of  Paris,  on  the 
canal  of  Berry  and  the  central  railroad,  in  an 
extensive  plain,  at  the  confiuence  of  the  Auron 
and  the  Y6vrette.  Pop.  28,167.  When  the 
Romans  invaded  Gaul,  it  was  known  as  Avari- 
cum,  the  capital  of  the  Biturigescubi.  It  was 
taken  by  Csssar,  52  B.  C,  and  almost  all  its  in- 
habitants slaughtered.  Under  the  name  of 
Bituriges,  it  was  for  475  years  the  metropolis 
of  Ai^uitania.  During  the  middle  ages,  many 
councils  were  held  here.  The  French  clergy 
assembled  here  in  1488  to  receive  the  famous 
charter  known  as  the  pragmatic  sanction, 
by  which  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  church 
were  secured.  Jacques  Cceur  and  Louis  XL 
were  both  bom  here.  The  former  established 
here  in  1463  a  university,  where  Cujas  taught 
during   the  16th  century.     Bourdaloue,  the 


588 


BOURGUET 


BOURMONT 


famous  preacher,  was  bom  here  in  1682.  Don 
•  Carlos  resided  liere  from  1839  to  1845,  when 
he  signed  the  abdication  in  favor  of  his  son. 
The  trial  of  Lonis  Blanc,  Albert,  and  others, 
took  place  before  the  supreme  court  at  Bourgea, 
March  Y  to  April  2, 1849.  The  city  is  partly 
snrronnded  by  a  thick  wall,  flanked  with  lofty 
towers;  its  streets  are  Irregularly  laid  out, 
while  the  houses  are  generally  mean-looking, 
with  their  gables  to  the  street.  Among  the 
old  buildings  which  it  contains  are  the  mag- 
nificent cathedral,  larger  than  Notre  Dame  ae 
Paris,  and  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  monuments 
of  Europe ;  the  city  halL  built  at  great  cost  by 
Jacques  Gceur  as  a  dwelling-house ;  the  palace 
and  the  garden  of  the  archbishop.  The  house 
of  Cujas  is  now  used  as  a  barrack.  The  estab- 
lishments of  public  instruction,  including  the  im- 
perial college,  the  theological  seminary,  and  the 
normal  school,  are  well  patronized.  Bourges 
has  manufactories  of  fine  and  coarse  clotbs, 
hosiery,  cutlery,  and  porcelain  in  the  vicinity. 

BOURGUET,  Louis,  a  French  naturalist  and 
archsBologist,  bom  at  Ktmes  in  1678,  died  at 
NeufchAtel,  Dec.  31, 1742.  When  19,  he  travel- 
led in  Italy,  where  he  collected  medals  and  re- 
mains of  ancient  times,  shells,  fossils,  and  books. 
"Within  20  years  he  completed  5  other  journeys 
to  the  same  country,  by  which  he  largely  in- 
creased bis  collections.  His  writings  have 
contributed  to  the  progress  of  natural  philoso- 
phy and  archeeology.  His  explanation  of  the 
old  Tuscan  alphabet,  which  he  demonstrated 
to  be  Greek,  has  secured  his  fame  among 
archaeologists. 

BOURIGNON',  AiSTOiNETTE,  a  Flemish  vision- 
ary, bom  Jan.  18,  1616,  at  Lille,  died  Oct.  80, 
1680,  at  Franeker.  She  was  born  so  ugly  that 
her  parents  held  a  consultation  to  determine 
whether  it  would  not  be  better  to  destroy  her  as 
a  monster.  She  was  spared,  but  her  infancy 
was  spent  in  neglect  and  solitude.  The  first 
books  she  put  her  hands  on,  were  lives  of 
early  Christians,  and  mystical  tracts,  which  she 
read  eagerly.  Kotwitlistanding  her  ugliness, 
as  she  belonged  to  a  rich  family,  she  had  suit- 
ors ;  indeed,  she  was  on  the  eve  of  being  mar- 
ried to  a  young  man  who  had  been  accepted 
by  her  parents,  when  she  made  her  escape  in 
man^s  clothes,  and  took  refuge  in  a  convent. 
There  she  made  proselytes ;  but  her  doctrines 
not  being  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the 
house,  she  was  expelled  from  the  town,  and  re- 
solved to  diffuse  her  new  creed  in  the  sur- 
rounding country.  In  1648  her  father  died, 
and  she  returned  to  Lille.  Her  wealth  called 
around  her  a  crowd  of  new  suitors ;  two  of 
whom  were  so  ardent  and  importunate,  that 
she  had  to  seek  the  protection  of  the  police. 
She  had  meanwhile  been  appointed  to  the 
charge  of  a  hospital ;  but  here  again  her  preach- 
ing created  disorder,  and  the  police  were 
summoned  to  expel  her  from  her  native  city. 
Then  she  resumed  her  mission,  and  in  the  dress 
of  a  hermit  wandered  about  the  northern  part 
of  France,  the  Netherlands,  HoUimd,  and  Den- 


mark. When  at  Amsterdam,  she  made  a 
formal  renunciation  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
doctrines,  in  order  to  be  more  at  liberty  to 
preach  her  own.  The  tme  church,  she  asserted, 
was  extinct,  and  her  mission  from  God  was  to 
restore  it.  She  did  not  require  any  external 
ceremony,  as  worship  should  be  wholly  in- 
terior ;  the  written  law,  insufiScient  for  salva- 
tion, was  to  be  replaced  by  direct  inspiration. 
She  was  very  active  and  eloquent,  and  her 
doctrines  snread  rapidly.  During  her  sojourn 
at  Amsteraam,  she  undertook  the  printing  of 
her  works,  by  a  private  press  she  carried  with 
her  for  that  purpose ;  but  this  plan  was  frus- 
trated. She  was  charged  with  sorcery  by  the 
mob,  who  pillaged  her  house.  Although  she  was 
very  wealthy,  she  never  gave  any  thing  to  the 
poor,  fearing,  she  said,  that  they  would  make  a 
wrong  use  of  alms ;  but  she  bequeathed  all  her 
property  to  a  hospital.  ^  Poiret,  a  mystical 
jPtotestant  divine,  wrote  her  life  and  reduced 
her  doctrines  into  a  regular  system.  He  super- 
intended the  pubhcation  of  her  complete  works, 
in  21  vols.  8vo.  One  of  her  tracts.  La  lumHre 
du  monde^  was  translated  and  published  in 
England ;  her  tenets  were  for  a  while  popular 
in  Scotland. 

BOURKE,  Sir  Richard,  a  British  gena«I, 
bom  in  Dublin,  May  4, 1777,  died  near  Limerick, 
Aug.  13,  1865.  He  entered  the  army  in  1798. 
In  1806  he  was  appointed  quartermaster-gene- 
ral in  South  America.  After  the  storming  of 
Montevideo  and  the  expedition  against  Buenos 
Ayres,  he  took  part  m  the  peninsular  war. 
From  1825  to  1829  he  ofiiciated  as  governor  of 
the  eastem  district  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  was  subsequently  appointed  goveraor- 
in-chief  of  New  South  "Wales  and  Van  Die- 
men^s  Land.  In  commemoration  of  his  able 
administration,  his  name  was  given  to  an 
Australian  coxmty,  and  his  statue  erected  at 
Sydney. 

BOURMONT,  Louis  AxrarsTE  Victob  d« 
Ghaisnb,  count,  marshal  of  France,  bom  in 
Anjou,  Sept.  2,  1773,  died  Oct  2r,  1846.  At 
the  age  of  15  he  entered  the  royal  French 
guards,  to  which  nobles  alone  were  eligible. 
In  1790  he  emigrated  from  France,  and  after- 
ward served  the  royal  cause  in  La  Vendue. 
Bretagne,  and  Maine,  becoming  mnyor-general 
at  the  age  of  20.  Immediately  after  he  was 
thus  promoted,  he  was  sent  to  England  for  the 
purpose  of  inducing  the  British  government 
actively  to  aid  the  Bourbon  cause,  but  failed. 
He  subsequently  commanded  a  division  of  the 
Chouans,  in  the  renewed  Yendean  revolt,  bul^ 
at  the  period  of  the  18th  Brumaire,  offered  his 
services  to  Napoleon,  who  accepted  them. 
Some  distrast  existed,  however,  and  he  was 
arrested  on  suspicion  of  being  concerned  in  the 
plot  of  the  infernal  machine.  Ailer  having 
been  successively  imprisoned  in  Paris,  Dgon, 
and  Besancon,  he  escaped  with  his  £amilyto 
Portugal,  where  he  remained  5  years.  In  1810 
he  was  allowed  to  return  to  France,  and  ap- 
peared to  devote  himself  zealously  to  Napo* 


BOURNE 


BOURRIENNE 


589 


leon^B  interests.  After  Napoleon's  depftrtnre 
for  Elba,  he  entered  the  service  of  Louis 
XYIIL,  to  whom  he  offered  his  sword,  on  the 
eve  of  his  flight  from  Paris.  On  Napoleon's 
return,  he  again  entered  the  imperial  service, 
and  was  intrusted  with  the  command  of  a 
brigade  of  the  grand  army,  but  on  the  eve  of 
the  battle  of  Waterloo,  he  abandoned  his  col- 
ors, leaving  Gren.  Hnlat  as  his  successor,  and 
went  over  to  Louis  XVIII.  at  Ghent.  Ten  days 
after  that  battle,  he  entered  France  with  the 
title  of  oommander  of  the  northern  frontier. 
Alison  says,  that  "the  envenomed  testimony 
which  he  bore  against  Marshal  Ney  had  gone 
far  to  seal  the  fate  of  that  unfortunate  man." 
On  Ney's  death,  Bourmontwas  appointed  to 
the  command  of  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
royal  guard.  He  served  under  the  duke  of 
AngomSme  in  the  Spanish  campaign  of  1828 ; 
became  minister  of  war,  under  Prince  Polig- 
nao,  in  1829 ;  and  was  conunander  of  the  mili- 
tary expedition  to  Algiers,  in  1830,  after  which 
he  was  created  a  marshal  of  France.  After  the 
revolution  of  July,  he  was  superseded  at  Algiers, 
treated  with  marked  discourtesy  on  his  return, 
proscribed,  and  exiled.  He  accompanied  the 
duchess  de  Berry  to  La  Vend^  and  after- 
ward devoted  his  service  to  the  cause  of  Don 
Miguel  in  Portugal,  and  of  Don  Carlos  in 
Spain;  resided  successively  in  England,  Hol- 
land, and  Germany ;  was  flowed  to  return  to 
France  in  1840,  but  was  mobbed  by  the  i>opu- 
lace  of  Marseilles.  He  spent  the  last  6  years 
of  his  life  in  retirement. 

BOURNE,  a  market  town  and  parish  of  Lin- 
colnshire, England.  Pop.  8,500.  A  canal  con- 
nects the  town  with  Boston.  In  Saxon  times 
it  had  a  castle,  which  was  the  seat  of  a  lord- 
ship of  some  note.  A  tessellated  pavement  and 
some  Roman  coins  have  been  dug  up  in  the 
neighborhood. 

BOURNE,  Hugh,  the  founder  of  the  sect  <^ 
Primitive  Methodists  in  England,  bom  April  8, 
1771,  died  Oct  11, 1852.  About  1810,  some  of 
the  Wesleyan  Methodists  were  desirous  of  re- 
newing the  primitive  form  of  worship  and 
constitution,  and  wished  particularly  to  revive 
camp  meetings.  These  practices  were  consid- 
ered unadvisable,  and  accordingly  Mr.  Bourne 
and  his  friends  were  expelled  from  the  body. 
They  were  20  in  number,  and  Hugh  Bourne  was 
acknowledged  their  elder.  The  sect  is  now  a 
powerful  body  in  England,  numberinff  109,000 
members,  with  an  annual  accession  of  4,000  or 
5,000.  They  have  600  regular  preachers,  and 
10,000  layj>reacher8.  In  1844,  Mr.  Bourne 
visited  the  United  States,  where  his  preaching 
excited  much  attention.  He  was  always  a 
total  abstinent  from  intoxicating  liquors. 

BOURNE,  Vincent,  an  English  scholar,  bom 
about  1700,  died  Dec.  2,  1747,  achieved  some 
reputation,  principally  as  a  Latinist  and  compo- 
ser of  Latm  elegiac  verses.  He  was  educated 
at  Westminster,  and  at  Trinity  college,  Cam- 
bridge ;  whence  he  returned  to  Westminster  as 
a  fellow,  and  served  there  many  years  as  an 


undennaster.  His  principal  writings,  which 
were  published  under  the  title  of  Foemata  in 
1734,  consist  of  Latin  versions  of  the  beautiful 
old  ballad  of  "  William  and  Margaret,"  of  "Co- 
lin's  Complaint,"  and  of  "  Lucy  and  Colin,"  by 
Tickell,  as  also  of  the  far  more  celebrated  song, 
a  favorite  to  the  present  day,  of  '^Black-ey^ 
Susan."  Oowper  made  English  translations  of 
several  of  Bourne's  original  Latin  pieces. 

BOURQUENEY,  FjtANgois  Adolphb,  baron 
de,  a  French  diplomatist,  bom  in  1 810.  He  first 
served  under  the  auspices  of  Chateaubriand, 
who  took  him  as  his  third  secretary  when  sent 
ambassador  to  Rome.  After  acting  as  secretary 
to  various  embassies,  he  was  chosen  by  On\zot 
to  represent  France  at  Constantinople,  where 
he  resided  until  the  revolution  of  1848.  He 
was  again  employed  by  Napoleon  III.  as  am- 
bassador at  Vienna,  where  he  conducted  the 
negotiations  connected  with  the  Russo-Turkish 
war.  He  has  since  remained  as  the  French 
ambassador  at  that  court. 

BOURRIENNE,  Louis  Antoins  Fauvslxt 
DEL  private  secretary  of  Napoleon,  born  at  Sens, 
July  9, 1769,  died  near  Caen,  Feb  7,  1884.  He 
entered  the  military  school  of  Brienne  in  1778, 
and  was  there  some  6  years  as  Napoleon^a 
school-fellow.  From  1789  to  1792,  he  spent 
his  time  as  attach^  to  the  French  embassy  at 
Vienna,  as  a  student  of  international  law  and 
northern  languages  at  Leipsic,  and  at  the 
court  of  Poniatowski,  at  Warsaw.  After  his 
return  to  Paris,  he  renewed  his  intimacy  with 
Napoleon,  then  a  poor  and  friendless  officer ; 
but  the  decisive  turn  taken  by  the  revolution- 
ary movement  after  June  20, 1792,  drove  him 
back  to  Germany.  In  1795  he  again  returned 
to  Paris,  and  there  again  met  Napoleon,  who 
however  treated  him  coldly ;  but  toward  the 
end  of  1796,  he  applied  again  to  him,  and  was 
summoned  to  headquarters,  and  installed  at 
once  as  his  private  secretary.  Aiter  the  second 
Italian  campaign,  Bourrienne  received  the 
title  of  counciUor  of  state,  was  lodged  at  the 
TuiUeries,  and  admitted  to  the  first  consul's 
family  circle.  In  1802  the  house  of  Coulon, 
army  contractors,  whose  partner  Bourrienne 
had  secretly  become,  and  for  which  he  had 
procured  the  lucrative  business  of  supplying  the 
whole  cavalry  equipment,  failed  with  a  deficit 
of  8  millions ;  the  chief  of  the  house  diaap- 
peared,  and  Bourrienne  was  banished  to  Ham- 
Durg.  In  1805  he  was  appointed  to  oversee 
at  Hamburg  the  strict  execution  of  Napoleon's 
continental  system.  Accusations  of  pecula- 
tion rising  against  Mm  from  the  Hamburg 
senate,  from  which  he  had  obtained  2,000,000 
francs,  and  from  the  emperor  Alexander, 
whose  relative,  the  duke  of  Mecklenburg,  he 
had  also  mulcted,  Napoleon  sent  a  commission 
to  inquire  into  his  conduct,  and  ordered  him  to 
reftmd  1,000,000  francs  to  the  imperial  treasu- 
ry. Thus,  a  disgraced  and  ruined  man.  he 
lived  at  Paris  until  Niupoleon's  downfall,  in 
1814,  when  he  stepped  forward,  had  his  mil- 
lion paid  back  by  the  French  provisional  gov- 


590 


BOtlBRIT 


BOUTELLB 


enimenty  was  installed  Ua  postmarter-geneTal, 
deposed  from  this  post  by  Louie  XV III.,  and  at 
the  first  ramor  of  Napoleon's  return  from  Elba, 
made,  hj  the  same  prince,  prefect  of  the  Paris 
police,  a  post  he  held  for  8  days.  As  Napo- 
leon, in  his  decree  dated  Lyons,  March  18,  had 
exempted  him  from  the  general  amnesty,  he 
followed  Lonis  XVIIL  to  Belffiom,  was  thence 
despatched  to  Hamburg,  and  created,  on  his 
return  to  Paris,  state  councillor,  subsequently 
minister  of  state.  His  pecuniary  embarrass- 
ments forced  him  in  1828  to  seek  a  refuge  in 
Belgium,  on  an  estate  of  the  duchess  of  Bran- 
cas  At  Fontaine  FEv^ue,  not  far  from  Oharle- 
roy.  Here,  with  the  assistance  of  M.  de  Yille- 
marest  and  others,  he  drew  up  his  '*  Memoirs,*' 
(10  vols.  8vo),  which  appeared  in  1829,  at  Paris, 
and  caused  a  great  deal  of  excitement.  He 
died  in  a  lunatic  hospital. 

BOURRIT,  Mabc  Th£odorb,  a  Swiss  naturalr 
ist,  bom  in  1785  at  Geneva,  died  Oct.  7, 1815. 
He  was  a  psunter  in  enamel ;  but  from  love  of 
Alpine  scenery,  he  devoted  his  life  to  explor- 
ing his  native  mountains,  which  he  illustrated 
by  pen  and  pencil  sketches. 

BOURTANGE,  a  Dutch  town  and  strong  for- 
tress in  Groningen,  district  of  Winschoten,  situa- 
ted in  the  midst  of  on  almost  impassable  swamp 
of  the  same  name,  near  the  confines  of  Han- 
over. It  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1698,  besieged  by  the  troops  of  the  bishop  of 
Monster  in  1672,  and  taken  by  the  French  in 
1795.    Pop.  1,829. 

BOUSSA,  a  city  of  interior  Africa,  and  cap- 
ital of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  situated 
on  an  island  in  the  river  Niger,  in  N.  lat.  10^ 
14'  and  E.  long.  6"^  11'.    It  is  built  in  detached 

Satches,  presenting  the  appearance  of  several 
ttle  villages,  and  the  whole  is  enclosed  by  a 
wall.  The  number  of  inhabitants  is  variously 
estimated  at  from  12,000  to  18,000.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  bold  and  rocky,  with  a  fer- 
tile soil,  producing  com,  cotton,  and  yams  in 
abundance.  The  African  wild  animals  also 
abound  in  the  vicinity.  Boussa  is  the  place 
where,  in  1805,  the  enterprising  English  trav- 
eller Mungo  Park  met  his  death.  He  was  em- 
ployed by  his  govemment  to  trace  the  course 
of  the  Niger,  and  was  here,  for  some  reason 
never  explained,  attacked  by  the  natives,  and 
but  one  of  his  party  escaped.  His  papers  were 
lost  with  him,  and  are  the  more  to  be  regretted 
because  he  had  already  passed  beyond  Timbuc- 
txK),  a  city  which  had  never  before  been  vidted 
by  any  European. 

BOUSSIfeRES,  a  village  and  commune  of 
France,  department  of  and  near  the  river 
Doubs,  9  miles  8.  W.  of  Besan^on.  Pop.  806, 
The  grotto  of  Osselle,  noted  for  its  fossil  bones 
and  caves  hung  with  beautiful  stalactites,  is  in 
the  vicinity. 

BOUSSINGAULT,  Jbah  Baptistk  Josbph 
PiBUDONNt,  chemist,  bom  in  Paris,  Feb.  2, 
1802.  He  was  educated  at  the  mining  acade- 
my at  Soint-Etienne,  and  afterward  employed 
by  an  English  company  to  direct  the  working 


of  dom0  mines  in  South  America.  I>uring  the 
revolution  and  the  war  of  independence,  he 
joined  Bolivar,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  colo^ 
nel  in  the  army.  In  this  capacity  he  visited 
different  parts  of  the  country,  exploring  Vene- 
zuela, and  all  the  regions  between  Cartagena 
and  the  mouths  of  the  Orinoco,  as  well  as 
Pern  and  Ecuador.  Being  devotedly  attached 
to  the  pursuits  of  science,  he  made  numerous 
observations  in  meteorology,  and  c<^ecttons 
in  botany  and  mineralogy.  He  was  the  friend 
and  correspondent  of  Alexander  von  Hum- 
boldt, and  his  observations  in  America  were  in 
some  degree  analogous  to  those  of  the  great 
German  traveller.  On  his  return  to  France 
he  was  appointed  professor  of  chemistry  and 
dean  of  the  faculty  of  sciences  at  Lyons. 
After  a  time  he  resigned  these  functions^  to 
pursue  his  favorite  investigatiohs  more  at  lei- 
sure, and  with  much  success.  In  1889,  being 
Srofessor  of  agriculture  at  the  e^nsertatinre 
68  arts  et  mhtiers^  in  Paris,  he  was  elected 
member  of  the  French  institute  in  the  sec- 
tion of  agriculture,  in  lieu  of  "hL  Hussrd,  de- 
ceased, and  appointed  professor  of  cheixastry 
at  the  Sorl)onne  as  second  to  Dumas,  th^ 
nominal  professor. — ^Boussingault  has  writtoi 
many  papers,  and  a  work  in  2  vols.,  on  agri- 
cultural chemistry  (Boonamie  rurale^  Paria^ 
1844,  2d  edit.  1849 ;  translated  into  English  by 
Law,  London,  1845,  and  into  German  by  Griiger, 
Halle,  1844)^  which  is  highly  valued  by  men  of 
science,  and  is  said  to  have  given  a  new  direction 
to  a^cultural  pursuits  in  France.  The  appre- 
ciation of  manures  according  to  the  propor- 
tions of  nitrogen  which  they  contain,  is  diiefiy 
due  to  the  researches  of  Boussingault ;  and  in 
cooperation  with  Dumas  he  measured  the  ex- 
act proportions  of  the  constituent  elements  of 
atmosi^eric  air.  He  has  made  valuable  obser- 
vations on  the  peculiar  projperties  and  usee  of 
difi^nt  kinds  <»  regetabies  m  the  feeding  and 
the  fattening  of  cattle.  He  also  discovered  a 
very  simple  method  of  preparing  oxygen  by 
means  of  baryta.  In  1848,  Boussingaul^  being 
a  director  and  co-proprietor  of  the  mining  es- 
tablishment of  B^cnelbronn  in  the  Lower 
Rhine,  was  elected  by  that  department  as  its 
representative  in  the  constituent  assembly,  in 
which  he  voted  with  the  moderate  republi- 
cans. He  was  elected  by  that  assembly,  mem- 
ber of  the  council  of  state,  and  continued  in 
tiie  "section  of  legislation ''  until  the  coup 
d^itat  of  Dec.  2,  1851. 

BOUSTROPHEDON,  "turning  like  oxen 
when  they  plough,"  a  term  descriptive  of  the 
early  Greek  manner  of  writing  from  left  to 
right  and  from  right  to  left  alternately.  So- 
lon's laws  and  the  Sigeian  inscription  were 
written  in  this  manner. 

BOUTELLE,  Timothy,  an  American  lawyer, 
bom  at  Leominster,  Mass,  Nov.  10,  1777,  died 
at  Waterville,  Me.,  Nov.  1865.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  college  in  1 800,  and  settled  at  Waterville 
in  the  practice  of  the  law.  He  obtained  a 
high  reputation  among  a  number  of  emin«it 


BOUTEBWEK 


BOUVET 


591 


eompetttora,  was  prominent  in  proouring  tbe 
Bepftration  of  Maine  from  Massachusetts)  and 
aabseqaendy  served  in  both  branohes  of  the 
legislature.  He  interested  himself  in  the  es- 
tablishment and  support  of  Waterville  college, 
an  institution  under  the  charge  of  the  denomi«* 
nation  of  Baptists,  and  in  other  useful  projects; 
and,  after  his  retirement  from  practice  at  the 
bar,  in  the  construction  of  the  Androscoggin 
and  Kennebec  railroad,  which  owed  its  com* 
]^etion  to  his  energy  and  financial  sagacity. 

BOUT£RW£K,  Fbibduoh,  a  German  an* 
thor,  bom  April  15, 1766.  near  Goslar  in  Han- 
over, died  in  G6ttingen,  Aug.  9,  1828.  He  re* 
oeived  his  first  education  in  the  g3rmna8ium  of 
Brunswick,  and  subsequently  attended  the 
university  of  GOttin^.  He  besan  his  litera- 
ry career  by  writing  poems,  but  soon  de- 
voted himself  to  philosophy  and  to  the  hi»- 
tory  of  literature.  He  was  for  a  time  a  follow- 
er of  Kant,  and  lectured  upon  his  philosophy 
in  1791.  Bouterwek  became  professor  at  the 
university  of  (^Ottingen  in  1797.  He  gave 
most  of  his  life  to  that  institution,  and  by  his 
literary  labors  and  lectures  contributed  to  the 
fame  which  it  enjoyed  during  the  first  haJf  of  . 
the  19th  century.  Among  his  many  produc- 
tions, his  ^^  History  of  Modem  Poetry  and 
Oratory  '*  (which  has  been  translated  into  sev- 
eral foreign  languages),  and  his  ^^.ifisthetics," 
are  most  prominent. 

BOUTEVILLE,  FRAsrgoiSDB  MomvoBSNor, 
sovereign  count  of  Suxe,  bom  in  1600,  behead- 
ed June  27, 1627,  leaving  the  reputation  of  the 
most  celebrated  duellist  of  his  time.  In  his 
earliest  youth  he  entered  the  army,  and  served 
with  distinction  against  the  Huguenots  during 
the  reign  of  Louis  XIIL  But  duels  being  then 
considered  the  highest  proofs  of  personal  cour- 
age, he  plunged  headlong  into  quarrels,  was 
arrays  successful,  and  his  existence  became  an 
almost  uninterrapted  duel.  Whenever  publio 
report  distinguisned  any  one  for  gallantry, 
Bouteville  at  once  sought  a  quarrel  with  him. 
For  one  of  his  duels,  fought  in  1624  on  Easter 
day,  he,  his  adversary,  and  their  seconds,  were 
condemned  by  the  parliament  of  Paris  to  be 
hanged.  The  parties  escaped  and  the  scaffold 
was  destroyed  by  their  friends.  In  1626  he 
killed  a  marquis  of  Thorigny,  then  wounded 
one  of  his  intimate  friends  who  reproached 
him  because  he  had  not  chosen  him  as  his  sec- 
ond. For  these  2  affairs  he  was  obliged  to  fiy 
*  to  Brussels.  The  reigning  archduchess  re- 
ceived him  kindly,  and  interceded  for  his  par- 
don with  Louis  Xin.  When  the  kmg  refused 
to  grant  it,  Bouteville  exclaimed:  ^As  the 
king  refuses  to  pardon  me,  I  shall  fight  next  in 
Para."  This  he  did,  fighting  a  duel  with  Mar- 
quis Benvron,  a  relation  and  avenger  of  the 
slain  Thorigny.  They  fought  with  short  swords 
and  daggers.  Unable,  from  the  excellence  of 
tiieir  fencing,  to  touch  each  other,  they  threw 
away  their  swords,  seized  each  other  by  the 
tlu'oats,  but  in  the  act  of  striking  with  their 
da^;ers,  asked  simultaneously  for  life.    They 


fled,  but  the  order  for  their  arrest  overtook 
them  at  Vitry.  They  were  brought  back  to 
Paris  and  condemned  to  death.  Almost  all  the  * 
highest  aristocracy,  with  which  both  had  been 
in  various  ways  connected,  interceded  for  them, 
but  in  vain.  Louis  XIIL,  or  rather  Oardinal 
Richelieu,  was  inflexible.  They  were  behead- 
ed, both  dying  fearlessly.  Bouteville  left  a 
T^^e,  who  6  months  after  his  death  gave  birth 
to  a  son,  afterward  celebrated  in  tlie  wars  of 
Louis  XIY.  as  Marshal  de  Luxembourg. 

BOUTIN,  VmoiNT  Yves,  a  French  officer  of 
engineers,  bom  near  Nantes,  1772,  died  by 
assassination  in  Syria  in  1818.  He  served  with 
distinction  during  the  revolutionary  and  Napo- 
leonic wars.  In  1807  he  was  attached  to  Se- 
bastiani's  embassy  at  Constantinople.  England 
having  declared  war  against  Turkey,  Admiral 
Duckworth  forced  the  Dardanelles,  and  ap- 
peared before  Constantinople.  Under  the  di- 
rection of  Bebastiani,  and  especially  of  Boutin, 
the  Turks  threw  up  batteries  on  the  shores^ 
and  the  English  fleet  retired.  Shortly  after- 
ward, Boutin  went  to  visit  Algiers,  but  on  hia 
way  was  made  prisoner  by  an  English  cruiser, 
and  brought  into  Malta,  whence,  however,  he 
soon  esci^>ed,  and  reached  the  African  coast 
On  his  return  he  was  sent  by  Napoleon  to  sur- 
vey secretly  Egypt  and  Syria,  and  perished 
there  by  the  hands  of  robbers.  Boutin  having 
had  the  foresight  to  leave  his  drawings  with 
the  French  consul  at  Latakeea,  they  were  sent 
to  the  French  government.  His  plans  of  the 
coast  of  Africa  were  of  great  service  in  the 
expedition  against  Algiers,  in  1880. 

BOUVABT,  Alexis,  a  Swiss  astronomer, 
bom  near  Mont  Blanc,  June  27,  1767,  died 
June  7,  1848.  He  went  to  Paris  in  1785,  and 
being  unable,  on  account  of  his  poverty, 
while  studying  mathematics  and  astronomy, 
to  enter  a  special  school,  attended  the  free 
lectures  at  the  coUege  of  Franc^.  In  179S 
he  was  attached  to  the  Parisian  observatory, 
and  in  1795  became  one  of  its  regular  astrono- 
mers. In  1804  he  became  member  of  the  bu- 
reau of  longitudes,  and  by  the  influence  of 
Lft  Place,  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences.  He  was  a  collaborator 
of  La  Place,  in  preparing  the  Mieanique  eS- 
late.  In  1808  he  published  new  tables  of  Ju*  ^ 
piter  and  Saturn,  to  which,  in  1821,  he  added 
those  of  Uranus,  whose  p^urbations  he  was 
the  first  to  point  out  and  explain.  Leverrier^s 
discovery  of  Neptune  in  1846  confirmed  what 
Bouvart  had  laid  down  as  a  hypothesis.  He 
died  while  making  astronomical  calculations. 

BOUVET,  JoAGHDC,  a  French  missionary, 
bom  at  Mans,  about  1662,  died  at  Pekin,  June 
28,  1782.  Sent  by  Louis  XIY.  to  China  to 
study  the  customs  and  institutions  of  that 
country,  he  was  received  with  favor  at  the  im- 
perial court  at  Pekin,  employed  by  the  em- 
peror in  directing  various  constmctions,  and 
allowed  to  build  a  church  even  within  the  pal- 
ace. He  returned  to  France  in  1697,  with  petr- 
mission  to  take  back  with  him  to  China  as 


592 


BOUVIEB 


BOW 


manj.  missionaries  as  would  undertake  the 
voyage.  He  presented  to  Lonis  XIV.  49  works 
in  the  Chinese  language,  and  in  1699  departed 
again  for  Ohina  with  10  associates,  among 
whom  was  the  learned  Parennin.  He  labored 
for  nearly  60  years  with  indefatigable  ardor  to 
promote  the  progress  of  the  sciences  in  that 
empire.  He  gave  an  account  of  the  state  of 
Ohina  in  several  treatises  and  letters,  and  ma4e 
ft  dictionary  of  the  language. 

BOUVIER,  Jomr,  an  American  jurist,  of 
French  birth,  bom  at  Oodognan,  in  the  de- 

Sartment  of  Gard,  in  1787,  died  in  Phila* 
elphia,  Nov.  18,  1851.  He  was  of  a  Qua- 
ker family,  which  emigrated  to  this  country 
and  settled  in  Philadelphia,  when  he  was 
in  his  15  th  year.  He  obtained  employment 
for  several  years  in  a  bookstore,  became  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States  in  1812,  pub- 
lished a  newspaper  for  a  short  time  at  Browns- 
viUe^  in  the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania, 
studied  law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1818.  During  his  studies  he  made  a  complete 
analysis  of  Blockstone^s  ^^  Oommentaries."  In 
1822  he  began  the  practice  of  law  in  Philadel- 
phia, in  which  city  he  resided  till  his  death. 
He  published,  in  1889,  a  '*Law  Dictionary, 
adapted  to  the  Constitution  and  Laws  of  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  of  the  several 
States  of  the  American  Union,"  the  fruit  of  10 
years*  labor.  In  1841  he  published  a  new  edi- 
tion of  Bacon's  ^*  Abridgment  of  the  Law." 
His  greatest  work,  published  2  months  before 
his  death,  was  the  '^Institutes  of  American 
Law."  He  was  associate  Judge  of  the  court  of 
criminal  sessions  in  Philadelphia  from  the  year 
1838,  and  was  not  only  learned  in  the  law,  but 
in  the  literature  of  several  languages. 

BO  YES,  Jos6  ToMAS,  a  military  adventurer 
in  Spanish  America,  died  Dec.  6,  1814.  He 
was  bom  in  Castile,  and  of  the  lowest  extrac- 
tion. At  the  age  of  30  he  was  employed  as  a 
naval  oiEcer*to  guard  the  American  coasts,  but 
betrayed  his  tmst,  and  was  condemned  and 
imprisoned  for  bribery  and  prevarication.  After 
his  release,  he  was  for  a  time  a  peddler,  but 
found  a  vocation  more  agreeable  to  him  when 
the  war  of  independence  broke  out  in  1810. 
He  joined  the  royal  forces,  and  became  captain 
of  a  company  in  the  army  of  Cagigal,  but  be- 
*  gan  to  wage  war  on  his  own  account  after  the 
defeat  of  Cagigal  at  Maturin.  Boves  estab- 
lished himself  at  Calabozo,  and  with  500  men, 
many  of  whom  were  slaves,  defeated  Marino, 
the  dictator  of  the  eastem  provinces.  His  lit- 
tle army  was  now  increased  by  fugitives  from 
iustice,  and  all  the  white  and  colored  vaga- 
bonds of  the  vicinity,  at  the  head  of  whom  he 
be^an  a  warfare  which  recalls  the  most  deso- 
latmg  campai^s  of  the  barbarous  ages.  He 
defeated  the  mdependents  twice,  slaughtered 
all  his  prisoners,  and  gained  for  his  army  the 
name  of  the  Infernal  Division.  He  was  de- 
feated by  Rivas,  and  a  part  of  his  army,  being 
taken  captive,  were  put  to  death ;  but  he 
quickly  recovered  his  strength,  resumed  the 


offensve,  and  m  1814  defeated  Bolivar  and  Ka- 
rifio  at  La  Puerto.  The  stmggle  was  pro- 
longed with  alternate  successes  and  reverses, 
and  with  incessant  cruelties.  Boves  advanced 
toward  Valencia,  where  the  independents  were 
strongly  fortified,  and  after  a  blockade,  forced 
the  town  to  capitulate.  To  give  a  more  solemn 
sanction  to  the  terms  of  capitulation,  a  mass 
was  celebrated  between  the  two  armies,  and 
at  the  moment  of  the  elevation,  the  royalist 
general  promised  a  strict  and  faithful  observance 
of  the  treaty ;  but  having  entered  the  town, 
he  ordered  the  republican  officers  and  a  large 
number  of  the  soloiers  to  be  shot  Boves  was 
again  victorious  at  Ang^ta,  and  obliged  Boli- 
var to  retreat  to  Carthagena.  He  now  entered 
Caracas,  and  shortly  after  gained  a  new  victo- 
ry, and  killed  or  wounded  1,500  of  the  inde- 
pendents. His  last  triumph  was  at  Urica;  ha 
was  struck  by  a  lance,  and  died  upon  the  field 
of  battle.  His  funeral  was  celebrated  amid 
bloody  commotion,  while  his  troops  were  put- 
ting to  death  the  men,  women,  and  chUdren 
whom  they  had  made  prisoners. 

BOYINES,  a  village  of  Flanders,  within  a 
short  distance  of  lille,  celebrated  for  the  meat- 
orable  victory  gained  by  Philip  Augustus  of 
France  over  Otho  IV.  of  Germany,  and  his 
allies,  July  2T,  1214.  Philip  of  Valois  defeat- 
ed here,  in  1840,  10,000  English  troops;  and, 
on  Hay  17  and  18,  17d4,  the  French  here  de- 
feated the  Austrians. 

BOVINO  (anc.  Bovinvm  or  Vibinum)^  a 
fortified  town  of  Naples,  pop.  5,721,  province 
of  Capitanata,  near  uie  Cervaro.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  has  a  fine  cathedral,  2  parish, 
churches,  and  several  convents,  and  is  memo- 
rable for  a  defeat  of  the  imperialists  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1784. 

BOW,  the  earliest  instrument  known,  and 
the  most  generally  diffused,  among  all  savage 
and  barbarous  people,  for  the  propulsion  of 
missiles,  in  the  chase  or  in  war.  There  are  % 
forms  of  the  bow,  the  long-bow  and  the  cross- 
bow, the  former  of  which  is  the  earlier,  the 
more  general,  and  by  far  the  more  celebrated, 
as  being  the  weapon  of  the  famous  English 
archers  of  the  middle  ages,  who  were  popular- 
ly said  to  carry  at  their  belts  the  lives  of  four- 
and-twenty  Scots,  that  bein^  the  number  of 
dothyard  arrows  in  their  qmvers.  The  long- 
bow passed  out  of  use  as  a  military  weapon 
with  the  improvement  of  firearms;  but  there 
were  men  yet  alive  in  the  beginning  of  this 
century  who  remembered  that  the  Hi^landers, 
in  the  Jacobite  rising  of  1715,  carried  bows 
and  arrows ;  and  at  the  capture  of  Paris,  in 
1814,  Bashkirs  and  Circassians,  in  the  service 
of  Russia,  were  seen  in  the  streets  of  that  dty, 
armed  in  chain-mail,  with  bow-cases  and  quiv- 
ers. Some  of  the  North  American  Indiana, 
especially  the  Oomanches  and  the  Apaches^  are 
stUl  very  expert  with  the  bow.  The  cross-bow 
is  yet  used  in  some  field  sports.  See  Abohxbt. 
Aenfoouirr,  Abbalast,  Ballista,  Cbkct,  ana 
Cbo68-Bow. — In  Mnaio,  a  short  stick  of  hard. 


BOW  ISLAOT) 


BOWDITOH 


698 


cilastio  wood,  along  which  are  stretched  horse- 
hairs, the  tension  of  which  is  regulated  hj  a 
acrew.  It  is  used  for  playing  on  instmments  of 
the  Tiolin  kind,  and  varies  in  size,  the  donhle- 
bass  and  violonoello  bow  bein^  much  stiffer  and 
stronger  tlian  that  of  the  violin. 

BOW  ISLAin>,  an  island  in  the  Sonth  Pa- 
<»flc  ocean,  near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
Society  Isles,  in  6.  kt.  IS""  6'  and  W.  long.  140'' 
51^  It  is  a  low  island,  of  coral  formation, 
about  80  miles  in  length  and  5  miles  in  breadth. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  shape,  which  is 
bow-like,  the  outer  edge  only  being  of  land, 
and  encircling  a  great  central  lagoon.  It  was 
discovered  by  Bougainville  in  1768. 

BOWDEN,  John,  D.D.,  a  clergyman  of  the 
Pn^testant  Episcopal  church,  bom  in  Ireland, 
in  Jan.  1751,  died  at  Ballston  Springs,  N.  Y., 
July  81,  1817.  He  came  to  this  country  with 
Ms  father,  who  was  a  British  officer  in  the 
French  war,  and  after  studying  2  years  in 
Princeton  college,  returned  to  Ireland.  He 
came  to  America  again  in  1770,  graduated  at 
Singes  (now  Columbia)  college  in  New  York, 
in  1772,  and  completed  the  study  of  divinity  in 
England,  where  he  was  orddned  in  1774.  He 
soon  became  assistant  minister  of  Trinity  churdi 
in  New  York  city,  but  lived  in  retirement  at 
Norwalk,  Ot,  durmg  the  revolutionary  war, 
with  the  exception  of  the  period  when  the 
British  held  New  York,  dunng  which  he  re- 
sumed his  pastorate  in  that  city.  The  weakness 
of  his  voice  obliged  him  to  rdinquish  preach- 
ing, and  after  being  for  several  years  principal 
of  the  Episcopal  academy  in  Cheshire,  Ct,  ne 
was  elected  in  1806  professor  of  moral  philoso- 
phy and  belles-lettres  in  Columbia  college,  in 
wMch  position  he  remained  till  his  death. 
His  works,  chiefly  in  defence  of  the  doctrines 
and  discipline  of  the  Episcopal  church,  are 
marked  by  learning  and  acuteness. 

BOWDICH,  Thomas  Edwabd,  traveller  and 
author,  bom  at  Bristol,  England,  in  1790,  died 
in  Africa,  Jan.  10, 1624.  He  was  partner  with 
his  father  as  a  merchant,  but  the  occupation  of 
trade  was  uncongenial,  and  he  accepted  a  writer- 
ship  in  the  service  of  the  English  African  com- 
pany, arriving  at  Cape  Coast  Castle  (where  his 
uncle  was  governor)  in  1816,  and  goings  in 
1817,  as  second  in  command  of  a  mission  to 
Ashantee.  Of  this  mission  he  became  the 
leader,  and  succeeded  in  inducing  the  Ashantee 
monaim  to  condnde  a  treaty,  on  terms  veiy 
advantageous  to  the  British.  On  his  return  to 
England,  in  1819,  he  published  an  account  of 
his  mission  in  a  quarto  volume,  and  soon  after 
proceeded  to  Paris,  with  the  view  of  preparing 
nimsolf  for  a  second  African  expedition.  Math- 
ematical and  physical  science,  and  various 
branches  of  natural  history,  were  what  he  re- 
quired to  know,  and,  assisted  by  Cuvier  and 
other  eminent  Frenchmen,  he  devoted  himself 
for  nearly  4  years,  to  their  study.  In  that  time, 
he  published  several  works  on  African  travel 
and  geography.  He  reached  the  mouth  of  the 
Gambia,  to  commence  his  second  African  tour, 
VOL.  m. — 38 


but  the  exposure  to  heat  and  cold  alternately, 
while  making  a  trigonometrical  survey,  result- 
ed in  a  fever,  of  which  he  died. 

BOWDITCH,  Nathanixl,  an  American 
mathematician,  bom  at  Salem,  Mass.,  March 
26, 1778,  died  in  Boston,  March  16, 1888.  The 
son  of  a  cooper,  he  was  sent  to  school  till  10 
years  of  age,  and  was  then  taken  into  his  fa- 
ther's shop  to  assist  by  his  labor  in  supporting 
a  large  family.  He  was  soon  transferrod  to  a 
ship  chandlery,  and  remained  derk  or  appren- 
tice in  this  business  till  he  made  his  first  voyage 
in  1796.  His  education  and  all  of  his  labors  in 
mathematics  were  accomplished  by  improving 
his  leisure  while  pursuing  other  avocations. 
For  this  branch  of  study  he  had  in  his  sdiool- 
days  indicated  a  fondness,  and  during  his  ap- 
prenticeship, when  not  engaged  in  serving  cus- 
tomers, he  was  employed  witn  books,  slat^  and 
pencil.  Hearing  of  a  mode  of  worldng  out 
problems  by  letters  instead  of  figures,  he  bor- 
rowed an  alffebra^  which  at  once  so  interested 
and  agitated  him,  that  he  passed  a  deepless 
night.  A  retired  British  sailor  taught  him  the 
elements  of  navigation*  He  began  to  learn 
Latin  in  1790  without  an  instructor,  that  he 
might  read  the  JPrindpia  of  Newton,  and  by  dint 
of  perseverance,  with  the  aid  of  the  equations 
and  diagrams,  mastered  the  reasoning  of  the 
author.  He  afterward  learned  French  for  the 
purpose  of  having  access  to  the  treasures  of 
mathematical  science  in  that  language,  and 
shocked  his  French  teacher  by  decHmng  for 
some  time  to  leam  tikie  pronunciation.  Dili- 
gent in  reading,  and  harinff  no  ffuide  in  tibe 
selection  of  books,  he  read  through  the  whole 
of  Chambers's  **  Cydopfedia^"  without  omit- 
ting an  article;  and  he  transcribed  all  the 
mathematical  papers  in  the  *^  Transactions  "  ot 
the  royal  society  of  London,  He  made  him- 
self conversant  with  subjects  the  most  foreign 
to  his  favorite  studies,  acquired  in  later  life  a 
knowledge  of  Spanish,  Itafian,  and  German,  in 
order  to  indulge  his  taste  for  general  literature, 
and  was  from  early  youth  an  ardent  admirer  of 
Shakespeare,  and  remarkably  familiar  with  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments.  Once,  while  deeply 
engaged  in  solving  a  problem,  he  forgot  a  mat- 
ter of  business,  and  from  that  day' made  it  an 
invariable  rule  never  to  allow  his  studies  to  in- 
terfere with  any  other  duties.  He  formed  the 
most  methodical  habits,  and  rose  each  day  at 
the  earliest  dawn.  Between  1795  and  1808  he 
made  5  long  voyages,  successively  as  clerk,  su- 
percargo, and  master,  visiting  the  East  Indies, 
Portn^  and  several  of  the  ports  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. During  the  Ions  mtervals  of  leisure 
which  a  sailor's  life  afifSorded,  he  pursued  his 
fiivorite  researches  with  unremitting  industry. 
In  his  8d  voyage  the  vessel  was  duased  by  a 
French  privateer,  and  resistance  being  deter- 
mined on,  the  duty  assigned  to  him  was  that  of 
handing  the  powder  upon  deck.  In  the  midst 
of  the  preparations,  he  was  seen  quietly  seated 
by  his  iceg  of  powder,  occupied  as  usual  with 
his  fiUte  and  pencil.    When  he  became  master, 


»M 


BOWDITOH 


he  inspired  bis  men  with  lo  much  of  his  own 
entbamasm,  that  even  the  oook  of  the  ship 
oould  work  a  lunar  obserTation.  On  his  return 
from  his  last  voyage,  he  arrived  off  the  coast 
of  Salem  hj  night  m  a  violent  snow-storm, 
and  with  no  other  guide  than  his  reckoning^ 
confirmed  by  a  single  glimpse  of  the  light  on 
Baker^s  island,  found  his  way  safely  into  the 
harbor.  In  1802  he  published  his  ^^New 
American  Practical  Navigator,"  which  passed 
through  many  editions,  was  esteemed  the  best 
work  of  the  sort  ever  published,  and  went  in 
American  and  British  craft  over  every  sea  of 
the  globe.  During  the  same  year,  while  his 
ship  was  lying  wind-bound  at  Boston,  he  went 
to  attend  the  performances  at  Cambridge  at  the 
annual  commencement  of  the  college,  and  heard 
wiUi  surprise  his  own  name  announced  among 
those  on  whom  had  been  conferred  the  degree 
of  master  of  arts.  He  always  spoke  of  this 
day  as  one  of  the  proudest  of  his  lite,  and  none 
of  tibe  subsequent  distinctions  which  he  re- 
ceived from  learned  and  scientific  bodies,  at 
home  and  abroad,  afforded  him  so  much  pleas- 
ure as  thb  degree  from  Harvard.  On  the  close 
of  his  seafaring  life,  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Essex  fire  and  marine  insurance  company, 
which  situation  he  held  till  his  removal  to  Bos- 
ton in  1628.  His  attachment  to  his  native 
place  made  him  decline  the  professorship  of 
mathematics  in  Harvard  university,  to  which 
he  was  elected  in  1808,  and  the  corresponding 
professorship  in  the  university  of  Virginia,  which 
President  Jefferson  desired  him  to  accept  in 
1818,  and  in  the  military  academy  at  West 
Point,  to  which  Mr.  Calhoun,  the  secretary  of 
war,  wished  to  recommend  his  nomination  by 
the  president  in  1820.  Among  his  occasional 
labors  at  Salem,  were  a  chart  of  remarkable 
beauty  and  exactness,  of  the  harbors  of  Salem, 
Marblehead,  Beverly,  and  Manchester;  23 
contributions,  chiefly  on  astronomical  subjects, 
to  the  ^*  Transactions"  of  the  American  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences ;  the  article  on  modem  as- 
tronomy in  Vol.  XX.  of  the  North  American 
Review;  and  many  articles  in  the  American 
edition  of  Rees^s  Cyclopeddia.  He  completed, 
between  1814  and  1817,  the  gigantic  undertak- 
ing on  which  his  fame  as  a  man  of  science 
chiefly  rests,  a  "  Translation  "  of  the  Mieanioue 
cSleste  of  La  Place,  accompanied  by  an  elabo- 
rate commentary.  It  was  estimated  that  there 
were  at  that  time  but  2,  or  perhaps  8  persons 
in  America,  and  not  more  than  12  in  Great 
Britain,  who  were  able  to  read  the  original 
work  critically.  The  French  astronomer,  tlior- 
oughly  master  of  the  mighty  subject,  very  often 
omitted  intermediate  steps  in  his  demonstra- 
tions, and  grasped  the  conclusion  without 
showing  the  process.  It  was  the  design  of  the 
translator  to  supply  these  deficiencies,  and 
almost  uniformly,  when  La  Place  writes,  "  Thus 
it  plainly  appears,"  he  was  obliged  to  substitute 
an  elaborate  paragraph  showing  how  it  plainly 
appears.  Another  object  was  to  record  subse- 
quent discoveries,  to  continue  the  original  work 


to  the  latest  date,  and  to  snb^ 
from  geometers  who  had  treated  of 
subjects.     A  third  object  was  to  show  the 
sources  from  which  La  Place  had  derived  as- 
sistance, to  give  credit  to  the  eminent  mathe- 
maticians, both  of  ancient  and  modem  times, 
by  whom  his  labors  had  been  rendered  easkr 
or  more  effective.    His  work,  concise  in  all  its 
processes  and  expressions,  told  the  great  trotia 
of  science,  but  had  little  that  was  historical  in 
it,  and  did  not  tell  by  whom  those  truths  had 
been  first  discovered  and  announced.    The  do- 
cidations  and  commentaries  formed  more  than 
half  the  worlc  as  produced  by  Dr.  Bowditch. 
The  estimated  cost  of  publicatioa  exceeded 
$12,000,  and  he  was  therefore  obliged  to  drfer 
it,  and  the  first  volume  did  not  apx>e&r  till  1^. 
In  1828,  the  Massachusetts  hospitid  life  msar- 
ance  company  was  established  in  Boston,  sod 
Dr.  Bowditch,  being  invited  to  take  charge  cf 
its  affairs  with  the  title  of  actnarv,  ai^  wtdi  a 
liberal  compensation,  removed  with  his  haSif 
to  Boston.     He  thua  obtained  the  means  for 
prosecuting  the  great  undertaking  of  his  li& 
Three  of  the  volumes  were  pnbusihed  bdon 
his  death;  he  revised,  during  his  last  TSinm, 
nearly  all  the  proof  sheets  of  the  4th,  wind 
appeared  soon  after  his  death ;   and  the  5ik 
volume,  which  La  Place  had  added  to  his  wock 
many  years  after  the  other,  was  snbseqneinlj 
issued  under  the  editorial  care  of  Prot  & 
Peirce.     Dr.  Bowditch^s  peculiar  metfaodiesi 
habits  of  business  were  of  the  greatest  serrice 
to  the  insurance  company  for  vrhich  he  acted, 
which  under  his  direction,  and  by  the  cooseat 
of  the  legislature,  became  a  large  moneyed  is- 
stitution,  holding   in  trust    and   lending  Ha 
property  of  individuals.    He  was  doring  tb» 
latter  years  of  his  life  a  trustee  of  the  AsUm 
Athenssum,  president  of  the  American  acade- 
my of  arts  and  sciences,  and  a  member  of  the 
corporatton  of  Harvard  college.     From  Har- 
vard college  he  received  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws,  in  1816,  and  he  was  at  his  death  a 
member  of  the  royal  sodeties  of  Edinbargh 
and  London,  of  the  royal  academies  of  Pals'- 
mo  and  Berlin,  the  royal  Irish  society,  the 
royal  astronomical  society  of  London,  and  the 
British  association.    He  twice  held  a  seat  ia 
the  executive  council  of  Kasttchusetts,  but  dar- 
ing the  last  20  years  of  his  life  retired  alto- 
gether from  the  exciting  scenes  of  p<ditica]  lilt 
to  what  he  called  his  *'  neaoeful  mathematics.'* 
He  was  twice  married,  his  first  wife  snrvivkf 
her  marriage  but  a  few  months.      Fhxn  bai 
second  wife  he  received  constant  enoooTKe- 
ment  in  his  labors,  and  it  was  her  urgent  solki- 
tation  which  made  him  incur  the  expense  ef 
publication.    The  tomb  of  Dr.  Bowditdi,  sar* 
mounted  by  his  statue  in  sitting  postore;  is  a 
prominent  object  of  interest  in  Mount  Aubura 
cemetery.    His  library,  composed  chiefiy  of 
works  of  a  scientific  character,  is  now  preserr- 
ed  in  Boston,  and  is  free  to  persons  of  that 
vicinity  known  to  the  proprietors,  or  confons- 
ing  to  the  rules.    (See  ^' Memoir  of  Nathanid 


BOWDrrOH  ISLAND 


BOWDOm  COLLEGE 


595 


BowditdL^  hj  his  son,  K  L  BowditdL  BostoiL 
1889.) 

BO  WDITOH  ISLAND,  a  coral  island  of  tri- 
aogular  form,  in  the  South  Pacific.  It  was 
discovered  hy  Oommander  Wilkes,  of  the  Unit* 
ed  States  navy,  Jan.  29,  1841.  LengUi,  8 
miles ;  breadth,  about  4. 

BOWDLEB,  Thomas,  English  author,  bom 
in  1754,  died  in  1825.  He  was  a  physician, 
and  wrote  ''Letters  from  Holland,^'  but  is 
best  known  as  having  published  a  curious  ex- 
purgated "  Family  Shakespeare." 

BOWDOIN,  Jambs,  governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, bom  in  Boston,  Aug.  8, 1727,  died  Nov. 
6,  1790.  He  was  descended  from  a  family  of 
Huguenot  refugees,  graduated  at  Harvard  college 
in  1745,  and  entered  public  life  in  1758,  as  repre- 
sentative in  the  general  court.  He  was  subse- 
quently senator  and  councillor.  Throughout 
me  troubles  which  preceded  the  revolution,  he 
was  forward  in  opposition  to  the  royal  govern- 
or, by  whom  his  influence  was  denounced  as 
formidable.  In  1775  he  was  president  of  the 
council  of  government:  when  the  conven- 
tion assembled  in  1778,  for  the  formation  of  a 
constitution,  he  was  chosen  president ;  and  in 
1785  and  *86  succeeded  Hancock  as  governor. 
It  was  durins  his  administration  that  the  dis- 
turbances and  armed  rebellions  in  the  western 
counties  of  Massachusetts,  known  as  Shays^s 
war,  occurred.  The  country  was  in  great  dis- 
tress, and  the  aspect  of  affairs  dangerous ;  but 
he  called  out  4,000  militia,  under  Gen.  Lincoln, 
the  funds  for  whose  maintenance  were  raised 
by  subscription  in  Boston,  and  the  speedy  sup- 
pression of  the  insurrection  was  due  to  his  vig- 
orous and  decided  course ;  yet  he  lost  his  elec- 
tion the  next  year.  He  was  afterward  a  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  called  to  accept  the  fed- 
eral constitution. 

BOWDOIN,  Jambs,  patron  of  Bowdoin  col- 
lege, and  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  Sept.  22, 
1752,  died  Oct.  11, 1811.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard college  in  1771,  afterward  spent  one  year 
at  Oxford,  and  commenced  his  travels  on  the 
continent,  but  was  recalled  by  the  news  of  the 
battle  of  Lexington.  Upon  his  return,  devot- 
ing himself  principally  to  literary  pursuits^  he 
was  successively  representative,  senator,*  and 
councillor.  In  May,  1805,  he  went  to  Spain 
with  a  commission  from  Mr.  Jefferson,  to  pro- 
cure a  settlement  of  the  Louisiana  bond-daims, 
the  cession  of  Florida,  and  compensation  for 
ii\juries  to  American  commerce.  He  remained 
abroad  until  1808,  but  without  accomplishing 
the  object  of  his  mission.  He  brought  home 
with  him  from  Paris  an  extensive  library, 
philosophical  apparatus,  and  collection  of  paint- 
mgs,  all  of  which  he  left  at  his  death  to  Bow- 
doin college,  of  which  ho  had  been  previously 
a  benefactor;  together  with  6,000  acres  of 
land,  and  the  reversion  of  the  island  of  Nau- 
shon,  which  had  been  his  favorite  residence. 

BOWDOIN  COLLEGE,  the  oldest  and  most 
prominent  literary  institution  in  the  state  of 
Maine,  situated  at  Brunswick  on  an  elevated 


plain  south  of  the  village,  about  1  mile  from 
the  Androscoggin  river,  and  4  miles  from  the 
shore  of  the  Atlantic  ocean.  It  derives  its 
name  from  James  Bowdoin,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts in  1785,  and  a  descendant  of  Pierre 
Baudouin,  a  French  Protestant  who  fled  to 
America  on  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of 
Nantes.  His  nam^  was  selected  as  one  of  the 
most  honored  which  Massachusetts  at  that  time 
boasted,  and  his  son  became  a  munificent  patron 
of  the  college.  Prior  to  the  revolution,  it  had 
been  proposed  to  establish  a  college  in  Maine, 
then  a  district  of  Massachusetts,  but  by  reason  of 
the  tumults  of  the  time,  it  was  not  tiU  1788  that 
a  petition  for  a  charter  was  presented  to  the 
Massachusetts  legislature,  from  the  association 
of  ministers  and  the  court  of  sessions  for  Oum- 
berfand  county.  The  charter  was  granted  in 
1794,  together  with  6  townships,  as  a  founda- 
tion for  the  college,  whose  object,  as  stated  in 
the  act  of  incorporation,  should  be  to  "  pro- 
mote virtue  and  piety,  and  the  knowled^  of 
the  languages  and  of  the  useful  and  liberal  arts 
and  sciences.'^  The  government  was  vested  in 
2  boards,  one  of  trustees,  and  the  other  of 
overseers,  which  met  in  1801,  and  elected  Jo- 
seph McKeen,  D.  D.,  a  ffraduate  of  Dartmouth, 
for  president  of  the  college,  and  John  Abbot, 
a  graduate  of  Harvard,  for  professor  of  lan- 
guages. These  officers  were  installed  in  1802, 
when  8  students  were  admitted,  and  in  1806 
the  first  honors  bestowed  by  the  new  institu- 
tion were  conferred  upon  8  graduates.  A  sin- 
gle building  at  this  time  served  all  the  college 
uses,  and  luso  as  the  residence  of  the  family  of 
the  president.  President  McKeen,  dying  in 
1807,  was  succeeded  by  Jesse  Appleton,  D.  D., 
who  a  few  years  before  had  been  one  of  the  2 
prominent  candidates  for  the  chair  of  theology 
m  Harvard  university,  and  who,  during  the  12 
years  of  his  presidency,  contributed  largely  to 
the  prosperity  of  the  college  by  his  ability  and 
efficiency  as  an  officer,  and  his  amiable  per- 
sonal character.  James  Bowdoin,  son  of  the 
governor,  had  before  made  a  donation  to  the 
college  of  1,000  acres  of  land,  and  more  than 
£1,100;  and  at  his  death  in  1811,  he  left 
to  it,  beside  another  donation  of  lano,  a  mag- 
nificent bequest  of  400  models  in  crystallo- 
graphy, more  than  600  specimens  of  miner- 
als, which  had  been  arranged  by  Hatly,  an  ele- 
gant private  library,  and  a  costiy  collection  of 
paintings  which  he  had  purchased  in  Europe. 
This  gSlery  of  paintings,  since  then  much  m- 
creased,  is  one  of  rare  excellence,  and  the  crys- 
tals and  minerals  were  the  nucleus  to  the  large 
and  valuable  mineralozical  and  conchological 
cabinets  which  have  been  collected  and  ar- 
ranged by  Prof.  Cleaveland.  Upon  the  death 
of  President  Appleton  in  1819,  the  Rev.  William 
Allen,  who  had  formerly  been  president  of 
Dartmouth  university,  was  elected  his  succes- 
sor, and  retained  the  office  till  1889,  with  the 
exception  of  a  short  interval  in  1881,  when, 
beinff  indirectly  removed  by  an  act  of  the 
legislature  of  Maine,  which  had  now  become  a 


596 


BOWDOINHAM 


BOWEN 


ieparate  state,  he  contended  against  tlie  au- 
thority of  the  state  thns  to  control  the  coUeoe, 
and  Uie  question  was  decided  in  his  favor  bjr 
acyndication  in  the  circuit  court  of  the  United 
States.  The  medical  school  of  Maine  was  con- 
nected with  this  college  in  1821,  and  has  now 
a  very  complete  anatomical  cabinet  and  chemi- 
cal apparatus,  and  a  library  of  8,650  volumes, 
{>rincipall7  modem  works,  which  have  been  se- 
ected  with  much  care.  President  Allen,  re- 
signing his  office  in  1889,  was  succeeded  bj 
the  present  incumbent,  Leonard  Woods,  D.  D. 
There  are  now  5  college  buildings,  all  large 
brick  structures,  excepting  the  chapel,  which  is 
of  light  granite,  and  one  of  the  finest  speci- 
mens of  church  architecture  in  the  country. 
It  is  in  the  Romanesque  style,  was  begun  in 
1846,  and  completed  m  1855,  and  has  roo^s 
also  for  the  library  and  picture  gallery.  The 
library  of  the  college,  together  with  those  be- 
longing to  the  societies  of  the  students,  num- 
bers over  80,000  volumes.  Bowddn  college  has 
now,  beside  the  president,  14  professors  and  2 
tutors.  Parker  Cleaveland,  one  of  the  earliest 
eminent  mineralogists  in  America,  has  been 
connected  with  it  since  1805,  and  has  instruct- 
ed every  class  that  has  graduated.  Thomas 
0.  Upham,  D,  D.,  the  author  of  an  elaborate 
treatise  on  mental  philosophy,  better  known 
for  several  works  of  a  mingled  i^ilosophical 
and  devotional  character,  has  held  the  position 
of  professor  of  mental  philosophy  and  ethics 
since  1824.  Nathaniel  Ilawthome  and  Henry 
W.  Lonsfellow  graduated  here  in  1825,  and 
among  their  contemporaries  as  students  in  the 
coUege,  were  J.  S.  0.  Abbott,  Luther  Y.  Bell, 
G.  B.  Cheever,  Jonathan  Cilley,  William  P. 
Fessenden,  John  P.  Hale,  Franklin  Pierce,  S. 
8.  Prentiss,  and  Oalvin  E.  Stowe.  Longfel- 
low was  the  professor  of  modem  languages 
from  1829  to  1885,  when  he  was  called  to  a 
similar  post  at  Harvard.  The  whole  number 
of  the  alumni  is  1,260.  The  present  number 
of  students  is  208  in  the  college  department 
and  60  in  the  medicaL  It  is  an  indication  of 
the  prosperity  of  the  college,  that  at  the  last 
commencement,  a  larger  class  graduated,  and 
also  a  larger  class  was  admitted,  than  ever  be- 
fore. 

BOWBOINHAH,  a  post  township  of  Si^a- 
dahock  co.,  Ke.,  25  miles  8.  W.  of  Augusta, 
and  85  N.  N.  E.  of  Portland.  It  lies  on  the 
Kennebec  river  at  its  junction  with  a  small 
stream  called  the  Cathans  river,  which  is  navi- 
gable for  ships  of  1,000  tons,  and  on  the  Ken- 
nebec and  Portland  railroad.  It  contains  8 
churches  and  10  stores,  and  is  known  for  its 
ship-building.    Pop.  2,882. 

BOWEN,  FiUNcis,  an  American  author,  bom 
at  Gharlcstown,  Mass.,  in  1811,  was  graduated 
at  Harvard  university  with  the  highest  honors 
in  1888.  In  1885  he  was  appointed  instractor 
in  the  university  in  intellectual  philosophy  and 
political  economy.  He  held  this  position  until 
1839,  when  he  embarked  for  Europe,  for  pur- 
poses of  travel  and  study.    During  Ms  residence 


at  Paris,  he  made  the  aoquaintanoe  of  Ssmondi, 
De  Gerando,  and  other  eminent  scholars.    Re- 
tmrninff  from  Europe,  he  established  himself  in 
Cambridge  in  1841,  occupying  himaeif  with  lit- 
erary and  philosophical  pursuits.    In  18^  \» 
published  an  edition  of  ^^  Virgil,  with  En^iiii 
notes,'*  and  a  volume  of  **  Critical  Easaya  on  tbe 
History  and  Present  Condition  of  SpecoktiTe 
Philosophy."  At  the  beginning  of  1843,  he  aae- 
eeeded  Dr.  John  6.  Palfrey  as  editor  and  pro- 
prietor of  the  **  North  American  Review,'^  whidi 
he  conducted  for  11  years,  until  January,  1^»1 
Beside  writing  about  one-fourth  part  of  tbe 
articles  in  this  work  during  this  period,  he 
prepared  and  delivered  in  the  winters  of  1848- 
*49,  2  courses  of  Lowell  leetnrea^  on  the  sppfi- 
cation  of  metaphysical  and  ethical  adenceto 
the  evidences  of  religion,  the  snbstoiioe  of 
which  was  published  in  1849,  in  an  octsro 
volume,  and  a  second  edition,  revised  and  ea- 
lurged,  in  1855.    In  1850,  Mr.  Bowen  v» 
appointed  by  the  corporation  of  Harvard  mn- 
versity,  McLean  pro&eeor  of  history,  bnt  oa 
account  of  certain  unpopular  <n>]nioDS  wiaA 
he  had  published  on  politics  ana  on  the  fiva- 
garian  war  of  1848-^49,  the  appointment  mi 
not  confirmed  by  the  overseers.     In  tiie  wiater 
of  this  year  Mr.  Bowen  delivered  a  eonneof 
lectures  before  the  Lowell  institate  en  pdid- 
cal  economy,  and  another  in  1869  on  tiieori^ 
and  development  of  the  En^ish  and  Ammtm 
constitution.    In  1858,  when  Dr.  James  Walk- 
er was  made  president  of  the  nniTersitv,  ]£r. 
Bowen  was   appointed  his  snooeaaor  in  tlie 
Alford  professorship  of  natural  retigion,  moral 
philosophy,  and  civil  poUty,  and  waa  confirmed 
by  the   overseers   ahnost   nnanimondy.     h 
1854  he   published  an   abridged   edl^oo  of 
Dugald  Stewart's  *' Elements  of  the  Ph9o6o;)ly 
of  the  Human  Mind,"  with  critical  and  ex- 
planatory notes;  and  in  the  same  year  eoiE- 
piled  and  edited,  with  notes,  ''  Docmnents  cf 
the  Constitution  of  England  and  America,  fras 
Magna  Charta  to  the  Federal  GonstitQtkm  d 
1789."    Beside  these  various  labors,  he  }m 
written,  in   Sparks's  "library  of  America 
Blc^raphy,"  the  lives  of  Sir  William  Phipp^ 
of  Baron  Steuben,  of  James  Otis,  and  ui  Gea. 
Beijamin  Lincoln.    In  philosophy,  'Prd,  Bowa 
is  a  follower  of  the  earner  English,  rather  tha 
of  the  French  or  German  schooL     Ha  hai 
written  largely  in  defence  of  tiie  doetrinesof 
Locke  and  Berkeley,  and  in  refutation  of  tbs 
systems  of  Kant,  Fichte,  and  Cousin.    He  hai 
endeavored  eq)ecially  to  connect  and  derdep 
the  doctrines  of  Berkeley  and  MalebrancH 
through  a  theory  of  causation,  which,  rqjecni^ 
physical  agencies,  maintaiuB  volition,  whether 
human  or  divine,  to  be  the  only  true  or  effioort 
cause,  and  refers  aU  the  phenomena  of  th» 
outward  nnivense  to  the  iounediate  or  dirn^ 
action  of  the  Deity.    He  has  eonseqnently  beai 
led  to  controvert  very  earnestly  the  poatiT« 
philosophy  of  M.  Comte  and  his  distmgnisfaed 
English  disciple,  J.  &  Mill.     Mr.    MiU    has 
replied  in  the  third  edition  of  hia  <^  Logic,'' 


BOWEN 


BOWLDERS 


597 


where  he  has  examined  in  detail  the  dootrinea 
of  his  Amerioan  critio.  In  political  eoonomr. 
Mr.  Bowen  adopts  in  the  main  the  views  or 
Tooke  and  Fullarton  npon  the  cnrrenoy,  in 
opposition  to  those  of  the  ballionists ;  bat  he 
has  taken  strong  grounds  against  the  doctrines 
of  Adam  Smith  upon  free  trade,  of  Malthus 
npon  population,  and  Bioardo  upon  rent  He 
argues  that  these  theories  originated  in  the 
peculiar  condition  of  English  society,  and  the 
political  institutions  of  Sigland,  so  that  they 
are  inapplicable  to  the  circumstances  of  other 
countries,  and  directly  conflict  with  the  results 
of  experience  hi  the  United  States.  In  dealing 
with  this  dass  of  subjects,  Prof.  Bowen  has 
aimed  especially  to  trace  out  the  economical  and 
social  results  of  republican  as  contrasted  with 
aristocratic  forms  of  government  and  society, 
and  to  find  in  our  peculiar  American  polity 
the  explanation  of  many  phenomena,  hiwerto 
attributed  to  physical  conditions.  Since  the 
commencement  of  the  year  1868,  Prof.  Bowen 
has  delivered  a  course  of  lectures  before  the 
Lowell  institute  on  the  English  metaphysicians 
and  philosophers  from  Bacon  to  Sir  William 
Hamilton. 

BOWEN,  Pabdon,  a  physician  of  Providence. 
R.  L,  bom  in  1757,  died  in  1826.  He  graduated 
at  Brown  university  in  1775,  and  was  surgeon 
on  board  a  privateer  in  1779.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  several  times  and  carried  into  Halifax, 
out  gave  up  the  sea  for  the  shore  in  1782. 
He  became  eminent  both  in  medicine  and 
surgery,  and  during  the  prevalence  of  the  yel- 
low fever  continued  at  his  post^  and  was  more 
than  once  attacked  by  that  disease.  He  pub- 
lished an  account  of  the  course  of  the  ydlow 
fever  at  Providence  in  1805,  in  Hosack^s 
*^  Medical  Register,"  voL  iv. 

BOWEN,  WiLLiAic  0.,  professor  of  chemis- 
try in  Brown  university,  bom  in  1786,  died  in 
1816.  He  studied  medicine,  visited  Edinburgh 
and  Paris,  and  received  private  instruction 
from  Sir  Astley  Oooper.  He  lost  his  life 
through  experiments  on  chlorine,  in  attempting 
to  discover  the  composition  of  the  bleaching 
liquor  employed  in  England.  His  labors  led  to 
the  erection  of  the  important  bleaching  estab- 
lishments in  Rhode  Island. 

BOWIE,  a  northeastem  county  of  Texas, 
'bounded  on  the  N.  by  Red  river,  S.  by  Sulphur 
fork  of  the  same  stream,  and  comprising  an 
area  of  about  960  square  miles.  It  borders  on 
Arkansas  on  the  N.  E.  and  E.  The  surface  is 
,  undulating,  and  in  many  places  covered  with 
thick  forests  of  post  oak  and  other  timber. 
Ited  river  is  navigable  by  steamboats  along 
the  northern  boundary,  and  the  line  of  the 
projected  Memphis,  £1  Paso,  and  Pacific  raJl- 
Toad  intersects  the  country.  The  soil  of 
the  bottoms  is  rich  red  land,  well  suited  to 
cotton;  in  other  localities  it  is  sandy.  Fruits 
of  various  kinds,  but  particularly  apples,  are 
cultivated  with  success.  The  staple  produc- 
tions are  live  stock,  grain,  hay,  and  cotton« 
la  1850,  the  coimty  yielded  1,118  bales  of  cot- 


ton, 98,110  bushels  of  Indian  com,  and  44,855 
of  sweet  potatoes.  In  1667,  there  were  5,690 
head  of  cattle,  valued  at  $84^00,  and  1,200  of 
horses,  valued  at  $77,000.  The  value  of  real 
estate  was  $884,400,  and  the  aggregate  value 
of  all  taxable  property,  $887,853.  Capital, 
Boston.  Pop.  in  1856,  2,995,  of  whom  1,910 
were  slaves.  Named  in  honor  of  James  Bowie, 
who  fell  at  Fort  Alamo. 

BOWIE  KNIFE,  an  American  weapon,'simi- 
lar  to  the  French  couteau  de  cha»e,  except 
that  it  has  but  a  single  edge.  According  to  a 
rather  doubtful  story,  it  was  first  used  by  Col. 
Bowie,  of  Texas,  who,  in  a  contest  with  the 
Mexicans  previous  to  the  Texan  revolution, 
had  his  sword  broken  off  within  18  inches  of 
the  hilt.  He  is  said  to  have  subsequently 
employed  the  fragment  as  a  knife  for  hand- 
to-hand  fighting.  It  was  imitated  by  others, 
and  is  now  worn  by  all  who  have  to  bear 
weapons,  in  the  whole  south  and  west  of  the 
United  States. 

BOWLDERS,  loose  rounded  blocks  of  stone, 
named  by  the  French  bloea  erratiqueSy  found 
scattered  over  the  surface  in  high  northern  and 
southern  latitudes,  extending  to  within  85%  or 
thereabouts,  of  the  equator.  In  the  northern 
hemisphere  they  are  always  of  the  varieties 
of  rock  which  are  found  in  solid  ledges  in  a 
northerly  direction ;  and  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, the  ledges  are  agdn  met  with  toward 
the  pole.  These  loose  rocks  appear  in  each 
case  to  have  been  transported  toward  the 
equator,  and  to  have  been  subjected  to  rolling 
action,  which  has  rounded  off  their  corners, 
and  ground  their  surfaces.  The  causes  that 
effected  this  removal  will  be  treated  of  in  the 
article  Diluviuic.  The  size  of  these  transport- 
ed blocks  is  often  enormous.  At  Fall  River, 
Massachusetts,  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay  at  the 
mouth  of  Taunton  river,  a  bowlder  of  conglom- 
erate rock  was  uncovered  in  the  grayel  resting 
on  granite  ledges,  which  was  estimated  to  weigh 
5,400  tons.  The  ledges  of  this  confflomerate 
are  met  with  only  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay. 
Along  the  coast  of  New  England,  the  bowlders, 
by  their  great  numbers  and  size,  constitute  a 
marked  feature  in  the  landscape.  They  are 
sometimes  met  with  perched  upon  bare  ledges 
of  rock,  and  so  nicely  balanced  that,  though 
of  great  weight,  they  may  be  rocked  by  the 
hand.  These  are  called  rocking-stones.  ^^  Ply- 
mouth Rock*'  is  a  bowlder  of  sienitic  granite, 
ledges  of  which  are  found  in  the  towns  near 
Boston.  The  highest  mountdns  are  often 
covered  with  these  bowlders  of  the  drift  forma- 
tion. Upon  the  bare  granite  summit  of  Mt. 
Eatckhdin — ^the  highest  mountain  in  Maine — at 
an  elevation  of  8,000  feet  or  more  above  the 
surrounding  valleys,  pieces  of  limestone  con- 
taining fos^  shells  are  found,  though  no  ledges 
resembling  them  are  known  except  many  mues 
to  the  northwest,  and  at  a  much  lower  level. 
The  northern  and  central  parts  of  Europe  are 
equally  interestinff  for  the  distribution  of 
bowlders.    The  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Peter 


BOWLES 


BOWUNG 


the  Great  at  St  Petersbnrg  was  hewn  ont  of  a 
granite  bowldei^  that  laj  on  a  marshj  plain 
near  the  city.  The  xnaas,  weighing  about  1,500 
tons,  was  transported  on  rofiers  and  cannon 
halls  over  the  frozen  plain  to  the  city.  Upon 
the  limestone  ledges  of  the  Jura  mountains  are 
found  bowlders  of  granite,  which  must  have 
come  from  the  higher  Alps,  where  ledges  of 
similar  character  ore  found.  6ome  of  these 
bowlders  are  of  yery  large  dimensions,  one  in 
particular,  known  as  the  Pierre  a  Martin^ 
according  to  Mr.  Greenough.  measuring  no  less 
than  10,296  cubic  feet^  and  weighing  conse- 
quently about  820  tons. 

BOWLES,  WauAu  A.,  an  Indian  agent  and 
chie(  bom  in  Frederick  co.,  Maryland,  died 
in  confinement  in  the  Moro  castle,  Havana, 
Dec.  23, 1805.  When  18  years  of  age  he  ran 
away  from  home,  and  joined  the  British  army 
at  Philadelphia.  He  afterward  went  among 
the  Creek  Indians,  married  an  Indian  woman, 
and  was  one  of  the  English  emissaries  to  ex- 
cite them  agunst  the  Americans.  After  the 
war  he  went  to  England,  and  on  his  return,  his 
influence  among  the  Indians  waa  so  hostile  to 
the  Spaniards  that  they  offered  a  price  of  6,000 
dollars  for  his  canture.  He  was  token  in  July, 
1792,  sent  to  Madrid,  and  afterward  to  Manila. 
Having  obtained  leave  to  visit  Europe,  he  re- 
turned among  the  Greeks,  and  instigated  them 
to  renewed  hostilities.  He  was  betrayed  again 
into  the  hands  of  the  Spaniards  in  1804,  and 
perished  miserably.  His  biography  was  pub- 
lished in  London  in  1791. 

BOWLES,  William  Lislb,  an  English  poet 
and  derffyman,  bom  at  Eing^s  Sutton,  North- 
amptonshire, Sept.  24,  1762,  died  at  Salisbury, 
April  7,  1850.  He  was  a  person  of  great  at- 
tainments, and  published  sonnets  and  other 
rms,  which  passed  through  many  editions. 
1807  he  edited  the  works  of  Pope,  with  a 
new  biography,  in  which  he  strongly  attacked, 
not  only  the  P<>etry,  but  the  personal  character 
of  the  poet.  This  involved  hmi  in  a  bitter  con- 
troversy with  Byron. — His  sister,  Oaboliks 
Anxb  Bowues,  bom  about  1798,  married  Robert 
Southey  in  1839,  and  tended  the  poet's  declin- 
ing years  with  devoted  affection.  She  has 
written  some  charming  poems,  pervaded  by  on 
ezquisitQ  devotional  and  moral  feeling. 

Fowling,  an  athletic  gome  and  popular 
amusement,  of  various  forms,  peculiar,  general- 
ly, to  nations  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  family.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  bowling,  of  which  8  may  be 
named  in  particular,  2  being  perfect  games  in 
themselves ;  the  8d,  which  differs  in  many  re- 
spects fW>m  the  others,  being  an  essential  part  of 
the  game  of  cricket.  Bowling,  which,  centuries 
ago,  was  a  favorite  amusement  of  our  English 
ancestors,  was  played  in  the  open  air,  on  a  flat 
expanse  of  turf,  carefully  shaved,  watered,  rolled, 
and  tended  with  the  most  assiduous  care,  tUl 
it  was  as  hard  as  a  wooden  table,  and  as  free 
fh>m  any  ineq[ualities  in  the  surface  which 
might  give  an  irregular  motion  to  the  boll,  as 
elastic  and  springy  as  a  piece  of  India  rubber, 


and  BO  perfectly  drained  that  it  was  imponlile 
that  it  should  ever  become  soaked  or  spoi^ 
with  wet  In  the  reigns  of  Qoeea  Aimeind 
the  first  three  Greorges,  a  bowling  green  va 
as  natural  and  necessary  an  appendage  to  a 
gentleman^s  country  seat,  as  a  billiard  table  a 
the  present  day ;  and  it  was  often  combiDed 
with  the  features  of  the  park  or  pleasure  gr- 
den  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  most 
agreeable  and  picturesque  effects.  Itwasgo- 
erally  a  perfectly  level  lawn,  of  an  oblong  or 
oval  form,  surrounded  by  a  tall  acreen  of  enr- 
greens,  mixed  for  ornament  with  floverisg 
shmbs,  planted  an>nnd  it,  with  the  double  olh 
J  ect  of  pre  venting  the  turf  from  beingbiiToed  nd 
scorched  in  hot  weather,  and  of  gDardiog  tbe 
eyes  of  the  players  against  the  rays  of  tbe  M 
sun.  Kot  nnfrequently  they  were  placed  to 
that  access  could  be  had  to  them  by  a  fli^cf 
steps  from  the  glass  doors  or  bay  windows  of 
the  dining  room — bowling  being  a  favorite  if- 
ter-dinner  amusement  of  our  bnrly  EogBA 
and  Dutch  ancestors,  and  doubtless  a  nscM 
one,  promotive  of  digestion  after  the  solid  S 
o^clock  dinner  of  beef  and  pudding,  hbrietted 
with  heady  ale  and  potent  punch.  ^'Thefint 
and  greatest  cunning  to  be  observed  in  boil- 
ing," says  an  old  auuiority,  "is  the  right  choos- 
ing of  your  bowl,  which  must  be  snitable  to 
the  grounds  you  design  to  run  on.  Thus,  fir 
close  alleys  your  best  choice  is  the  flat  boil; 
2,  for  open  grounds  of  advantage,  the  rood 
byassed  bowl;  8,  for  greenswtfds  tbil  & 
plain  and  level,  the  bowl  that  is  aa  roond  a  i 
ball.  The  next  thing  that  re^iiirea  yooron 
is  the  choosing  ont  your  grounoa,  and  pRraI^ 
ing  the  winding  hangings  and  many  toniif 
advantages  of  the  same,  whether  it  be  inopo. 
wide  places,  or  in  dose  bowling  alkya  Lis* 
1 V,  have  your  Judgment  about  yon,  to  obeen* 
the  risings,  fallings,  and  advantage!  of  tte 
place  where  you  bowl."  The  object  at  vbia 
this  bowling  was  made,  in  this  old  game,  m 
a  small  ball  called  the  Jack,  hud  off  atacff- 
tain  distance ;  and  it  was  the  aim  of  enrj 
player  to  lay  his  own  bowl,  in  pbijinft  * 
near  as  possible  to  this,  and  to  knock  aff>l 
his  adversary's  bowl,  if  it  were  in  winning prw- 
imity  to  it.  This  game  was  fonneriy  pnct» 
in  what  still  retains  the  name  of  the  Bornss 
Green,  at  the  lower  extremis  of  Broadway,  >«|[ 
York,  on  which  the  substantial  menof  Gotuc 
used  to  take  their  pleasure,  in  the  q^^^^^J*^ 
smnmer  afternoons,  as  described  by  G€#^ 
Crayon^  gentleman,  with  moderate  intertwa 
of  pipe  and  tankard.— The  modern  game  i 
bowling  is  practised  in  saloona^  on  aUe^ « 
beautifully  fitted  carpenter's^  or  rather,  calw* 
maker's  work,  from  50  to  65  feet  in  W^ 
and  about  4  in  width.  The  alley  has  a  gott* 
as  it  is  termed,  on  eadi  aide,  and  isTerysp^ 
Iv  convex  in  the  centre,  regularly  bevelWw 
the  sides.  At  the  farther  extremis  are  «t  f 
10  pins,  usually  of  ash  wood,  abont  a  f«*  * 
height,  and  2  or  2i  lbs.  in  wei§^t»  «wng«^J,*|r 
form  of  apyramid,  with  the  apex  toward  t» 


BOWUKG  GBEEK 


BOX  TREE 


699 


bowler.  The  apex  consisU  of  a  sinffle  pin,  fhe 
2d  rank  of  2,  the  dd  of  8,  and  the  4tii  of  4,  the 
hist  occupying  the  whole  width  of  the  alley,  and 
the  first  standing  on  the  crown  of  it.  All  liie 
pins  are  equidistant  from  each  other.  At  these 
the  bowler  rolls  wooden  balls,  usually  of  lignum 
vit89,  of  various  weight,  at  his  own  option,  from 
4^  5.  or  6  lbs.,  down  to  half  a  pound  in  weight, 
with  the  object  of  knocking  down  as  many  of 
the  pins  as  possible  at  each  roll.  The  pins, 
when  set  up,  are  called  a  frame ;  and  at  each 
frame  the  bowler  rolls  8  balls,  when  the  num- 
ber of  pins  down  is  counted  to  him,  and  the 
frame  is  set  up  agun  for  the  next  bowler.  A 
game  ordinanly  consists  of  10  frames,  or  80 
baUs.  If  the  bowler  takes  all  the  pins  with 
bis  1st  ball,  he  counts  10 ;  the  frame  is  again 
set  up  for  his  2d  ball,  when,  if  he  again  takes 
all,  he  counts  10  more,  and  the  frame  is  again 
set  up  for  his  8d,  when  whatever  number  he 
scores  with  the  8  balls  counts  to  him  as  if  all 
had  been  made  off  1  frame.  If  he  take  all  the 
10  with  his  1st  2  balls,  he  is  entitled  to  a  fresh 
frame  for  his  8d  or  last  baU.  This  is  techni- 
cally caUed  getting  a  spare,  or  a  double  spare. 
In  order  to  save  the  time  of  setting  up  the 
frames,  and  to  enable  the  alley  owner  to  make 
more  off  his  alleys,  it  is  usual,  in  New  York,  to 
play  what  is  called  the  on  and  off  game.  In 
this  game,  if  a  spare  or  a  double  spare  be  got, 
the  Ist  ball  on  the  2d  regular  frame  counts 
doubly,  as.  the  2d  or  spare  ball  on  the  1st 
frame,  ana  also  as  the  1st  regular  ball  on  the 
2d  frame  \  and  so  on  oJ  infinitum, — ^Bowling, 
at  cricket  is  an  important  and  essential  part  of 
the  game,  permitting  the  exercise  of  much  skill 
and  Judgment.  It  is  not,  however,  the  sole  or 
principal  feature,  as  is  the  case  in  the  regular 
games  of  bowls. 

BOWLING  GREEN,  the  capital  of  Warren 
CO.,  Kentucky,  a  prosperous  trading  and  man- 
ufacturing village,  situated  at  the  head  of  nav- 
igation on  Barren  river,  the  channel  of  which 
has  been  cleared  so  as  to  admit  tiie  passage  of 
steamboats  of  200  tons,  at  aH  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  Nashville  and  Louisville  rcdlroad 
passes  through  the  village,  which  contains  a 
college,  a  female  seminary,  a  brick  courthouse, 
15  stores,  a  newspaper  office,  4  churches,  1 
iron  foundery,  1  woollen  and  1  candle  factory, 
and  a  number  of  mills.  The  trade  is  chiefly  in 
pork  and  tobacco.    Pop.  in  1853.  about  2,500. 

BO  WRING,  Sib  John,  British  governor  of 
Hong  Kong,  bom  Oct.  17,  1792,  at  Larkbear, 
near  Exeter.  He  early  applied  himself  to  ac- 
quiring a  knowledge  of  modem  languages,  and 
between  1821  and  1824  produced  his  metrical 
translations  of  the  popular  poetry  of  Russia, 
Holland,  and  Spain.  He  followed  these  up,  in 
later  years,  by  translations  from  the  poets  of 
Poland,  Servia,  Hungary,  Portugal,  Iceland, 
and  Bohemia.  About  the  year  1822,  he  made 
the  acauaintance  of  Jeremy  Bentham,  and  suo- 
oessively  became  his  political  pupil,  executor, 
editor,  and  biographer.  In  1825  he  was  made 
trsi  editor  of  the  "Westminster  Review^' 


(Bentham's  property),  and  continued  in  this  po* 
sition  for  several  years,  writing  largely  in  sup- 
port of  parliamentary  reform  and  free  trade. 
He  travelled  in  Holland  in  1828,  and  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  LL.  D.  from  the  uni- 
versity of  Groningen.  In  1888  he  published 
"Matins  and  Vespers,"  a  volume  of  original 
poetry,  chiefly  devotional.  His  connection  with 
the  "  Westminster  Review  "  had  directed  his 
attention  to  the  economics  and  literature  of 
trade  and  commerce,  and  he  was  sent  to  France, 
in  1884-*5,.to  inquire  into  the  actual  state  of 
the  commerce  with  that  country,  and  his  re- 

g>rt  was  laid  before  parliament,  and  published, 
e  was  also  employed  to  inquire  into  and  re- 
port upon  the  commercial  condition  of  Switzer- 
land, Italy,  the  Levant,  and  the  various  states 
of  the  German  customs  union.  He  was  secre- 
tary to  the  commission  for  investigating  publio 
accounts  during  Earl  Grey's  administration. 
He  was  a  member  of  parliament  from  1885  to 
1887,  and  again  from  1841  to  1849.  He  inva- 
riably advocated  extreme  liberal  opinions,  and 
was  one  of  the  coimsel  of  the  celebrated  anti- 
corn  law  league.  He  was  appointed  British 
consul  at  Oanton,  in  Jan.  1849,  and  superintend- 
ent of  trade  in  China.  Subsequently  he  was 
made  acting  plenipotentiary.  He  returned  to 
England,  for  a  short  time,  in  1868,  and  published 
a  volume  in  support  of  a  decimal  system  of 
coinage.  In  Feb.  1854,  he  was  knighted,  and 
appointed  governor,  commander-in-chie^  and 
^e  admiriQ  of  Hong  Zong,  where  he  still  re- 
Ains  employed.  In  1856  he  was  sent  on  a 
special  commercial  mission  to  the  king  of  Siam, 
and  published  a  "  History  of  Siam,"  with  an 
account  of  his  visit  to  that  country,  early  in 
1857.  Previous  to  his  departure  for  China,  Sir 
John  Bowring  had  been  onairman  of  the  peace 
society,  and  as  such,  had  eloquentiy  advocated 
the  propriety  of  a^iusting.  national  disputes 
by  arbitration.  In  the  autumn  of  1856,  now- 
ever,  circumstances  occurred  at  Canton  which 
induced  him  to  make  his  practice,  on  this 
point,  very  different  from  his  precepts. 

BOWYER,  WiixiAsc,  an  English  printer  and 
classical  scholar,  bom  Dec.  19, 1699,  died  Nov. 
18, 1777.  He  published  several  learned  works, 
but  his  chief  performance  was  a  Greek  edition 
of  the  New  Testament,  with  critical  and  emen- 
datory  notes.  Mr.  John  Nichols,  himself  a 
printer,  wrote  the  life  of  Bowyer,  republished 
m  1812~*15,  with  large  additions,  in  nine  vol- 
umes, under  the  titie  of  **  Nichols's  Literary 
Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.'' 

BOX  TREE  (buxu8)y  a  shrubby  evergreen 
tree,  which  afforos  the  valuable  hard  wood  call- 
ed box,  much  used  for  making  small  boxes  and 
ornaments,  both  in  ancient  and  modem  times. 
The  Romans  cultivated  the  box  tree  as  an  orna- 
mental shrub  in  their  sardens,  and  consecrated 
it  to  Ceres«  The  Greeks  called  it  irvfor,  whence 
the  Latin  name ;  and  as  the  same  Greek  word 
signifies  goblet  or  vase,  it  is  probable  that  they 
named  it  from  its  uses  in  tiie  manufacture  of 
small  cups  and  ornaments.    B,  tempervirsns^  the 


600 


BOXIKQ 


bert  known  ipedefl,  is  the  mo0t  northern  arbo- 
reeoent  plant  of  the  natanJ  order  evffharhiaeea^ 
the  other  trees  of  that  order  being  found  only  in 
mild  or  tropical  climates.  It  is  a  native  of  most 
parts  of  Earope,  is  common  from  England  to 
Persia,  and  attains  in  favorable  localities  the 
height  of  15  or  20  feet^  bat  in  some  rodkj  re- 
gions never  rises  above  8  feet  It  has  small 
oval  and  opposite  leaves^  male  and  female  flow- 
ers upon  the  same  individual,  and  a  8  or  4- 
partea  calyx.  Among  the  garden  varieties  is 
the  dwarf  box,  much  used  for  the  edgings  of 
walks.  The  wood  is  of  a  yellowish  color,  hard, 
heavy,  durable,  dose-gruned,  and  susceptible 
of  a  high  polish.  It  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.8280.  It  is  prepared  for  indnstriid  uses  by 
steepinff  large  blocks  in  water  daring  24  hours, 
after  which  it  is  boiled  in  water  during  a  cer« 
tain  length  of  time,  and  then  allowed  to  dry 
slowly  immersed  in  sand  or  ashes  to  exclude 
the  air  and  prevent  rapid  desiocatioiL  It  is 
much  used  by  the  turner,  the  mathematical  in- 
strument maker,  and  the  wood  engraver,  and 
for  certain  uses  no  other  kind  of  wood  can  re- 
place it  with  advantage.  It  is  sent  in  large 
quantities  from  Spain  to  Paris,  and  thrives 
well  in  some  parts  of  England.  Great  quanti- 
ties of  a  very  fine  quality  are  imported  from 
the  Levant  into  the  manoiSacturing  countries  of 
Europe.  There  is  another  species  of  this  ge- 
nas,  B.  Bakarioa,  or  Minorca  box.  which  is  a 
handsomer  plant  than  the  preceding,  having 
wide  leaves,  but  which  requires  a  warmer  cU- 
mate  or  more  careM  culture.  It  will  groP, 
however,  in  the  open  air,  in  the  milder  expo- 
sures of  northern  latitudes.  It  aboands  on 
the  hills  of  M^orca  at  the  height  of  1,600  feet 
above  the  level  oi^  the  sea,  and  it  is  supposed  to 
frtmish  a  part  ot  the  Spanish  and  Turkey  box- 
wood. Box-wood  is  sometimes  used  in  medi- 
cine, as  a  substitute  for  guaiacum,  and  the 
leaves  have  been  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
Peruvian  bark.  The  leaves  have  also  been 
used  instea4  of  hops  in  the  brewing  of  beer, 
bat  they  give  an  acrid,  unpleasant  flavor 
to  the  liquor,  which  is  not  comparable  to  the 
pleasant  bitter  of  the  hop. 

BOXING,  the  art  of  defence  and  attack  with 
the  hands  alone,  without  any  other  weapon. 
Something  analogous  to  boxing  was  in  practice 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by  the  former 
of  whom  it  was  called  wyfuix^}  ^^  ^^  fighting, 
and  was  one  of  the  games  of  the  palsdstra.  It 
does  not  appear,  however,  to  have  been  em- 
ployed as  a  means  of  every-day  attack  and  de^ 
fence,  for  the  protection  of  the  person  from 
ruffianly  assault  or  the  repression  of  violence. 
It  was  practised  with  the  aid  of  heavy  gaunt- 
lets on  the  hands,  called  etntus,  made  of  bands 
of  leather  covered  with  false  knuckles  of  brass, 
and  loaded  with  ponderous  leaden  knobs,  not 
for  the  defence  of  the  hands,  but  as  weapons  of 
offisnce  against  the  heads  and  bodies  of  the  com- 
batants. The  weight  of  these  murderous  im- 
plements was  so  great  as,  in  some  measure,  to 
defeat  the  olgeot  for  which  they  were  intended. 


and  it  is  very  doubtful  whetlier  an j 
athlete  could  deliver  so  telling  a  blow  with  sH 
this  parwhemalia,  as  can  a  modem  boxer  with 
his  naked  hand,  in  the  quick,  dean,  effective  way 
in  which  he  delivers  a  smasbing  hit  from  the 
shoulder,  without  throwing  himsdf  over  his 
balance  or  off  his  guard  for  a  moment.    M 
parrying  or  stopping,  and  any  thing  like  font- 
ing,  countering,  or  quick  Jobbing,  was  oat  of 
the  question,  on  the  old  plan  of  the  athlelie 
boxing  of  the  circus  or  palfsstn,  and  Hie  eoo- 
test  was  moetiy  reduced  to  a  mere  trial,  ^is 
could  stand  the  most  severe  slow  poundings  snd 
endure  the  most  brokoi  ribs  and  jawsi,  alter  &e 
manner  described  by  Homer  in  the  fanefit 
games  in  honor  of  Patrodus,  and  bj  Vir^^  id 
those  celebrated  after  the  death  of  PallasL    In 
the  middle  ages,  even  in  Ei^land,  where  the 
manly  art  of  self-defence,  as  it  is  termed,  fint 
took  root,  boxing,  if  it  can  be  called  boxiiig 
seems  to  have  consisted  in  standing  up  to  re- 
ceive a  blow  on  the  headfrtmi  an  adversary 
without  attempting  to  guard  it,  he  being  after- 
ward bound  to  receive  a  counter  strcdce  oflhs 
same  kind;  he  who  should  bear  the  most  with- 
out frUlinff,  and  fell  his  enemj  the  ofteneg^ 
being  declared  the  victor.    A  trial  of  s^eiigdi 
of  this  kind  is  described  by  Sir  Walter  Seolt  is 
Ivanhoe,  as  occurring  between  Friar  Todc,  the 
jolly  derk  of  Gopmuihurst,  and  King  Ridisrd 
in  tiie  diaracter  of  Le  furir  IkiinSmU,    From 
this  practice  seems  to  have  arisen  the  phrase, 
^^  to  bide  the  buffet."  During  the  reigna  of  ££»- 
beth,  and  James  L,  and  pitSMhlv  mitil  the  res- 
toration, boxing  seems  to  have  beea  msknovn 
in  England,  either  as  a  national  sport,  or  s 
national  mode  of  defence ;  and  ^'  dabs  ^ — which 
was  the  rallying  word  of  the  flatcapa,  or  Loa- 
don  'prentices— not  fists,  were  the  weapons  of 
the   English   artisan,    peasant,    or  mediamc, 
whose  rank  did  not  entitle  them  to  wear  swords 
as  an  artide  of  distinctive  dress,  or  to  use  tibcm 
in  the  settiement  of  their  dtqpntea.     ^alyia 
the  reigns  of  the  princes  of  the  house  of  Brme- 
wick,  however,  we  find  the  prize  ring  regdariy 
established;  adiampionof^iglandwasnanied, 
wearing  a  bdt   of  honor   won   bj    having 
proved  himadf  the  best  pugilist  in  fii^^and, 
and  hdd  on  the  condition  of  meeting  aU  com- 
ers, on  penalty  of  surrendering  it,  if  de^m^ 
the  trial  or  beaten  by  the  adversary.    From 
that  time  it  became  the  usual  mode  of  deddlng 
all  disputes  amonff  the  middle  and  lower  dasses, 
who  practised  and  studied  the  art  aa  ase^uos^ 
as  did  gentiemen  a  few  years  earlier  that  of 
fencing.    Nor  did  gentlemen  rrfnse  to  pragtisB 
the  same  art,  as  a  means  of  protection  against 
the  assaults  of  inferiors,  and  still  more  aa  the 
best  system  of  gymnastics  for  bringiBg  aH  the 
limbs  under  perfect  command,  rendering  eveiy 
part  of  the  body  pliant,  flexible,  ai!^  firm,  ae- 
quiring  a  perfect  apjoin^,  as  it  b  eaSed,  or 
power  of  keeping  the  true  centre  of  gravity  in 
every  position,  and  of  extending  the  body  and 
limbs  to  the  extreme  length  and  reoovmng 
again  without  pause  or  diffioully.    The  praotioe 


BOYAOA 


BOTD 


601 


of  boxing  also  gives  to  those  profidetit  la  it  a 
remarkable  power  of  calmly  looking  danger  in 
the  eje,  ana  preserving  both  the  temper  and 
the  coorage  nnder  tryinff  cironmstances  nn- 
mffled.  The  prevalence  of  boxing  as  a  method, 
half  amicably,  of  deciding  qoarrek,  and  of  spar- 
ring with  the  gloves  as  an  amusement,  led  to  the 
establishment  of  the  prize  rings,  and  of  public 
trials  of  skill,  strength,  and  courage,  for  prizes  or 
wagers  which  were  formerly  encouraged  by  £ng^ 
lish  gentlemen  of  the  highest  character  and  re- 
finemenl  patronized  by  we  best  citizens,  and  the 
utility  of  which  was  disputed  by  no  one.  The 
prize  ring  inculcated  certain  ndes,  to  transgress 
which  was  regarded  as  infamous ;  as,  to  strike 
below  the  belt;  to  strike  a  man  when  he  was 
down;  to  catch  hold  of  the  hair;  to  bite,  kick, 
or  inflict  any  hurt,  except  with  the  shut  hand; 
and  above  ^  to  take  odds  agiunst  a  single  man, 
or  to  hurt  a  child  or  woman.  These  rales  be- 
came the  rules  of  the  whole  English  people; 
and  in  case  of  a  quarrel  occurring,  the  casual  by- 
Btanders  would  form  a  ring  and  insist  on  the 
rendition  of  fair  play.  It  is  alleged  by  the  de- 
fenders of  this  sport  that  it  encourages  individ- 
ual and,  therefore^  national  courage;  that  it 
leads  to  a  general  sense  and  sentiment  of  fair 
play  and  honor ;  that  it  diBcourages  and  renders 
infamous  the  use  of  the  knife  and  of  deadly 
weapons;  and,  lastly,  that,  as  quarrels  must 
arise  between  man  and  man  which  cannot  be 
decided  by  law,  and  which  it  would  not  be  de- 
mrable  so  to  settle,  if  they  could,  the  best  way 
of  settling  them  is  to  ^ht  it  out  &ir]y,  see  who 
is  the  better  man,  and  then  shake  hands,  and 
be  better  friends  than  ever.  It  is  also  added 
that  malice,  rancor,  and  slanderous  sossip  were 
kept  down  by  the  resort  to  the  fist  duello ;  and 
that  it  was  an  excellent  thing  to  teach  a  man 
that  it  is  not  good  or  safe  for  him  to  utter  any 
thing  with  his  tongue,  which  he  is  not  able  and 
ready  to  maintain  with  his  hands. 

BOYAGA,  a  department  and  village  of  Kew 
Granada,  South  America.  The  department  ex- 
tends from  the  frontier  of  Venezuela  to  the 
plain  of  Bogota,  and  comprises  the  whole  of 
the  eastern  Andes,  which  tie  chiefly  in  its  W. 
part,  the  £.  being  occupied  by  immense  plains, 
watered  by  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco.  The 
productions  are  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
and  cotton.  Capital,  Tui^a.  Area,  92^800  sq. 
m.  Pop.  about  620,000.— The  village  of  Boyar 
ca,  5  m.  S.  of  Tui\ja,  is  inhabited  mostly  by  In- 
dians, contains  extensive  lime-kilns,  and  was 
the  scene  of  a  battle,  in  1819,  between  the 
Spaniards  and  Gen.  Bolivar,  which  resulted 
in  the  defeat  of  the  former,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  Oolombian  independence.  A  college 
was  established  here  in  1821. 

BOTAR,  or  Boiab,  among  the  Slavic  na- 
tions, a  free  landowner  independent  of  any 
sovereign.  It  is  synonymous  with  eeeh^  leeh^ 
or  hojarin^  used  by  several  Slavic  tribes. 
SQch  as  the  Bohemians  and  Poles.  The  word 
boyar  was  at  first  especially  used  by  the  Bul- 
garians, Serbs,  and  Russians,  and  then  was 


adopted  by  the  Moldavians  and  WaUaohians. 
Jt  represented  the  highest  social  conditiou,  cor- 
Tesponding  in  certain  respects  to  that  of  an 
English  peer.  In  ancient  Russia  the  boyars 
were  the  next  after  the  princes  of  the  blood, 
or  hMudOy  who  were  all  originally  petty  sov- 
ereigns. The  boyars  formed  a  kind  of  su- 
preme x)olitical  body  in  the  state,  and  acted  as 
the  council  {duma)  of  the  grand  dukes.  All 
the  higher  offices,  civil  and  military,  including 
the  lieutenancies  in  the  provinces,  were  held 
by  them.  While  Russia  was  still  divided  into 
several  petty  sovereignties,  the  boyars  enjoyed 
the  right  of  choosing  for  themselves  and  for 
their  dependants  the  prince  whom  they  wished 
to  serve,  and  to  leave  the  service  at  their  pleas- 
ure, without  any  previous  notification.  When 
the  grand  dukes  of  Vladimir  and  of  Moscow 
stripped  these  petty  princes  of  tiieir  sovereign 
rightB,  and  transformed  them  from  vassals  into 
subjects,  the  dignity  of  boyars  was  granted  to 
their  fiimilies.  The  boyars  had  their  own  mili- 
tary retinue  and  their  clients ;  and  their  influence 
on  the  masses  of  the  people  often  equalled  that 
of  the  grand  dukes.  The  sovereign  ukases  al- 
ways contained  the  sacramental  words,  *^  or- 
dered by  the  grand  duke  (subsequently  it  was 
"by  the  czar"),  and  approved  by  the  boyars." 
Precedence  among  the  boyars  was  reckoned 
according  to  the  date  of  the  title,  which  was 
hereditary,  and  the  observance  of  it  was  carried 
so  far,  that  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  any 
boyar  of  an  older  creation  refused  to  serve 
under  a  younger  one.  This  struggle  for  rank, 
ealled  in  Russia  mieBl/niUihestf>o^^  ended  by 
the  czar  Alexis  Michailowitch  Romanoff  who 
destroyed  the  official  records  and  diplomas  of 
the  boyars.  Peter  the  Great  wholly  abolished 
their  power  and  official  privileges,  and  the  name 
now  remains  only  as  a  historical  distinctiooi 
and  a  recollection  of  the  past^  in  families  which 
once  possessed  the  dignity.  In  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia  the  bo^rars  still  exist;  they  form  the 
council  of  the  princes  or  hospodars,  and  exer- 
cise a  preponderating  influence  over  the  people. 
BOyOE,  Hbotoe.  See  BoxTmus, 
BOYOE,  William,  an  English  composer  of 
eacred  music,  born  in  London  Feb.  7,  1710, 
died  there  Feb.  7, 1779;  was  made  doctor  of 
music  in  1749,  master  of  the  king's  band  in 
1757,  and  orcanist  of  the  royal  chapel  in  1758. 
He  produced  numerous  compositions  which 
have  enriched  the  church  music  of  England. 
His  best  work.  "  Lord,  thou  hast  been  our  ref- 
uge,*' was  written  for  the  feast  of  the  sons  of 
the  clergy,  at  whose  annual  celebration  in  St. 
Paulas  cathedral  it  has  ever  since  been  perform- 
ed. In  1760  he  published  3  volumes  of  cathe- 
dral music  of  the  English  masters  during  the 
preceding  2  centuries — a  collection  which  had 
been  commenced  by  Dr.  Greene.  He  excelled 
also  as  a  dramatio  and  miscellaneous  com- 
poser. 

BOYD,  Henbt,  an  Irish  scholar,  translator 
of  Dante,  bom  about  the  middle  of  the  last 
eentury,  died  Sept.  17, 1882.    In  1785  he  pub- 


BOYD 


BOIEK 


liihed  a  tnndatioii  of  the  Ir^femo  of  Dante, 
with  a  specitnea  of  the  Orlando  Furio^o.  In 
1796  i4>p6ared  a  volume  of  dramatic  and  lyno 
poenuL  followed,  in  1808,  by  the  whole  of 
Dante^s  JHtnna  Commedia,  in  English  vene. 

BOTD,  JonN  Pabekb,  brigadier  seneral  in  the 
arm  J  of  the  United  States,  bom  in  Newburyport, 
Mass.,  1768,  died  in  Boston,  Oct.  4, 1880.  He 
had  passed  through  a  pecalior  military  career  in 
Hinaostan.  He  raised  a  force  of  8  battalions,  each 
of  about  600  men,  with  cannon,  elephants,  and 
a  few  English  officers,  whom,  as  well  as  his 
men,  he  hired  at  a  certain  amount  per  month. 
The  equipment  was  his  sole  property,  and  he 
let  out  the  services  of  his  little  army  to  any  of 
the  Indian  princes  who  would  give  him  the 
best  pay.  He  was  in  the  pay  of  Holkar,  in  the 
Peishwa's  service,  and  afterward  in  that  of  Ni- 
zam Ali  Khan.  Finding  the  trade  in  war  grow 
dull,  he  sold  out  his  stock  of  arms,  eleplumts, 
and  equipments  to  Col.  Felose,  a  Neapolitan. 
He  was  at  Paris  in  1808,  and  having  found  his 
way  back  to  America,  was  put  at  the  head  of  a 
detachment  of  1,600,  men  of  Williamson^s  army, 
in  the  expedition  to  Upper  Canada,  and  fought 
the  battle  of  Williamsburg,  Nov.  11,  1813.  He 
was  a  good  officer,  and  after  the  war  was  ap- 
pointed naval  officer  of  the  port  of  Boston.  He 
published  some  documents  relating  to  military 
affairs  during  the  war,  in  1816. 

BOYD,  Mabk  Alezakdsb,  a  Scottish  scholar 
and  soldier,  bom  at  Galloway,  Jan.  18, 1662,died 
at  Pinkill,  April  10, 1601.  His  headstrong  tem- 
per made  him  quarrel  with  his  relatives  and  in- 
structors, and  before  he  had  finished  his  aca- 
demic course,  he  sought  his  fortune  at  court, 
where  one  duel  and  numberless  broils  soon  made 
him  notorious.  He  went  to  France,  where  he 
studied  civil  law,  and  thence  (to  avoid  the 
plague)  to  Italy.  In  1587,  when  the  war  of  the 
league  conunenced,  he  joined  the  Catholic  party 
as  a  volunteer  soldier,  though  himself  a  Prot- 
estant, but  at  the  dose  of  the  campaign,  in 
1688,  resumed  his  legal  studies  at.  Tomouse, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  for  his  religious  opin- 
ions. He  was  permitted  to  escape  to  Bor- 
deaux, and  for  some  years  his  life  alternated 
between  war  and  study.  His  elder  brother^s 
death,  in  1696,  induced  him  to  return  to  Scot- 
land ;  and  he  had  previously  endeavored  to 
win  the  favor  of  James  VL,  by  dedicating  to 
him  a  volume  of  Latin  poems,  published  at  Ant- 
werp in  1692.  Some  other  of  his  Latin  poems 
are  to  be  found  in  the  Iklidm  Foetarum  Soo- 
tarum;  but  Lord  Hailes  pronounced  his  style  to 
be  incorrect,  and  his  ideas  frequently  impure. 

BOYD,  Zaohabt,  a  Scottish  divine,  bom 
1694,  died  at  Glasgow,  1658,  wrote  several 
books,  chiefly  polemical,  among  which  is  "  Tlie 
Last  Battle  of  the  Soul  in  Death."  It  is  divid- 
ed into  eight  conferences  which  take  place  be- 
tween a  dying  man  and  his  spiritual  guide.  It 
also  contains  the  last  speech  of  the  former  to 
his  wife  and  children,  and  concludes  with  a  dis- 
pute between  the  devil  and  the  angel  Michael, 
touching  the  soul  about  to  be  disembodied. 


This  diqimte  ends  with  the  defeat  of  Satan,  wbo 
retires  much  discomfited,  after  yctj  unfjurij 
attempting  to  give  the  dying  man  a  ^giii« 
with  his  rod,"  whidi  Michad  wards  offl  He 
also  wrote  the  metrical  paraphrase  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, popularly  called  *^  Zachaiy  Boyd^s  Bible," 
bequeathed,  with  many  other  manuscripts,  mbA 
a  laiige  sum  of  money,  to  the  miiverstj  of 
Glasgow,  in  whose  library  it  remaina.  Pvti 
of  this  are  in  doggerel  verse ;  the  most  iamifisr 
lanjpruage  is  employed,  and,  in  many  instmoes, 
wi&out  the  slightest  regard  to  the  mlea  of  del- 
icacy. 

BOTDELL,  JoHK,  an  English  en^ver  ssd 
print-publisher,  bom  at  Stanton,  in  Simp- 
shire,  Jan.  19,  1719,  died  in  London,  Dec  12, 
1804.  He  had  been  educated  for  the  ehurdi, 
but  subsequently  devoted  himself  to  the  fine 
arts.  His  first  publication  was  the  *' Bridge 
Book,"  so  called  because  there  was  a  bri^  is 
each  of  the  views  which  it  contained.  In  1741 
he  published,  by  subscriptioii,  a  Tolnme  of  eo- 
gravings,  wholly  ezeentea  by  himself  contaimsg 
152  views  in  England  and  Wales.  The  proits 
of  this  volume  enabled  him  to  become  a  rip- 
lar  publisher,  and  to  employ  good  artista  h 
a  few  years  the  engravings  of  BoydeH  ven 
largely  exported  to  Hollanc^  FLanders,  and  Ge^ 
many.  He  resolved  to  establi^  an  £b^ 
school  of  historical  paintings  Parchasing  sort- 
able  premises  in  Pall  Mall,  he  erected  ^lere  lia 
«*  Shak^peare  Gallery,"  and  employed  Beyneida, 
Opie,  West,  Northcote,  and  other  eamsX 
paiuters,  to  fill  it  From  these  pictures  the  best 
engravers  produced  that  showj  Tolome  {t  feet 
by  2  in  size)  in  royal  elephant  folio,  entiHed  *^  A 
Collection  of  Prints  from  Pictures  painted  ffs 
thiQ  purpose  of  illustrating  the  Dramatical  Worts 
of  Shakespeare."  It  appeared  in  1S04  (harioi: 
been  'preceded,  in  1792-1801,  bj  BoyddTs 
edition  of  Shakespeare,  printed  by  Bnfaaer.  9 
vols,  folio),  and  the  sum  of  £350,000  had  htm 
expended  npon  it  He  had  every  reason  to  ex- 
pect, when  ne  commenced  this  prefect,  thit^  is 
with  his  previous  productions,  his  foreign  c»- 
tomers  would  take  a  considerable  number  d 
copies.  But  a  12  years'  war  bad  stopped  hs 
foreign  trade,  and  in  1804,  at  the  age  of  8S,  hs 
was  compelled  to  solicit  parliament  to  anthcs^ 
ize  him  to  dispose  of  the  original  paintings  If 
lottery.  He  lived  to  see  tiie  last  ticket  soli 
but  the  distribution  of  the  pictures  did  aot  taka 
place  until  after  his  death*  Mr.  BoydeH  wti 
alderman  of  London  in  1782,  sheriff  in  1785, 
and  lord  mayor  in  1790. 

BOYDTOWN,  the  capital  of  MeeklaibBf 
CO.,  Virginia,  sitoated  about  6  m.  from  Beta- 
oke  river,  and  90  m.  S.  W.  of  Bi<dimond.  It 
is  the  seat  of  Bandolph  Maoon  ooUece,  an  is^ 
tution  under  the  charge  of  the  Metho^^ 
founded  in  1882,  and  numbering  about  80  sta* 
dents. 

BOTEN,  Hbrmakn  vok,  a  Pmaraan  state- 
man,  bom  at  Ereuzbnrg^  East  Prussia,  in  1771. 
died  Feb.  16,  1848.  He  began  bis  career  is 
1784,  as  a  simple  oorporal  of  inHantxy.    He  was 


BOYER 


608 


ironnded  in  ^e  battle  of  Anerst&dt,  and  partici- 
paAdd  in  the  wars  against  Napoleon  in  1813-15. 
As  secretary  of  war,  he  contributed  to  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Prassian  militia^  bat  dissent- 
ing from  the  policy  of  the  gOTemment,  he  re- 
rigned  his  post  in  1819,  and  kept  aloof  from 
public  serrice  until  1840,  when  Frederic  Wil- 
liam lY.  made  him  general  of  infantry,  and 
next  year  minister  of  war.  On  his  final  resig- 
nation, in  Oct.  1847,  he  received  the  appoint- 
ment of  governor  of  the  Berlin  hotel  of  inva- 
lids, and  was  made  general  field  marshal  be- 
fore his  death. 

BOYEB,  Abxl,  a  lexicographer  and  writ- 
er, of  French  origin,  born  at  Oastres,  Lan- 
ffnedoc,  June  18, 1667,  died  at  Ohelsea,  London, 
Nov.  16,  1729.  He  was  &  French  Protestant 
refugee,  and  settled  in  London  in  the  reign  of 
William  III.,  as  a  teacher  of  langua^.  He 
acquired  considerable  facility  in  writmg  Eng- 
lish, andpubUshed  several  literary  and  political 
worl».  He  also  wrote  a  French  dictionary 
and  grammar,  which  has  had  immense  school 
oircmation  for  more  than  a  century  in  Eng- 
land, and  is  even  yet  very  largely  used  in  Ire- 
land. It  has  been  repeatedly  revised,  corrected, 
ttod  enlarged,  until  the  difference  between  its 
original  and  die  present  form  is  great  indeed. 

fiOYER,  Albxis,  a  French  surgeon,  born  at 
Uzerche,  department  of  Corr^ze,  March  1, 
1757,  died  in  Paris,  Nov.  25,  1838.  Bom  in 
poverty,  and  without  adequate  means  of  edu- 
cation, he  gained  a  knowledge  of  his  art  by  his 
unswerving  industry  and  energy,  and  after 
stn^igling  bravely  widi  many  difficulties,  and 
passing  uirough  many  subordinate  positions, 
ne  was  appointed  professor  of  operative  surgery 
in  Paris,  and  afterward  became  chief  surgeon 
of  Napoleon,  who  made  him  a  baron  of  the 
empire,  with  a  revenue  of  25,000  francs. 
This,  however,  he  lost  after  the  restoration^  but 
remained  in  the  service  of  Louis  XYIIl.,  of 
Charles  X.,  and  of  Louis  Philippe.  At  the 
death  of  Deschampa,  in  1825,  he  became  his 
anccessor  as  chief  surgeon  of  the  Ohinritey  and  a 
member  of  the  institute  of  France.  His  best 
works  are,  TraiUcomfUt  Wanatomie^s^H  TraiU 
de9  mdladiei  chirurg%ealMy  of  which  many  edi- 
tions have  appeared  in  France,  and  translationB 
in  (Germany. 

BOTER,  Jbah  Piebbk  a  mulatto  general  and 
president  of  Hay  ti,  bom  m  Port-au-lSrince,  Feb« 
2, 1776,  died  in  Paris,  July  9, 1850.  In  1792, 
In  connection  with  the  free  colored  population 
generally,  he  joined  the  revolted  bLacks,  then 
atrugglingagainst  the  Frendi  for  their  independ- 
ence. When  the  French  gave  up  Fort  St. 
Nicolas  to  the  Euf^lish.  Boyer  fought  against 
them,  and  distinguished  himself  in  the  defence 
of  the  fort  of  Biroton,  and  in  other  dangerous 
enterprises.  Boon  luter,  Toussaint  POuver- 
ture,  chief  of  the  blacks,  separated  from  the 
mulattoes,  and  Boyer,  Potion,  and  others,  re* 
tired  to  France.  Bonaparte,  then  first  con- 
sul, gave  a  commission  to  Boyer,  with  the 
rank  of  a  captain,  in  Uie  expedition  fitted  out 


against  the  blanks,  in  1802,  under  Qen.  Ledero. 
The  latter, who  were  afraid  of  the  double  dealing 
of  Napoleon,  especiaUy  as  he  had  attempted  the 
re^tablishment  of  slavery  in  Guadeloupe,  resist- 
ed successfully.  After  Uie  disastrous  terminal 
tion  of  this  expedition,Boyer  left  the  French  ser- 
vice ;  but  untu  1806,  he  kept  aloof  from  the  vari- 
ous conflicts  in  Hayti,  and  his  name  first  i^pears 
in  Oct  1806,  in  the  republican  constitution  put 
in  force  by  Potion  in  Port-au-Prince.  A  war 
resulted  between  the  republicans  and  Ohris- 
tophe,  whi>  held  a  part  of  the  island  wi^  the 
tide  of  emperor.  Hayti  was  thus  divided  into 
2  antagonistic  states.  Potion  became  the  first 
president  of  the  republican  part,  and  Boyer 
served  under  him.  As  commander  of  Port-au- 
Prince,  the  capital  of  the  republic,  he  repelled 
the  attacks  of  Ghristophe.  At  the  death  of 
Potion,  in  1818,  Boyer  was  dected-  president, 
and  after  the  death  of  Ghristophe,  in  1820,  the 
empire  was  united  to  the  republic  In  1824 
Boyer  annexed  St.  Domingo,  or  the  Spanish 
part  of  the  island,  notwiuistanding  tibe  op- 
position of  the  French  government,  and  thus 
the  whole  of  Hayti  came  under  a  single  govern^ 
ment.  The  earlier  years  of  his  administration 
excited  hopes  of  a  better  future  for  the  col- 
ored race  in  the  West  Indies,  and  for  the  pros- 
perity of  the  young  republic.  Soon,  however, 
he  committed  arbitrary  acts,  trampling  on  per- 
sonal liberty  and  the  rights  of  representatioUi 
condemning  to  death  a  black  deputy,  Darfour, 
his  political  opponent,  and  ordermg  his  execu- 
tion. After  the  Bourbons  were  restored  in 
France,  they  had  attempted,  in  1814,  to  re- 
^in  their  sovereignty  over  the  island;  but 
Potion  had  refused  all  their  propositions.  In 
1825  a  French  s^adron  appeared  before  the 
harbor  of  Port-au^Prinoe,  and  ordered  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  republic  to  put  on  recora  an 
order  in  council  of  Charles  X.,  by  which  cer- 
tain liberties  were  conceded  to  the  Haytians, 
in  consideration  of  which  they  were  to  recog- 
nize the  sovereignty  of  France,  pay  $80,000,000 
indemnity  to  the  white  planters  who  had  been 
deprived  of  their  estates,  and  exclude  every 
other  nation  from  trading  with  the  island.  The 
nation,  enervated  by  its  government,  dared  not 
now  oner  the  resistance  of  a  quarter  of  a  century 

Srevious ;  and  Boyer  himself^  submitted  to  the 
emand,  and  ordered  its  acceptance  in  a  secret 
session  of  the  senate.  He  contracted  a  loan  in 
Paris  to  pay  the  first  instalment  of  the  indem* 
nity ;  and  when  the  publication  of  the  facts 
produced  insurrectionary  movements  in  various 
parts  of  the  island,  he  quenched  them  in  blood. 
The  legislative  assembly^  convoked  under  the 
pressure  of  fear,  in  due  time  confirmed  his  ao* 
tion,  converting  the  indemnity  into  a  national 
debt,  and  decreeing  extraonlinary  taxes  to 
cover  it.  Boyer  proceeded  to  issue  paper  mon- 
ey,  and  introduce  various  impositions ;  but  the 
independence  of  Hayti  was  saved  by  the  oppo- 
sition of  Enghmd  and  the  United  States.  These 
powers  declared  that  they  would  not  recognize 
Hayti  as  an  independent  government  if  her  tar* 


604 


BOYER 


BOYLE 


iff  was  to  be  regnlated  hj  eommerotal  treatiefl 
wiUi  France,  or  by  French  decrees.  Bnt  the 
national  prosperity  was  destroyed  under  the 
financial  pressare  created  by  the  indemnity  to 
France,  of  which,  howerer,  soon  neither  inter- 
est nor  principal  coold  be  paid.  Disorder,  op- 
pression, and  misery  prevailed  ererywhere ;  the 
government  neither  asked  from  the  chambers  a 
yearly  bndget,  nor  presented  to  them  any 
accoont  of  thepublio  ezpenditares.  Finally, 
in  1842,  an  insnrrection  took  phice.  Boyer  was 
OTcrthrown,  and  obliged  to  seek  reftise  in  Ja- 
maica, where  he  resided  until  the  reToTution  of 
Feb.  1848  led  him  to  snppose  he  might  find  in 
France  a  more  congenial  abode.  He  settled  in 
Paris  with  his  family,  and  Hved  there  se- 
elnded  from  the  world  until  his  death. 

BOYER,  PiKSBB  Dbkis,  a  French  theologian, 
bom  Oct  19, 1766,  died  in  Paris,  April24, 1842. 
He  was  ordained  pnest  in  1790,  and  during  the 
revolution  lived  in  retirement^  the  mountains 
of  Rouergne.  He  returned  to  raris  in  1800,  and 
became  professor  of  dogmatic  theology  at  St. 
Bulpioo.  The  members  of  that  seminary  were 
dispersed  by  the  emperor  in  1811 ;  but  on  the 
restoration  of  Louis  XVIII.,  in  1814,  he  re- 
sumed his  professorship.  One  of  his  principal 
works  is  airected  against  the  philosophical, 
theological,  and  political  opinions  of  Lamennais. 
The  revolution  of  1830  sent  him  again  to  the 
mountains,  but  he  returned  to  Paris  after  writ- 
ing a  defence  of  social  order  against  modem 
carbonarism. 

BOYLE,  a  central  county  of  Kentucky, 
bounded  N.  E.  by  Dick's  river,  a  branch  of  the 
Kentucky,  and  comprising  an  area  of  180 
square  miles.  It  has  a  deep,  rich  soil,  and  a 
finely  diversified  surface,  underlying  which 
are  extensive  beds  of  limestone.  Seven  mac- 
adamized roads  meet  at  Danville,  the  county 
seat,  and  a  railroad  connects  it  with  Lexington. 
The  staples  are  grain,  hemp,  hay,  and  tobacco, 
and  in  1850  the  productions  amounted  to  689,- 
708  bushels  of  Indian  com,  108,846  of  oats,  807 
tons  of  hemp,  1,600  pounds  of  tobacco,  and 
29,931  of  wool.  There  were  10  grist  millSi 
4  tanneries,  16  churches,  1  newspaper  office, 
and  668  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Formed 
in  1841,  and  named  in  honor  of  John  Boyle, 
chief  justice  of  Kentucky.  Pop.  in  1850, 
9,116,  of  whom  8,424  were  slaves. 

BOYLE,  a  town,  parish,  and  barony  on  the 
river  Boyle  in  Ireland,  108  miles  N.  W.  of 
Dublin.  The  barony  is  now  divided  into  2 
parts,  the  more  northern  bearing  the  name  of 
Boyle,  and  the  other  that  of  French  Park. 
The  parish  has  a  diversified  surface  dotted 
with  small  lakes,  and  comprises  a  large  extent 
of  improved  and  well-cultivated  land.  It  con- 
tains Lord  Lorton's  demesne  of  Rockingham. 
The  town  is  situated  in  a  picturesque  country, 
8  miles  N.  W.  of  Oarrick-on-Shannon,  and  1 
mile  from  Louch  Key ;  Pop.  in  1851.  8,488. 
The  river  Boyle,  here  crossed  by  2  oridges, 
flows  through  it,  dividing  the  old  from  the 
modem  portion.    The  latter  is  the  more  neatly^ 


built,  but  the  former  embraces  most  of  ihe  inter- 
esting objects  of  the  place,  the  old  manor  hoose 
of  the  King  family,  now  converted  into  abarraek, 
and  the  rains  of  the  CSstercian  abbej  of  Bojle, 
a  noble  stracture,  founded  in  the  ISfth  eenturv, 
and  redaoed  to  its  present  state  in  1595  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  ean  of  Tjrrone.  In  the  new 
town  is  a  handsome  sessions  honse,  surrounded 
by  a  fine  area,  one  side  of  which  is  formed  by 
a  crescent.  The  other  buildings  of  note  are 
the  bridewell,  2  or  8  schools,  a  dispensary,  a 
workhouse,  a  church,  and  several  chapds. 
There  are  4  principal  streets,  2  of  which  an 
very  crooked,  and  all  ill-kept  There  are  a  Ibr 
unimportant  manufactories  of  coarse  frieze  and 
flannel,  for  domestic  consumption  only,  ^ut 
town  is  the  head  of  a  poor-law  union,  and  Ha 
seat  of  several  courts.  The  Irish  ^*  Annals  of 
Boyle.'*  compiled  about  1245,  and  extea^sig 
from  A.  D.  420  up  to  tiiat  period,  have  heesi  pub- 
lished in  Latin  and  in  English. 

BOYLE,  RicHABD,  "the  great  earl  of  Cork,* 
bom  Oct  8,1566,  at  C^terbuiy,  in  England,  di«d 
Sept.  15. 1644.  He  was  bom  a  commoner,  and 
educated  for  the  law,  but  having  lost  bis  psr- 
ents,  his  resources  were  so  slender  Hiat  be 
became  clerk  to  Sir  R.  Manwood,  chief  btrca 
of  the  court  of  exchequer.  Not  seeing  here 
any  prospect  of  advancement,  he  threw  up  hii 
situation  and  went  to  Ireland,  where  from  vexr 
small  beginnings  he  l)ecame  a  person  of  «m 
note  about  the  court  His  marriage  to  a 
lady  of  fortune  increased  his  importanee,  Ms 
wite  bequeathing  him  a  landed  estate  worth 
about  $2,500  a  year.    His  abilitiea,  and  the 

Cwth  of  his  possessions,  raised  him  up  a 
t  of  enemies  and  detractors ;  and  the  re- 
bellion of  Munster  reduced  him  to  povertr. 
He  retumed  to  England,  and  visited  Ire^d 
again  in  the  suite  of  the  earl  of  Essex.  Bst 
his  presence  renewed  the  malice  of  his  de- 
tractors, who,  having  brouj^t  'formal  dmgeB 
against  him,  he  attended  before  the  £n^^ 
privy  council,  and  pleaded  his  cause  with  sodi 
force  before  Elizabeth  in  person,  that  the  queea 
took  him  into  favor.  He  was  made  clerk  of 
the  council  of  Mnnster,  and  pres^idj  bought 
considerable  estates,  which  he  colonized  with 
Protestant  tenants,  and  managed  so  well  as  to 
call  forth  a  remark  from  Cromwell,  that  had 
there  been  an  earl  of  €k>rk  in  each  eountj, 
there  had  been  no  rebdHon.  After  a  series 
of  minor  promotions,  in  1620  he  was  created 
earl  of  Cork,  and  m  1681,  lord  high  treasurer 
of  Ireland,  which  office  was  made  hereditair 
in  his  family. — ^Rooeb,  5th  son  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  April  26,  1621,  died  Oct.  1% 
1679,  known  as  Lord  Broghill  during  the  pro- 
tectorate, and  earl  of  Orrery  in  Sie  re%a 
of  Charles  II.  He  was  won  to  the  canse  of 
the  commonwealth  in  Ireland  by  Cromw^ 
at  a  period  when  h6  was  known  to  be  engaged 
in  favoring  the  retnm  of  Charles  IL,  and  was 
of  material  assistance  in  redudng  Ireland  to 
subjection.  After  the  protector's  death,  he  was 
one  of  Biohard  (^omweU*&  priv/  couneily  bol 


BOYLE 


BOYNE 


606 


ikTored  the  restoration  of  Churles  II.,  by  whom 
he  was  created  earl  of  Orrery. — ^Robbbt,  an 
eminent  philosopher,  born  at  Lismore  Castle, 
Ireland,  Jan.  25,  1626,  died  at  London,  Deo. 
80,  1691.  He  learned  to  speak  Latin  and 
French  while  yet  a  child,  in  the  house  of  his 
father,  the  earl  of  Cork.  In  1685  he  went  to 
Eton,  where  his  father^s  friend,  Sir  Henry 
Wotton,  was  prorost;  in  1638  travelled  with  a 
tutor  to  Geneva.  He  returned  in  1644,  en- 
ridied  with  a  knowledge  of  Italian  and  mathe- 
matics. Being  left  heir  to  a  good  estate,  he 
devoted  his  time  to  physical  inquiries,  and 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  a  club  which  after- 
ward beoame  the  royal  society.  In  1654  he 
left  his  manor  at  Stellbridge,  to  reside  at  Ox- 
ford, nearer  his  scientific  friends.  It  was  here 
that  he  improved  the  air-pump,  made  his  im- 
mortal discoveries  in  pneumatics,  and  gave 
the  first  hints  of  a  theory  of  colors.  Amid 
the  most  multifarious  philosophical  experi- 
ments and  jpublicatioi^  which  exerted  a  great 
and  beneficial  influence  upon  science  in  England 
and  in  the  world,  he  also  wrote  many  religious 
papers,  having  become,  from  thorough  study  of 
the  original  Scriptures,  an  earnest  Christian. 
He  instituted  an  annual  course  of  public  lec- 
tures, known  as  "  Boyle  lectures,"  upon  the 
evidences  of  Christianity ;  bore  the  expense  of 
translating  the  New  Testament  into  MaUy ;  re- 
warded the  translator  of  Grotius's  De  VeritaU 
into  Arabic,  and  bought  a  whole  edition  for  dis- 
tribution in  the  East;  contributed  largely  to  the 
printing  of  the  New  Testament  in  Turkish ;  and 
in  short,  spent  about  $5,000  per  annum  for  mis- 
nonary  enterprises  of  this  kind,  in  addition  to 
the  labors  of  his  pen.  He  was  universally  loved 
and  respected  tor  the  purity,  modesty,  and 
energy  of  his  character;  an  enersy  the  more 
renuu'kable  from  the  delicacy  of  his  ordinary 
state  of  health. — Coablbs,  bom  at  Chelsea^ 
Aug*  1676.  died  Aug.  28, 1781.  He  was  the 
2d  son  of  the  second  earl  of  Orrery  in  Ireland, 
and  was  graduated  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford. 
Ajo.  edition  of  the  ejHsties  of  Phalaris,  the  pre«N 
fnce  of  which  contains  a  di^>araging  allusion 
to  Richard  Bentiey,  having  been  published 
under  his  name,  he  beoame  oomplioated  in  the 
famous  controversy  which  arose  on  the  subject 
of  the  epistles  between  the  eminent  Cambridge 
scholar,  and  between  Atterbury  and  other  du- 
tiuiguished  scholars  of  Oxford.  (See  Behtxst, 
BioHABD.)  In  1700,  Mr.  Boyle  was  elected  to 
parliament.  In  1708  he  succeeded  to  the  title  of 
earl  of  Orrery.  He  entered  the  army,  and  served 
as  mijor-general  under  Marlborough  in  Flandersi 
and  aher  the  treaty  of  Utredit  in  1718,  was  sent 
as  envoy  to  the  states  of  Brabant  and  Flanders, 
and  raised  to  the  English  peerage  with  the 
title  of  Lord  Boyle.  Under  George  L,  he  was 
one  of  the  lords  of  the  bedchamber,  but  in  1722 
was  confined  6  months  in  the  tower  for  high 
treason,  as  an  accomplice  in  Sayer's  plot.  In 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  he  amused  himself 
with  philosophical  subjects.  The  instrument 
exhibiting  the  jdanetary  revolutions  was  called 


after  him  an  orrery  by  George  Graham,  the 
inventor,  although  it  is  said  by  Dr.  John^n 
"  that  the  whole  merit  of  inventing  it  belongs 
to  Rowley,  a  mathematician  of  Lichfield."-^ 
John,  only  son  of  the  preceding,  bom  Jan. 
2,  1707,  died  Nov.  16,  1762.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  the  house  of  lords  in  1731,  and 
constantly  opposed  the  administration  of  Sir 
Robert  Walpole.  But  he  was  fond  of  retire- 
ment and  of  literary  pursuits.  He  resided 
some  time  in  Ireland,  and  was  acquaint- 
ed with  Swift,  and  m  1732  published  ''Re- 
marks" on  his  life  and  writings.  He  was  a 
voluminous  author,  edited  the  dramatic  works 
and  state  papers  of  his  great-grandfather,  Pliny  ^s 
letters,  the  ''life  of  Robert  Cary,  earl  of 
Monmouth,"  and  wrote  in  the  "  World,"  the 
"  Connoisseur,"  and  the  "  Gkntleman^s  Maga- 
zine." 

BOTLSTON,  Nicholas,  an  American  mer- 
chant, and  benefactor  of  Harvard  college,  bom 
in  1716,  died  in  Boston  in  1771.  He  bequeathed 
to  the  university  £1,500  to  found  a  professorship 
of  rhetoric  and  oratory.  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  installed  first  ^'  Boylston  "  professor,  June 
12, 1806. — ^Wabd  Nicholas,  also  a  benefactor 
of  the  same  university,  and  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  1750,  died  in  1826.  In  the  year  1800  he 
gave  to  the  medical  school  of  Harvard  college 
a  valuable  collection  of  medical  and  anatomi<»l 
books,  and  made  provision  for  its  perpetual  in- 
crease. 

BOYLSTON,  Zabddsl,  a  physician,  and  the 
first  who  practised  inoculation  for  tiie  small- 
pox in  America,  bom  at  Brookline,  Mass., 
1680,  died  in  Boston,  March  1,  1766.  In  1721, 
when  the  small-pox  appeared  at  Boston,  the 
attention  of  the  faculty  was  called  by  Cotton 
Mather  to  the  practice  of  inoculation,  which 
had  been  just  introduced  into  westem  Europe. 
With  the  exception  of  Dr.  Boylston,  however, 
they  treated  tne  communication  with  disdain. 
He  commenced  the  practice  in  his  own  family, 
and  they  having  been  brought  safely  through 
the  disorder,  began  to  extend  it.  The  opposi- 
tion was  general ;  it  was  treated  as  a  crime,  as 
the  wilful  spreading  of  a  malignant  poison,  as 
a  blasphemous  interference  with  the  disposi- 
tions of  Providence,  and  extending  that  afSiction 
firom  which  all  good  men  were  praying  to  be 
relieved,  because,  as  it  was  doubtless  a  judg- 
ment of  God  on  the  land  for  their  sins,  to 
endeavor  to  remove  it  wonld  only  expose  the 
people  to  still  heavier  infiictions.  The  exasper- 
ation became  so  great^  tiiat  the  doctor  was  in 
some  danger.  Six  of  the  ministers  came  out 
solemnly  in  his  support,  and  the  practice  ap- 
proved itselt  In  1721  and  1722  he  inocu- 
lated 247  persons ;  89  were  inoculated  by  oth- 
ers ;  of  the  whole  number,  only  6  died.  Dur- 
ing the  same  period,  of  5,759  who  had  the 
disease  in  the  natural  way,  844,  or  nearly  one- 
seventh,  died. 

BOYNE,  a  river  of  Ireland,  formed  by  the 
oonfiuenoe  of  several  small  streams,  in  the 
southern  part  of  Meath,  whence  it  has  a  N.  £. 


_^^ 


600 


B0Y6B 


B0ZZAB1» 


oonne  to  fho  town  of  Navan,  where  it  is  joined 
by  Uie  Black waicr.  After  this  it  flows  nearly 
£.  to  Droglieda  on  its  left  baok^  and,  4  miles 
below  tliat  city,  falls  into  the  Irish  sea,  aboat 
10  miles  8.  of  Danany  point,  the  southern  head* 
land  of  Dundalk  bay.  It  is  fiunoas  for  the  de- 
cisive battle  fought  July  1,  1690,  between 
William  III.  of  England,  at  the  head  of  a  com- 
bined force  of  English,  Dutch,  and  allied  de- 
tachments, of  almost  erery  Protestant  kingdom 
in  Europe,  and  the  ex-monarch  James  IL,  with 
an  inTaoing  French  and  Irish  refugee  army. 

BOYSE,  Dots,  or  Boia,  John,  one  of  the 
translators  of  tiie  English  Bible  under  James 
I.,  bom  at  Netdeshead,  Suffolk,  Jan.  8, 1560, 
died  Jan.  14, 1648.  When  James  I.  directed  a 
new  translation  <^  the  Bible  to  be  made,  he 
was  chosen  as  one  of  the  translators,  and  not 
only  executed  his  own  task,  which  was  the 
Apocrypha,  but  also  that  of  one  of  the  others. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  6  who  met  at  station- 
ers' hall,  to  revise  the  whole,  which  task  they 
performed  in  9  months,  having  each  from  the 
company  of  stationers  80  shillings  a  week.  He 
afterward  assisted  8ir  Henry  Savile  in  publish- 
ing the  works  of  St  Ohrysostom.  Being  in 
ffreat  poverty,  Andrews,  bishop  of  Ely,  made 
him  prebendary  of  his  church  in  1616.  He 
left  a  mass  of  MSS.  at  his  death,  one  of  which, 
on  the  text  of  the  Evangelists  and  the  Acts, 
wasjpublished  in  1655. 

BOYTAOA,  or  Buttaqua,  a  Portuguese  ar- 
chitect, died  about  1628.  He  built  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Arzilla  and  Tangiers,  but  his  chief 
work  was  the  magnificent  convent  of  Belem. 

BOZMAN,  John  Lbbds,  an  American  histo- 
rian and  jurist,  born  in  Talbot  co.,  Md.,  Aug.  26, 
1757.  died  there  April  28, 1828.  He  was  grad- 
natea  at  the  university  of  Pennsylvania  in 
1788,  studied  law  in  London,  and  afterward 
practised  that  profession  in  his  native  state, 
where  for  several  years  he  acted  as  deputy 
attorney-general.  His  legal  reputation,  how- 
ever, rests  upon  the  various  law  tracts  which 
he  published  from  time  to  time,  as  legal  ques- 
tions arose  in  the  courts.  He  wrote  a  *'  Histm- 
oal  and  Philosophical  Sketch  of  the  Prime 
Causes  of  the  Revolutionary  War,"  in  which  he 

E raised  Washington,  and  condemned  Frank- 
n;  but  it  was  suppressed.  During  the  ad- 
ministration of  Washington  and  the  elder  Ad- 
ams, he  wrote  much  in  the  journals  of  the  day, 
and  at  a  later  period  in  Dennie's  *^  Portfolio." 
In  1822  he  published  at  Washington  an  essay 
on  the  colonization  society,  in  which  he  dis- 
cussed the  question  of  the  origin  of  races.  His 
literary  reputation  chiefly  rests  on  his  "  History 
of  Maryland,  from  the  earliest  settlement  in  1688, 
to  the  Bestoration  in  1660,"  a  posthumous 
work,  published  in  1886,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  general  assembly  of  that  state. 

BOZRAH,  BosTBA,  now  Busbah,  an  ancient 
Syrian  city,  situated  on  an  oasis  of  the  Arabian 
desert,  and  now  an  Arabian  pashalic.  It  is  76 
miles  S.  S.  K  of  the  ancient  city  of  Damascus. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Scripture,  as  a  town  both  of 


the  Moabites  and  the  Edomiies,  end  as  ihe  sob- 
ject  of  prophetie  denunciation  both  by  Jere- 
miah and  Amo&  Bosrah  in  modem  times  be- 
came the  see  of  an  archbishop,  and  later  the 
chief  seat  of  the  Nestorian  church.  But  it  if 
emphatically  a  ruin;  not  more  than  a  doaea 
families  inhabit  it.  '^  Bozrah  shall  become  a 
desolation,  a  reproach,  a  waste,  and  a  corse.^ 

BOZZARIS,  Masoo,  son  of  Ghristoa,  aonof 
George,  a  Suliote,  of  a  diieftain's  Csmily,  bora 
in  1780,  died  Aug.  20,  1828.    He  was  eariy  in- 
volved in  revolutionary  movements  and  pm- 
jects,  and  was  obliged,  at  the  bennmng  of  tbe 
present  century,  after  the  fall  of  Snli,  to  escape 
to  the  Ionian  islands,  where  he  united  with  oth- 
er exiled  Armatolic  chieftains,  and  to<^  part  is 
the  fruitless  attempt  at  revolution,  set  on  foot 
in  1806  by  the  Russians,  then  at  war  with  Tm^ 
key.    When  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  restored  the 
Ionian  islands  to  the  French,  and  deprived  the 
Greeks  of  any  hopes  of  inunediate  deliveranee^ 
liaroo  entered  the  Frendi  service  as  a  sergesat 
in  an  Albanian  regiment,  in  which,  also.  Us 
fiither  and  nnde  served  as  majors.     In  1813  be 
became  a  member  of  the  MUaria,  a  socsety 
formed  to  promote  national  regeneration,  sad 
embracing  tne  most  prominent  GreekSL    When, 
in  1820,  the  Albanian  chieftun,  Ali  Pasha,  took 
arms  against  the  Porte,  he  invited  to  his  aid  ti» 
exiled  Suliotes,  and  Bozzaris  with  800  fdlowcn 
repaired  to  Epirus  to  fight  agiunst  the  Otto- 
mans, having  first  obtained  from  Ali,  by  trestr, 
the  restoration  of  the  mountains  of  Snh.    In 
1821  the  insurrection  against  Tnrkej  becsnie 
general,  and  Bozzaris  fought  desperately,  thou^ 
in  general  unsuccessfully,  in  oombiziatlon  wiA 
the  English  and  Americans  who  had  banded 
tiiemsel  ves  together  for  the  liberation  of  Greece. 
The  only  exception  to  this  general  ill-sDooess,  was 
his  taking  of  JEtemussa,  and  compelling  a  Ttok- 
iah  pasha,  at  the  head  of  1,800  m«i,  to  1^ 
down  his  arms  and  surrender  at  discretion ;  ia 
compensation  of  which,  in  the  following  year, 
he  lost  the  flower  of  the  Greeks  and  YiaSbA- 
lenes  in  a  deq>erate  effort  to  revictoal  the  for- 
tress of  Suli,  after  a  day's  terrible  fighting  at 
Krionero.    He  was  disappointed  in  expecting 
the  continued  alliance  of  the  Albanians,  hot 
did  not  cease  oflTensive  preparations  till  in  July, 
1822,  the  fatal  battle  of  Peta  destroyed  the  iku 
of  the  Greek  and  Philhellenic  soldiera     He 
then  threw  himself  with  800  Suliotes,  into  llls- 
Bolonghi,  in  which,  by  various  sorties,  etrsta- 
gems,  and  negotiations,  he  maintained  himsetf 
against  repeated  attacks  tin  the  end  of  tbe 
campaign.    On  the  reoivanixation  of  die  Greek 
army,  in  1828,  when  Mavrocordato  assomed 
the  supreme  command,  western  Hellas,  con- 
sisthagofThessaly,  Epirus,  Acamania,  and  iEto- 
lia,  was  assigned  to  the  Suliote  Bozxaris;  while 
eastern  Hefiaa,  indnding  Doris,  Pfaoda,  Lo- 
oris,   BcBotia,   and  Attica,  fell  to  the  lot  d 
the  celebrated  partisan  Odyssens,  or  Ulyssea. 
At  the  end  of  June,  in  this  year,  the  latter  chirf 
severely  defeated  one  of  the  main  bod^  of  the 
Turks,  under  Mehemet  Paahai  at  Tbeaaopjlm; 


BRA 


BRABANT 


607 


a  few  days  later  he  sfcormed  the  Tarkisb  (wmp, 
between  the  aacient  sites  of  Thebes  and  Liva- 
dia,  and  affain,  on  July  17,  routed  the  Ottomans 
with  prodigious  slaughter  on  the  plains  of 
Oheoronea.  These  events,  connected  as  they 
were,  in  the  imagination  of  all  men  who  ad- 
mlrea  patriotism,  and  were  scholars  enough  to 
know  any  thing  of  the  old  Persian  wars  of 
Greece,  with  the  glories  of  that  first  struggle 
for  the  liberty  of  Europe,  as  against  oriental 
despotism,  raised  a  flame  throughout  Chris* 
tendom.  This  enthusiasm  was  still  more  ve- 
hemently excited,  when,  on  Aug.  20,  the 
pasha  of  Scutari,  at  the  bead  of  20,000  men, 
who  had  taken  possession  of  the  height^  of 
Agrafa,  and  was  threatening  to  pour  down 
bis  forces  upon  iEStolia,  to  make  concjuest  of  the 
long  defended  Miasolonghi,  was  surprised  at  mid- 
night in  his  camp  at  Karpenisi,  under  the  foot 
of  Mount  Tymphrestus,  by  Marco  and  Gon- 
stantine  Bozzans ;  the  former  of  whom,  with  a 
handful  of  500  Suliotea,  fought  his  way  to  the 
▼ery  tent  of  the  oommander-ifi-chief,  and  was 
killed  by  a  random  shot,  while  making  the 
pasha  of  Delvino  his  prisoner.  The  victory, 
however,  was  decisive ;  the  Turks  lost  all  their 
artillery,  standards,  and  baggage,  and  were  fol- 
lowed up,  until  the  rout  was  complete,  by 
Constantlne,  while  Marco,  dying  in  the  mo- 
ment of  a  victory,  which  he  believed  to  be  de- 
cisive of  the  liberties  of  bis  country,  ex- 
claimed, *'  Oould  a  Suliote  leader  die  a  nobler 
death?" 

BRA,  a  Sardinian  province  of  Alba  in  the 
district  of  Ooni,  on  the  Stura,  and  capital  of 
the  commune  of  the  same  name,  containing  a 
grmnasium,  metal  founderies,  and  8  churches. 
Fop.  11,500.  The  environs  produce  silk  of 
excellent  quality.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Turin  and  Ooni.  The  town  was  called  Braida 
in  the  middle  ages,  conquered  in  1552  by  Duke 
Emanuel  Philibort,  and  in  1628  the  fortified 
castle  was  converted  into  a  convent  for  Capu- 
chin friars. 

BRABANCOI^G^,  the  national  hymn  in  the 
Belgian  revolution.  The  words  are  by  the 
young  French  actor,  Jenneval,  who  died  in 
1830  on  the  battle-field  near  Berchem,  and 
whose  mother  received  from  government  an 
annual  allowance  of  nearly  $500.  The  music 
Is  by  the  Belgian  musician.  Van  Campenhout, 
who  was  promoted  to  the  office  of  chapel-mas* 
ter,  and  presented  with  a  gold  snuff-box  by 
the  king.  The  verses  of  the  Brabangonne  end 
with  the  stanza: 

1a%  mttroUU  a  hriai  r&ranff^^ 

BRABANQONS,  a  class  of  adventurers  and 
lawless  soldiers  in  the  middle  ages,  ready  to 
fight  for  pay  on  either  side  and  in  any  quarter. 
They  derive  their  name  from  Brabant,  the 
chief  nursery  of  these  troops,  and  were  partic- 
ularly notorious  in  France  in  the  12th  century. 

BRABANT,  Duoht  of,  one  of  the  ancient  di- 
visions of  the  Netherhmds,  bounded  on  the  K  by 
Holland  and  Gelderland,  on  the  £.  by  the  aroh- 


bishoprio  of  Li^,  on  the  S.  by  the  counties  of 
Namur  and  Hainault,  and  on  the  W.  by  Flan- 
ders and  Zealaud.  The  Menapii  and  Tungri 
were  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  this  coun- 
try. By  the  Romans  it  was  made  part  of  the 
province  of  Gallia  Belgica.  The  Franks  settled 
in  it  in  the  5th  century.  In  the  partition  of 
the  Frankish  monarchy  it  formed  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Austrasia,  and  from  978  to  1005, 
was  joined  to  the  duchy  of  Lorraine.  When 
Duke  Otho  of  Lorraine  died  childless  in  1005, 
6odfi*ey,  count  of  Ardennes,  was  acknowledged 
by  the  emperor  Henry  II.  as  duke  of  Brabant- 
The  crusader,  Grodfrey  of  Bouillon,  was  duke 
of  Brabant  until  he  went  to  Palestine,  when 
the  fief  was  sequestrated  by  the  emperor,  and 
it  passed  into  several  hands.  In  1849,  Duke 
John    III.  received   from  the  emperor   the 

S>lden  bull  of  Brabant,  according  to  which  no 
raban^on  could  appeal  to  a  higher  court  of 
judgment  than  that  of  the  duke  of  Brabant. 
Duke  John's  eldest  daughter,  Joanna,  be- 
queathed the  duchy  to  her  nephew,  Anthony, 
2d  son  of  Philip  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy 
(1405).  Duke  Anthony  fell  on  the  French  side, 
at  the  battle  of  Agincourt.  With  Philip,  the 
younger  brother  of  Anthony,  the  line  of  the 
dukes  of  Brabant  terminated  (1429).  Brabant 
passed  to  Philip  the  Good,  duke  of  Burgundy^d 
remained  an  integral  part  of  the  duchy  of  Bur- 
gundy until,  in  1484^  Maximilian,  emperor  of 
Germany,  married  Mary,  the  heiress  ot  Charles 
the  Bold,  of  Burgundy.  Brabant  then  passed 
nnder  the  dominion  of  the  house  of  Aus- 
tria. The  emperor  Charles  V.  left  it  to 
his  son  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  to  which  crown  it 
thenceforward  belonged.  In  the  revolt  of  the 
Netherlands,  Brabant  was  among  the  first  to 
join,  but  was  not  successful  in  its  efforts.  At 
thejpence  of  Mflnster  (1648),  the  northern  part, 
or  Bois-le-Duc,  was.  abandoned  to  the  United 
Provinces,  and  received  the  name  of  North 
Brabant;  at  the  same  time  the  provinces  of 
Antwerp  and  Mechlin  were  out  off  from  the 
ancient  limits  of  the  duchy,  and  erected  into 

Xate  territories.  The  remaining  part  waa 
L  thenceforth  South  Brabant,  and  remained 
as  part  of  the  hereditary  possessions  of  the 
Spanish  crown,  until  the  extinction  of  this  line 
at  the  commencement  of  the  18th  century, 
when  it  reverted  to  Charles  VI.,  afterward  em- 
peror of  Germany,  and  was  thenceforward 
known  as  part  of  the  Austrian  Netherlands. 
Both  Brabants  were  conquered  by  the  French 
arms  in  1794,  and  united  to  France.  North 
Brabant  was  changed  into  the  French  depart- 
ment of  Bouches-du-Rhin.  South  Brabant 
was  formed  Into  the  departments  of  La  Dyle 
and  Deux-N6thes.  At  the  Angress  of  Vienna 
(1814),  both  Brabants  were  taken  from  France, 
and  given  to  the  king  of  Holland ;  but  at  the 
revolution  of  1880,  South  Brabant  ioined  the 
revolt  of  the  provinces  which  had  formerly 
been  the  Austrian  Netherlands,  and  it  has  since 
formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Belgium,  while 
North  Brabant  remains  part  of  the  kingdom  of 


808 


BBAOOIANO 


BRACE 


HoIUad. — KoBTH,  a  provinoe  of  HdQand ; 
abont  3,000  square  miles;  pop.  in  1857, 
409,678 ;  divided  into  21  cantons,  and  3  arron- 
diBsements,  Bois-le-duo,  Breda,  and  Eindhoven; 
capital,  Bois-le-Duo;  nomber  of  members  of 
the  provincial  assembly,  42;  of  deputies  to 
the  national  assembly,  7.  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  Mease,  the  Dommel,  and  the  2  rivers 
Aa.  There  are  numerous  caiials,  of  which  that 
of  Breda  is  the  principal.  Agriculture  is  in  an 
advanced  condition,  notwithstanding  the  hu- 
midity of  the  sou.  The  pasturage  is  bad  along  the 
banks  of  the  Meuse,  but  better  in  the  interior. 
Mutton,  poultry,  bees,  game,  and  fish  are  abun- 
dant. Pme  b  the  principal  tree  ;■  of  minerals  the 
country  is  entirely  destitute.  The  prosperity 
of  the  linen,  cotton,  cutlery,  and  porcetun  manu- 
factures, and  other  branches  of  industry,  is 
great,  and  the  inhabitants,  although  slow  to 
adopt  innovations,  are  distinguished  for  their 
laboriousness  and  frugality,  and  the  country  is 
free  from  beggars  and  paupers.  One-half  of  the 
population  is  Protestant,  the  rest  belonging  to 
the  Boman  and  Jewish  persuasions. — South, 
the  metropolitan  province  of  Belgium,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  the  province  of  Antwerp,  on  the  £. 
by  Li^  and  Limburg,  on  the  S.  by  Hainault 
and  Namur,  and  on  the  W .  by  East  Flanders.  The 
population  of  South  Brabant  is  828,828^  on  an 
area  <^  about  1,269  square  miles.  The  mhabi- 
tants  are  mostly  Oatholia  A  part  speak  Flem- 
ish and  others  Walloon.  The  soil  is  flat,  and  in 
some  places  wooded.  It  is  watered  b^  the 
Dyle,  tne  Demer.  and  the  Senne.  The  climate 
is  rather  moist,  out  healthy.  The  agriculture 
is  of  the  first  quality,  the  land  being  cultivated 
like  a  garden.  The  products  are  rye,  wheat, 
oil-seed,  and  buckwheat,  but  little  fruit  Oat- 
tle  are  reared,  mostly  oxen  and  horses ;  so  are 
bees.  Its  manufactures  are  of  woollen  and  cot- 
ton stuffs,  linen,  Brussels  lace,  leath^,  hatSi 
plaving  cards,  tobacco,  starch,  brandy,  p^>er, 
and  oil.  South  Brabant  is  intersected  by  sev- 
eral railroads  and  canals. 

BRAOOIANO,  a  town  of  the  Tb^sI  States, 
about  25  miles  from  Rome,  on  the  west  shore  of 
thelakeof  Braociano;  pop.  about  2,000.  It  has 
iron  works ;  in  the  vicini^  are  thermal  springs, 
and  a  large  baronial  castle  of  the  15th  century. 

BRAOOIOLINI,  Poooio,  one  of  the  early 
revivers  of  classical  learning  in  Italy,  bom 
Feb.  11,  1880,  at  Terra  Nuova,  near  Areaao, 
died  in  Florence,  Oct.  80, 1459.  In  1414  he 
attended  Pope  John  XXII.  as  apostolic  secre- 
tary, at  the  council  of  Constance.  In  1416  he  un- 
dertook the  laborious  task  of  searching  tiie 
ancient  monasteries  for  manuscripts,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  recovering  7  orations  or  Cicero,  and 
a  great  number  q{  other  classical  writings. 
Having  impoverished  himself  in  these  re- 
searches, he  accepted  an  invitation  of  Cardinal 
Beaufort  to  go  to  England,  but,  disappointed 
in  his  hopes  of  preferment,  and  in  the  literary 
atmosphere  of  the  country,  he  returned  to 
Italy  in  1421,  and  again  became  apostolic  secre- 
tary to  Martin  Y.  and  to  several  succeeding 


popei|  having  served  not  leas  tlian  8  popes  ia 
the  same  capacity.  On  the  appearance  of  the 
plague  at  Rome  in  1450,  he  withdrew  to  Hot- 
ence,  where  he  was  chosen  chancellor  3  yein 
afterward.  His  "  History  of  Florence  ^  (tma- 
lated  by  his  son  Jaoopo  from  Latin  into  It^ 
ian)  comprises  the  period  from  1850  to  145S. 
Among  his  most  finished  productiona  is  his  "  Dii- 
locpe  on  Nobility."  His  writinfls  are  on  monL 
philosophical,  and  controversiid  sabjecfes,  a&a 
comprise  many  translations,  orationa,  sjod  kb> 
ters,  the  latter  deriving  peculiar  interest  frua 
their  reference  to  contemporary  life.  His  woila 
have  not  yet  been  properly  colleeted,  the  Baad 
edition  of  1588  being  considered  imperfect, 
Hisn:)iograx>hy,  written  by  the  Rev.  WflliiDi 
Shepherd  (Liverpool,  1802),  was  translated  into 
Italian.  German,  and  French. 

BRACE|  Chaslbs  Loexno,  an  Amerieia 
clergyman  and  author,  bom  at  Litchfield,  Cohil, 
in  1826,  was  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1847, 
after  which  he  was  for  a  few  months  engaged  ss  t 
school  teacher.  He  then  entered  the  theoloe- 
cal  department  of  Tale  college,  from  which  ha 
subsequently  removed  to  the  union  the(danc«l 
seminary  of  New  York,  where  he  complet^tha 
usual  course  of  study  and  preparation  fior  the  laaa- 
istry,  and  has  since  been  a  reoocrnized  pubhe 
preacher.  He  has  never  connected  himself  ho v- 
ever,  as  a  clergyman,  with  any  sector  chnich,  lot 
preaches  in  whatever  pulpit  ia  offered  to  hm, 
Lis  discourses  invariably  relating  to  tite  practi- 
cal application  of  generally  received  rdigioGS 
opinions.  While  in  the  New  York  theolx^K^ 
school,  he  was  in  the  constant  habit  of  viadi^ 
prisons,  alms-houses,  and  hospitala,  preacbing 
and  otherwise  endeavoring  to  benefit  th<^  in- 
mates. In  1850  he  made  a  pedestrian  joamej 
in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  also  viatrng  the 
Bhine,  Bel^um,  and  Paris.  An  account  of  a 
part  of  the  Journey  in  England  was  aftenrsrd 
published  by  one  of  his  companions,  under  tba 
tiUe  of  *^  Walks  and  Talks  of  an  Amezicaa 
Farmer  in  England.^'  In  the  antnnm  of  the 
same  year  he  went  to  Hamburg^  and  examined 
with  great  interest  and  care  the  reformatofy 
institutions  of  that  city.  The  winter  was  stsr 
diously  spent  at  the  xmiversity  of  Berlin.  In 
the  summer  of  1851  he  proceed^  into  Hunga- 
ry, and  having  visited  several  persons  siq^osed 
to  sympathize  with  Kossath,  ne  was  arnskd 
at  Grosswardein,  and  brought  to  trial  before  a 
court-martial  as  a  spy.  The  trial,  thou^  sum- 
mary in  character,  was  protracted  by  want  o 
evidence,  and  an  opportunity  was  afforded,  by 
the  dischaige  of  a  fellow-prisoner,  of  dandes- 
tinely  communicating  a  knowledge  of  his  situ- 
ation to  the  Hon.  Charles  J.  McCordy,  then 
charg6  d'affaires  of  the  United  Statea  at  Ykn- 
na.  An  order  for  his  immediate  conveyance  to 
Vienna  was  at  once  despatched,  and  he  soon 
obtained  his  liberty.  He  afterward  visited 
Bwitzerland,  England,  and  Ireland,  giving  spe- 
cial attention  to  schools,  prisons,  and  refonna- 
tory  institutions.  Betorning  to  the  United 
States  in  1852,  he  became  interested  and  asso- 


BBAOE 


BRAOHIOPODA 


609 


ciated  in  the  benevolent  labors  of  tbe  Her.  Mr. 
Pease,  among  the  most  degraded  class  of  the 
city  of  New  York.    In  the  spring  of  1852  he 
published  ^^  Hungary  in  IdSl,"  wmch  was  soon 
afterward  reprinted  in  England.    While  en- 
gtLged  in  the  benevolent  operations  started  by 
Mr.  Pease,  he  also  took  an  active  part  in  a  kind 
of  Sunday  schools,  called  "Boys'  meetings," 
intended  especially  for  the  benefit  of  vagrant 
or  street-wandering  children.    His  energies  at 
length  became  almost  exclusively  devoted  to 
this  portion  of  the  commnnity,  and  by  his 
labors  through  the  public  press  and  lectures  in 
the  churches,  he  was  chiefly  instrumental  in 
the  formation  of  an  association  called  the  chil- 
dren's aid  society,  for  the  transferring  of  desti- 
tute and  vagrant  chUdren  found  in  the  streets 
to  well-selected  homes  in  the  country.    Of  this 
society  he  is  still  the  secretary  and  principal 
agent.    The  society  has  also  established  indus- 
trial sehools  and  lodging  houses  for  newsboys 
and  others.    It  employs  at  present  15  agents 
and  teachers,  at  an  expense  of  about  $12,000 
a  year.    In  tne  various  schools  affiliating  with 
it,  more  than  1,000  girls    are  regularly  in- 
stnicted,  and  several  hundred  youSiful  street 
traders  are  brought  under  favorable  influences 
at  its  lodging  and  reading-rooms.    More  than 
4,000  children  have  been,  through  its  agency, 
furnished  with  rural  homes,  and  put  under 
training  foi"  habits  of  methodical  industry.    In 
1858,  Mr.  Brace  published  "  Home  Life  in  Ger- 
many."    A  journey  in  northern  Europe  in 
1856  furnished  the  materials  for  his  "Korse- 
folk  "  (New  York,  1857),  a  description,  with 
copious  statistics  and  personal  adventures,  of 
the  religions,  social,  and  political  condition  of 
the  people  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

BKAGE,  Jonathan,  an  American  judgeL 
bom  Nov.  12,  1754,  at  Harwington,  Oonn.,  died 
at  Hartford,  Aug.  26, 1887.  He  gnduated  at 
Yale  college  in  1779;  studied  law,  and  es- 
tablished himself  in  practice  in  Vermont ;  after 
5  years  he  removed  to  Connecticut,  and  spent 
there  the  remunder  of  his  life.  He  was  for  a 
long  timejndge  in  the  county  and  the>  probate 
courts.  He  also  served  as  representative  both 
in  the  atate  and  the  national  lenslature,  and 
was  for  9  years  mayor  of  Hartford. 

BRAOEy  Julia,  a  blind  deaf  mute,  bom 
at  Newington,  Oonn.,  in  1806.  Bhe  lost  both 
sight  and  hearing  at  the  age  of  4  years  and 
5  months,  and  soon  forgot  the  few  words 
she  had  learned  to  roeak.  At  the  age  of  18 
she  entered  the  American  asylum  for  the  deaf 
and  dumb  at  Hartford,  then  under  the  care  of 
the  Rev.  Dr.  Gallaudet,  in  which  institution  she 
has  remained  fwith  the  exception  of  one  year 
passed  in  Boston)  until  the  present  time. 
Never  prepossessing  in  her  appearance,  and  at 
her  admission,  in  consequence  of  over-indul- 
genoe,  selfish,  sullen,  and  exacting,  her  case  was 
one  of  great  difficulty.  The  existence  of  the 
triple  infirmity  under  which  she  labored  was 
hardly  known  at  that  time,  and  she  was  re- 
garded, consequently,  as  a  psychological  curir 
VOL.  ra. — 89 


osity.  As  compared  with  some  other  blind 
deaf  mutes,  whose  history  has  been  recorded 
within  a  few  years  past,  she  does  not  seem  pos- 
sessed of  any  extraordinary  abilities,  and,  but 
for  her  misfortune,  would  probably  have  passed 
as  a  very  ordinary  woman.  In  all  that  con- 
cerns the  outward  and  physical  nature,  she 
manifests  much  intelligence;  she  sews  very 
well,  threading  her  needle  readily  with  her 
fingers  and  tongue;  she  makes  most  of  her 
own  dresses,  which  she  is  very  particular  to 
have  in  the  latest  fashion ;  does  a  large  amount 
of  sewing  for  others ;  selects  her  own  clothes 
in  the  laundry,  and  irons  them  carefully;  is 
very  neat  and  particular  in  her  dress,  and  ex- 
hibits marked  habits  of  order.  Her  temper 
has  lost  much  of  its  asperity  during  her  resi- 
dence at  the  asylum,  and  she  is  now  generally 
amiable  and  kmd  to  her  associates.  She  ex- 
hibits a  marked  aversion  to  gentlemen,  and 
avoids  the  male  pupils  and  teachers,  except  2 
or  8  of  the  older  teachers,  to  whom  she  has 
become  attached.  She  possesses  great  tenaci- 
ty of  memory,  and  nice  powers  of  discrimina- 
tion«  She  distinguishes  readily  articles  belong- 
ing to  any  person,  and  if  left  in  her  care  will 
give  them  to  no  one  but  the  owner.  She  keeps 
herself  apprised  of  the  progress  of  time,  days, 
weeks,  and  months,  and  notes  the  return  of 
the  Sabbath,  of  which  she  often  avails  herself 
to  enjoy  some  delicacy,  which  she  has  reserved 
during  the  week.  In  her  intellectual  education 
she  has  never  made  much  progress.  A  few 
facts  have  been  acquired,  a  few  lessons  learned, 
but  they  were  soon  forgotten*  Nor  has  her 
moral  development  been  so  satisfactory  as 
would  have  been  desirable.  It  is  doubtful  if 
she  possesses  any  distinct  idea  of  <7od.  She 
has  some  notion  of  a  resurrection,  but  proba- 
bly a  vague  one;  nor,  though  the  effort  has 
often  been  made,  can  her  dormant  curiosity  be 
roused  to  inquire  for  the  author  of  the  natural 
oblects  of  which  she  has  some  knowledge. 
Still,  limited  as  is  her  knowledge  of  what  seems 
the  alphabet  of  religion,  she  is  not  wanting  in 
manifestations  of  the  moral  sense.  She  seems 
to  have  a  sense  of  right  and  wrong,  and  while 
tenacious  of  her  own  rights,  she  wm  not  know- 
ingly invade  those  of  others.  She  is  never 
guilty  of  theft,  falsehood,  or  deliberate  wicked- 
ness, and  at  the  bedside  of  the  sick,  few  are 
more  gentle  and  thoughtful  than  she. 

BRAOHIOPODA,  BRAcmopons  (Gr.  fiffa- 
Xtov,  an  arm,  irovr,  a  foot),  one  of  the  classes 
of  mollusca,  named  by  Ouvier  from  2  long, 
ciliated  arms,  which  project  from  the  side  of 
the  mouth,  and  with  which  they  create  currents 
that  bring  them  food.  By  De  Blainville  and 
Owen  they  were  called  paUiobrandiitttot,  from 
palUum,  a  mantle,  and  h^anchia,  gills,  the  deli- 
cate mantle  covering  the  body  constituting  the 
respiratory  apparatus  of  the  animals.  They 
are  bivalve  sn^-fish,  differing  from  the  con- 
chifera  in  the  valves  being  always  unequal ; 
yet  they  are  symmetrical  and  equal-sided.  By 
the  old  natundists  they  were  commonly  called 


610        BRACmSTOOHRONOUS 


BRAQEENBIDGE 


lampadeij  or  'Mamp-shells,*'  from  the  roflem- 
blanoe  of  their  form  to  that  of  the  antique 
lamps ;  the  hole  for  the  wick  in  these  bemff 
represented  in  the  shell  by  the  curved  beak  of 
the  ventral  valve,  through  which  the  organ 
passes  by  which  the  animal  •  attaches  itself 
to  anj  substance.  The  brachiopoda  all  belong 
to  salt  water.  Thej  are  found  attached  to 
oorals,  to  other  sheik,  and  to  the  under  sides 
of  delving  rocks.  They  are  met  with  in  very 
deep  water,  being  drawn  up  sometimes  from 
the  bottom  sever^  hundred  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. They  endure  all  kinds  of  climate ;  and 
in  the  duration  of  genera  from  the  remotest 
geological  periods,  no  other  class  exhibits  such 
a  stability  of  character.  The  earliest  forms  of 
animal  life  were  the  lingula  of  the  lowest  fos- 
siliferous  rocks.  The  genus  has  continued 
through  all  the  long  series  of  formations,  during 
which  multitudes  of  other  forms  have  been  in- 
troduced and  spread  through  an  immense 
number  of  species,  all  of  which  have  long  since 
disappeared,  leaving  no  type  of  their  family  in 
existence ;  but  the  ancient  family  of  lingula  is 
still  met  with  in  the  Pacific;  and  the  terebra- 
tula,  which  was  introduced  in  periods  nearly 
as  remote,  has  its  representatives  living  in 
many  parts  of  the  world.  Of  the  class,  about 
70  recent  species  are  known;  but  of  the  fossil, 
more  than  1.000  extinct  species  have  been 
described.  Tliey  constitute  a  larse  proportion 
of  the  shells  found  so  abundantly  throughout 
the  New  York  system,  as  the  spirifers,  pro- 
ducts, atrypsB,  strophomence,  &o. 

BRAOHlSTOOHRONOUS  curve  is  the  title 
given  by  John  Bemouilli  to  a  curve  in  which 
a  body  would  slide  in  the  least  possible  time 
from  one  point  to  another.  It  is  a  cydoid; 
and  the  attempt  to  prove  this  led  Lagrange  to 
invent  the  calculus  of  variations. 

BRAOHMANN,  LmsB  Eabounb,  a  German 
authoress,  whose  selected  poems  were  published 
at  Leipsio  in  1824,  chiefly  known  by  her  ac- 
quaintance with  Kovalis  and  Schiller,  bom  at 
Rochlitz,  Feb.  9,  1777,  was  of  a  morbid,  senti- 
mental disposition,  which  caused  her  to  com- 
mit suicide  at  Halle,  Sept.  17,  1822. 

BRAOHTOURA  (6r.  Bpaxyty  short,  and  ov^, 
a  tail),  a  tribe  of  crustaceous  animals  of  the 
order  deeapodctj  or  Jiomobranchia,  They  are 
distinguished  from  the  macroura,  or  long-tailed 
tribe  of  this  order,  by  the  shortness  of  the 
caudal  extremity  and  its  simple  structure  with 
few  joints.  The  crabs  belong  to  this  tribe, 
lobsters  and  shrimps  to  the  macroura. 

BRACKEN,  a  county  of  Kentucky,  border- 
ing on  the  Ohio  river.  It  is  drained  by  the 
North  fork  of  Licking  river,  and  has  a  soil 
generally  fertile  and  productive.  It  covers  an 
area  of  200  square  miles,  was  organized  in 
1796,  and  derives  its  name  from  a  small  creek 
which  rises  in  it.  In  1850,  the  productions 
were  870,025  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  52,818 
of  oats,  2,129,870  pounds  of  tobaoco,  and  18,550 
of  wool.  There  were  12  com  and  flour  mills, 
10  saw  mills,  2  tanneries,  15  churches,  and  500 


pupils  attending  public  schools.  Yaluo  of  land 
m  1855,  $1,556,022.  Capital,  Augusta;  pop. 
8,908,  840  being  slaves. 

BRACK£NRIDG£,  Henrt  IL,  nn  Amencan 
jurist  and  diplomatist,  bom  in  Pittsburg,  Pi, 
May  11,  1786.  At  7  years  of  age  he  wa3  sem 
alone  to  St  Genevieve,  La.,  to  learn  the  Freod 
language.  At  20,  being  admitted  to  the  bar,  he 
commenced  practice  in  Somerset,  Marylani 
In  1811  he  descended  the  Missis8q>pi  in  a 
keelboat,  steam  not  being  then  in  use,  and  son 
received  the  appointment  of  deputy  attora^- 
general  for  the  territory  of  Orleans,  afterward 
the  state  of  Louisiana.  The  next  year  he  wis 
made  district  judge,  although  only  23  yean  of 
age.  This  oblig^  him  to  learn  the  Spanish 
law  and  language.  During  the  war  of  1812, 
he  corresponded  with  the  government,  girii^ 
them  some  valuable  information,  and  afis- 
ward  wrote  a  history  of  the  war,  which  was 
translated  into  Frendi  and  Italian.  He  took 
an  active  part,  in  coi\junction  with  Mr.  Qtj, 
in  behalf  of  the  acknowledgment  of  tiie  is- 
dependence  of  the  South  American  republka. 
Beside  other  productions,  he  wrote  a  pampbkc 
under  the  name  of  an  "  Amerioan/^  addresBed 
to  Mr.  Monroe,  then  president,  which  w»  r^ 
published  in  England  and  France,  and  bos^ 
supposed  to  express  the  views  of  the  Amerioi 
government,  was  replied  to  by  the  duke  d 
San  Carlos,  the  Spanish  minister.  He  wic 
named  on  the  commission  to  the  South  Amea- 
can  republics,  which  sailed  in  tlie  frigate  Con- 
gress, I>ec.  1817,  and  on  his  retnzn,  publifM 
his  ^^  Voyage  to  South  America,"  which  w« 
said  by  Humboldt  to  contain  an  "  exDtMsdi- 
nary  mass  of  information."  He  ento^  Fkr- 
ida  in  1821  with  General  Jackson,  to  whoe 
his  acquaintance  with  the  French  and  Spaabh 
languages  and  usages  recommended  him,  sad 
in  May  was  appointed  judge  of  the  westen 
district,  in  which  office  he  remained  for  10 
years.  Removing  in  1882  to  Fittsburg,  he  be- 
came an  active  politician,  and  in  1640  obtaiDed 
a  seat  in  Congress,  and  the  year  after  was  named 
a  commissioner  under  the  treaty  wiUi  Mexko. 
His  political  writings  have  been  nnmeroa& 

BkACKENRIDGE,  Hugh  Hknhy,  fiather  d 
the  preceding,  an  American  author  and  jud^e, 
bom  near  Campbelton,  in  Scotland,  in  1 7^  ^d 
inPhiladephia,inl816.  At  5  years  of  age  be  cse» 
with  his  father  to  thiscountry,  fitted himsd^wiili 
the  assistance  of  a  clergyman,  for  Princeton  cd- 
lege,  while  working  upon  a  farm  in  the  intexkr 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  supported  hims^  throc^ 
his  collegiate  course  by  teaching.  In  coojtoie- 
tion  with  Philip  Freneau,  he  oompoeed  and  tk- 
livered  for  a  graduating  part  a  poem,  in  ti^ 
form  of  a  dialogue,  on  the  ^'SSsing  Glory  ^ 
America."  He  became  tutor  in  the  cdk^ie, 
studied  divinity,  and  was  a  chaplain  in  the  cco- 
tinental  army.    He  soon  relinquished  the  pi- 

git  for  the  bar,  edited  for  a  time  the  *^  Hmu^ 
tates  Ma^zme "  at  Philadelphia,  established 
himself  at  Pittsburg  in  1781,  participated  wid 
Gallatin  in  what  was  known  as  ihd  whiakey 


BRAOT 


BRADFORD 


611 


ittsarreedoiif  and  was  appointed  in  lYd9  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  supreme  court  of  the  state, 
which  office  he  held  till  his  death.  His  "  Mod- 
ern Ohivaliy,  or  the  Adventures  of  Captain  Far- 
ra^,"  is  an  admirable  humorous  and  political 
satire,  and  has  been  especially  popular  through- 
out the  West.  The  first  portion  was  published 
at  Pittsburg  in  1796,  and  was  republished  in 
Philadelphia  in  1846,  with  illustrations  by  Dar- 
lej.  The  second  nortion  was  published  10  years 
after  the  first,  ana  both  were  issued  together  in 
1819.  Braclsenndge  was  a  fine  classical  scholar, 
eminent  for  social  wit,  supported  Jefferson,  was 
an  enthusiast  in  the  cause  of  France,  and  wrote 
many  miscellaneous  essays  and  fugitive  verses. 

BBAOT,  in  botany,  a  leaf  growing  at  the 
base  of  a  flower-branch.  It  is  usually  a  small 
and  imperfect,  often  lanceolate,  leaf;  and  some- 
times, as  in  the  common  dogwood,  a  number  of 
bracts  are  crowded  together  around  the  base  of 
a  corymb  or  umbel,  and  form  an  involucre. 

BRAOTON,  Hknbt  db,  lord  chief  iustice  of 
En^and  in  the  time  of  Henry  III.,  died  prob- 
ably about  the  year  1278.  He  was  educated 
and  took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws  at  Ox- 
ford, and  about  1244  was  made  one  of  the 
itinerant  judges.  Ten  years  later  he  became 
chief  justice,  and  held  the  office  20  years.  •  He 
wrote  De  Legibus  et  Goiwietudinibu»  Anglia^ 
one  of  the  earliest  English  law  books. 

BRADDOOK,  Edwabd,  a  British  general, 
bom  in  Perthshire,  about  1715,  died  near  Pitts- 
burg, Pa.,  July  18,  1765.  Having  served  witii 
distinction  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Germany, 
he  was  in  1755  sent  to  take  charge  of  the 
war  against  the  French  in  America.  He  set 
out  soon  after  his  arrival,  on  an  expedition 
against  Fort  Duquesne.  Although  unacquainted 
-with  Indian  wai^re,  hedisregarcled  the  sugges- 
tions of  Ool.  Washington,  actmg  as  his  aide-de- 
oamp,  fell  into  an  ambush  of  French  and  Indi- 
ans near  that  fort,  July  9,  1755,  was  defeated 
with  great  loss,  and  being  mortally  wounded, 
died  after  a  hasty  retreat  of  40  miles. 

BRADFORD,  a  N.  E.  county  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, bordering  on  New  York,  and  comprising 
an  area  of  1,170  square  miles.  The  north 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  Tioga  river,  and 
Towanda,  Wyalusing  and  Sugar  creeks,  are  the 
principal  streams.  The  surface  is  uneven  and 
thickly  wooded  with  pine,  hemlock,  and  sugar 
maple.  The  soil  is  good,  and  in  1850  produced 
871,143  bushels  of  corn,  801,675  of  wheat, 
510,176  of  oats,  822,816  of  potatoes  (the  great* 
est  quantity  produced  by  any  county  of  the 
state  except  Philadelphia  county),  74,028  tons 
of  hay,  1,590,248  pounds  of  butter,  and  193,- 
891  of  m^le  sugar.  There  were  53  churches, 
8  newspaper  offices,  and  11,383  pupils  attend- 
ing public  schools.  Iron,  bituminous  coal,  and 
sandstone  are  abundant,  but  lumber  forms  the 
chief  article  of  export.  The  county  was  formed 
in  1810  and  called  Ontario ;  in  1812  it  received 
its  present  name  in  honor  of  William  Bradford^ 
attorney-general  of  the  United  States.  Capital, 
Towanda.    Pop.  in  1850,  42,881. 


BRADFORD,  a  market  town,  county  of 
Wilts,  England,  on  the  river  Avon,  107  miles 
from  London  by  railroad;  pop.  in  1851,  4,240. 
It  is  pleasantly  situated,  ana  is  noted  for  pro- 
ducing broadcloths. 

BRADFORD,  a  market  town  and  parliamen- 
tary borough  of  Yorkshire,  Enghind,  sending  2 
members  to  parliament.  Pop.  in  1851, 103,778. 
It  is  219  miles  from  London  by  railway.  The 
parish  of  Bradford  is  large  and  very  populous, 
mcluding  several  other  towns.  In  its  vicinity 
are  the  celebrated  iron  works  of  Low  Moor 
and  Bowling,  known  everywhere  for  the  supe- 
rior quality  of  their  productions  and  their  pon- 
derous castings.  Bradford  itself  is  one  or  the 
principal  seats  of  the  worsted  manufacture, 
both  in  yam  and  in  piece.  The  town  is  wdl 
built,  beautifully  situated  at  the  union  of  8  ex- 
tensive valleys,  with  picturesque  scenery  in 
the  surrounding  country,  and  has  the  advan- 
tage of  many  ancient  and  excellent  schools. 
The  Airedale  college  for  the  education  of 
Independent  ministers  is  at  Underdiffe,  near 
Bradford,  and  a  Wesleyan  seminary  for  minis- 
ters* sons  at  Woodhouse  Grove ;  and  about  5 
miles  from  tlie  town  is  the  Moravian  settle- 
ment of  Fulneck. 

BRADFORD,  Alden,  an  American  writer, 
bom  at  Duxbury,  Mass.,  in  1765,  died  in  Bos- 
ton, Oct.  26,  1843.  He  was  descended  from 
Gov.  Bradford,  graduated  at  Harvard  College 
in  1786,  was  settled  as  pastor  of  a  congrega- 
tional church  at  Wiscasset,  Maine,  for  8  years, 
and  afterward  engaged  in  the  book  trade  in 
Boston,  as  a  partner  of  the  firm  of  Bradford  and 
Read.  Leaving  trade  for  politics,  he  was  sec- 
retary of  state  in  Massachusetts  from  1812  to 
1824.  He  published  a  history  of  Massachusetts 
from  1764  to  1820,  and  many  fiigitive  pieces 
at  different  times. 

BRADFORD,  Andbbw,  an  American  printer, 
son  of  William  Bradford,  bom  in  Philadelphia 
about  1686,  died  Nov.  23,  1742.  He  was  the 
only  printer  in  Pennsylvania  from  1712  to 
1723.  He  published  the  first  newspaper  in 
Philadelphia,  Dec.  22, 1719,  called  the  '*  Ameri- 
can Weekly  Mercury."  It  was  by  him  that 
Beijamin  Franklin  was  first  employed,  on  his 
arrival  in  Philadelphia,  in  1723.  In  1782  he 
was  postmaster;  in  1735  he  kept  a  book  store 
at  the  sign  of  the  Bible  in  Second  street 
In  1738  he  removed  to  No.  8  South  Front 
street,  to  a  house  which  in  1810  was  occupied 
as  a  printing  house  by  his  descendant,  Thomas 
Bradford,  publisher  of  the  "Trae  American." 

BRADFORD,  John,  an  English  martyr, 
burnt  at  Smithfield  after  a  long  imprisonment, 
July  1,  1555.  His  persecution  was  owing  to 
his  eloquence  as  a  preacher.  It  is  said  that  he 
was  so  impressed  by  a  sermon  by  Latimer  on 
restitution,  that  he  restored  some  of  the  king's 
goods  which  he  had  dishonestly  appropriated 
while  at  Calais. 

BRADFORD,  Wiluam,  second  governor  of 
Plymouth  colony,  bom  in  Yorkshire,  England, 
in  March,  1589,  died  May  9, 1657.    When  only 


612 


BRADFORD 


BRADUET 


18  he  was  one  of  a  oompaii7  wbich  made  an 
attempt  to  go  oyer  to  HoUand  for  the  sake  of 
greater  religiooe  freedom,  hot  being  betrajeNl 
be  was  thrown  into  prison.  After  a  seoond 
tmsncoessfnl  attempt  he  at  length  Joined  his 
brethren  at  Amsterdam.  He  engaced  in  the 
plan  of  removing  to  America  with  the  English 
oongresntion  at  Leyden,  and  sailed  in  the  first 
ship.  Upon  the  death  of  Gtot.  Carrer,  in  1621, 
he  was  elected  to  snpplj  his  place.  One  of  his 
first  acts  was  to  adopt  measures  to  confirm  the 
league  with  the  Indian  sachem  Massasoit.  In 
the  beginning  of  1622,  when  the  colony  was 
subjected  to  a  distressing  famine,  a  threatening 
message  was  received  from  the  sachem  of 
Karragansett  in  the  form  of  a  bundle  of  arrows 
bound  with  the  skin  of  a  serpent.  The  gov- 
ernor sent  back  the  skin  filled  with  powder 
and  ball.  This  decisive  reply  finished  ue  cor- 
respondence. The  Narragansetts  were  so  terri- 
fied, that  they  returned  the  skin  without  even 
inspecting  its  contents.  In  return  for  his  kind- 
ness and  attentions  to  Massasoit  in  a  danserous 
illness,  the  sachem  disclosed  to  the  colony  a 
dangerous  conspiracy  among  the  Indians,  and 
it  was  suppressed.  It  appearing  that  the 
scarcity  of  their  provisions  grew  out  of  their 
i^stem  of  conmiunity  of  labor,  it  was  decided 
in  the  spring  of  1628  that  each  family  should 

Slant  for  itself,  on  groimd  to  be  assigned  to  it 
y  lot.  The  internal  government  of  the  colony 
was  founded  on  a  mutual  compact  The  first 
legal  patent  or  charter  was  obtained  in  the 
name  of  John  Pierce;  but  in  16S0  a  more 
comprehensive  one  was  issued  in  the  name  of 
William  Bradford,  his  heirs,  associates,  and 
assigns.  In  1640,  the  general  court  recuested 
him  to  deliver  the  {wtent  into  their  hanos,  and 
upon  his  complying  immediately  returned  it 
into  his  cQst<>dy.  He  was  annually  elected 
governor  as  long  as  he  lived,  excepting  five  years 
at  different  intervals,  when  he  declined  an  eleo* 
tion.  Though  without  a  learned  education,  he 
wrote  a  history  of  Plymouth  colony  from  1602  to 
1647.  On  the  retreat  of  the  British  army,  in 
1775,  the  MS.  was  carried  away  from  the  library 
of  the  old  south  church  in  Boston,  and  after  hav- 
ing been  lost  80  years,  was  recovered  and  printed 
entire  by  the  Massachusetts  historical  society  in 
1856.  Qov.  Bradford  had  also  a  large  book  of 
copies  of  letters  relating  to  the  affairs  of  the 
colony,  which  is  lost  A  fragment  of  it,  how- 
ever, found  in  a  grocer^s  shop  at  Halifaz,  has 
also  been  printed  by  the  same  society,  accom- 
panied by  a  descriptive  and  historical  account 
of  New  England  in  verse. 

BRADFORD;  William,  the  first  printer  in 
Pennsylvania,  bom  in  Leicester,  England,  in 
1669,  died  in  New  York,  May  28, 1762.  Being  a 
Quaker,  he  emigrated  in  1682  or  1688,  and  landed 
where  Philadelphia  was  afterward  built,  before 
a  house  was  begun.  In  1687  he  printed  an 
almanac.  The  writings  of  George  Keith,  which 
he  printed,  having  caused  a  quarrel  among  the 
Quakers,  he  was  arrested  in  1692  and  imprison- 
ed for  libel.     On  his  trial,  when  the  justice 


*ehaiged  the  jury  to  find  enlytheijMiasto^ 
printing,  Bradford  mamtained  thst  tibej  ven 
to  find  also  whether  the  paper  vas  retUy  se^ 
tious,  and  that  "the  jury  arsjadgcs  in'Uvu 
well  as  the  matter  of  faif"  He  mis  not  coo. 
victed,  but  having  incurred  thedifipleisoreof 
the  dominant  pw^  in  FfailadelphLi)  be  re- 
moved to  New  York  in  1698.  hi  that  tw, 
he  printed  the  laws  of  the  colony.  OeL  \i^ 
1726,  he  began  the  first  newsi)q)er  in  Kef 
York,  called ttie" New YwkGawtte."  hm 
he  established  a  paper  mill  at  EtizabelhtovB,  $. 
J.  Being  temperate  and  active,  he  reached  i 
great  age  without  nckness,  and  walked  iboat 
on  the  very  day  of  his  death.  For  more  tinsSO 
years  he  was  printer  to  the  govemmeDtof » 
York,  and  for  80  years  the  only  one  in  ^ 
province. 

BRADFORD,  WnxiAn,  attomsy-genenl  of 
the  United  States,  bom  in  Philadelph^geji 
14, 1766,  died  Aug.  28, 1796.  He  wasgndtiiled 
at  Princeton  college  in  1772,  and  commeocedtlii 
study  of  the  law.  In  the  spring  of  1T76,  iipoi 
the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Great  Britu, 
he  joined  the  militia,  in  which  he  attaioedtli 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  In  coDaeqseiioeiif 
ill-health,  he  was  obliged  to  resign  at  the  e^ 
of  2  years,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bars 
Philadelphia  in  1779.  In  1780  he  was  ma^ 
ed  attorney-general  of  Pennsylvania,  lute 
the  new  constitution  he  was  app(Hiited  a  tb^ 
of  the  supreme  court,  Aug.  22, 1791.  ipei 
the  promotion  of  Edmund  Randolph  to  the  dike 
of  secretary  of  state,  he  received  fiomli^ 
ington  the  appointment  of  attomey-geDenlef 
the  United  States,  Jan.  88, 1794.  Liearirlife 
he  wrote  some  pastoral  poems  in  inutatksKit 
Bhenstone;  but  his  principal  prodadaoov* 
an  "  Inquiry  how  for  the  PunwuneBtof  Dew 
is  necessary  in  Pennsylvania." 

BRADLEY.  I.  A  southern  ooimtf  of  Ari» 
saa,  containhig  958  square  miles^  and  tnfow 
by  Saline  river.  The  surface  is  generaDyl^ 
and  the  productions  in  1854  amonnted  to  ITi- 
166  busbels  of  com,  3,684  of  whest,  21.^ 
of  oats,  and  8,860  bales  of  cotton.  Cipm 
Warren.  Pop.  in  1864,  5,191,  of  whom  l,w 
were  slaves.  11.  A  8.  JE.  county  of  Tennes^ 
bordering  on  Georgia,  bounded  on  the)i.£ 
by  the  Hiawassee  river,  and  compriatog©** 
of  about  400  square  miles.  The  soifaceB^ 
even,  and  in  the  south  mountainons.  Tbe  ^ 
is  productive,  and  in  1860  yidded  69i» 
bushels  of  com,  151,419  of  outa,  H^^^J 
wheat,  1,600  bales  of  cotton,  and  81,1s 
pounds  of  butter.  There  were  22  churcbe.* 
8,000  pupils  attending  puWic  schools.  )wj 
of  the  hilly  part  of  the  coun^  is  covered  vs 
extensive  forests.  Capital,  Cleveland.  P<f^ 
in  1860, 12,269,  of  whom  744  were  8laT» 

BRADLEY,  Jambs,  an  English  a»t«»f5 
bora  at  Sherborne,  Gloucestershire,  »f^ 
1692,  died  at  Chatford,  July  18, 1768,  i^^ 
while  curate  and  rector,  he  cuHivst<d  a** 
omy  in  spare  hours,  and  gained  the  frie»o>**-1 
of  Newton  and  Halley.    In  1721  hevasw- 


BRADSHAW 


BRADWARDIN 


em 


pointed  SavOian  professor  of  astronomy,  and  in 
1727  published  his  brilliant  disooverj  of  the 
aberration  of  light.  Ten  years  afterward,  he 
published  the  equally  valuable  disoovery  of  the 
nutation  of  the  earth^s  axis.  In  1742  he  sno- 
oeeded  Dr.  Halley  as  astronomer  royal,  and  in 
1752  he  reoeired  a  pension  in  consideration  of 
the  "  advantages  of  his  astronomical  labors  to 
the  commerce  and  navigation  of  Ghreot  Britain." 
Up  to  1760  he  continued  indefati^ble  in  the 
duties  of  the  observatory;  and  it  was  from 
these  observations  that  Meyer  formed  his 
tables  of  the  moon,  and  Beasel  drew  the  ele- 
ments of  his  Fundamenta  Astr<mamia, 

BBADSHAT?',  John,  president  of  the  court 

which  tried  and  condemned  Charles  I.,  sprung 

from  a  good  Lancashire  fEunily,  died  Nov.  22, 

1659.    He  was  made  chief  justice  of  Chester  in 

1647,  promoted  to  the  rank  of  sergeant  in  1648, 

and  on  Jan.  10, 1640,  the  commissioners  for 

trying  the  king  chose  him  for  their  president. 

He  performed  the  duties  of  that  arduous  office 

with  great  dignity  and  self-possession,  sternly 

and  perhaps  unfeelingly,  but  not  insolently  nor 

savt^pely,  and  declared,  on  his  death-bed,  that 

if  the  king  were  to  be  tried  and  condemned 

^         again,  he  would  be  the  first  to  agree  to  it.    He 

was  rewarded  by  parliament  with  the  estate 

of  Lord  Cottington,  the  chancellorship  of  the 

duchy  of  Lancaster,  and  the  office  of  president 

of  the  council.    He  opposed  Cromwell^s  eleva- 

\         Hon  to  the  supreme  power,  and  on  his  assump* 

tioQ  of  the  protectorate,  he  was  accordingly 

deprived  of  the  chief-justiceship  of  Chester; 

^        but  after  Cromwell's  death,  he  ootuned  a  seat 

'        in  the  council,  and  was  again  elected  president. 

Bradshaw  left  the  reputation  of  a  cold,  hard. 

and  impassive,  but  upright,  conscientious,  and 

heroic  republican.    He  was  splendidly  buried 

^        in  Westmmster  Abbey,  but  on  the  restoration, 

his  remains  were  torn  from  the  tomb  and  gib* 

^        beted  beside  those  of  Cromwell  and  Ireton. 

BRADSHAW,  Witxiam,  an  eminent  English 
Puritan,  bom  at  Market  Bosworth,  in  Leices- 
r  terahire,  in  1571,  died  in  the  6ame  county, 
in  1616.  His  chief  chum  to  notice  as  an  au- 
thor rests  on  a  small  treatise,  entitled  **  English 
PuritaDism,"  published  in  1606,  which  is  valu- 
able as  a  record  of  the  opinions  of  the  most 
rigid  Puritans  of  his  time. 

B HADSTREET,  Asm,  a  New  England  po- 
etess, bom  in  1612,  died  Sept.  16,  1672.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Gov.  Thomas  Dudley,  and 
married  Gov.  Simon  Bradstreet.  Her  volume 
of  poems  was  published  in  London,  in  1660.  A 
more  complete  edition  appeared  at  Boston  in 
1678,  contwning,  among  other  additional  com- 
poflitaona,  her  best  poem,  entitled  "  Contempla- 
tion." A  8d  edition  was  published  in  1766. 
She  was  the  mother  of  8  children,  to  whom  she 
makes  the  following  allusion : 

I  bad  eight  birds  hatch't  In  the  nest ; 
Four  oooks  there  wore,  and  hens  the  rest ; 
I  natsH  them  up  with  pelns  and  earo, 
For  coKt  nor  labor  did  i  spare ; 
TIU  at  last  they  felt  their  wing, 
Momted  the  trees  and  leanMd  to  lia^ 


BRADSTREET,  Jons,  migor-general  in 
America,  in  the  British  service,  died  in  New 
York,  Oct  21,  1774.  He  was  in  1746  lieu- 
tenant governor  of  St.  John's,  Newfoundland. 
In  1766,  when  it  was  considered  highly  impor- 
tant to  keep  open  the  communication  with  Fort 
Oflwego,  on  Lake  Ontario,  he  was  placed  at  the 
head  of  40  companies  of  boatmeu,  raised  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  it  with  stores  from 
Schenectady.  On  nis  return,  July  3.  1756, 
with  800  of  his  force,  he  was  attacked  from  an 
ambuscade,  on  the  Onondaga  river,  but  repulse4 
and  routed  the  enemy  with  great  loss.  In 
1766  he  commanded  a  force  of  8,000  men,  in 
the  expedition  against  Fort  Frontenao,  which 
was  surrendered  Aug.  27,  with  all  its  military 
stores,  provisions  and  merchandise,  on  the 
2d  dav  after  he  commenced  the  attack.  In 
1764  he  advanced  with  a  considerable  party 
toward  the  Indian  country,  and  made  a  treaty 
of  peace  with  the  various  tribes  at  Presque  Isle. 
He  was  appointed  mi^or-general  in  1772. 

BRADSTREET,  Simon,  governor  of  Massa- 
chusetts, bom  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  in 
1608,  died  at  Salem,  Hass.^  March  27,  1697. 
Bred  in  the  religious  fiamily  of  the  earl  of 
Lincoln,  he  spent  one  year  at  Cambridge, 
and  became  steward  to  tiie  countess  of  War- 
wick. Upon  his  marriage  with  Anne,  daughter 
of  Thomas  Dudley,  he  engaged  in  the  enter- 
prise of  founding  a  colony  in  Massachusetts — 
was  chosen  assistant  in  March,  1630,  and  ar- 
rived at  Salem  in  the  course  of  the  summer. 
He  became  secretary,  agent^  and  commissioner 
of  the  united  colonies,  and  in  1662  was  de- 
spatched to  congratulate  Charles  II.  on  his 
restoration,  and  look  after  their  interests.  From 
1678  to  1679,  he  was  deputy  governor ;  tlien 
governor  till  1666,  when  the  charter  was  an- 
nulled. When  Andros  was  imprisoned  in  May, 
1669,  he  was  restored  to  the  office,  which  he 
held  till  the  arrival  of  Sir  William  Phipps,  in 
1692,  with  the  new  charter.  Without  brilliant 
talents,  his  integrity,  piety,  and  moderation  ob- 
tained him  the  connaence  of  the  people.  He 
advised  the  surrender  of  the  charter  to  Charles 
U.,  warily  distrusting  the  ability  of  the  colonists 
to  resist ;  and  still  more  to  his  honor,  he  is  re- 
membered for  having  opposed  the  delusions  of 
the  Salem  witchcraft. 

BRADSTREET,  Sdcon,  minister  at  Charles- 
town,  Mass.,  bom  in  1669,  died  Dec.  81,  1741. 
He  was  spoken  of  by  Govemor  Burnet  as 
one  of  the  first  literary  characters  and  best 
preachers  whom  he  had  met  in  America.  He 
was  so  subject  to  hypochondria  as  to  be  afraid 
to  preach  from  the  pulpit,  but  spoke  from  the 
deacon^s  seat,  without  notes,  usually  upon  the 
vanity  of  earthly  things.  He  is  said  to  have 
fallen  under  suspicion  of  Armlnianism. 

BRAD WARDIN,  Thomas,  surnamed  the  pro- 
found doctor,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  bom 
in  Chichester  in  1290,  died  in  1846.  He  was 
successively  professor  of  theology,  chancellor 
of  the  cathedral  of  London,  confessor  to  Ed- 
ward ni.,  and  finaUy,  in  134^  archbishop  of 


614 


BRADT 


BBAHE 


Canterbury.  He  died  at  Lambeth,  40  days 
afterward,  without  having  been  able  to  take 
possettion  of  his  see. 

BRADY,  HuoB,  an  American  general,  bom 
in  Northumberland  oo^  Penn.,  in  1768,  died  at 
Detroit,  April  15, 1651.  He  entered  the  U.  S. 
army  as  an  ensign,  March  7, 1792 ;  served  with 
Wayne  in  his  western  expedition,  after  the  de- 
feat of  St.  Oltdr;  was  made  lieutenant,  Feb. 
1794,  and  captain,  Jan.  8,  1799.  Having  after- 
ward left  the  military  service,  he  was  restored 
to  it  in  1808,  by  President  Jefferson,  who  then 
began  to  reform  the  army.  June  6,  1812,  he 
was  appointed  colonel  of  the  22d  foot,  and  led 
hb  troops  in  the  hard-fought  battle  of  Chip- 
pewa. They  were  almost  annihilated,  but 
displayed  the  greatest  courage,  Qen.  Scott 
saying  in  his  report,  "  Old  Brady  showed  him- 
self in  a  sheet  of  fire."  He  displayed  equal 
courage  at  the  battle  of  Niagara  Falls,  where 
he  was  wounded.  He  was  retained  in  service, 
on  the  reduction  of  the  army,  as  colonel  of  the 
2d  foot,  a  commission  he  held  until  his  death. 
After  1835  he  was  in  command  of  the  depart- 
ment of  which  Detroit  was  the  head-quarters; 
and  while  at  that  place  contributed,  in  no  small 
degree,  to  the  pacification  of  the  frontier,  during 
the  Canadian  troubles.  He  was  looked  on  by 
the  army  as  one  of  its  fathers.  He  received  2 
brevets, 'as  brigadier-ffeneral,  July  6,  1822,  and 
as  mi^or-general,  for  long  and  faithful  service, 
May  80, 1848.  Immediately  before  his  death, 
the  chaplain  of  his  corps  visited  him  and  sought 
to  speak  to  him  of  religious  matters.  Gen. 
Brady  listened  to  him,  and  said,  **  Sir,  that  is 
all  right:  my  knapsack,  however,  has  been 
packed,  ai^  I  am  ready  to  march  at  the  tuck 
of  the  drum." 

BRADY,  Nicholas,  a  versifier,  bom  at  Ban- 
don,  Ireland,  Oct.  28, 1659,  died  at  Richmond, 
near  London,  May  20,  1726.  He  was  partly 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  partly  at  Trinity  col- 
lege, Dublin.  In  the  revolution  he  sided  with 
King  William,  who  made  him  one  of  his  chap- 
lains, and  he  served  Queen  Anne  in  like  capa- 
city. In  1726,  just  before  his  death,  he  pub- 
lished a  poetical  translation  of  YirgU,  long  since 
forgotten ;  also  a  tragedy,  and  numerous  ser- 
mons. His  reputation,  such  as  it  is,  mainly 
rests  on  a  metrical  version,  in  coi^unotion  with 
Nahum  Tate,  of  the  psalms  of  David. 

BRAG,  a  game  of  <Mirds,  deriving  its  name 
trom^  the  efforts  of  the  players  to  impose  upon 
the  Judgment  of  their  opponents,  by  boasting 
of  better  cards  than  they  possess.    As  many 

Sersons  may  play  as  the  cards  will  supply,  the 
ealer  giving  to  each  player  8  cards,  turning  up 
the  last  card  all  round,  nu-ee  stiOces  ^so  are 
put  dovm  by  each  gamester.  The  first  stake  is 
taken  by  the  best  card  turned  up  in  the  deal- 
ing round.  The  peculiarity  which  gives  the 
game  its  denomination,  occurs  chiefly  in  win- 
ning the  second  stake.  Here  the  knaves  and 
nines  are  called  "  braggers,"  and  all  cards  falling 
into  the  hands  of  the  players  assimilate  to 
these.    For  example,  1  knave  and  2  aces,  2 


knaves  and  1  ace,  and  2  aces  and  1  baTe,i!l 
count  8  aces.  The  nines  operate  in  the  same 
way.  The  third  stake  is  won  by  the  penn 
who  first  makes  up  the  cards  in  Ms  hand  to  Si, 
with  the  privilege  to  draw,  or  not  to  d]iir,a 
he  pleasesu  from  the  pack. 

BRAGA,  a  district  of  Portagd,  in  the  prar* 
ince  of  Minho;  pop.  in  1854,  800,607.  Tbe 
capital,  of  the  same  name,  pop.  16,000,  is  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  the  primate  of  Poitngil, 
the  Bracara  Augusta  of  the  Romans,  sopposd 
to  have  been  founded  in  296  B.  G.  It  vss  tk 
capital  of  the  Suevi,  and  one  of  ^e  most  ceb- 
brated  towns  in  the  early  Portagnese  maoar- 
chy,  but  lost  its  splendor  by  themsriti]ne&- 
coveries  and  the  erection  of  Lisbon  into  a  pitii- 
archate.  There  is  a  fine  cathedral,  bout  bj 
the  first  king  of  Portugal.  In  its  Ticioitr  is 
the  remarkable  pilgrimage  chapel  of  the  £m 
Jews,  which  stands  on  the  sommit  of  a  sitep 
hiU^  whence  there  is  a  magnificent  view  ofibe 
city,  and  of  its  picturesque  environs. 

BRAGANQA,  or  Bkaoanza,  a  district  i 
Portugal,  in  the  province  of  Tras-os-Moota 
Pop.  in  1864, 184,888.  The  capitalof  thedietrie^ 
of  the  same  name,  was  in  fonner  tamestbe  ci^ 
of  the  province,  and  is  a  place  of  considerskieiD- 
portance.  It  has  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  casde, 
one  of  the  finest  feudal  remains  in  Fortufi 
It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  there  is  an  ens- 
sive  manufactory  of  velveteens,  printed  oE- 
coes,  and  woollens.  The  Affinideffars(mdik 
most  inmortant  inkmd  custom  honsainP^ff- 
togal.  firagan^a  has  given  its  name  to  tb 
present  royal  family  of  PortogaL  Popi  aboct 
4,000. 

BRAGANC  A,  Houbb  or,  the  presentragiDBS 
house  of  Portugal,  derived  from  Afibnso,diik£ 
of  Bragan^a,  a  natural  son  of  Joao  L  king  cf 
Portugal.  The  constitution  of  Lamego,  IISS, 
declaras  that  no  foreign  prince  can  succeed  to 
the  throne ;  consequently  in  1678,  on  the  deii 
of  the  Portuguese  hero  Sebastian,  inifito. 
without  issue,  his  people  had  reoonreeto  tbe[3^ 
gitimatelinex>f  Bragan^  PhiHp  E  of  Spifi, 
however,  claimed  the  throne,  and  supported  his 
pretensions  by  an  army  under  the  dueof  Ahi, 
who,  though  in  disgrace,  was  snmmoDedftto 
his  retreat  for  this  express  purpose.  In  ^^ 
the  Portuguese  shook  o«  the  Spanish  7oke,i&a 
the  line  of  Bragan^a  has  continued  to  nle  F(^ 
tngal  till  the  present  time. 

BRAHAK,  John,  an  English  tenor  &f^ 
bom  of  Jewish  parents,  in  London,  aboot  lr«i 
died  there  Feb.  IT,  1866,  eqjoyedahighrepB* 
tion ;  composed  several  operas,  and  ezceM  v 
a  composer  of  popular  songs.  He  made  i» 
self  agreeable  in  society;  changed  his  Jews 
name,  Abraham,  into  Braham ;  ^^^^""^  Vf 
vert  to  the  church  of  England,  and  anasMdi 
considerable  fortune,  which  he  lost,  ho*«^ 
by  unsuccessfhl  speculations. 

BRAHE,  Ttcho  db,  a  Danish  astroDCfflff. 
descended  firom  an  ancient  Scandinavian  ^ 
ily,  bom  at  Knudstrop,  in  the  dd  &«d^ 
province  of  Scania,  Dec.  4^  1646^  died  in  Png«, 


BRAHILOV 


BRAHMA 


615 


Oct  18, 1601.  While  a  stadent  at  Oopenha- 
gen,  aged  14,  an  ecli|>se  of  the  son  drew  nis  at- 
tention to  astronomy ;  and  2  years  afterward, 
being  sent  by  his  uncle  to  Leipsic  to  study  law, 
he  secretly  studied  astronomy.  In  1571  he  re- 
turned to  Denmark,  and  began  to  make  astron- 
omy his  main  pursuit  Soon  after,  the  king 
gave  him  the  island  of  Huen,  in  the  sound,  and 
a  sufficient  stipend  for  his  support.  Here  the 
first  stone  of  the  obseryatory  was  laid,  Aug. 
1676.  After  the  death  of  King  Frederic,  he 
was  deprived  of  his  pension,  and  being  unable 
to  bear  the  expenses  of  his  observatory,  he 
reluctantly  left  it.  He  went  to  Copenhagen, 
thence  to  Rostock,  and  finally  to  Prague,  where 
he  was  received  by  Rudolph  IL,  and  again 
Aimished  with  means  for  observation,  but  died 
before  accomplishing  any  thing  further.  Al- 
though an  accurate  observer,  he  was  supersti- 
tious, even  for  his  times,  and  a  man  of  hasty 
temper.  His  observations  formed  the  basis  on 
which  his  friend  and  disciple,  Eepler,  estab- 
lished his  8  laws  of  planetary  motion.  A  new 
biography  of  Brahe  was  published  by  Pedersen, 
in  Copenhagen,  in  1888. — ^The  most  eminent 
member  of  the  same  family,  in  modern  times, 
was  Count  Maqntts,  born  1790,  died  Sept  16, 
1844,  who  occupied  high  stations  in  the  army 
and  the  cabinet,  and  was  the  intimate  friend 
and  adviser  of  Bernadotte. 

BRAHILOV,  Bbailoff,  or  Ibbaila  (Turk- 
ish, Ibbahil),  the  capital  of  a  district  of 
the  same  name  in  European  Turkey,  the  prin- 
cipal port  of  Wallachia.  It  is  situated  on  the 
lower  branch  of  that  river,  and  the  harbor,  pro- 
tected by  a  small  island  from  the  ice  that  drifts 
down  the  river  in  large  quantities  in  win- 
ter, affords  security  to  the  shipping.  The 
trade  consists  in  the  produce  of  the  country,  such 
as  barley,  wheat,  maize,  linseed,  hides,  tallow, 
timber,  and  tobacco.  The  exports  of  grain,  from 
1,600,000  bush,  in  1888,  had  increased  in  1849  to 
more  than  8,000,000  bush.,  of  the  value  of  about 
12,260,000.  The  entrances  of  vessels  in  1852, 
were  1,568,  of  the  burden  of  260,621  tons,  and  the 
clearances  1,188,  with  164,901  tons.  This  num- 
ber, however,  decreased  in  1853,  owing  to  the 
complication  with  Russia.  The  quality  of  the 
pain,  especially  Danube  maize,  has  been  of 
late  years  greatly  improved  by  storing  it  in  dry 
and  spacious  warehouses,  instead  of,  as  former- 
ly, in  damp  pits.  The  trade  is  chiefly  oonduet- 
ed  by  Greeks;  but  many  English  and  other 
merdiants  are  of  late  engaged  in  it  Brahilov 
suffered  much  by  the  Turkish  wars  in  the 
18th  century,  and  was  burned  by  the  Russians 
in  1770.  Afterward  it  was  restored  to  the 
Turks,  but  surrendered  to  Russia,  Nov.  21, 
1809.  Since  the  subsequent  treaty  of  peace  of 
Adrianople,  it  has  continued  to  form  part  of  Wal- 
lachia. March  22, 1 854,  the  Danube  was  crossed 
here  by  a  division  of  the  Russian  army,  under 
Cirortchakoff,  and  in  August  of  the  same  year, 
it  was  evacuated  by  the  Russians.  The  town 
has  been  rebuilt,  and  has  now  many  fine  streets, 
several  churches,  a  normal  school,  a  quaran- 


tine, a  supreme  court,  and  a  fair  share  of  shops 
and  bazaars.  Pop.  20,000,  among  whom  are 
many  Greeks  and  Bulgarians. 

BRAHMA,  Bbahhan  or  BbahmI,  BbIh- 
MANA,  Bbahmakism  (also  Written  Bbaohmanish 
and  Bbahminism).  The  etymon  or  radical  of 
these  terms  is  the  Sanscrit  hriha,  or  vriha, 
meaning  to  move  intensely;  hence  to  raise, 
extend,  rise,  grow,  produce,  create;  allied 
to  the  English  brew,  breed.  Brahma  is  used 
to  designate  the  divine  cause  and  essence 
of  the  universe.  Brahman  and  Brahma  de- 
note this  divine  cause  personified  as  one  of  the 
Indian  Trimurtti  or  trinity.  Brahmana  means  a 
prayer,  and  is  the  name  of  the  argumentative  and 
disciplinary  portion  of  the  Vedas.  Under  Brah-> 
micism  Europeans  understand  the  religion  of 
Brahma.  In  the  absence  of  strictly  historical 
records,  the  origin  and  development  of  this 
creed  can  only  be  studied  from  certain  ancient 
Sanscrit  works,  viz. :  1.  The  Yedas  (from  vid^  to 
know),  supposed  to  have  been  revealed  by  Brah- 
ma, preserved  by  tradition,  and  arranged  by  Vy- 
asa.  They  are  in  8  parts :  the  Big  Veda  or  Bick 
Veda^  consisting  of  hymns  and  mantras,  or  mys- 
tic prayers ;  the  Yajua  Veda^  in  2  sections,  the 
white  and  the  black,  on  religious  rites;  and  the 
Soman  Veda^  with  prayers  in  the  form  of  songs. 
A  4th  Veda,  the  Atharvan  (from  at^  well,  and 
rij  to  go),  is  usually  added ;  it  consists  mainly  of 
formulas  of  consecration,  expiation,  and  impre- 
cation. 2.  The  Puranas  (from  pura^  ancient, 
and  ni,  to  get  or  be),  also  supposed  to  be  com- 
piled by  the  above-named  poet;  comprising  the 
whole  body  of  theology,  treating  of  the  creation, 
destruction,  and  renovation  of  worlds ;  the  gen- 
ealogy of  gods  and  heroes,  the  reigns  of  the 
Manus,  and  acts  of  their  descendants.  There 
are  18  acknowledged  Puranas,  the  last  being 
the  Bhagavata,  or  life  of  Krishna,  by  some  con* 
sidered  as  a  spurious  work.  In  aU  they  con- 
tain 400,000  stanzas.  The  Upapvranas,  or  mi- 
nor Puranas,  which  are  of  inferior  sanctity,  are 
also  18  in  number,  and  are  all  divided  into 
mantras  and  brahmanas.  8.  The  JyotUha  (light 
of  heavenly  bodies),  on  astrology  and  as- 
tronomy, is  annexed  to  the  Yedas.  In  the 
Jyotisha  Oolebrook  finds  reason  to  asmgn  the 
origin  of  the  Yedas  to  the  15  th  and  14th  cen- 
turies B.  0.  4.  The  Manatadha/rmof^  attra  (com- 
pounded of  Jfanu,  dharma^  institute,  mutra^  com- 
mand, law),  a  system  of  cosmogony,  and  next 
to  the  Yedas  in  antiquity.  5.  The  itiAdaa  (t^i- 
ha^  traditional  instruction,  and  om,  to  be),  an 
account  of  heroic  events,  such  as  the  2  great 
epic  poems,  the  BatMMyana  (BdmOy  and  ayana, 
dwelling),  or  legendary  narration  of  the  deeds 
of  Rama,  the  son  of  Dasaratha,  king  of  Oude, 
bom  at  the  close  of  the  second  age,  to  destroy 
demons,  and  Ravano,  the  sovereign  of  Ceylon, 
written  by  Yalmiki ;  and  the  McAdbharcUa^  at- 
tributed to  Yeda  Yyaaa,  in  18  cantos,  on  the 
wars  of  the  progeay  of  the  moon,  or  between 
the  families  of  the  Kurus  and  Pondus.  (See  Bha- 
QAVAT  GiTA.)  Both  the  Puranas  and  these  epic 
poems  overflow  with  a  chaotic  and  gigantio 


616 


BRAHMA 


mjihologyj  and  exhibit  a  medley  of  oontendine 
fleets.  The  people  to  whom  this  religion  and 
this  literatnre  belong  are  the  Aryans  (from 
aryifOf  exoellenty  and  hooseholder,  a  name  ori- 
ginidlj  applied  to  the  Vaisja  tribe,  but  after* 
ward  to  tne  whole  nation),  of  the  Oancasiaa 
race,  and  speaking  tKe  Sanscrit  language,  who 
emigrated  from  the  regions  about  me  sooroes 
of  the  Ozus,  into  the  Icmd  of  the  7  streams^  at 
the  epoch  of  the  most  ancient  hymn-poetrjr, 
when  yet  free  from  Brahminic  trammels,  with- 
out caste,  tending  flocks,  buoyant  with  youth- 
ful life,  eager  for  strife,  and  ruled  by  patriarchs. 
Their  gods  were  of  natural  srowth:  £fyo  or 
Dyau  (Lat  diea),  the  light,  the  sky;  Varana 
(ov/xiyor,  from  vn,  to  enclose),  the  ocean  of  light 
heaven.    The  poets  of  the  Vedas  afterward 

g reduced  many  divinities;  and  Varana,  grow- 
ig  pale  in  the  backsronnd  of  the  inaccessible 
heavens,  was  thus  hidden  behind  a  motley 
throng  of  newly  invented  gods.  Indra  (from 
fit,  supreme  power)  stepped  into  the  fore- 
ground, as  god  of  the  air,  sundering  douds,  dis- 
peUing  mists  and  drou^ts,  fighting  and  con- 
quering. Agni  (Lat  i^ic,  fire)  came  as  the 
lightning  from  heaven,  consumed  the  sacrifice, 
and,  as  flame,  carried  the  prayers  up  to  the 
other  gods,  and  became  the  priest  of  the  gods, 
and  the  god  of  priests,  ^ound  and  behind 
these  great  gods  we  find  hosts  of  inferior  divini- 
ties, such  as  the  12  Adityaa^  forms  of  8urya  (or 
3cmtf%  Fuihan)^  or  the  sun;  the  twin  AninSj 
ofibpring  of  the  sun;  the  gods  of  the  winds, 
storms,  and  of  other  natural  phenomena,  and  of 
the  elements ;  beside  a  host  of  genii,  demons, 
and  other  fantastic  creatures.  Vishnu  alone 
occurs  in  the  hymns,  without  the  2  other  mem- 
bers of  the  TrimurttL  Another  element  of  this 
religion  was  found  in  the  spirits  of  the  depart- 
ed, the  Pitrie  (Lat.  patrea^  ancestors),  who  re- 
ceived oblations  in  the  abode  of  YcmOy  the  first 
mortal,  and  the  judge  of  the  dead,  an  office 
which  he  probably  first  discharged  in  the  moon, 
and  afterward  in  hell.  There  is  no  mention  of 
regeneration  or  of  metempsychosis  in  the  Vedas, 
althouch  there  are  passages  which  speak  of 
souls  clad  with  the  breast-plate  of  Agni,  or  a 
spiritual  body.  There  is  as  yet  no  system  of 
cosmogony  or  of  theogony.  Each  god  melts  in- 
to almost  every  other ;  all  being  the  inventiona 
of  different  poets,  at  different  times,  among  dif- 
ferent tribes.  Not  only  real  things,  but  simple 
relations  of  things,  are.  deified,  and  all  is  as  con* 
fused  as  the  chaos  in  Ovid*s  ^^  Metamorphoses," 
or  as  the  Titans  of  the  Greeks,  ot  the  Virtues  of 
the  Romans.  While  yet  in  the  Pui^anb,  the 
gods  of  the  Aryans  had  no  temples,  and  were 
regaled  with  i(ma  (the  sap  of  (uelepioi  aoida)y 
milk,  clarified  butter,  and  the  like,  the  wor- 
shippers striking  regular  bargains  with  them 
for  the  fblfihnent  of  their  wishes,  in  considera- 
tion of  value  received  in  the  shape  of  a  sacri- 
fice.— ^We  find  but  few  indications  of  the  reasons 
which  prompted  the  Aryans  to  wander  to  the 
valleys  of  the  Jumna  and  Ganges.  The  time  of 
their  migration  is  also  unknown.    At  last  they 


established  themselves  between  tbe  Iffimalaya 
and  Vindhya  mountains,  as  far  as  the  Brahnun 
pootra  river  and  the  gulf  of  Bengal,  and  named 
this  region  AryaoarttOy  or  holy  land.  The 
abori^es,  of  Turanian  origin^  were  eitiier  eon- 
quered,  and  named  Mlech'eh''haehatii  (barba- 
rians, weak,  black  tribes),  and  DatyuB  (lost,  ene* 
mies,  thieves,  &c),  or  driven  into  the  mountains, 
and  to  the  south  of  India,  where  they  yet  exist 
under  different  names,  such  as  Gonds,  Bheela, 
Kadshia,  Panndrakaa,  Odras,  Draviras,  Cam- 
bojas,  Eiratas,  ^ca  The  Draviras  are  now 
divided  into  Tamils,  Telugus,  Ganarese,  Mala- 
bars,  Talavas,  dca,  in  the  Deccan;  and  all  of 
them  speak  languages  different  from  the  San- 
scrit. £2ven  now  there  is  a  great  dififerenee  in 
the  phjTsical  characteristics  of  the  nations  of 
Hindoetan;  the  descendants  of  the  Aryans  hav- 
ing a  hi^er  forehead,  a  more  prominent  nose,  a 
more  powerful  frame,  and  lighter  oompleioon 
than  &e  ofispring  of  the  conquered  races.  In 
the  Mahabharata  the  Brahmin  is  called  white, 
the  Eshattriya  red,  the  Vaisya  yellow,  and  the 
Soodra  black.  Golor  (Sanscrit,  eama),  whidi 
the  Portuguese  first  miscalled  eosto,  was  ^e 
ground  of  the  first  division  of  the  whole  popn- 
Jatiion  of  India  into  ohunes  commonly  called 
castes.  The  strife  between  these  2  elements  of 
the  population  lasted  for  centuries,  and  ia  con- 
fusedly reported  in  both  tiie  great  epie  poema 
above  referred  to.  The  Viapatii  (seniors,  patri- 
archs) became  kings,  agriculture  succeeded  to 
bucolic  life,  and  various  empires  arose.  Daring 
the  conquest  we  find  2  castes,  namely,  the  Ary- 
ans and  Soodras  Tso  called  from  an  aboriginal 
tribe),  or  rulers  and  servants.  The  more  power- 
ful among  the  former  were  warriors  and  land- 
owners, and  called  themselves  jE«Aat(r%M(ia&a« 
<2a,  to  divide,  to  eat),  and  separated  themeelves 
in  time  from  the  peaceful  white  men  who  were 
called  Vauyat  («i«,  to  enter  fields,  oommonal^. 
village^.  At  last  the  men  who  had  performed 
the  ofiices  oi  religion  for  the  Vispatis  (kings) 
and  Eshattriyas,  under  the  name  of  Piero^Ua 
{purat^  first,  and  At  to,  held),  or  the  priests  of  £un- 
uies  and  dans,  took  advantage  of  the  credulity  of 
the  pec^le,  and  in  process  of  time  made  them- 
selves rulers  over  all  other  castes.  fVom  saying 
prayers  (Jbrdhmanaa}^  they  became  important 
by  the  increase  of  prayers,  which  were  the 
more  resorted  to  the  more  the  whole  people 
became  weaker  in  body  and  in  mind,  more  in- 
clined to  dream  than  act,  ia  consequence  of  the 
effeminating  climate  of  the  country.  Tradi- 
tional legends,  the  Hanciful  sacred  poems  of  the 
several  dans,  were  ooUected;  religious  ceremo- 
nies multiplied ;  the  priests  were  more  and  more 
employed  to  beseech  the  gods  for  things  which 
the  people  were  too  indolent  to  do  for  them- 
selves, or  to  procure  by  their  own  exertion. 
The  contents,  form,  and  delivery  of  the  prayers, 
and  the  mode  of  the  sacrifices,  must  be  of  a  char- 
acter to  please  the  gods ;  and  as  the  priests  alone 
had  the  time,  knowledge,  and  experience  which 
were  required  to  induce  the  gods  to  grant  what 
was  asked  for,  they  became  masters  of  the 


BBAmiA 


617 


Ksbftttriyas.  We  read  in  a  later  Veda  that  **  the 
ffods  do  not  eat  a  saorifioe  offered  them  bv  a 
Sing,  without  apurohita."  Thus  Parohitiam,  be- 
ooming  hereditarj  in  certain  families,  begot  the 
Brahminio  oaste. — Aa  long  as  there  were  ene- 
mies to  be  sabdned,  the  priests  npheld  the  war- 
riors, and  oonsecrated  the  kings.  Thus  raised 
above  the  latter,  they  began  to  supplant,  and 
at* last  openl/  to  assail  them,  for  the  lower 
castes  appear  to  have  been  ill-treated  by  the 
Kshattriyaa.  Parasarftma(paf«M«,axe,andra49M; 
deiightuig  in)  was  the  hero  of  the  priests  in 
this  stmggle.  He  is  represented  bj  them  as  the 
6th  avat&ra  or  incarnation  of  Vishnu,  and  a 
type  of  their  class;  he  cleared  the  earth  21  times 
of  the  Kshattriyas,  filling  with  their  blood  the  6 
large  lakes  of  Bamanta,  whence  he  offered  liba* 
tions  to  the  race  of  Bhrign  {bhri$t»ky  to  burn  in 
religious  zeal) ;  one  of  the  10  Prajdpatis^  lords  of 
the  world,  and  alter  having  conquered  the 
whole  earth,  he  presented  it  to  the  priest 
Kaayapa.  In  the  tradition  of  that  tremendous 
struffgle  occur  the  names  of  the  rival  priests^ 
one  Visv&mitrB,  who  had  become  a  Brahmin  by 
dint  of  superhuman  exertions,  and  Vasishtha, 
a  Bhrigu.  By  that  victory  the  Brahmins  de* 
prived  themselves  of  the  military  ytop  of  their 
power;  and  there  arose  horrible  anarchy  in  the 
state,  so  that  the  Muni  (saint)  Kasy^a  was  im- 
l^ored  by  the  earth  to  free  it  from  these  disor- 
ders. He  granted  the  request  and  restored  the 
Kahattriya  caste,  by  allowmg  Brahmins  to  marry 
Kshattriyas.  Thenceforward  the  warriors  re* 
niained  allied  to  the  priests.  Those  who  would 
not  submit  to  the  new  order  were  treated  as 
heretics  and  dasyus,  and  retired  to  the  west  of 
the  Sarasvati,  whicii  river  is  the  boundary  of 
the  holy  land. — ^This  alliance  was  sealed  by  the 
system  of  religions  and  scholastic  doctrines 
which  constitute  Brahmimsm.  Indra,  the  god 
of  the  warriors,  and  the  warrior  among  the 
gods,  was  su^ected  to  Brahma,  the  god  of 
prayers.  The  chaos  of  gods  was  systematized 
Dy  grouping  several  analogous  divinities  into 
new  and  greater  ones.  The  germs  of  this 
coagulation  were  already  scattered  in  the 
Vedas.  After  the  foaon  there  remained  S 
chief  gods,  corresponding  to  the  old  Vamna, 
Indra,  and  Agni,  with  8  worlds— heaven,  air, 
and  earth.  Nigharti,  an  andent  Vedic  glos- 
sary, closes  witn  8  catalogues  of  gods.  The 
Trimurtti,  consisting  of  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and 
Siva,  was  at  last  rednoed  to  one  supreme  god. 
Brahmfi,  developed  out  of  Agni,  in  the  first  in- 
stance^ as  the  god  of  the  priests,  was  sublimated 
finally  into  the  symbol  of  praver  and  worship, 
by  Ming  made  the.  ** mouth  of  the  gods." 
fVayer  consists  in  the  Word  (tdk,  Lat  eoa^ 
which  is  of  many  names;  bearing  and  moving 
all  gods;  being  a  queen  bestowing  treasures; 
posMSsed  of  science;  the  first  thing  to  be 
adored;  omnipresent,  the  beginning  of  all 
thinffs,  ^^  (Rig  Veda.)  In  the  hymns  the 
snn  ^urya)  coincides  with  the  Atman^  or  Mahan 
AtnuM,  or  Ftiramatman  (dttnan^  spirit,  soul — 
German    Athmn^  tnahwiy    magBUS,  mighty* 


forama^  primus),  or  soul  of  the  universe,  as  the 
mdeterminable  Tat  (that,  therefore,  and  hence; 
Lat.  ergo\  or  pure  essence,  as  the  principle  of  na- 
ture. This  was  before  both  being  and  not-being, 
immense  in  Svadha  (self,  Lat.  9uwn  ipsumy  selli 
oontdned  associate  of  the  creator);  there  was 
nothing  out  of  it  or  beyond  it,  but  darkness  in 
darkness,  indistingmshable  water,  and  all  things 
confrued  in  it  or  in  avam  (from  ooo,  to  go,  con- 
tracted into  aum  and  om),  the  mystic  name  of 
Qod,  prefacing  all  the  prayers  and  most  of  the 
writings ;  compounded  of  the  8  symbols  A,  a 
name  of  Vishnu,  U,  of  Siva,  and  M,  of  Brahma ; 
the  8  in  1.  This  essence  rested  in  the  vacuity 
which  bore  it,  and  the  world  arose  by  the  force 
of  its  devotion  or  piety.  Edma  (love,  desire) 
arose  first  as  the  first  seed.  The  personified 
Brahma  was  abstracted  from  the  older,  absolute 
Brahma,  as  the  active  and  incarnate  deity.  The 
title  of  the  priests  was  not  taken  from  Brahma, 
but  their  own  appellation  of  praying  men 
(br&hmana  reciters)  was  bestowed  on  the  god ; 
in  other  words,  they  deified  themselves.  The 
people  said :  The  world  is  in  the  power  of  the 
bevas  (gods);  the  Devas  are  in  the  power  of 
mantras  and  brahmanas  (prayers),  and  these  are 
in  the  power  of  the  Brahmins ;  therefore  tiiese 
are  our  gods.  Brahma  says  in  a  Purana :  *'  My 
gods  are  the  Brahmins:  I  know  of  no  being 
equal  to  you,  O  Brahmms,  by  whose  mouth  I 
eat."  It  is  also  written:  **The  imperceptible, 
sleeping  universe  was  rendered  perceptible  by 
the  lora,  with  the  5  elements,  and  with  other 
principles,  in  purest  splendor,  to  wit,  Prahrih 
(Lat.  pra  and  areo,  fiido,  Eng.  grato),  or  nature, 
was  developed  by  him,  who,  perceivable  only 
by  the  mind,  decreed  the  emanation  of  crea- 
tures, and  sent  forth  the  water,  placing  in  it 
the  germ.  Out  of  this  came  an  egg  shining 
tike  gold.  Out  of  this  egg  was  bom  Qi^  in  the 
form  of  Brahma.  As  the  waters  were  the  first 
place  of  motion,  the  supreme  was  named  Kdrc^ 
fona  (ndrOf  water ;  yaTMy  motion,  way).  After 
inhabiting  the  egg  for  one  Brahminio  year,  ihe 
lord  severed  it,  by  mere  thou^t,  in  twain 
(heaven  and  earth),  putting  between  them  the 
air,  the  8  celestial  regions,  and  the  receptacle  of 
water*  He  pressed  out  of  the  Paramatman  the 
Manaa  (Lat  itmiw),  and  the  heart  (meaning  the 
senses)  existing  by  itself;  and  he  made  the  former 
the  Ahankdra  (aham^  ego ;  ibaro,  agens),  or  Me.' 
Before  the  mind  he  made  Mdhat  Qnight,  Ger- 
man, MaM),  He  gave  names  to  all  creatures. 
Many  Devas  arose,  as  well  as  a  crowd  of  Sad- 
dhyaa,  or  genii.  At  last  he  instituted  the  sacri- 
fice, pressing  out  of  the  fire,  air,  and  sun  (for 
the  performance  of  the  sacrifice),  the  8  etenial 
Vedas,  te.  Dividing  his  body,  the  Supreme  be- 
came half  man,  half  woman,  and  thus  begot 
Vir&j  (oi,  separately,  and  rAj,  to  shine),  or  the 
Ksbattriya.  Viraj  by  himself  produced  the  first 
MdnUy  the  progenitor  of  the  Prajdpatu  and 
the  secondary  framer  of  the  visible  world. 
Manu,  after  great  austerities,  begot  Y  JfoAortf- 
hU  (great  saints\  who  again  produced  7 
other  Manus,  Mahariahiw,  and  gods  of  riches 


618 


BBAHMA 


•  "wicked  ffianU^  ogrds,  Vampirei,  odestial  mnsi- 
oians  and  nymphs,  dragons,  tribes  of  ancestors, 
meteors;  then  miners^  plants,  animals.  The 
Brahma  wanders  throngh  the  world,  makes  pe- 
riods of  time,  and  destroys  them  again.  When 
it  awakes,  the  world  acts ;  when  it  sleeps,  the 
world  collapses.  After  the  dissolution  of  all  be- 
ings in  the  Mahat  Atman  it  rests  in  sleep.  The 
Brahma  pats  forth  the  emanation  of  the  world, 
not  as  its  aathor,  bat  as  both  its  efficient  and  ma- 
terial cause.  In  one  passage  the  Brahma  is  both 
formed  and  shapeless,  transient  and  perpetual, 
quiescent  and  moving,  external  and  internal 
Elsewhere  it  is  unique,  formless,  unchangeable, 
and  iDunovable.  The  more  it  is  evolved,  the  more 
it  differs  from  itself;  hence  the  difference  of  the 
properties  of  things  consists  only  in  the  degree  of 
the  distance  from  Uie  Brahma.  There  are  8  GunoM 
(gun^  to  address,  advise)  or  qualities,  8  stages  of 
evolution,  8  regions,  8  worlds.  The  Ist  stage 
is  Sattta  {aat^  good,  analog.  Lat.  MtU\  or  good- 
ness, divinity  of  the  world,  the  1st  degree  of 
the  emanation  of  the  Brahma,  the  personified 
Brahma,  purity,  light,  wisdom,  &c.  The  2d  is 
Baja  (ranj,  to  color),  passion ;  wavering  between 
the  1st  and  8d,  the  region  of  man.  The  8d  is 
Tdmas  (Lat  ten^n^^  darkness,  mischief,  im- 
purity, night ;  the  region  of  animals,  plants, 
matter.  The  mixture  of  these  produces  the 
multiplicity  of  things.  Nature  is  the  impure, 
broken  Brahma ;  the  world  consists  of  evil  life, 
is  a  burden  of  sins,  the  earth  a  vale  of  tears,  sin 
is  originid.  Thus  the  jo^fulness  of  life  pictured 
in  the  elder  Vedas  is  obmscated,  self-reliance  is 
broken,  and  the  priest  rules  paramount.  Nor 
does  this  end  with  life ;  for,  as  every  thing  is- 
sues from  the  Brahma,  so  every  thing  returns 
into  \U  Here  arises  the  theory  of  metempsy- 
chosis, or  of  soul- wandering.  All  beings  return 
by  purification  into  the  Brahma.  The  condition 
of  beings  depends  on  the  degree  of  the  phase  of 
emanation.  Mahanutma  runs  through  all  forms 
of  matter.  Formerly,  each  soul  ran  through 
the  whole  scale  of  beings,  but  later  its  guna  or 
quality  was  influenced  by  its  merits  or  sins  in 
a  former  existence.  The  universe  was  peopled 
of  old  by  homogeneous  souls,  without  a  differ- 
ence between  gods,  men,  animals,  or  matter, 
the  souls  of  all  differing  merely  for  a  certain 
time.  ^^  We  were  what  you  are ;  you  shall  be 
-what  we  are.^'  Thus  souls  differed  merely  on 
account  of  the  redeemable  sins  of  a  previous  life. 
At  a  later  time  the  individual  man  might  be- 
come the  vilest  animal  for  a  single  error  in  the 
most  trifling  action  of  life,  andmight  lose  the  ben- 
efit of  many  good  lives  during  millions  of  years. 
The  horror  of  this  to  the  Hindoo  is  enhanced 
by  his  antipathy  to  motion.  And  then,  Naraka 
or  hell  is  superadded,  under  Yama,  the  restrain- 
er  (analogous  to  Pluto),  and  from  it  the  migra- 
tion of  souls  begins  again.  Mann  speaks  even 
of  23  hells. — ^This  system  of  theology  was  elab- 
orated several  centuries  before  Buddha.  The 
UpaniahadM  or  speculative  sections  of  the  Ve- 
das, and  the  rudiments  of  Manu^s  laws,  belong 
to  this  period.    The  «anuM  (colors,  castes)  were 


divinified  by  these  theories  of  emanation  and  of 
metempsychosis.  Brahma,  the  first  impersona- 
tion of  the  Brahma,  first  exhaled  the  priest  from 
h  is  mouth,  then  he  brought  forth  the  warri(Hr  firom 
his  arms,  the  agriculturist  ( Vaitya)  from  his 
hips,  the  lowest  caste  (Soodra)  mm  his  feet 
The  Brahmin's  inheritance  was  wisdom,  virtoe, 
holiness ;  his  duties  were  Uie  reading  and  teach- 
ing of  the  Vedas,  sacrificing,  giving  alms,  if 
rich,  receiving  gifts,  if  poor.  To  the  Kshattri- 
yas  were  allott^  fbrce,  the  defence  of  the  p|eo- 
ple,  giving  alms^  guarding  against  sensuality. 
The  Vaisyas  obtained  riches,  herds,  the  bestow- 
ing  of  gifts^  commeroe,  agricnltore.  Both  the 
latter  could  also  read  the  Vedas,  and  offer  sac- 
rifice. The  lot  of  the  Boodras  was  to  serve  the  8 
superior  castes,  and  to  be  despised  by  them. 
The  world  belongs  to  the  Brahmin.  To  him  all 
other  men  owe  every  thing,  even  life  itseld 
The  8  privileged  vamas  are  DmJM  {dii^  two, 
jo,  born),  or  twice-born ;  the  investiture  with 
the  thrice  holy  string,  at  puberty,  constituting 
their  2d^u-th,  and  making  them  participators  in 
common  sacrbioes.  This  social  and  hierarehio 
system  was  presented  as  existing  from  and  for 
eternity.  Although  a  Soodra  can  be  reborn  even 
as  a  priest,  if  he  has  Jed  a  holy  life,  dmnng 
his  life  he  can  as  little  enter  a  higher  caste  as 
a  stone  can  become  a  plant.  At  the  time  of  the 
older  laws  of  Mann  the  separation  of  castes  was 
not  yet  total,  intermarriages  being  still  allowed. 
The  descendant  of  a  Soodra  and  Vaisyi  could 
marry  a  Vaisya,  or  the  of&pring  of  the  inter- 
marriage of  either  of  those  castes  and  a  Kshat- 
triyi  could  marry  a  Eshattriya ;  the  descendant 
of  such  an  intermarriage  with  a  Brahmini  could 
marry  a  Brahmin,  who  could  marry  from  a  low- 
er caste  only  the  second  time.  But  afterward, 
only  the  offspring  of  parents  of  the  same  caste 
belong  to  their  caste ;  children  of  mixed  mar- 
riages lose  the  castes  of  both  parents;  and  the 
o&pring  becomes  the  more  impure  the  higher 
the  mother  above  the  father.  There  are  6 
degrees  of  bastards.  The  son,  for  instanoe, 
of  a  Eshattriya  by  a  Soodri  is  a  Ugra  («y, 
to  heap  up),  doomed  to  catch  animals  that  live 
in  holes,  lie  is  not  so  low  if  the  castes  of  the 
parents  are  reversed,  the  lowest  of  all  castes 
tMang  tiie  ofi&pring  of  a  Soodra  by  a  Brahmini, 
viz.,  a  ChdnMUk  (chadiy  to  be  angry,  to  chide), 
forced  to  live  far  from  the  dwellings  of  all  other 
men,  to  bcAr  a  badge  that  he  may  be  avoided, 
to  be  an  executioner  or  grave-digger,  to  wear 
the  dress  of  condemned  criminals,  to  eat  frxnn 
broken  vessels,  dec.  But  the  mixtures  of  the 
8d  degree,  by  the  crossing  of  bastards  with  the 
upper  castes,  or  among  tbemsdves,  are  even 
more  abominable  than  the  Chandala,  the  Pariahs 
subdividing  themselves  into  lower  and  lowest 
races,  which  reciprocally  abominate  each  other. 
These  multifiBuions  distinctions  grew  np,  not 
merely  by  priestiy  devices,  but  also  historicaUy 
and  ethnically ;  as  the  mixed  races  appear  to  be 
of  national  origin,  such  as  the  VtMehat  (from 
Videha,  a  district  of  Behar),  attendants  on  la- 
dies ;  the  Magadha»(tk  province  in  the  south  of 


BRAHMA 


619 


BeharX  bards,  minstrelfl  o.  sovereigns,  of  armies, 
fto.  Dome  owe  their  origins  to  their  trades, 
each  as  the  Nithddaa^  or  fishermen. — Beside 
these  social  distinctions^  the  Brahmins  prescrib- 
ed a  most  complicated  system  of  rites,  cere- 
monicHa,  sacrifices^  ablutions,  consecrations,  fu- 
migations ;  a  most  strict  and  minute  religious 
etiquette  to  be  irrevocably  observed  in  all 
motions,  gestures,  looks,  at  aU  seasons,  in  every 
pArt  of  the  day,  at  every  age,  at  biiths,  mar- 
riages, funerals,  at  meals,  in  sleeping,  at  all  in- 
stinctive and  necessary  functions  of  the  body ; 
for  greeting,  giving  thanks,  or  trading ;  in  short, 
for  aU  commissions  and  all  omissions  of  every 
possible  kind.  All  these  prescriptions  are  most 
anxiously  to  be  observed  from  the  first  breath  of 
life  to  the  kst  gasp  in  death.  For  the  most  tri- 
fling deviation  from  any  one  of  these  innumera- 
ble observances,  the  soul  of  the  delinquent  was 
to  suffer  various  degrees  of  punishment  in  its 
wandering.  Still  greater  was  the  danger  of 
becoming  impure  or  defiled  by  the  contact  of  a 
Ohandala,  of  a  corpse,  of  aniinal  offal,  by  tread- 
VDg  on  a  defiled  spot,  by  using  unclean  vessels, 
by  the  breath  of  a  garlic-eater  or  brandy-drink- 
er, by  the  excretions  of  one's  own  saliva,  sweat, 
tears,  ^cc  Unless  every  stain  was  wiped  out 
by  religions  purification,  hell  was  open  to  swal- 
low the  sinner.  The  religious  therapeutics 
against  these  horrors  consisted  of  all  sorts  of 
lotions,  potions,  anointings  (for  instance,  with 
cow-dung),  for  lesser  nns ;  and,  for  greater  ones, 
in  prayers,  retention  of  the  breath,  the  drinking 
hot  water,  milk,  butter,  and  the  urine  of  cows, 
torture,  and  even  suicide.  A  Dwgas  who  had 
drunk  arrack  (rice-brandy)  must  drink  it  boiling 
until  his  entraUs  were  burnt,  &c.  An  involuntary 
cow-killer  had  to  shear  his  head,  to  be  clad  in 
her  skin,  to  live  for  8  months  on  her  pasture, 
tending  a  herd  day  and  niffht  in  all  weathers, 
to  greet  aud  to  caress  the  cows.  Where  a 
Brahmin  had  to  give,  as  fine,  a  cow  to  the  tem- 
ple, a  Eshattriya  must  give  2 ;  a  Vaisya,  4;  a 
Doodra,  8.  The  lower  the  caste,  the  greater  the 
penalty  imposed  on  sinners. — ^The  complement 
of  the  penitences,  penances,  and  inflictions,  con- 
sisted in  ascetic  and  eremido  life.  On  the 
Ganges  the  Aryans  sought  repose  in  forests, 
where  they  lived  on  vegetable  food.  Manu 
wjB  that  when  a  Dw^ja  perceives  his  body 
flagging,  his  hair  becoming  gray,  when  he 
sees  the  son  of  his  son,  he  must  leave  home 
and  retire  into  the  solitude  of  tiie  forest. 
.His  wife  and  the  sacred  fire  may  follow  him. 
He  is  to  live  on  herbs,  roots,  and  fruits;  to  dress 
in  the  skin  of  a  black  antelope  or  in  bark ;  not 
to  cut  lus  hair  or  nuls ;  to  bathe  in  the  morning 
and  evening;  to  busy  himself  only  with  the 
Yeda,  with  sacrifices,  prayers,  and  the  contem- 
plation of  the  Brahma;  to  approach  perfection 
in  piety  and  sdence ;  to  cluwtise  his  fiesh,  in 
order  to  render  it  insensible  to  pain,  so  that  the 
bonds  of  the  soul  mav  be  loosened ;  to  creep 
about  or  to  stand  for  days  on  his  toes ;  to  [fit  in 
the  hot  season  between  4  fires  ([making  6  with 
the  sun);  to  wear  wet  clothes  in  the  cold,  and 


be  unsheltered  fh>m  rain,  and  the  like.  After 
having  thus  burnt  out  his  lusts  and  deeires  by 
the  Tapiu  ^sun  and  fires),  he  is  allowed  to  enter 
the  4tn  ana  last  stage  of  life,  to  become  a  San- 
nyanr^  or  renounoer,  free  nrom  all  desires,  a 
mendicant,  without  any  property.  Before  these 
2  last  stages  of  life,  a  Brahmin  must  pass  through 
the  1st,  which  is  that  of  a  BrahmachArin^  fol- 
lower of  the  Vedaa,  or  student,  from  the  time 
of  his  investiture  with  the  cord ;  the  2d,  that  of 
a  OrUuul^  or  householder,  or  father  of  a  fam- 
ily ;  it  being  one  of  the  duties  of  a  Brahmin 
to  marry  and  to  beget  a  son,  thus  paying  his 
debt  to  his  ancestors.  In  progress  of  time  total 
abstinence  from  marriage,  as  impure,  became 
more  venerable,  and  he  was  the  highest  Brahmin 
who  immediately  entered  the  4th  stage,  by  step- 
ping over  the  intermediate  2,  and  by  vowing 
perpetual  chastity. — ^In  the  beginning  of  Brah- 
minism  KarmmoM^  or  deeds,  works  of  religion, 
sufficed  for  salvation ;  but  subsequently,  a  con- 
trary doctrine  previdled,  the  enect  of  works 
being  believed  to  vanish  with  time.  Atone- 
ment for  sin  became  possible ;  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  Brahma  alone  could  lead  into  sal- 
vation, that  is,  back  into  the  Brahma;  so  that 
even  the  most  orthodox  Yedantist  looked  down 
pitifully  upon  those  who  believed  in  the  Yedaic 
efficiency  of  works.  Later  even  the  Eshattriyas 
and  Vaisyas  were  allowed  to  become  Yanapras- 
thas  and  Sannyasin,  and  thus  an  opposition  to 
Brahminism  grew  up,  leading  at  last,  with  a  re- 
action against  the  extreme  theologic  terrors  of 
which  we  have  spoken,  to  a  reform  by  Buddha, 
who  found  luders  and  abettora  in  the  SramanoM 
(SramOy  to  be  wearied),  whose  theory  was  to 
gain  final  emancipation  from  existence  by  medi- 
tation.— ^In  spite  of  its  inconsistency  with  the 
Brahminic  system,  a  free  will  was  admitted  to 
reside  in  the  soul,  and  thinking  was  allowed  to 
some  degree.  Hence  resulted  philosophic  opin- 
ions and  schools,  among  which  the  8  following 
were  the  principal :  I.  The  Ved&ntxt{Vtda^2jA 
anta^  end,  aim)  or  Mim&md  (scrutiny,  specula- 
tion), a  double  system  of  tradition  and  of  free 
speculation,  combining  the  BrahmorMimdnid^ 
or  higher  science,  whose  dicta  were  supported  by 
holy  writ,  and  the  lower,  whose  object  was  the 
Yedas  and  their  preliminaries  and  appurte- 
nances, such  as  grammar,  traditions,  exegesis 
respectmg  the  frmts  of  works,  sacrifices,  &c.,  or 
theology  proper.  The  Brahma  was  metaphysi- 
cally explained  and  commented  upon.  The 
soul  of  man  had  8  corporeal  forms,  viz. :  1,  the 
causing,  or  effective  body;  2,  consisting  of 
subtle  elements,  often  accompanying  the  pure 
soul  in  its  migrations  until  its  salvation ;  8,  the 
ooarse  materUl  body,  begotten  by  parents,  and 
dissolved  by  death.  He  who  turns  away  from 
aU  that  is  changeable,  and  contemplates  unfiinch- 
ingly  the  one,  eternal,  unchangeable,  true,  to 
wit,  the  Brahma,  and  who  also  renounces  all  lasts 
and  desires,  becomes  one  with  it,  and  attains 
liberation.  Nature  is  only  a  determination,  a 
limitation,  a  special  quality  and  quantity  of  the 
Brahma.    And  yet  the  Brahma  is  said  to  be 


620 


BRAHMA 


nature.  Even  after  it  has  been  aeparated  it 
remains  one  as  before.  This  contradiction 
was  explained  bj  the  changes  of  the  forms 
of  water,  as  liquid,  ice,  hail,  snow,  steam,  in- 
visible  vapor,  and  of  other  matter.  The  Ye* 
danta  concluded  with  this  sentence :  ^^  The  world 
exists  not,  only  the  Brahma  is."  The  appearance 
of  the  world  was  accounted  for,  first  by  merging 
it  in  the  Brahma,  then  from  it  into  the  conception 
of  man,  who  peroeires  it.  Mdffa  (fikt,  to  meas- 
ure), or  illusion,  idealism,  unreality  of  all 
worldly  existence,  is  the  wife  of  Brahma,  and  the 
immediate  active  cause  of  creation ;  she  U  inde- 
finable, both  beinff  and  not-being;  at  the  same 
time  sue  also  only  seems  to  be.  Finally,  the 
Vedantist  arrives  at  the  great  principle,  ^*  Tat 
art  thou '  ^ — ^  I  am  the  Brahma.'*  This  recogni- 
tion leads  to  liberation,  salvation,  union  with 
the  Brahma.  He  who  thinks  himself  to  be  the 
universal  Self^  knows  of  no  individuality,  or 
reality,  or  subjectivity.  The  cycle  of  births  is 
ended  to  him,  and  age  and  death  are  mere 
phantoms,  phenomena  of  ignorance.  This 
extinction  in  the  Brahma  is  named  Brahma^ 
nirwdna  (Brabma-absorption).  These  doc- 
trines lead  inevitably  to  indifferenoe  in  theol- 
ogy, to  the  levelling  of  castes,  and  they  paved 
the  way  for  Buddhism;  although  they  were 
not  discountenanced  by  the  Brahmins,  who  are 
said  to  have  even  declared  that  the  ShoMtnu 
(law-books)  were  not  made  for  philosophers; 
that  the  order  of  castes  and  of  professions 
was  only  for  egotists ;  that  the  castes  belong  to 
Mava  formations,  having  no  place  in  the  Atman ; 
and  that  for  him  who  knows  nothing,  as  well 
as  for  the  sage  who  is  lord  of  all  and  knows  all, 
there  is  no  difference  between  commandments 
and  nrohibitions,  as  these  are  fit  only  for  him 
who  knows  a  little  and  yet  knows  naught  II. 
Much  more  hostile  to  the  Brahmins  was  the 
spirit  of  the  Sankhya  (numeral,  reckoning,  ra* 
tional)  philosophy,  which  occurs  merely  as  a 
name,' and  not  as  a  doctrine,  in  the  later  Upani- 
riiads,  and  which  declares  that  reason  suffices 
for  the  discovery  of  truth,  and  for  enfranchise- 
ment; thus  opposing  the  authority  of  revela* 
tion.  This  is  the  earliest  complete  philosophic 
system  known.  Its  founder  is  smd  to  be  the 
Muni  ^saint)  Eapila,  son  of  Kerddama  by  Dev»- 
huti,  believed  by  some  to  have  been  an  avar 
tara  of  Vishnu,  and  who  became  piythio  in 
Brahminic  tradition.  The  soul  forms  the  basis 
of  tliis  school,  according  to  the  Yedic  passage: 
*^It  (the  soul)  must  be  known ;  it  must  be  dis- 
tinguished from  nature;  then  it  does  not  re- 
turn, does  not  return  again."  There  are  8 
sources  and  ways  of  knowledge,  sensual  per- 
ception, induction,  and  testimony,  induoing 
revelation  which  is  held,  according  to  this 
school,  to  be  not  superior  but  only  oculateral  to 
the  revelation  in  the  mind  of  the  sage.  While 
the  Yedanta  does  not  distinguish  &e  subject 
from  the  object,  the  knowing  from  the  known, 
spirit  from  matter,  the  Sai^hya  is  dualistio 
tliroughout.  Its  2  factors  are  nature  and  the 
souL    The  first  is  creative,  but  blind,  reoognht* 


ing  nothing  that  proceeds  directly  from  the  i&. 
telligenoe  Q^uddha).     Out  of  tiie  latter  flowi 
the  Ahankara  Mf-hood,  ^  erw),  the  prodoeer 
of  elements.    The  soul  is  not  creative  or  setin, 
but  knows  and  observes.    Both  are  eternal  and 
uncreated ;  but  nature  is  blind,  ?^e  the  souls 
lame,  conducting  and  leading  the  fonner,  by 
which  it  is  carried  in  its  tarn.    The  Ahajibn 
begets:  1,  the  Tbrnndtro  or  5  rDdime&tary ^ 
menta,  and  the  phenomena  or  fiaoolties  of  sntod, 
feeling,  sight,  taste,  smell;  2,  the  11  orgao^of 
which  5  are  of  perception  ^ear,  skii),eye8,  bngoe^ 
nose),  6  of  action  (voice,  nands,  feet,  oi^cf 
excretion,  genitals),  and  tiieifonat  (flMni),or]pa 
both  of  perception  and  of  action.   Out  of  the  6 
rudimentarv  elements  issue  5  oosrse  ekoeBla, 
etiier,  air,  lights  water,  earth.    These  mtiinl 
principles^  variously  modified  by  the  8  gimis, 
pfaiy  a  great  part  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Siokb jt 
Opposed  to  Ihem  is  the  human sonl, isuii- 
finity  of  all  individual  souls  which  have  estmd 
nature,  and  whose  first  husk  or  envelope  is  & 
spiritual  or  original  body,  or  the  Iin^  (muk, 
genital  part,  Prakriti),  or  Ztn^  SaTm(jBi,\A 
icio,  to  know),  consisting  of  the  Baddhl,  Ahio- 
kara,  Manas,  10  organs,  and  the  6  otigiosl  ^ 
ments.    Its  second  hull  or  pod  are  the  5  ooaner 
elements,  and  this  body  is  rebegotten  hj  the 
parents  before  each  new  biith.    th»  soul  acos 
to  be  active,  while  only  the  Lings  lesllyaeti 
The  concatenation  of  moral  causes  and  (tfe^ 
fects  determines  the  re-birth  in  a  certain  spha& 
Therefore  nature  itself  performs  the  meteopcf- 
chosis.    Soul  and  nalnre  part  company  it  the 
goal  of  their  journey.     As  soon  as  the  ml 
comprehends  itself  as  independent  d  utaR; 
and  as  absolute  by  itself;  nature  hides  M 
like  a  woman  whose  weakness  has  been  M 
out    This  withdrawal  is  the  enfraDchiseDtft 
(called  Karika^  which  also  means  actresB,  ado- 
dug  woman)  oS  the  souL    This  diatiBcooi  is 
the  perfect  and  infinite  science  or  D^ 
(yMMTif).    With  the  death  of  the  body  the 
activity  of  the  Lhiga  Barira  ceases^  asdtbisis 
the  condition  of  a  new  birth.    TheSanUiTifi 
silent  on  the  state  of  the  enfiranohised  indmd- 
ual  souL    m.  The  atomistic  school,  vlnchB 
of  less  importance  than  the  preoe£ng.--Off 
limits   allow  us  merely  to  aiid  a  few  ^ 
in   tiie  shortest  oompass,  as  it  would  requn 
volumes  to  present   the  complete  detuh  a 
Brahminism.     Kva  (mm.  to  sleep)  seems  t» 
have   been    borrowed    worn   the  sboripw 
in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Himslajas;  t>«- 
ing  the  destroyer,  be  is  worstapped  in  sesr. 
The  most  active  partner  of  the  7^^*"*^ 
Vishnu  fwa,  to  pervade),  the  preesrm  of  t» 
world,  asleep  on  the  sea-serpent  Sesba  d«0{ 
the  periods  of  annihilation;  mcamatedinonff 
to  save  the  gwms  of  life  when  they  are  in  dii- 
ger.    Ten  such  avataras  are  generally  adiwtt^ 
namely,  as  fish,  tortoise,  boar,  man-hoo,  dffai^ 
2  Ramas,  Ejrishna,  Buddha,  in  tiie  pest, «» 
Ealpi  in  the  future,  when  he  is  to  destroy  tM 
world.     Brahma  has  been  aheady  •?>*«»» 
Although  Vishnu  is  dtea  caUed  tbefint-wis 


BBUBDyLi 


BRAHMAPOOTRA 


of  Brabrnft,  and  often  bis  snbedtate,  He  is  also 
represented  as  prior  to  him.  All  gods,  indeed, 
emanate  mutually  from  each  other.  In  the 
principal  cosmogony,  Vishnu  swims  on  the 
ocean ;  a  Padma  (nelumhium  ap4ei<mtm,  com- 
monly cdled  lotus)  rises  from  his  navel,  bear- 
ing Brahma  as  its  flower ;  the  pistil  being  the 
boly  mountain  Mern,  the  stamens  and  nectaria 
being  the  peaks  of  the  Himalayas,  and  the  4 
petah  the  I>oipa$  (peninsulas),  as  parts  of  the 
earth.  The  top  of  the  mountain  is  named  Su- 
mero  (excellent,  radiant),  as  the  abode  of  the 
celestials  in  the  centre  of  the  earth,  with  4  de* 
clivities.  In  every  K((ilpa  (kripy  to  be  able),  a 
day  and  night  of  Brahma,  containing  4,818,272,- 
000  solar  years,  an  interval  from  creation  to 
creation,  there  are  14  successive  Manns  (memckf 
to  know)  as  presidents  of  the  universe  during  a 
MEMoantaray  with  its  interval  of  a  deluge  lor 
808,448,000  years  of  men,  and  having  its  own 
Indra.  In  the  present  creation  there  have  been 
6  Manus^  of  which  Manu  Soaycmbhuoa  (the Silf- 
ezisting)  is  the  first  and  the  supposed  revealer 
of  the  laws. — ^The  laws  originate  either  from 
revelation  or  from  human  wudom.  They  treat 
of  the  following  subjects:  1,  theory  of  Dvijaa, 
or  second  birth ;  %  Sathfikarc^  or  the  10  sacra- 
ments for  all  periods  of  life ;  8,  Bramaehdrin^ 
or  the  religious  disciple,  before  he  becomes  the 
fiither  of  a  fsunily;  4,  choice  of  a  roouse;  5, 
matrimony ;  6,  modes  of  the  6  principal  obla- 
tions; 7^  SraddhOy  or  Mineral  rites;  8,  duties  of 
men  and  women;  0,  hermits  or  anchorites;  10, 
ascetics ;  11,  duties  of  th^^astes ;  12,  metempsy- 
ohoas. — ^In  Brahmioio  chronology,  18  Nimeshas 
(twinklings  of  the  eye)  are  equal  to  1  Eashta ;  80 
Eashtas  to  1  Eala ;  80  Kalas  (48  of  our  minutes) 
to  1  Muhurtta;  80  Muhurttas  to  1  day  and 
night;  1  month  of  men  to  1  day  and  night  of 
the  Pitris  (ancestorsj) ;  1  year  of  men  to  1  day 
and  night  of  the  goos.  The  time  of  the  present 
creation  consists  of  4  Tugas  or  ages  (Lot.  ju^isi 
everlasting),  viz. :  1,  Satya  (true)  or  Erita  (per- 
fect) Tuga,  comprising  1,728,000  years;  2, 
Treta  (trai.  to  preserve),  1,296,000  years;  8, 
Dvapara  f^o,  doubt,  and  para^  after),  864,000 
years ;  4,  £!ali  Yuga  {hala,  to  count),  which  be- 
gan 8,101  years  B.  0^  and  at  whose  dose,  in  its 
4S2,000th  year,  the  world  is  to  come  to  an  end. 
The  Yugas  have  deteriorated  successively  fi^m 
gold  to  iron. — ^The  reaction  against  the  inhu- 
jnan  laws  of  Manu  was  slowly  preparing,  and 
at  last  Buddha  Sakvamuni  (see  Buddha.  Am> 
Buddhism)  broke  the  spell  by  disregarding 
castes.  Buddhism  became  the  state  religion 
of  India;  the  dynasties  in  the  chief  cities  were 
then  Soodras;  edicts  were  publidied  in  the 
▼ulgar  dialects;  Brahminio  sacrifices  were 
abolished ;  monasteries  for  all  ranks  and  both 
flexes  rose  over  the  whole  country.  Bnt  toward 
the  end  of  the  4th  century  A.  D.,  when  the 
Chinese  pilgrim  Fa-hian  visited  Ind^a,  a  Brah- 
minio reaction  was  already  taking  place  in 
flome  re^ons;  and  during  Hiouenthsang's 
visit  (middle  of  the  7th  century).  Buddhism 
was  losing  ground  rigidly,  some  of  its  most  sa- 


cred buildings  being  in  ruins.  Subsequently  the 
Brahmins  regained  their  influence,  exterminated 
the  heresy  of  Buddha  in  India,  and  re^tablished* 
orthodoxy  under  Sankara-Acharya,  regoacting 
the  laws  of  caste  more  rigorously  than  ever. 
Though  Manu^s  laws  still  spoke  of  the  old  4 
castes,  the  long  reign  of  Buddhism  had  left  but 
one  distinction,  the  pure  caste  of  the  Brahmin 
and  the  Yarnasankaras  or  mixed  castes  of  the 
people.  Now  a  few  families  claim,  without 
being  able  to  prove  it,  the  titles  of  Kshattriyas 
and  Vaisyas,  and  a  few  can  even  lay  claim  to 
the  pure  blood  of  the  Soodras.  After  this  nearly 
total  extinction  of  the  political  castes,  a  new 
system  of  a  professional  character  came  in* 
The  rules  of  the  present  castes,  sometimes  trifling 
in  appearance,  are  observed  with  greater  anxiety 
than  even  the  laws  of  religion.  Thus  if  a  Hindoo 
porter  were  to  bring  water  to  his  master,  he 
would  be  excluded  from  his  caste,  as  certain 
trades  are  carried  on  by  certain  castes.  Hence 
the  priests,  having  the  most  lucrative  trade,  are 
the  strongest  advocates  of  the  system.  There 
is  something  reciprocal  in  caste,  and  no  one  is 
ashamed  of  his  own,  the  lowest  Pariah  (so  named 
firom  the  bell  by  which,  in  former  times,  he 

give  warning  against  heina:  approached  by  a 
rahmin)  being  as  proud  of  his  own  caste  as 
the  Brahmin.  The  Turas  (turay  to  hurry)  con* 
aider  their  houses  defiled  and  throw  away  their 
cooking  utensils,  if  a  Brahmm  visits  them.  The 
man  of  the  lowest  order  turns  away  his  face 
with  great  disgust,  if  he  be  invited  to  a  feast 
with  a  European  of  the  highest  rank.  The  pro* 
hibition  of  intermarriages  is  not  only  a  result 
of  caste,  but  also  of  pedigree,  if  the  couple  be 
of  the  same  caste.  Eulins  (well  born),  Srotrigas 
(well  behaved),  and  other  sorts  of  Brahmins 
will  eat  together,  but  have  scruples  about  allow- 
ing their  children  to  intermarry.  The  6  divi- 
sions of  Tatis  (weavers)  neither  visit  each 
other  nor  intermarry.  A  great  change  has  been 
wrought,  and  is  going  on,  with  regard  to  this 
condition  of  society  among  the  Hindoos.  Brah- 
mins often  violate  the  laws  of  Mann,  by  taking 
gifts  from  Soodras,  by  sitting  at  the  feet  of  a 
Doodra,  on  the  same  carpet,  if  he  be  a  rich 
banker,  &c.  The  president  of  the  Dharmasabha 
(tribunal  of  justice)  at  Calcutta  is  a  Soodra,  while 
the  secretary  is  a  Brahnmu  Three-fourths  of 
the  Brahmins  in  Bengal  are  servants  of  others. 
Many  traffic  in  alcoholic  liquors,  some  in  cattle 
for  bntdhera,  and  wear  shoes  made  of  the  skins 
of  cows.  Many  of  the  present  mis»onaries  are 
bent  upon  the  abolition  of  caste ;  some  of  the 
early  Catholics  went  too  far  in  tolerating  it.  The 
British  government  have  been  urged  to  inter- 
fere with  caste,  by  protecting  the  lower  against 
being  treated  with  indignity :  for  instance,  in 
Malabar,  where  a  Nayadi  denies  a  Brahmin  at 
a  distance  of  74  paces,  and  would  be  shot  by  a 
Nayer,  though  himself  a  Soodra,  if  he  approached 
too  near. 

BRAHMAPOOTRA,  or  BURRAMPOOTER 
("  ofl&pring  of  Brahma"),  oneof  the  largestrivera 
of  Hindostan,  the  source  of  which  has  never 


622 


BRAIDWOOD 


BRAILLE 


been  acenrately  defined.  It  appears,  however, 
to  rise  in  Thibet  at  the  £.  extremity  of  the 
•Himalaya  mts,,  about  hit.  28^  80'  N.,  long.  97** 
20'  £.,  whence  it  flows  S.  W.  and  W.  into  AssaiiL 
where  it  is  joined  by  the  Dibong,  the  Dihong,  and 
other  streams.  The  Dihong,  sometimes  called 
the  Bramapootra,  and  also  known  as  the  Sanpoo, 
rises  N.  of  the  lUmalayas  near  the  N.  W.  fron- 
tier of  Nepaul,  and  unites  with  the  Bramapoo- 
tra  proper  in  the  N.  part  of  Assam.  The  river 
formed  by  this  Junction  flows  76  miles  S.  W. 
and  then  diverges  into  the  Boree  Lohit  and  the 
Dihing.  Uniting  again  after  a  divided  course 
of  65  miles,  it  flows  W..  through  the  district  of 
Goalpara,  winds  around  the  W.  foot  of  the  Gar- 
row  hilla^  separates  Goalpara  and  Mymunsing 
from  Rungpoor,  and  after  sending  off  a  branch 
called  the  Konaie,  which  joins  it  again  further 
down,  runs  S.  E.  for  180  miles.  It  then  changes 
its  name  for  that  of  Megna,  receives  part  of  tiie 
waters  of  the  Ganges  through  the  Xirtynassa. 
and  after  various  windings  enters  the  bay  of 
Bengal  by  8  channels :  the  Ganges  on  the  W., 
the  Shabazpoor  in  the  centre,  and  the  Hattia 
on  the  £.  Its  total  length,  from  its  source  to 
the  bay,  is  988  miles ;  but  including  the  Sanpoo, 
it  is  about  1,400  miles.  It  is  naTisable  from  its 
mouth  to  the  Dihong,  by  the  ordinary  vessels 
of  the  country,  and  for  some  distance  further  by 
canoes.  Through  the  last  60  miles  of  its  course 
it  is  from  4  to  5  miles  wide,  and  studded  with 
islands.  Its  waters  are  thick  and  dirty  ;  its 
bulks  are  mostly  covered  with  marshes  and 
jungles,  and  are  subject  to  annual  inundations. 
During  the  season  of  the  overflow,  from  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  September,  the 
level  districts  of  Assam  are  almost  wholly  sub- 
merged, so  that  travel  is  impossible,  except  on 
causeways  8  or  10  feet  high.  The  volume  of 
water  dischanred  by  the  river  at  such  times 
is  immense.  Even  in  the  dry  season,  it  is  equal 
to  146,188  cubic  feet  a  second,  while  in  the 
same  time,  and  under  the  same  circumstances, 
the  Ganges  discharges  only  about  80,000. 

BRAIDWOOD,  Thomas,  one  of  the  earliest 
teachers  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, commenced  in  1760  a  school  for  their 
instruction  at  Edinburgh.  He  foUowed  the 
system  of  Heinecke  and  others,  ^ving  great 
prominence  to  articulation,  and  "  reading  from 
the  lip."  His  processes  were  kept  a  dose 
secret  in  his  own  family  for  many  years.  He 
taught  with  considerable  success  at  Edinburgh 
till  1783,  when  he  removed  to  Hackney, 
near  London,  continuing  his  school  till  his 
death,  in  1806,  when  it  was  carried  on  by  his 
widow  and  her  grandchildren.  When,  in 
1816,  Mr.  Gallaudet,  the  pioneer  of  American 
instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb,  applied  to  the 
Braidwoods,  or  their  relatives,  who  had  charge 
of  all  the  schools  for  deaf  mutes  then  existing 
in  England,  for  instruction,  in  order  to  enable 
him  to  establish  an  institution  in  this  country, 
it  was  refused,  except  under  circumstances  and 
with  restrictions  to  which  he  could  not  consist- 
ently submit.    The  school  of  Mr.  Bnddwood, 


at  Edinburgh,  was  visited  in  1773  by  Dr.  John- 
son, who  spoke  of  it  with  high  commendation, 
as  did  also  Lord  Monboddo,  who  visited  it  in 
the  same  year.  An  American  gentleman,  whose 
son  had  been  educated  by  Mr.  Braidwood, 
published,  in  1788,  a  little  pamphlet  entitled 
Vox  OeulU  Subjeeta,  in  which  he  gives  some 
account  of  the  schooL 

BRAILLE,  Louis,  the  inventor  of  the  meth- 
od of  writing  with  points,  now  in  general  use 
in  institutions  for  the  blind,  was  bom  at  Lagny, 
a  suburb  of  Paris,  in  1809.  He  was  blind  from 
birth,  and  at  the  age  of  10  years  was  admitted 
to  the  royal  institute  for  the  blind,  where  his 
talents  and  attainments,  both  in  science  and 
music,  soon  rendered  him  eminent.  In  instru- 
mentsJ  music  he  has  attained  a  very  high  rank, 
being  one  of  the  most  distinguished  organists 
of  Paris,  and  excelling  also  as  a  violoncelUst 
In  1829,  at  the  early  age  of  20,  he  had  formed 
the  idea  of  so  completely  modifving  M.  Charles 
Barbier^s  system  of  writiog  with  points,  as  to 
render  it  practicable  and  convenient,  and  it  was 
introduced  into  the  royal  institute  not  long  af- 
ter, though  no  account  of  it  was  published  till 
10  years  later.  It  is  now  adopted  in  most  of 
the  continental  schools,  and  has  recently  been 
introduced  into  the  New  York,  Maryland,  and 
Illinois  institutions,  and  the  imperial  institute 
for  the  blind  at  BXo  Janeiro.  The  agns  are  43 
in  number,  embracing  the  entire  alphabet,  and 
all  the  diphthongs,  and  marks  of  punctuation. 
Of  these,  10,  called  the  fundamental  signs,  are 
the  basis  of  all  the  g|st.  These  signs,  which 
represent  the  first  10  letters  of  the  alphabet^ 
and  the  10  Arabic  numerals,  are  as  follows: 

ABODEFGHI      J 

•      •     •••••       •••••         •       • 

•  •       ••       •••••       •• 

128466789       0 

By  placing  one  point  under  the  left  side  of 
each  fundamental  sign,  the  2d  series  are  formed, 
comprising  the  next  10  letters ;  by  placing  2 
points  under  each  fundamental  dgn,  the  3d 
series,  comprising  U,  V,  X,  Y,  Z,  g  (0  softX 
E,  A,  E,  U,  are  formed;  by  placing  one  point 
under  the  right  side  of  the  fundamental  sgns, 
the  4th  series,  embracing  A,  E,  1,  0,  U,  £,  I, 
t),  (£,  W,  are  formed.  Three  supplementary 
i^ns  represent  t,  M^  and  0.  The  marks  of 
punctuation  are  the  fundamental  signs  placed 
2  lines  below.  The  system  has  been  iq>plied  to 
musical  notation  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make 
the  reading  and  writing  of  music  much  easier 
for  the  blind  than  for  those  who  see.  The  7 
notes  are  represented  by  the  last  7  of  the  fun- 
damental signs,  and  each  of  these  notes  may 
be  written  in  7  different  octaves  by  merely  pre- 
fixing a  mgn  peculiar  to  each  octave,  and  thus 
the  necessity  of  designating  tiie  key  of  each 
musical  sentence  in  the  ordinary  way  is  avoid- 
ed. The  mode  of  writing  is  very  simple.  The 
apparatus  consists  of  a  board,  with  a  surfoce 
grooved  horizontally  and  vertically  by  lines  % 
of  an  inch  apart.  Over  this  board  a  fhune  is 
fitted  like  that  of  the  common  map  delineator. 


BRAIN 


628 


and  one  or  more  sheets  of  paper  being  placed 
over  the  board,  the  points  are  made  with  a 
bodkin,  through  a  slip  of  tin  perforated  thus, 
:3 ,  which  contains  all  the  changes  used  in  the 
system.  As  the  sheet  must  be  reversed  to  be 
read,  the  writing  should  be  from  right  to  left, 
that  it  may  be  read  from  left  to  right.  Of 
course  several  copies  may  be  made  by  one  ope- 
ration, if  desired.  Of  late,  books  have  been 
printed  in  points,  by  the  French  and  other  con- 
tinental institutions.  The  system  commends 
itself  by  its  simplicity,  its  easy  acquisition,  and 
the  facility  witn  which  it  enables  the  blind  to 
express  their  thoughts  on  paper,  and  afterward 
read  and  revise  them  themselves.  M.  BrdUe 
has  been,  since  1840,  a  professor  in  the  royal 
(now  imperial)  institute  for  the  blind,  at  Paris. 
BRAIN,  a  collective  term,  embracing  those 
parts  of  the  nervous  system  (excluding  the 
nerves)  which  are  contained  in  tiie  cranial  cav- 
ity, viz. :  the  brain,  in  its  popular  signification, 
or  the  cerebral  hemispheres;  the  eerebdluniy 
or  little  brain;  and  the  medulla  oblongata^  or 
the  upper  part  of  the  spinal  cord.  £ach  of 
these  has  its  special  and  distinct  part  to  play  in 
the  animal  organism.  This  alone,  of  the  animal 
tissues,  is  directly  influenced  by  the  mental 
acts  of  living  beings,  and  through  this  are  ef- 
fected the  mutual  reactions  of  mind  and 
body ;  the  phenomena  of  sensation  and  volition, 
and  the  mysterious  agency  of  intellect  and  in- 
stinct, are  all  manifested  through  the  channels 
of  the  nervous  centres,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  the  brain.  The  peculiar  substance 
through  which  all  these  actions  take  place 
exists  in  two  forms,  the  vesicular  and  the 
fibrous.  The  vesicular  nervous  matter  is  gray 
or  ash-colored,  granular  in  texture,  containing 
nucleated  nerve  vesicles,  largely  supplied  with 
blood,  and  is  the  originator  of  nervous  power : 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  "cortical  substance, 
from  its  forming  a  thin  layer  over  the  exterior 
of  the  brain ;  it  is  also  found  in  the  centre  of  the 
spinal  cord.  The  fibrous  nervous  matter  is  gen- 
erally white,  firm,  and  inelastic,  composed  of  tu- 
bular fibres ;  it  is  less  vascular  than  the  oUier,  and 
constitQtes  nearly  the  whole  of  the  nerves,  and 
the  greater  part  of  the  spinal  cord ;  it  simply 
propagates  the  impressions  sent  to  or  from  the 
vesicular  matter.  The  two  kinds  do  not  occur 
together  except  in  the  nervous  centres.  In  the 
Tertebrated  animals,  nervous  matter  is  a  soft 
and  delicate  substance,  owing  the  greater  part 
of  its  tenacity  to  the  vascular  and  fibrous  tis- 
sues connected  with  it.  The  chemical  compo- 
sition of  nervous  matter  has  been  well  ascer- 
tained -by  Fonrcroy,  Vauquelin,  and  Fr6my; 
but  the  distinguishing  characters  of  the  gray  and 
white  substance  are  as  yet  imperfectly  known. 
Fonrcroy  notices  the  great  amount  of  water  in 
the  cerebral  matter,  from  |  to  {  of  its  weight, 
upon  which  its  softness  is  in  great  part  de- 
])ecdent.  According  to  Yauquelin's  analysis  in 
1812,  the  brain  is  an  emulsive  mixture  of  al- 
bumen, fatty  matter,  and  of  water  holding  in 
aolution  saline  and  other  matters  common  to  it 


with  other  tissues.    The  foUowing  table  gives 
the  result  of  his  analysis : 

Albamen 7.00 

c««b™i«kt....|:5x%*t2} '^^ 

Phospborus 1.60 

Osmiuomo 1.13 

Acids,  salts,  salphur 5.15 

Water 80.00 

loaoo 
The  medulla  oblongata  contains  more  cerebral 
fat,  but  less  albumen,  osmazome,  and  water. 
Fr^my's  analysis,  published  in  the  Annalea  ds 
Chimiey  1841,  confirmed  that  of  Vauquelin, 
and  showed  the  following  proportions:  7  parts 
of  albumen,  5  of  fatty  matter,  and  80  of  water; 
he  extracted  from  the  fatty  matter  the  follow- 
ing secondary  principles:  1,  cerebrio  acid,  a 
white,  granular,  crystalline  substance,  containing 
no  sulphur,  a  little  phosphorus,  and  66  per 
cent,  of  carbon ;  2,  oleophosphorio  acid,  sepa- 
rated from  the  cerebric  by  its  solubility  in  ether, 
contfuning  about  £  per  cent  of  phosphorus  in 
the  condition  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  combined 
with  elaine ;  8,  cholesterine,  the  same  as  that 
obtained  from  bile  (brains  preserved  in  alcohol 
are  apt  to  be  surrounded  by  a  crystalline  sub- 
stance resembling  cholesterine);  4,  traces  of 
elaine,  margarine,  and  &tty  acids.  The  brain 
is  remarkable  for  containing  phosphorus,  which 
varies  in  quantity  at  different  periods  of  life, 
being  the  least  m  infancy  and  old  age;  the 
maximum  of  water  is  found  in  infancy,  an  in- 
teresting fact  in  connection  with  the  serous 
efiTasions  so  prevalent  at  this  period  of  life;  it 
has  been  ascerUuned  that  the  idiot  brain  con- 
tains less  plioephorus  than  the  normal  organ, 
this  being  diminished  from  nearly  2  to  less  than 
1  per  cent.,  indicating  posdbly  an  important 
hint  for  the  treatment  of  diseases  accompanied 
by  deterioration  of  the  mental  powers.  The  mi- 
crosooDio  elements  of  nervous  tissue  are  fibres 
and  ccols.  The  fibrous  nervous  ma  tter,  or  white 
central  substance,  contains  tubular  fibres  or  nerve 
tubes,  and  the  gelatinous  fibres  found  chiefly  in 
the  sympathetic  system.  The  white  fibres  are 
membranous  cylinders,  of  a  pearly  lustre, 
lined  by  a  darker  layer,  called  the  '^  white  sub- 
stance of  Schwann,"  and  filled  with  a  transpa- 
rent substance,  *'  the  axis  cylinder  "  of  Rosen- 
thal; the  lining  of  the  white  substance  is  less 
evident  in  the  brain  than  in  the  spinal  nerves ; 
these  fibres  vary  from  Yilirs  ^ livv  ^^  ^^  '^^^^  ^^ 
diameter,  presenting  at  some  points  a  swollen 
appearance;  they  do  not  communicate  with 
each  other  like  the  vessels,  nor  divide  into 
smaller  fibres,  but  continue  unbroken  from 
their  origin  to  their  final  distribution,  inosculat- 
ing only  at  their  terminal  loops.  The  gelatinous 
or  gray  fibres  seem  to  be  solid,  flattened,  trans- 
parent filaments,  varying  in  diameter  from  ^vW 
to  jjf^  of  an  inch ;  the  mode  of  their  connec- 
tion with  the  elements  of  the  nervous  centres 
is  unknown.  The  essential  elements  of  the 
vesicular  or  gray  nervous  matter  are  cells,  or 
vesicles,  containing  nuclei  and  nucleoli;  they 
are  dark,  generally  globular,  but  at  times  very 


624 


BRAIN 


irregrilar  and  voiioiisl/  elongated,  endosing  a 
grayish  grannkr  sabstance,  and  sometimes  pig- 
ment granules ;  they  vary  in  size  from  nVir  ^ 
yiv  of  an  inch  in  diameter;  among  the  largest 
of  these  are  the  caudate,  so  called  from  the  ir- 
regular tail-like  processes  extending  from  them. 
The  nerve  vesicles  are  imbedded  in  a  soft  gran- 
ular matrix  in  the  brain.  The  nervous  centres 
exhibit  the  union  of  these  two  forms  of  matter, 
more  widely  separated  in  the  brain  than  in  the 
smaller  ganglia;  indeed,  the  cerebral  hemi- 
spheres are  composed  internally  of  fibrous  matter 
exclusively,  surrounded  by  a  layer  of  the  gray 
yesioular  substanoe,  into  which  the  fibres  are 
also  prolonged.  As  to  the  development  of 
nerve  fibres,  they  appear,  according  to  Schwann, 
to  be  formed  in  the  same  manner  as  muscles, 
viz.,  by  the  fusion  of  a  number  of  primary  cells 
arranged  in  rows  into  a  secondary  cell,  though 
the  primary  nervous  cell  has  not  been  pre- 
viously diBtingnished  from  other  cells  out  of 
which  organs  are  formed;  the  perfect  vesicular 
matter  presents  the  primitive  cells  in  a  persist- 
ent condition.  The  tubular  fibres  seem  to  be 
capable  of  regeneration  to  a  certain  extent;  if 
a  nerve  be  divided,  but  the  ends  not  separated, 
union  may  take  place,  and  the  nerve  resume  its 
ofBice ;  even  when  a  portion  is  excised,  it  ap- 
pears that  true  nerve  fibres,  in  smaller  number 
than  in  the  nerve  itself^  may  be  developed  in 
the  uniting  substance,  as  shown  by  partial  res- 
toration of  function,  and  anicroecopio  examina* 
tion.  When  a  portion  of  the  brain  is  removed 
by  accident  or  design,  its  place  is  supplied  by 
new  substance ;  but  whether  this  be  true  cere* 
bral  substanoe  or  not,  has  not  been  satisfactorily 
determined.  The  white  fibres  may  be  distin- 
guished, according  to  their  physiological  office, 
into  8  lands— ^fierent  or  motor,  afferent  or  sen- 
sitive, and  commissural  or  connecting.  Henle 
suggests  that  there  may  be  a  4th  series,  asso* 
elated  with  the  operations  of  thought.  Of  the 
mode  in  which  the  afferent  nerves  terminata 
and  the  motor  nerves  commence  in  the  central 
organs,  it  may  be  said  that  *8  principal  modes 
have  been  ascertained,  in  which  there  is  an  ac- 
tual continuity  from  one  form  of  nerve  tissue  to 
the  other :  a  globular  unipolar  cell  may  give  out 
a  single  prolongation,  which  becomes  a  fibre;  or 
a  nerve  cell  may  be  found  in  the  course  of  a 
tube,  with  each  extremity  prolonged  into  a 
fibre;  or  some  of  the  raoiatmg  prolongations 
of  the  caudate  cells  may  become  continuous 
with  the  axis-cylinders  of  nerve  tubes,  or  inos- 
culate with  those  of  other  caudate  cells.  A 
curious  circumstance  in  connection  with  the 
gray  matter,  is  the  lai^e  quantity  of  pigment  or 
coloring  substance  in  it,  apparently  forming  one 
of  its  essential  constituent^  as  it  is  everywhere 
present,  though  in  some  situations  more  abun- 
dantly than  in  others;  it  has  been  asserted  that 
this  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  blood,  and,  if  so,  it  is  a 
&ct  of  great  interest  to  physicians,  who 
can  avail  themselves  of  the  restorative  prop- 
erties of  iron  in  cerebral  diseases,  improving 


the  quality  ci  the  nutrient  blood  by  inerea»- 
ing  the  quantity  of  the  red  globules. — ^The 
central  column  or  spine  of  the  vertebrate  skel- 
eton encloses  in  its  canal  the  spinal  cord; 
and  the  cranium,  which  is  a  series  of  modified 
and  expanded  vertebrss,  protects  the  continua- 
tion of  the  cord  and  its  expansion  into  an  ag- 
gregate of  ganffliform  swellings,  the  brain  or 
encephalon.  The  brun  is  enclosed  in  8  mem- 
branes, or  meninges,  continuous  with  those  of 
the  soinal  cord,  which  will  be  described  under 
that  head.  From  without  inward,  these  mem- 
branes are  the  dura  nuUefy  arachnoid^  and  fia 
mater.  The  term  mat&r  (/u^ny^  mother)  ori- 
ginated with  the  Arabians,  who  considered 
these  membranes  as  the  parenta  of  all  othefs 
in  the  body.  The  dura  mater  is  a  membrane 
of  white  fibrous  tissue,  str<»g,  fiexible,  but  not 
elastic;  its  fibres  are  arranged  <m  diffisrent 
planes ;  it  is  freely  supplied  with  blood-yefisds, 
and  is  perforated  for  the  passage  of  nerves,  and, 
according  to  Arnold  and  Pappenheim,  baa  some 
brancdies  between  its  own  lamin».  It  forms 
the  internal  periosteum  of  the  skull,  and  is 
dosely  applied  to  the  cranial  bones,  and  in 
some  places  firmly  adherent,  eipeoially  in  jouth 
and  old  age.  From  it  prooesses  are  g^ven  oS, 
which  serve  as  partitkms  between  the  cerebrum 
and  cerebellum  behind,  and  between  the  cere- 
bral and  cerebellar  hemispheres ;  these  procees- 
€6  are  the  jMx  cerebri^  which  separates  the 

Ct  hemispheres,  extending  on  the  median 
from  the  forehead  to  the  occiput,  along  the 
sagittal  suture;  it  is  faldform  in  shape,  its 
lower  border  concave  and  corresponding  to  the 
convexity  of  the  em'jpug  ciUlowmy  and  its  upper 
border  enclosing  the  great  longitudinal  sinus; 
narrow  in  front,  and  deep  behind,  having  tiie 
inferior  longitudinal  sinus  along  its  posterior 
border.  The  tentorium  eerebeUi  extends  hori- 
zontally between  liie  posterior  cerebral  lobes 
and  the  cerebeUmn;  it  is  attached  to  the  frJx 
cerebri,  and  to  the  ocdintal  and  petrous  por- 
tion of  the  temporal  bones  along  the  grooye  for 
the  lateral  sinus;  in  the  cats  and  some  other 
leafung  animals,  this  membrane  is  partially  re^ 
placed  by  bone,  doubtless  to  prevent  injury 
from  sudden  shocks.  Between  the  lobes  of  the 
cerebellum  descends  vertically  frt>m  the  tento- 
rium the  faia  eerebdUy  containing  the  occipital 
sinuses.  Next  to  the  dura  mater,  which  also 
ftirnishes  sheaths  for  the  nerves  and  yessels 
at  theur  origins,  lies  the  a^rachnoidf  the  serous 
membrane  ca  the  cerebro-spinal  cavity ;  it  con- 
sists of  2  layers,  the  outer  one  closely  adherent 
to  the  dura  mater,  and  the  inner  one  loosely  to 
the  pia  mater ;  the  space  between  the  2  layers 
is  the  arachnoid  cavity,  and  that  between  it 
and  the  pia  mater,  the  sub-arachnoid  cayity; 
resembling  other  serous  membranes,  the  arach- 
noid is  liable  to  become  inflamed  with  the  effu- 
sion of  fiuid  into  one  or  both  of  the  above  cavi- 
ties, especially  toward  the  base  of  the  brain. 
The  sub-arachnoid  space  is  filled  with  what  is 
called  the  '^cerebro-spinal  fiuid,"  varying  from 
2  to  10  ounces  in  quantity,  and  keeping  during 


BBAIN 


625 


life  ibe  opposed  ardchnoid  enr&ces  in  contact ; 
it  is  most  abundant  where  tlie  brain  has  shrank 
either  from  disease  or  old  age.  From  the  ex^ 
periments  of  Hagendie  it  appears  that  its  pres- 
ence is  necessary  for  the  healthy  action  of  the 
nervons  centres;  when  removed,  it  is  quickly 
formed  again;  it  is  a  limpid,  alkaline  flaid, 
donbtless  secreted  by  the  pia  mater,  and  affords 
mechanical  protection  to  the  brain  and  spinal 
cord  by  the  interposition  of  its  yielding  mediam 
between  them  and  the  bony  cavities  which 
sorronnd  them ;  its  accumulation  at  the  base  of 
the  brain  is  highly  favorable  for  the  protection 
of  the  Large  nerves  and  vessels  there  situated. 
It  is  not  probable  that  this  cavity  communicates 
-with  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  This  fluid 
exists  in  an  increased  quantity  in  the  brains  of 
idiots;  and,  whenever  the  cranial  or  spinal 
wails  are  deficient,  as,  for  instance,  in  $pi7ia  U- 
Jlda^  an  accumulation  of  the  fluid  becomes  prom- 
inent at  the  part,  thereby  protecting  the  ner- 
Yoos  substance.  The  third  membrane  immedi- 
ately investing  the  brain  is  the  pia  mater^  com- 
posed of  white  fibrous  tissue  and  blood-vessels ;  in 
the  ^uU  it  is  very  delicate  and  very  vascular; 
it  adheres  to  the  surface  of  the  cerebral  and  cere- 
bellar hemispheres,  and  sends  innumerable  mi- 
nute vessels  to  their  substance ;  it  sinks  into  the 
fissure  and  sulci,  and  penetrates  into  the  ven- 
tricles, forming  the  choroid  plemues  and  the 
9elum  hUerpoiUum;  its  minute  ramifications 
are  sometimes  incrusted  with  sandy  particles, 
consisting  principally  of  phosphate  of  Ume. 
The  pia  mater  is  the  medium  of  nutrition  to  the 
nervous  substance  and  to  the  arachnoid;  and 
hence  any  inflammation  of  these  membranes 
would  be  communicated  to  the  superficiid  gray 
matter  of  the  brain,  the  seat  of  its  physiologi- 
cal activity.  Along  each  side  of  the  longitudinal 
sinus  it  is  common  to  find  a  series  of  depressions 
in  the  dura  mater ;  these  are  due  to  the  presence 
of  whitish  flranules,  called  Pacchionian  glands, 
from  their  first  describer,  of  an  albuminous  ma- 
terial, arising  probably  from  a  deposit  of  gran* 
ular  lymph  among  the  vessels  of  the  pia  mater ; 
they  are  found  principally  along  the  edge  of  the 
great  longitudinal  fissure  of  the  hemispheres^ 
poshing  the  arachnoid  before  them,  and  even 
projecting  into  the  sinus.  They  are  generally 
considered  morbid  structures,  and  the  result  of 
local  irritation  of  a  chronic  character;  if  the 
];Hnoducts  of  diMase,  they  do  not  seem  to  inter- 
fbre  in  the  least  with  the  functions  of  the  brain. — 
The  brain  of  the  adult  h]|man  male,  comprising 
the  whole  contents  of  the  cranium  as  &r  as  the 
occipital  foramen,  will  average  in  weight  about 
60  oz. ;  that  of  the  adult  female,  about  45  oz. ; 
the  maximum  weight  of  the  healthy  organ  is 
about  64  oz.,  and  the  minimum  about  81  oz. ; 
in  esses  of  idiocy  it  has  been  found  weighing 
only  20  oz.  According  to  Boutgery,  if  the 
brain  be  divided  into  204  parts,  the  cerebrtd 
hemispheres  would  weigh  170,  the  cerebellum  21, 
and  the  medulla  and  sensory  ganglia  13;  on  the 
same  scale,  the  spinol  cord  would  weigh  7.  In 
proportion  to  the  body^s  weight,  the  brain  of  man 
VOL.  in. — 40 


would  weif^  ,V  P^t  ui  the  average  of  msm- 
malla,  this  proportion  would  be  jl^;  in  birds; 
yf,;  in  reptiles,  „Vt;  ^^  ^  fishes,  «Vi-  la 
some  apes,  rodents,  and  singing  birds,  the  weight 
of  the  brain  bears  a  higher  proportion  to  that 
of  the  body  than  it  does  in  roan,  even  as  high 
as  1^  in  the  blue-headed  titmouse;  the  in- 
crease, however,  is  not  in  the  cerebrum,  the 
seat  of  intellect,  but  in  the  sensonr  gangliai 
the  seat  of  the  instinctive  actions.  The  size  of 
the  brain  is  not  in  proportion  to  the  physical 
development  of  the  body,  either  in  animals  or 
man ;  the  horse  has  a  brain  inferior  in  weight 
to  the  smallest  adult  human  brain;  that  of  a 
whale  75  feet  long  was  found  to  weigh  not 
quite  twice  as  much  Ma  that  of  man.  Even  in 
men  there  is  no  fixed  relation  between  the  size 
of  the  body  and  the  brain ;  a  small  man  may 
have  a  large  brain,  and  vies  vend.  Men  of 
great  intellectual  power  have  generally,  if  not 
always,  possessed  large  brains;  the  brain  of 
Cuvier,  the  great  French  naturalist,  weighed 
between  59  and  60  oz. ;  that  of  the  French  sur- 
geon, Dnpuytren,  58  oz. ;  those  of  Napoleon  and 
Daniel  Webster,  an  ounce  or  two  less.  The  qual- 
ity of  the  brain,  however,  is  quite  as  important 
as  the  quantity,  so  that  a  large  briun  does  not  of 
necessity  constitute  a  great  man.  According  to 
Tiedemann,  the  female  brain,  though  absolutely 
smaller  Uian  that  of  the  male,  is  larger  when 
compared  with  the  size  of  the  body.  The  brain 
reaches  its  highest  development,  anatomically,  at 
the  age  of  20  years,  which  it  maintains  until  60,  af- 
ter which,  in  most  persons,  it  begins  to  decrease 
in  size,  with  a  corresponding  decline  in  the  men- 
tal powers.  There  do  not  appear  to  be  any 
striking  differences  between  the  brains  of  the 
yarious  races  of  man. — ^For  the  topographical 
and  pathological  anatomy  of  the  brain,  an  ex- 
amination from  the'  hemispheres  downward  is 
the  most  practicable  method ;  but  for  physio- 
logical anatomy,  it  is  more  advantageous  to 
make  the  examination  from  below  upward,  by 
which  method  the  student  proceeds  from  the 
simple  to  the  more  complex,  following  the  di- 
rection of  the  fibres  of  the  medulla  oblongata  to 
theur  tdtimate  distribution  in  other  parts  of  the 
brain.  The  medulla  oblongata  is  the  upper  en- 
larged portion  and  direct  continuation  of  the 
spinal  cord,  extending  from  the  plane  of  the  oc- 
cipital foramen  about  an  inch  upward  to  the 
meBoeephaUy  or  pon»  Varolii;  through  this  the 
brain  is  brought  into  communication  with  the 
other  vital  organs,  and  it  is  therefore  the 
naud  9ital^  ^^the  link  which  binds  us  to 
life.'*  As  its  size  is  proportionate  to  that  of 
the  nerves  which  proceed  fix>m  it,  it  is  much 
larger  in  some  lower  animals  than  in  man. 
Like  the  spinal  cord,  it  consists  essentially  of 
anterior  and  posterior  columns ;  it  may  be  an- 
atomically distinguished  from  the  cord  by 
the  decussation  or  crossing  of  some  of  the 
anterior  fibres.  In  fh>nt  are  the  ^^  anterior  pyra- 
mids," separated  by  a  median  fissure ;  external  to 
these  are  the  oval  protuberances^  the  "olivary 
bodies;"  more  external,  and  formmg  the  lateral 


626 


BRAIN 


and  great  part  of  the  poetertor  porttona,  are  the 
"  refltiform  bodies,^  separated  from  each  other 
ia  the  middle  by  two  slender  columns,  the  ^^  pos- 
terior pyramids.^'  The  anterior  pyramids  or 
fibres  extend  from  the  antero-hUerai  columns  of 
the  co«>d  to  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  passing 
through  the  mesocephale,  the  corpora  Hriata^ 
and  the  optic  thalamic  contributing  to  form  the 
lower  portion  of  the  cnu  cerebri;  in  the  meso- 
cephale these  fibres  are  crossed  at  ri^ht  angles 
hj  others  belonging  to  it,  and  are  mterlaoed 
with  them;  on  tracing  them  downward,  the 
greater  part  connect  themselves  with  the  middle 
or  lateral  columns  of  the  opposite  side,  while  a 
few  are  continued  down  on  the  same  side  into 
the  anterior  columns  of  the  cord,  and  others,  the 
"arciform  fibres,"  curve  round  the  olivary  bodies 
and  ascend  to  the  cerebelluni,  not  passing  to  the 
cord ;  the  anterior  pyramids  are  entirely  of  a 
fibrous  structure.  The  arrangement  of  these 
fibres  is  highly  interesting  in  explaining  the 
phenomena  of  disease  of  the  brain :  any  lesion 
will  produce  it  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  body, 
with  few  and  unimportant  exceptions,  and  this 
in  one  hemisphere  sufficient  to  cause  paralysis, 
through  the  decussating  fibres;  at  the  same 
time  the  straight  fibres  will  cause  a  partial  affec- 
tion of  the  same  side ;  anv  lesion  of  the  cord 
below  the  decussation  affects  only  the  same 
Bide  of  the  body.  The  restiform  bodies  con- 
Bist  of  fibrous  strands  enclosing  a  gray  nucleus, 
and  pass  upward  into  the  crura  cerebelli;  below 
they  are  chiefly  continuous  with  the  posterior 
spinal  columns,  and  partly  with  the  posterior 
part  of  the  midole  columns ;  as  the  fibres  ascend 
they  diverge,  leaving  between  them  the  4th 
ventricle,  and  pass  into  the  corresponding  hem- 
isphere of  the  cerebellum,  connecting  this  latter 
with  the  spinal  cord;  the  cerebellar  columns 
also  communicate  by  a  bancl  of  arciform  fibres, 
according  to  Solly,  with  the  anterior  spinal 
columns ;  the  gray  nucleus,  or  *^  restiform  gan- 
glion^*' seems  to  be  the  ganglionic  centre  of  the 
pneumogastric  and  a  part  of  the  glossopharyngeal 
nerves.  The  posterior  pyramids  can  hardly  be 
distinguished  from  the  restifonn  bodies  exter- 
nally ;  but  their  columns,  bounded  by  the  median 
fissure  and  by  a  very  slight  groove,  establish  a 
connection  between  the  sensory  tract  of  the 
crura  cerebri  and  the  posterior  lateral  columns 
of  the  cord,  a  few  fibres  passing  to  the  posterior ; 
their  gray  nuclei  are  the  ganglionic  centres  of 
the  auditory  nerves.  The  olivary  bodies, 
continuous  inferiorly  with  the  anterior  or  motor 
columns  of  the  cord,  and  affording  attachments 
to  the  motor  fibres  of  the  1st  and  2d  cervical 
nerves,  enclose  a  gray  nucleus,  and  send  their 
fibres  forward  to  the  motor  tract  of  the  orus 
cerebri,  and  backward  to  the  quadrigeminal 
bodies ;  the  nucleus,  or  corpus  dentatum,  seems 
to  be  connected  with  the  hypoglossal  or  motor 
nerve  of  the  tongue,  and  also  with  the  glosso- 
pharyngeal, one  of  the  sensory  nerves  of  this 
organ.  According  to  Todd  and  Bowman,  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  olivary  bodies  consti- 
tute the  nucleus  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  ttiat 


on  which  their  power  as  an  independent  eentre 
depends — they  contain  the  mixtare  of  gray  md 
white  matter  characteristic  of  a  nervons  centre 
— and  that  the  otlier  pyramids  and  bodies  sore 
only  to  connect  the  oerebram  and  oerebeUsa 
with  the  spinal  cord.  The  medalia  is  not  odj 
a  transmitter  of  fibres  from  the  spinal  eord,  hk 
is  a  nervous  centre  itself;  with  it  are  oooneeted 
the  nerves  of  respiration  and  deglutition^  wbkb 
are  quite  independent  of  the  cerebral  heso- 
spheres,  and  beyond  the  control  of  the  wUl.— Dm 
cerebellum,  i  of  the  size  of  the  eerebrom,  is 
placed  under  the  posterior  part  of  the  latter, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  tentorwm; 
it  is  composed  of  white  and  gray  matter,  the 
former  occupying  the  interior ;  it  has  no  oodto- 
lutiona,  being  nutde  up  of  parallel  layers.  La 
central  part  or  lobe  is  the  only  one  found  ia 
fishes  and  reptiles ;  the  lateral  lobes,  foond  oah 
in  the  higher  animals,  and  in  mian,  indicate  an 
advance  in  development.  On  a  vertical  aecSMii 
we  find  the  white  substance  resembling  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  from  which  braachea  are  givai 
off,  hence  called  arbor  eitcs,  or  tree  of  life. 
This  organ  is  connected  with  the  rest  of  tbe 
bnun  by  8  sets  of  fibres,  the  superior  exteodjaf 
to  the  tvbercula  quadrigeminOy  the  middk  or 
the  restiform  fibres  passing  downward  to  tbe 
medulla,  and  the  inferior  or  transverse  (poiB 
Varolii)  passing  to  the  oppo^te  side  and  fxor 
ing  a  considerable  part  of  the  mesocephak ;  il» 
central  lobe  has  aggregates  of  lobnles  on  its 
superior  surface,  containing  both  white  and  grsj 
matter,  the  **  superior  vermiform  processes,*  a&d 
on  the  lower  surface  the  ^^  inferior  vermifora 
processes."  The  transverse  diameter  of  tbs 
cerebellum  is  8i  to  4  inches,  the  length  S  to  f  i 
inches,  and  its  thickness  varving  from  2  inches 
in  front  to  leas  than  ^  an  inch  behind.  For  de- 
tails on  the  sructure  and  on  the  intricate  £Ti- 
sions  of  the  cerebellnm,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
speoid  works  mentioned  at  the  end  of  this  artz- 
de.  Disease  of  the  cerebellnm,  when  daep- 
seated,  is  generally  manifested  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  body;  this  organ  preades 
principally  over  the  regulation  of  the  move- 
ments, and  partially  over  the  aeznal  imtincL 
The  restiform  bodies  of  the  medulla  in  th^^ 
ascent  to  the  hemispheres  of  the  cerebdlam 
diverge,  leaving  a  lozenge-shaped  cavity,  tbfd 
4th  ventricle,  bounded  above  by  the  madtan 
cerebellar  lobe,  below  by  the  olivary  edonu^ 
behind  by  the  nodule  of  the  inferior  Yermifcrsi 
process,  in  front  by  a  portion  of  the  superior 
vermiform  process,  called  the  "  valve  of  Viea»- 
sens ;"  on  the  floor  are  the  white  barb-like  fibres 
of  the  7ch  pair  of  nerves,  pasdng  at  right  am^ei. 
and  called  the  calamus  scriptoriui  ;  it  ooot^ii 
a  process  of  pia  mater,  and  has  no  direct  ei^^ 
munication  with  the  subarachnoid  space ;  it  is 
improperly  called  the  ventricle  of  the  cerebel- 
lum, as  it  belongs  to  the  medulla  and  is  pn^ior^ 
tionate  to  it  in  size.  The  mesocephale,  or  tuber 
annulare,  embraces  those  portions  of  the  bnu=> 
which  unite  the  cerebrum  above,  the  cersbelluu 
behind,  and  the  medulla  below ;  the  lower  sar- 


BBAIN 


627 


face,  or  the  pons  Yarolii,  consists  of  carved 
transverso  fibres,  passing  from  one  cms  cere- 
belli  to  the  other,  crossing  apparentl/  over  the 
anterior  pyramids   like  a   bridge;    they  are 
always  developed  in  proportion  to  ihe  cerebellar 
hemispheres,  and  are  absent  in  animal s  having 
only  the  median  lobe ;  they  constitute  the  great 
transverse  conuniBsnre  of  the  cerebellum,  as  the 
carput  eaUasum  (mentioned  herec^r)  const!- 
t^s  the  great  transverse  commiBsore  of  the 
cerebrum ;  these  fibres  extend  more  than  one 
half  ol  the  depth  of  the  mesocephale.     The 
tuber  annulare,  which  exists  in  animals  whose 
cerebellum  has  no  hemispheres,  projects  from 
the  medulla  proper,  and  contains  a  nucleus  of 
gray  matter;  Longet  is  of  opinion  that  this 
ganglion  is  an  independent  centre  of  sensation 
and  motor  power,  and  Dr.  Todd  states  that  the 
convulsions^  excited  by  a  current  of  electro-mag- 
netism through  it,  are  not  tetanic,  but  epileptic, 
or  alternating  with  relaxation  of  the  musdes. 
On  the  Bupenor  surface  of  the  mesocephale  are 
the  quadrigeminal  bodies,  the  anterior  2  being 
called  natea^  and  the  posterior  2  testa;  they  are 
gangliform  bodiefi^  containing  gray  and  white 
matter,  the  anterior  being  the  larger:  these  are 
the  analogues  of  the  optic  lobes  of  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishe^  in  which  classes  there  is  only  a  sin- 
gle pair,  but  of  much  larger  size.    The  crura 
cereoelli,  which  apparency  emerge  from  the 
nosterior  angles  of  the  mesocephale,  derive  their 
•nbresfrom  strands  going  to  the  testes,  from  those 
of  the  restiform  ^>dy,  and  from  tnose  of  l^e 
pons  Varolii ;  from  the  anterior  angles  of  the 
mesocephale  diverge  2  similar  processes  of  con- 
siderable thickness,  the  crura  cerebri,  which 
enter  the  cerebral  hemispheres,  and  upon  which 
each  of  these  masses  has  been  said  by  Dr.  Todd 
to  rest  as  a  *'  mushroom  upon  its  stalk."    The 
4th  and  6Lh  pairs  of  nerves  are  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  mesocephale.    On  making  a 
section  of  the  crura  cerebri^  just  beyond  the 
mesocephale,  8  planes  of  nervous  matter  may 
be  seen ;   the  lower  one,  of  fibrous  matter, 
continuous  with  the  mesocephale  and  the  ante- 
rior pyramids,  passes  up  into  the  corpora  striata, 
or  striated  bodies ;  above  this  is  a  dark  mass^  the 
loetig  nig&Ty  containing  large  caudate  vesicles 
abounding  in  pigment,  with  nerve  fibres  among 
Uiem ;  the  upper  layer,  of  grayish  matter,  con- 
tinuous with  the  central  part  of  the  medulla 
oblongata,  or  olivary  columns,  passes  up  into  the 
optio  thalamL    The  striated  and  optic  bodies 
are  best  seen  by  laying  open  the  lateral  ventricles, 
in  which  they  are  placed,  closely  united  to  each 
other,  the  former  being  a  little  in  front  and  out- 
side of  the  latter.    The  former  are  pear-shaped, 
tapering  gradually  backward  in  a  long  process 
which  winds  down  into  the  anterior  extremity  of 
the  descending  horn  of  the  ventricle,  and  striated 
when  cut  in  an  oblique  direction  upward  and 
oatward,  on  account  of  the  passage  of  the 
fibres  of  the  crura  into  the  vesicukr  matter; 
through  these  bodies,  by  8  sets  of  fibres,  com- 
munications are  established  between  the  meso- 
cephale, medulla  oblongata,  and  cerebral  con- 


volutions; they  are  generally  considered  as 
the  more  essential  part  of  the  nervous  system 
which  controb  voluntary  movements.  The 
optic  thahuni  are  of  a  lighter  color,  of  the 
same  texture  and  appearance  as  the  olivary 
columns,  of  which  they  are  the  continuations; 
a  portion  projects  into  the  ventricles,  and  the 
rest  adheres  to  the  striated  bodies,  the  hemi- 
spheres, olivary  columns,  and  quadrigeminal 
tubercles;  the  fibres  n6  doubt  are  continuous 
with  those  of  the  white  substance  of  the  hemi- 
spheres, and  with  those  of  the  striated  bodies ; 
between  them  is  the  8d  ventride,  the  roof  of 
which  is  formed  by  the  velum  interposituro,  a 
nrocess  of  the  pia  mater.  The  corpora  genieu- 
Jata^  externum  and  internum^  are  small  gangli- 
form masses,  projecting  from  the  posterior  part 
of  the  optio  thalami.  Behind  the  8d  ventricle 
is  a  conical,  dork  gray  body,  enclosed  by  a  pro- 
cess of  the  pia  mater,  the  "pineal  body;^'  it 
rests  in  a  groove  between  the  nates,  and  is 
connected  to  the  thalami  by  fibres,  called  pe- 
duncles ;  it  consists  chiefly  of  large  nucleated 
vesicles,  with  a  few  fibres,  and,  in  a  cavity  near 
the  base,  contains  a  sandy  substance  composed 
of  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime ;  its  use  in 
the  economy  is  unknown.  The  optic  thidami 
have  been  considered  as  the  principal  sensitive 
centres,  without  which  the  sensorium  could  not 
perceive  the  physical,  change  resulting  from  a 
sensitive  impression;  all  the  nerves  of  pure 
sense  communicate  with  them,  directly  or  in- 
directly.— ^The  cerebral  hemispheres  constitute 
the  great  mass  of  the  brain,  and  their  horizou- 
tol  section  presents  an  oval,  of  which  the 
smaller  extremity  is  directed  forward ;  the  ex- 
ternal surfiice  is  smooth  on  account  of  the 
arachnoid  membrane ;  they  are  divided  longi- 
tudinally along  the  middle  line  by  the  deep  fis- 
sure which  receives  the  falx  cerebri,  and  at  the 
bottom  of  which  in  the  middle  portion  is  the 
great  commissure,  the  corpus  callosum;  the  in- 
ferior surface,  or  base  of  the  brain,  is  divided 
into  anterior,  middle,  and  posterior  lobea,  cor- 
responding to  the/aM9  in  the  cranial  bones; 
the  anterior  lobe  rests  chiefly  on  the  roof  of  the 
orbits,  and  on  its  inferior  surface  presents  the 
nerve  of  smell ;  between  it  and  the  middle  lobe 
is  the  ^fissure  of  Sylvius,"  through  which  runs 
the  middle  artery  of  the  brain;  the  middle 
lobes  are  gradually  lost  in  the  posterior,  which 
are  separated  from  the  cerebellum  by  the  ten- 
torium. The  space  between  the  middle  lobes  in 
the  centre  is  occupied  by  the  pituitary  body, 
crossing  of  the  optic  nerves,  and  the  mammillafy 
bodies ;  the  pituitary  body  is  lodged  in  tlie  ulla 
turcica  of  the  sphenoid  bone,  and  is  a  glandi- 
form mass,  surrounded  by  the  coronary  sinus, 
and  connected  with  the  briun  by  the  infundibu- 
lar process ;  it  has  2  lobes,  and  somewhat  re- 
sembles the  vesicular  substance  of  tlie  bnun ; 
its  use  is  unknown.  Between  the  crura  of  the 
cerebrum  the  8d  pair  of  nerves  emerge.  The 
usual  way  of  examining  the  hemispheres  is  to 
moke  a  horizontal  section  at  about  -1^  from  the 
summit;  this  section,  denominated  the  centrum 


«28 


BEADT 


ctaU  nu^  presents  a  centre  of  white  sab- 
stanoe^  surroanded  by  a  narrow  border  of  gray« 
preseatioff  the  tiaag  outlines  of  the  oonvola- 
tions,  and  spotted  by  namerons  small  red  points 
caused  by  the  escape  of  blood  from  the  oat  ends 
of  minate  Yessels.    In  the  central  line  is  a  broad 
band  of  white  sabetance,  uniting  the  hemi- 
spheres together  as  their  great  commissure,  and 
secaring  their  connected  action,  the  fibres  pass- 
ing from  one  to  the  other  as  over  a  bridge;  at 
its  anterior  and  posterior  extremity  it  is  folded 
downward  towurd  the  base  of  the  tadn.    On 
cuttinff  a  little  deeper,  an  irregalar  cavity  is 
opened  on  each  side,  the  lateral  ventricle,  con- 
taining the  striated  and  opdc  bodies;  they  are 
quite  extensiye,  and  are  lined  by  a  serous  mem- 
branck  secreting  a  fluid,  the  nndoe  accumulation 
of  which  constitutes  hydroea>halu8  intermu, 
or  water  on  the  brain,  a  fatal  disesse  of  chil- 
dren, in  which  the  substance  of  the  brain  may 
become  almost  obliterated,  and  the  bones  of  the 
yet  ununited  skull  distended  almost  to  the  size 
of  an  adult  head.    The  5th  ventricle  is  the 
space  between  the  layers  of  the  i^tum  Ztf- 
eutum,   an  extension  of  fibrous  matter  con- 
necting the  anterior  reflection  of  tiifi  corpus 
callosum  with  the  horizontal  fibrous  stratum 
called  the  fomiXy  and  separating  the  anterior 
horns  of  the  lateral  ventricles.    Between  the 
optic  and  striated  bodies  in  the  ventricles,  in  a 
superficial  groove,  is  the  tmnia  iemi&ircularisj 
a  cielicate  lumd  of  fibrous  matter,  comojissural 
in  its  character.    The  posterior  horn  of  the 
lateral  ventricle,  according  to  Owen,  is  peculiar 
to  man,  as  also  is  the  hippaeampw  minar^  a  pro- 
jectipn  of  one  of  the  convolutions  into  it;  in  its 
inferior  horn  is  the  hi§n)0€ampu$  major^  and  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  vascular  choroid 
plexus.     The  cerebral  hemispheres,  after  the 
membranes  have  been  removed,  present  a  pe- 
culiar folded  arrangement  of  Uieir  surface,  the 
^'convolutions;"  these  consist  of  graymatter^ 
varying  from  )  to  |  of  an  inch  in  depth,  even  in 
the  same  individual.     Physiology  has  shown 
that  the  gray  matter  of  the  nervous  centres  is 
the  originator  of  nervous  force,  while  the  white 
matter  serves  only  to  convey  impressions  to  or 
from  the  different  parts  of  the  body;  hence  the 
greater  the  number  of  these  convolutions,  or,  in 
other  words,  the  greater  the  amount  of  the  gray 
substance,  the  greater  will  be  the  physiological 
power  of  the  brain.    In  the  rat  and  the  mole 
the  surface  of  the  brain  is  quite  smooth ;  from 
these  the  convolutions  increase  in  number  up 
to  man.    Their  arrangement,  though  never  the 
same  in  2  br^ns,  nor  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
same  brain,  cannot  be  supposed  to  be  pnrely 
accidental;  there  are  certain  ones  always  pres- 
ent (when  any  exist),  whose  sitnation  and  size 
influence  the  disposition  of  the  others;  in  man, 
the  variable  and  additional  convolutions  are 
chiefly  on  the  top  and  front  of  the  hemi- 
spheres.   The  lower  the  position  of  an  animal 
in  tlie  scale,  and  the  less  developed  the  organ 
as  we  approach  infancy,  the  greater  is  the  sym- 
metry of  the  2  sides.    It  is  said  that  the  convo- 


lutioBS  in  the  inHerior  noes  of  man  (Todd  sod 
Bowman)  present  a  m<Hre  Bymmetxieal  arrange- 
ment than  is  usually  found  in  tlie  moro  od- 
tivated  races.    If  the  sray  matter  of  the  cere- 
bral  convolutions  and   the  oerebeUar  kyea 
were  spread  out^  it  would  occupy  about  670 
square  inches,  which,  by  this  admicaUe  sr- 
rangement,  are  packed  into  the  small  extent  of 
the  brain.    Eadi  convolntion  oonaistB  of  a  fi^ 
of  gray  matter  enclosing  a  process  of  the  white; 
the  gray  matter  forms  a  continnotB  xmbrekea 
sheet  over  the  cerebral  8ur£u»;  the  greater 
part  of  the  white  fibres  penetrate  the  gray 
matter,  and  thence  conveige  to  the  centre  <f 
the  brain  and  the  optic  and  striated  bo£es. 
The  fibres  which  unite  portions  of  the  same  or 
of  opposite  hemi^heres  are  called  ^commis- 
sures;'  the  transverse  are  the  corpoa  callosDm, 
the  anterior,  posterior,  and  aoft  oommlasnres; 
the  longitudinal  are  the  fornix  and  the  i 
longitudinal  commissure.    The  < 
connects  the  great  bulk  of  the 
especially  at  the  lower  part;  it  is  wanting  ia 
fianes,  reptiles,  bnrds,  and  the  lower  TnammaJR. 
The  anterior  commissure   particukzlj 
the  striated  bodies,  many  of  its  fibres 
through  them  and  radiating  to  the  I 
bral  lobes;  it  is  very  large  in  the  maisopiak, 
which  have  no  corpus  caUosum.     The  posterior 
commissure  connects  the  optic  thalami,  and  'is 
connected  with  the  pineal  body.      The  soft 
oommissure  also  passes  firom  one  optie  thala- 
mus to  the  other,  dividing  the  8d  ventiide  islo 
an  upper  anl  lower  portion;  unlike  the  other 
commissures,  it  contains  gray  matter.    The 
superior  longitudinal  commissure  is  endosed  ia 
the  convolution  overhanging  the  corpns  caife- 
sum,  and  connects  the  anterior  and  nuddk 
lobes  with  the  posterior.    The  fornix  or  vault 
is  the  moat  remarkable,  extensire,  and  ccmpfi- 
cated  of  all  the  commissures;   it  Is  SBtaitfied 
immediately  under  the  corpus  callosom,  with 
which  it  is  closely  connected  posteriorly;  'n 
may  be  divided  along  the  me^aa  line  into  % 
portions,  one  belonffing  to  each  hemlqihereL 
Of  this  complicated  struotuie  it  can  only  be 
said  here  that  it  begins  at  the  optic  thai^mi3» 
proceeding  anteriorly  to  the  base  of  tiie  brain, 
where  it  turns  suddenly  upward  and  forvari, 
thus  forming  the  corpora  awieantia  or  mammUr 
lariOf  and,  ascending  toward  the  oorpua  caSo- 
sum,  passes  along  its  lower  aur&ce,  qxreadiag 
Utertuly  into  what  is  called  ita  ^*bo4y;^  it 
again  descends  at  the  back  pert  of  the  Iraa, 
some   of  its  fibres   going  to   the    postmor 
lobes,  and  others  crossing  the  hippocampi  to 
be  connected  with  the  middle  lobes;  it  thss 
connects  those  parts  of  the  convdntiona  cf 
one  side  beneath  the  corpus  callosum.    Oth^ 
probably  commissural  structures  are  thejp«sf 
Tariniy  in  the  angle  formed  by  Uie   dir^- 
gence  of  the  crura  cerebri,  and  probably  eon- 
necting  these  fibres ;  the  innermost  fibres  of  the 
optic  tracts  are  evidently  oommiasural,  comMi^- 
ing  the  quadrigeminal  and  geniculate  bodies  of 
opposite  sides;  the  ttU^er  eimreum  is  a  layer 


BRAIN 


of  gra^  matter,  oontaining  many  nerve  tabes, 
extending  from  the  mammiUai7  bodies  to  the 
{KKterior  carve  of  the  oorpos  callosam,  and 
forming  indmate  oonnectioDS  with  the  fornix, 
optic  tracts  and  thahmii,  and  the  pitaitary  body. 
The  fibres  connecting  the  cerebram  with  the 
oerebellam  are  very  few ;  the  principal,  if  not 
the  only  ones,  are  those  going  to  the  testes  from 
the  cerebellum. — ^An  organ  of  such  importance 
as  the  brain  mast  reqoire  a  large  sopply  of  blood; 
this  is  afforded  by  the  great  carotid  arteries, 
coming  dire<^y  from  the  aorta,  and  the  verte- 
bral brandies  of  the  subdavians^  which  meet  at 
the  base  of  the  organ,  freely  communicating 
with  each*  other.  These  arteries,  coming  so 
directly  from  the  aortic  arch,  are  prevented 
from  iigaring  the  delicate  brain:  1,  by  the 
blood  ascending  against  gravity ;  2,  by  the  corv- 
ing  of  the  vessels  like  the  letter  B  before  they 
enter  the  craniam,  thus  scattering  the  force  of 
the  stream  in  different  directions;  8,  by  the 
minnte  snbdivision  of  the  vessels  before  they 
enter  the  cerebral  sabstance.  The  impure  blood 
retOTDs  through  the  jogolar  veins;  hence  any 
compression  of  these  vessels  by  tight  neck- 
stocks,  or  the  like,  impedes  the  whole  cerebral 
ciroulation,  cauenng,  it  may  be,  dangerous  con- 
gestions. If  the  blood  could  be  shut  off  com- 
pletely from  the  brain,  death  would  ensue  in- 
atantiy,  and,  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  this 
accident,  the  vertebral  arteries  are  protected  by 
the  bony  canals  of  the  cervical  transverse  verte- 
bral processes  from  aU  danger  of  compression 
or  ordinary  imuries.  The  brains  of  persons 
who  have  died  oy  hanging  always  exhibit  great 
venous  congestion.  The  veins  of  tiie  dura  ma- 
ter are  quite  remarkable  by  pouring  their  con- 
tents into  the  large  canals  endosed  between 
its  layers,  the  sinuses;  these,  unlike  ordinary 
veins,  cannot  be  distended  beyond  a  certain 
point,  and,  as  they  all  empty  their  blood  into 
the  internal  jagoJar  vein,  any  obstruction  in 
this  or  in  the  superior  vena  cava  very  speedily 
produces  an  nncomfortable  distention  in  the 
head.  These  sinuses  are  the  superior  longitn- 
dinal,  corresponding  to  the  superior  margin  of 
the  falx  cerebri,  commencing  near  the  root  of 
the  nose  (eritta  gtUU)  and  terminating  in  the 
cavity  called  torculcur  JBerophili  near  the  inter- 
nal occipital  protuberance ;  the  inferior  longi- 
tadinal  sinus  runs  along  the  lower  border  of 
the  fidx,  and  ends  in  the  straight  sinus,  which 
runs  in  the  median  line  at  the  meeting  of  the 
UbIx  and  the  tentoriam,  and  opens  into  the  tor- 
colar;  the  lateral  sinuses  extend  from  the  tor- 
cnlar  downward  and  forward  to  the  jugular 
vdna.  This  is  the  largest  sinus,  and  its  canal  is 
deeply  hollowed  out  of  the  occipital  and  tem- 
poral bones;  that  of  the  right  side  is  generally 
the  larger,  due,  according  to  some  eminent  an- 
atomists, to  the  fact  that  most  persons  sleep 
most  on  the  right  side ;  they  are  frequentiy  the 
seats  of  dangerous  inflammation.  Betvreen  the 
layers  of  the  fidx  cerebdli  are  the  occipital  si* 
noses,  opening  into  the  toroalar;  the  petrosal 
sinuses,  running  along  the  petrous  portion  of 


the  temporal  bone,  open  into  the  lateral  sinuses ; 
the  cavernous  sinuses  are  on  each  side  of  the 
sella  turcica,  communicating  with  the  petrosal 
by  the  transverse  sinus,  and  with  eadi  other  by 
the  circular  sinus.  From  this  arrangement  of 
the  sinuses,  communicating  freely  with  the  ex- 
ternal vessels,  may  be  understood  tiie  signal 
advantages  of  local  depletion  in  relieving  vas- 
cular fulness  within  the  head;  and  also  the 
utility  of  cold  implications  for  similar  purposes. 
— ^There  are  12  pairs  of  nerves  bdonging  strictiy 
to  the  brain,  which  differ  from  spinal  nerves 
only  in  their  distribution  and  in  coming  through 
openings  in  the  skull  instead  of  between  the 
vertebro;  all,  except  the  first,  proceed  from  the 
K>inal  cord  itself,  or  from  its  prolongati<Ni  in 
the  brain  (the  medulla  oblongata).  These  nerves 
are:  1,  the  olfactory,  or  nerve  of  smdl;  2,  the 
optic,  or  nerve  of  vision;  8,  motartB  octdorum, 
the  motor  nerves  of  all'  the  musdes  of  the  orbit, 
except  of  the  superior  oblique,  which  are  sup- 
plied by  4,  the  pathetid,  and  of  the  external 
recti,  which  are  moved  by  5,  the  abdueerUes  oeu^ 
lorum;  6,  the  trifacial  or  tri^emintM,  the  gene- 
ral sensory  nerve  of  the  head  and  face;  7,  the. 
fiEicial,  the  motor  nerve  of  the  head  and  face ;  8, 
the  auditory,  or  nerve  of  hearing;  9,  the  glos- 
sopharyngeal, supplying  part  of  the  sensory 
fibres  of  the  tongue,  toid  presidinjK  over  the 
movements  of  swallowing  and  of  the  entrance 
of  air  into  l^e  larynx;  10,  the  pneumogastric, 
or  par  usgum;  11,  the  spinal  accessory, 
preside  over  the  movements  of  the  lungs  and 
stomach,  and  inform  the  system  when  there  is 
a  demand  for  air  and  food ;  and  12,  the  hypo- 
glossal, the  motor  nerve  of  the  tongue.  Philo- 
sophical anatomists  have  combined  these  nerves 
in  various  ways,  separating  tl:^  8  nerves  of  spe- 
cial sense,  and  classing  the  others  into  groups 
resembling  spinal  nerves,  with  their  anterior 
motor,  and  their  posterior  sensitive  roots.  As 
the  skull  may  be  considered  as  composed  of  8 
cranial  vertebra,  we  have  the  olfactory,  optic, 
and  auditory,  spedbl  nerves,  making  their  way 
out  through  the  8  vertebra  which  may  be  called 
by  the  same  name,  corresponding  to  the  8  pri- 
mary vesides  which  are  devdoped  into  the 
brain.  Of  the  intervertebral,  analogous  to  spinal 
nerves,  are  the  1st,  composed  of  the  5th  for  its 
sensory  portion,  and  of  the  8d,  4th,  and  6th,  for 
its  motor  portion ;  2d,  the  facial  and  glossopha- 
ryngeal combined ;  and  lastiy,  the  par  vagum 
and  spinal  accessory  form  the  8d  pair;  the  hy- 
poglossal may  be  considered  as  the  first  of  the 
true  spinal  nerves.  For  farther  details  on  this 
subject  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  works  of 
Carus,  Oken,  Owen,  and  other  writers  on  philo- 
sophical anatomy.  The  nature  of  the  nervous 
force,  the  functions  of  the  nerves,  and  the  gen- 
eral physidogy  and  pathology  of  the  snbTect, 
will  be  treated,  as  &r  as  possible  in  a  work  of 
this  character,  under  the  heads  of  Nsavoim 
Ststbm  and  Bfinal  Oobd;  only  a  brief  sum- 
mary can  be  given  in  this  artide.  Without 
question  the  various  operations  of  the  mind 
are  associated  with  the  cerebral  ccmvolntions; 


680 


BRAIN 


pwoeptioD,  nemorj,  the  power  of  abstmedony 
ioMgination,  &o.,  poaom,  as  instruments  of  ao- 
tion,  these  folds  of  gray  matter ;  as  On  vier  says, 
these  parts  are  the  sole  reoeptades  in  which  the 
Tarioos  sensations  maj  be  as  it  were  consoin- 
mated,  and  beoome  peroeptible  to  tlie  animal 
Hedhanical  ii^ury  to  the  oonvolntions  and  the 
oentral  white  substance  occasions  no  pain  nor 
distorbance  of  the  motive  powers;  in  many 
diseases  of  the  brain  and  its  membranes  con- 
▼ulsions  accompanied  bj  pain  occur,  bat  this 
depends  on  a  change  produced  in  the  striated 
and  optic  bodies^  and  through  them  propagated 
to  the  motor  and  sensitiTe  nerves.  On  removing 
the  hemispheres  animals  are  thrown  into  a  state 
of  deep  sleep,  retaining  their  muscular  power,  yet 
i^parently  inc^>able  of  a  single  mental  nervous 
action,  volontaiy  or  sensory.  When  the  mem- 
branes are  inflamed,  especially  the  pia  mater, 
the  mental  ikculties  are  always  disturbed;  in 
the  delirium  of  fevers,  in  delirium  tremens,  &c^ 
the  circulation  of  the  convolutions  seems  to  be 
out  oft  The  convolutions,  then,  are  the  centre 
of  the  intellectual  actions;  being  connected 
.  with  the  striated  and  optic  bodies  (which  have 
been  regarded  as  the  centres  of  volition  and 
sensation),  the  inteUectual  centre  may  either 
excite  or  be  excited  by  them.  When  the  con- 
volutions are  insufBiciently  supplied  with  blood, 
the  defldent  nutrition  occasions  deranged  phe- 
nomena of  thought  and  a  rapid  development  of 
ideas,  which,  being  ill  or  not  at  all  regulated 
by  the  will,  assume  the  forms  of  delirium  and 
insanity,  ^ust  as  diseases  of  the  nerves  of  vision 
and  heanng  may  produce  unnatural  sights  and 
soundai  As  in  every  muscular  action  some  por- 
tion of  the  mustmlar  tissue  is  wasted,  to  be  sup- 
plied by  the  general  nutrition  of  the  body,  so 
every  uiought  is  accompanied  bv  some  change 
in  the  nervous  centre.  Concussion  of  the  brain 
from  a  fidl  or  blow,  or  condensation  of  its  sub- 
stance by  a  clot  of  blood,  checks  the  organic 
changes  of  the  surface,  and  interrupts  the  Joint 
actions  necessary  for  consciousness.  Gall,  the 
founder  of  phrenology,  assigned  to  certain  con- 
volutions certain  faculties  of  the  mind,  moral 
feelings,  and  instinctive  propensities.  This  the- 
ory has  since  his  time  been  pursued  with  the 
seal  which  must  naturally  attach  itself  to  any 
etsience  which  professes  to  read  the  mental  ten- 
dencies firom  external  signs.  In  regard  to 
phrenology,  it  can  only  be  remarked  here  that, 
while  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that  the  energy  of  a 
nervous  centre  bears  a  certain  relation  to  its  size, 
the  stress  laid  by  its  followers  on  the  tempera- 
ments sho  ws  that  they  consider  the  ouality  of  the 
brain  an  important  element  in  the  aevelopment 
of  nervous  power. — ^During  sleep  the  nervous 
centres  obtain  the  rest  necessary  to  repair  the 
waste  of  daily  activity ;  in  this  state  the  brain 
refuses  or  is  slow  to  convey  imprirssions  from 
without.  In  deep  sleep  we  are  uncousdous, 
and  may  be  motionless;  as  the  sleep  becomes 
lighter,  consciousness  begins  to  return,  and 
mental  changes  take  place,  constituting  dreams 
of  various  kinds.    Man  performs  many  actions 


instinotivdy,  without  fheintentiMial  adaptttioi 
of  means  to  aids,  Just  as  the  bee  makes  its  cell, 
or  the  bird  its  nest ;  children  are  bom  and  Mu 
for  some  time  without  cerebral  hemiqJiere^ 
who  perform  the  acts  of  suckioff  and  swaOow- 
ing  perfectly  well ;  remove  the  nemispheies  is 
an  animal^  it  will  eat  if  food  be  fdaced  in  the 
month,  though  it  will  not  go  to  seek  it;  may 
idiots  will  do  the  same.  In  what  part  of  &e 
brain  resides  the  power  presldiog  oTer  the» 
actions?  At  the  base  of  the  brain,  conoeskd 
by  the  hemi^heres,  is  a  series  of  gBng}is«  tibe 
origin  of  the  nerves  of  special  sense,  and  ibt 
striated  and  optic  bodies  into  which  aU  tbs 
fibres  connecting  the  heml^heres  with  tbd 
medulla  oblongata  pass;  they  hare  also  their 
own  nervous  oeutr^  distinct  in  function  from 
other  parts  of  the  brain ;  in  fishes  these  gao^ 
are  very  large,  and  the  hemispheres  oompan- 
tivdy  small,  sometimes  smaller  than  a  sin^ 
pdr,  the  optic;  in  man  the  instiuctiTe  proper 
sides  are  m  a  measure  superseded  by  intdli- 
gence,  but  they  may  act  independently  of  &. 
The  real  nervous  centres  for  mociona  and  sem- 
tions  derived  firom  the  organs  of  special  seox 
are  these  ganglia,  and  not  the  hernKpheccs ;  ai 
fiir  as  mere  animal  lifo  and  motion  areooiiooa' 
ed,  the  latter  are  not  essential ;  a  Tsst  propor- 
tion of  animated  creatures  (all  the  inTertebfata) 
have  no  trace  of  them ;  they  are  added  in  lua 
for  the  inteUectual  and  moral  natore.  The  ia- 
atinctive  and  emotional  actions  are  eidfied 
throuffh  the  ganglia  of  special  senses,  IbiDowii^ 
directly  upon  sensatiim,  without  any  jRvees  i 
thought ;  they  are  sometimes  strooffer  than  the 
voluntary:  e.0r.,weareoftenooinp^edto]aBgh 
at  som^ing  ludicrous,  though  we  have  tie 
strongest  motives  not  to  do  so ;  long-eontiaaed 
habit  will  often  make  us  perform  actioos  ia- 
stincti  vdy,  as  it  were,  which  at  first  required  aa 
effort  of  the  will :  for  instance,  in  an  old  snof • 
taker,  who  had  been  seized  with  epQ^Mry,  irrita- 
tion of  the  nose  with  a  feather  to  restoi«  coo- 
sdousness  produced  a  contraction  €i  the  rig^ 
fore-finger  and  thumb  to  take  a  pinch.  Ttese 
emotional  actions  may  be  excited  by  bmdSsI 
operations.  Whenever  the  feelings  get  the  better 
of  the  reason,  the  sensory  gangllia  are  exdted  at 
the  expense  of  the  hemispheres,  and  the  m^ 
vidual  is,  for  the  time  being;  morany  insane, 
even  though  tiiese  emotions  may  point  in  the 
ri^t  direction;  fanatics  of  all  daasea,  in  thb 
way,  are  really  insane,  generally  monomamacs. 
These  instincts  may  also  be  in  opposition  to  the 
reason,  and  then  the  more  a  man  follows  them 
the  doser  does  he  approach  the  hrutea  Com* 
parative  anatomy  teaches  that  the  cerebeQam 
IS  lai^gest  in  those  animals  which  have  the  great- 
est variety  of  motions ;  injury  or  removal  of  the 
organ  causes  no  pain  nor  convulsions,  bat  de- 
stroys the  newer  of  comMning  the  actions  of  ttie 
muscles.  Man,  thoun^  inferior  to  many  aaimab 
in  particular  kinds  of  movementa,  £ur  sorpasses 
them  in  the  number  and  compl^ty  <»f  their 
combinations ;  the  act  of  walking  brings  into 
action  almost  every  musde  of  the  trunk  said  ex- 


BRAIN 


6Z1 


tremities,  and  is  superior  to  all  other  modes  of 
exercise ;  in  man  the  cerebellum  attains  its 
highest  development.  I rttlammation  of  its  mem- 
branes, and  even  its  almost  complete  destrac- 
tion  by  slow  disease,  has  little  effect  on  the  in- 
telligence, but  the  motive  powers  are  constant- 
ly disturbed ;  it  is  qoite  probable  that  the  cen« 
tral  portion  may  regulate  the  sexual  instinct^ 
while  the  lateral  lobe^  preside  over  the  regula- 
tion of.  the  movements.  When  we  see  a  man 
Btaggoring  along  in  a  state  of  intoxication,  we 
perceive  that  the  enemy  first  steals  away  the 
energy  of  the  cerebellum,  and  afterward  takes 
the  intelligence  and  consciousness,  leaving  him 
for  the  time  little  better  than  dead,  motionless, 
and  insensible.  The  distinct  operation  of  these 
various  centres  is  made  obvious  by  many  con- 
ditions of  the  body,  in  which  one  or  more  are 
inactive.  In  deep  sleep,  the  hemispheres,  the 
sensory  ganglia,  and  the  cerebellum  are  at  rest, 
more  or  less  complete,  but  the  medulla  oblongata 
and  the  spinal  cord  must  as  always,  be  wide 
awake ;  in  dreaming,  the  hemispheres  are  par- 
tially active ;  in  somnambulism,  a  step  nearer 
to  wakefulness,  the  hemispheres  are  awake,  and 
also  the  cerebellum,  so  that  the  movements  are 
well  adapted  to  the  thoughts.  It  is  well  known 
that  in  this  state  persons  have  walked  over 
dangerous  places,  which  they  could  never  have 
done  in  open  day;  there  is  an  evident  loss  of 
control  over  the  thoughts,  which  are  more  in- 
fluenced by  externa]  impressions  than  in  dream- 
ing, so  that  the  somnambulist  may  answer  ques- 
tions properly  ;  that  there  is  not  full  command 
over  the  senses,  the  dangerous  accidents  occur- 
ring in  this  condition  fhlly  prove;  the  events  of 
this-  state  may  not  be  remembered  in  the  waking 
hours,  but  may  be  taken  up  again  by  the  memo- 
ry the  next  night,  constituting  complete  ^  double 
consciousness."  A  condition  remarkably  anal- 
ogous to  somnambulism  is  the  mesmeric  deep 
or  trance;  a  nervous  habit  of  body  predisposes 
to  both.  (See  Animal  Magnetism.)  What  is 
this  mysterious  agent  which  we  call  nerv- 
ous force,  without  which  the  human  body 
is  only  a  beautifully  made,  mechanically  per- 
fect, but  motionless  and  useless  machine  ?  We 
know  it  only  by  its  effects,  as  we  know  light, 
heat,  and  electricity ;  it  resembles  the  latter  in 
the  instantaneousness  of  its  action  and  in  some 
other  points,  but  its  passage  is  arrested  by  a 
ligature,  while  the  electric  current  is  not.  The 
torpedo  and  electric  eel  possess  a  powerful  elec* 
trie  apparatus,  which  depends  for  its  energy  on 
the  nervous  system ;  the  glow-worm  generates 
light  in  a  particular  organ,  whose  power  is  also 
regulated  by  the  nervous  system.  The  analogy  of 
these  mysterious  powers  seems  to  indicate 
that  light,  electricity,  and  nervous  power,  are 
modifications  of  the  same  original  fbrce,  pre- 
senting different  phenomena,  acccording  to 
the  offices  each  is  destined  to  perform  in 
the  great  work  of  the  universe.  Over- 
working the  brain  exhausts  the  body;  wear 
and  tear  of  the  brain,  like  wear  and  tear  of  the 
muscles,  require  periodic  and  long  intervals  of 


rest;  firom  want  of  attention  to  this  fact,  many 
a  bright  intellect  has  faded  into  imbecility  and 
insanity.  The  baneful  effects  of  our  forcing  sys- 
tem of  education,  of  our  fast  way  of  doing 
every  thing,  of  our  too  intense  cerebral  activity 
in  the  universal  competition  for  the  prizes  of 
life,  are  seen  in  every  hospital  and  prison  and 
asylum  in  the  land,  and  in  the  general  emaciation 
and  cadaverous  appearance  of  the  American 
people.  ^The  primary  ganglia  of  the  vertebrate 
brain  are  8  in  number,  and  they  are  developed 
into  the  anterior  cerebrum,  the  posterior  cere- 
bellum, and  the  median  quadrigeminal  bodies. 
In  fishes,  the  lowest  vertebrates,  the  medulla  is 
large,  with  the  pyramidal  and  reetiform  bodies, 
but  without  the  olivary ;  the  brain  looks  like  a 
series  of  ganglia  developed  on  the  superior  sur- 
face of  the  cord,  2  pairs  and  a  single  one :  1,  the 
olfactory  lobes,  analogous  to  the  hemispheres  in 
man,  from  which  the  nerves  of  smell  arise ;  2, 
behind  these  the  optic  lobes,  generally  consider- 
ed analogous  to  the  tuberctda  quadrigemina,  in 
some  fishes  larger  than  the  other  parts  of  the 
brain;  from  these  arise  the  optic  nerves,  and 
the  8d,  4ih,  and  6th  pairs;  8,  behind  these  the 
imperfectly  developed  cerebellum  generally,  but 
of  large  size  in  the  selachians.  In  reptiles  the 
brain  well  fills  the  cranial  cavity,  and  the  pre- 
ponderance of  the  spinal  cord  is  less ;  the  ol&o- 
tory  lobes,  now.  obviously  the  hemispheres,  are 
increased  in  size,  with  an  internal  cavity,  and  a 
commissure ;  the  2d  cerebral  mass  and  its  cavities 
are  smaller ;  the  cerebellum  is  small  in  the  lower 
orders,  but  with  lateral  appendages  and  external 
strira  in  Hie  higher.  In  birds  the  brain  and 
spinal  cord  are  no  longer  on  the  same  plane ;  the 
brain  is  the  larger,  and  the  ganglia  are  more 
above  and  less  behind  each  other ;  the  hemi- 
spheres are  larger  than  the  other  parts,  are  united 
by  commissures,  and  contain  true  lateral  ventri- 
cles in  which  is  a  tubercle  resembling  a  corpus 
striatum ;  the  optic  lobes  are  small,  separated, 
with  smaller  cavities ;  the  cerebellum  is  particu- 
larly large,  with  evident  lateral  lobes  and  exter- 
nal 8tri».  In  mammals  the  briun  is  much  larger 
than  the  cord ;  the  cerebral  hemispheres  are  of 
large  size,  with  marked  convolutions  in  the 
higher  orders,  with  a  corpus  callosum,  lateral 
ventricles  with  anterior,  descending,  and  (in 
the  monkey)  posterior  horns,  optic  and  striated 
bodies,  tsdnia  semicircularis,  and  fornix;  the 
optic  lobes  are  small,  reduced  to  2  pairs,  solid^ 
and  are  now  called  the  tubercula  ouadrigemina; 
the  cerebellum  is  higfalv  developed,  the  more  so 
as  the  animal  approaches  man,  presenting  the 
arbor  vit89  in  its  interior ;  the  pons  Varolii  is 
large,  and  the  4th  ventride  is  completely  con- 
cealed and  shut  in.  Prof;  Owen  (in  the  **  Pro- 
ceedings of  the  Linniean  Society/'  1857)  has 
divided  the  mammalia  into  4  groups,  according 
to  the  characters  of  the  surfaces  of  the  cerebral 
hemispheres ;  in  some  the  hemispheres  are  but 
feebly  connected  by  the  fornix  and  anterior 
commissure,  in  the  great  mi^oritv  the  corpus 
callosum  is  added;  in  the  former  there  is  a  pe- 
culiar mode  of  development  of  the  young  from 


682 


BRAU7  FEYEB 


the  Don-deTelopmeiit  of  tlie  placenta:  1,  Ij^et^ 
eephala^  having  the  hemispheres  loose  and  dia- 
oonneoted,  leaving  exposed  the  olfactory  gan- 
fflia,  cerebellam,  and  more  or  less  of  the  opUo 
k>be8;  their  sarfaoe  smooth,  or  with  very  few 
aafractiiofiities ;  this  indodes  the  marsopials ;  2^ 
liM^moepkalA^  having  a  corpos  oaUosam,  with 
the  oerebellum  and  olfactory  lobes  exposed,  the 
BoriSMe  smooth,  or  with  very  few  and  simi)la 
oonvolotions ;  this  indades  the  rodents^  inseeUv 
9ra^  chieroptera^  and  edentata ;  8,  ffyremeepludok^ 
having  the  oerebrnm  extending  over  more  or 
less  of  the  oerebellam  and  of  the  ol&etory  lobes, 
with  more  or  less  nameroos  convolutions ;  this 
incindes  cetaeea^  paehydermeUOy  herHvara^  ear* 
mooron  and  quadrumana ;  4,  arehene^hala^ 
embracing  man  only. — Those  wishing  to  pnrsne 
the  study  of  the  brain,  are  referred  to  the  works 
of  SoUy,  Longet^  Leoret,  Todd  and  Bowman, 
Carpenter,  Owen,  Tiedemann,  Muller,  and  to  the 
article  ^Nervoas  System,"  in  the  ^^Gydopadia 
of  Anatomy  and  Physiology.'* 

BRAIN  F£V£R  is  the  result  of  inflamma- 
tory action  in  the  brain,  and  may  be  caused  by 
various  kinds  of  morbid  stimulation,  such  as 
long  exposure  to  excessive  heat  or  cold,  fright, 
mental  anxiety,  the  inordinate  use  of  ardent 
spirits,  external  injury  &c.  It  sometimes  occurs 
as  consequent  on  small-pox,  scarlatina,  erysipelas 
of  the  £soe  and  scalp,  billons  remittent  fever, 
rheumatism,  iso.  The  brain  fever  of  drunk- 
ards, or  delirium  tremens,  is  variously  mod- 
ified, aocordmg  to  the  causes  in  which  it  origi- 
nates and  the  habits  and  constitution  of  the 
patient.  Two  species  are  recognized:  the  one 
being  connected  with  inflammatory  irritation 
or  excited  vascular  action  in  the  meninges, 
or  enveloping  membranes  of  tiie  brain,  as- 
sociated with  great  irritation ;  the  other  con- 
dsting  of  great  cerebral  irritation,  with  ex- 
hausted nervous  energy.  The  one  occurs 
usually  after  a  protracted  debauch ;  the  other 
from  a  sudden  and  complete  suspension  of 
the  stimulus  in  more  habitusl  drinkers.  The 
ph^iomena  of  this  disease  vary  considerably  in 
degrees  of  intensity.  In  some  cases  we  find 
the  slightest  forms  of  nervous  tremor,  with 
speotrsl  illusions  and  a  quickened  pulse ;  while 
in  others  of  a  more  severe  character,  we  find 
the  most  alarming  state  of  vital  depression, 
muscular  agitation,  and  mental  alienation.  In 
ordinary  cases  it  is  characterized  by  constant 
watchfulness  and  a  tremulous  quivering  motion 
in  the  lips,  hands,  and  muscles  generally,  on 
making  any  effort  The  nulse,  which  at  first  is 
slow,  becomes  quick,  and  there  is  a  constant 
disposition  to  talk  in  a  rambling  manner,  pass- 
ing quickly  from  one  subject  to  another.  In 
the  first  species,  the  pulse  is  full  and  hard,  the 
skin  dry,  the  eyes  injected,  the  delirium  fiirtous, 
the  head  is  very  ho^  and  the  tongue  is  often 
dry  and  red  at  the  edges.  In  the  second  form, 
which  is  more  common,  the  pulse  is  small 
or  soft,  and  ranges  between  100  and  120;  the 
face  is  not  flushed,  nor  is  the  skin  hot,  but  it 
is  covered  with  a  clammy  perspiration.   Astiie 


disease  advances,  the  mental  delusion  becamei 
constant,  being  generally  of  a  low  melandidie 
kind,  with  referenoe  to  the  patient^s  ruling  pas- 
sions and  occupations,  and  anxiety  re^Mcthig 
them.  He  is  haunted  by  spectral  iflnsions  or 
occupied  with  the  most  extravagant  ideasw  If 
a  favorable  change  do  not  ooonr  at  this  period, 
the  skin  becomes  more  cold  and  clammy,  ex- 
haling a  peculiar  smell,  whidi  is  somethiBg  be- 
tween a  vinous  and  an  alliaoeons  odor.  The 
pulse  becomes  more  frequait^  thready,  smsB, 
and  weak;  the  general  tremor  increases;  the 
patient  talks  inoessantiy,  with  great  rapiditj; 
the  delirium  increases;  and  the  patient  either 
sinks  into  a  calm,  which  precedes  dealdi,  or 
expires  in  a  convulsive  effort. — ^In  the  fint 
form  of  this  disease,  in  which  there  is  ineresaed 
vascular  acdon,  cupping  below  the  ocdput  at 
the  back  of  the  neck,  and  leeches  bdiind  the 
ears,  are  often  practised;  but  cold  lotions  or 
afihsions  to  the  head  when  the  temperatnre  b 
increaaed,  and  ^Kmging  the  body  with  tqad 
water,  are  deenied  suflident  in  many  cases  ts 
allay  inflammatory  symptoms.  When  the  dke- 
tion  has  been  caused  by  an  abuse  of  aid«t 
^irita,  the  subsidence  of  the  inflammstoiy  st^ge 
must  be  carefully  watched,  and  the  depressioB 
which  ensues  anticipated  by  a  gently  stasfi- 
lating  or  sustaining  treatment.  Tinctme  of 
hops  or  of  lupulin  combined  witli  valefisB  or 
asafcatida  is  usually  given.  Moderate  doses  of 
opium  or  of  laudanum  are  also  given,  wttks 
view  to  lessening  nervons  irritability  and  in- 
dudng  sleep.  Tartar  emetic  is  sometimes  bteb 
with  opium  to  quiet  both  the  nervous  and  tbe 
vascular  exdtement.  In  the  second  fixm  of 
brain  fever,  or  true  ddirium  tremensi,  opinmii 
given  with  full  doses  of  camphoc  and  ammo- 
nia ;  and  enemata  containing  landannm  and  as- 
afoatida  may  be  administered.  Gentie  stimo- 
lants  and  aperients  are  given.  In  some  can, 
warm  negus  or  weak  punch  may  be  affiowei, 
in  sqaall  quantities,  repeated  as  occasion  wm^ 
reouire.  The  main  indication  is  to  obtain  sleep 
ana  mental  rest.  Stimulatmg  liniments  wpf&A 
over  the  epigastrium  are  occasionally  veiy  ^- 
cacions.  The  factions  of  the  liver  and  ifiges* 
tive  organs  require  due  attention.  Time  and 
rest  are  very  necessary,  with  the  ahsmce  of  aD 
mental  and  emotions  excitem«at.  Ko  Ibod 
but  that  which  is  most  easily  disesbed  aboold 
be  taken.  All  kinds  of  fiedi  are  diffienlt  to  di- 
gest when  the  liver  is  very  much  afiboted,  as  it 
is  in  all  such  cases;  and  therefore  beef  ta 
and  soups,  combined  with  farinaceoos  dk^ 
should  be  given  in  lieu  of  fleshy  8ahaAanc& 
Little  or  no  medicine  should  be  given  when 
the  inflammatory  symptoms  have  sobaded. 
Change  of  air,  pleasant  change  of  scenery,  light 
nutritious  diet,  mudi  rest  and  sleep,  with  no 
excitement  of  any  kind,  nre  the  only  slow  and 
sure  means  of  gradual  recovery.  .  Endeavorii^ 
to  cure  rapidly  is  injudicious,  and  nnsaccessMl 
There  is  no  royal  road  to  restoration  in  socb 
cases.  Artificial  rest,  too  freqnentiy  obtained 
by  narcotics,  is  also  daogerona  and  dten  fataL 


BRAINARD 


BRAEX 


P^deaoe,  time,  and  patience  are  the  aoyereign 
remedies. 

BBAIXARD,  Jomx  G,  0.,  an  American 
poet,  born  at  New  London,  Oonn.,  Oct.  21, 1790, 
died  Sept  26, 1828.  He  mdaated  at  Yale  col- 
lege, and  began  the  stady  of  law,  but  soon 
abandoned  it  to  become  editor  of  the  '^  Connecti- 
cut Mirror,"  at  Hartford.  Instead  of  making  his 
paper  a  vehicle  for  political  controversy  merely, 
he  illuminated  it  vith  poetical  contribntiona, 
choosing  the  ballad  as  the  usual  form  of  his 
compositions.  In  1827  he  was  obliged,  by  the 
inroads  of  consumption,  to  remove  to  the  east 
end  of  Long  island  for  the  benefit  of  the  sea 
breezes,  whence  he  returned  to  die  at  his  fa- 
ilier^s  house  in  New  London.  A  volume  of  his 
poems  was  published  in  New  York  in  1826,  and 
after  his  death,  an  enlaived  edition  appeared  in 
1832,  with  the  title  of  ''Literary  Remains."  A 
third  edition  was  published  in  1842  at  Hartford. 

BRAIN£RD,  the  first  missionary  station  es- 
tablished amonff  the  Cherokee  Indians  by  the 
American  board  of  commissioners  for  foreign 
missions.  It  was  opened  in  Jan.  1817,  on 
Ohickamanga  creek,  in  Tennessee,  near  the 
Geoi^ia  frontier,  and  was  known  at  first  as  the 
Ohickamanga  mission,  a  name  afterward  ex- 
changed for  that  of  Brainerd  in  honor  of  the 
celebrated  American  misaionan^.  Schools  for 
both  sexes  were  soon  established,  dwelling 
houses  and  other  buildiuffs  were  erected,  and 
the  missionaries  devoted  uiemselves  with  great 
ceal  to  the  temporal  as  well  as  spiritual  im- 
provement of  the  Indiana,  until  the  latter  were 
removed  west  of  the  Mississippi  in  1888. 

BRAINERD,  David,  a  missionary  to  the  In- 
dians, bom  at  Haddam,  Conn.,  April  20,  1718, 
died  at  NorthamptoEt,  Mass.,  Oct.  9, 1747.  Early 
impressible  by  religious  influences,  he  felt  him- 
self suddenly  converted  while  takinga  walk,  July 
12, 1739,  and  the  same  year  entwed  Yale  college 
to  prepare  himself  for  the  ministry.  Instead  of 
graduating  in  the  regular  course,  he  was  expelled 
m>m  tlie  institution  in  1742,  for  having  said,  in 
his  zeal,  of  one  of  the  tutors,  that  he  had  no 
more  of  the  grace  of  Qod  than  a  chair.  He 
was,  however,  licensed  in  July  as  a  preacher,  and 
received  an  appointment  from  the  society  for 
the  propagation  of  Christian  knowledge,  as  mis- 
sionary among  the  Indians  near  Stookbridge, 
Mass.  He  was  ordamed  in  1744,  and  took  up 
his  work  among  the  Indians  at  the  forks  of 
the  Delaware  in  Pennsylvania,  making  2  visits 
to  the  Indians  of  the  Susquehanna.  He  met, 
however,  with  but  little  success,  until,  after  a 
year,  he  went  to  reside  among  those  at  Cross- 
weeksung  near  Newark,  N.  J.  Here  he  is  sud 
to  have  produced  a  great  change  among  the 
savages,  and  to  have  baptized  78.  of  whom  88 
were  adults.  Having  worn  out  his  health  by 
his  labors,  he  set  out  on  a  journey  to  Boston  in 
the  spring  of  1747,  and  thence  to  Northampton, 
where  he  died  after  a  short  stay  in  the  family 
of  President  Edwards,  by  whom  his  biography 
was  soon  afterward  written.  A  new  edition 
of  this  work,  together  with  his  journals,  Mira^ 


,  and  "  Grace  Displayed,'* 


was  published  in  1822. 

BRAISE,  a  term  in  common  use  with  char- 
coal burners  to  designate  the  fine  refuse  coal 
which  sathers  about  their  pits.  It  is  a  French 
word  of  tlie  same  signification.  The  material  is 
much  used  as  a  covering  for  the  heaps  of  wood 
to  be  charred;  and  about  iron  works  it  serves 
a  very  useful  purpose,  when  mixed  with  the 
great  piles  of  ore  to  be  calcined,  keeping  up 
for  a  long  time  the  slow  combustion  required 
for  Uiis  process. 

BRAKE,  or  Bsbak,  is  an  instrument  for  re- 
tarding or  arresting  by  friction  the  motion  of 
wheels.  When  applied  to  a  hoisting  reel  it  con- 
sists of  aflexible  band  of  iron  bent  around  a  wheel ; 
one  end  of  the  band  is  made  fast  to  the  frame  of 
the  reel,  the  other  end  is  attached  to  the  small 
arm  of  a  lever,  the  whole  being  so  arranged 
that  a  slight  puU  on  a  rope  attached  to  the  long 
arm  of  the  lever  tightens  the  iron  bond  on  the 
rim  of  the  wheel,  which  is  arrested  by  the  con- 
sequent friction.  A  carriage  brake  in  its  prim- 
itive form  consists  of  a  beam  placed  crosswise 
under  the  frame  of  the  vehide,  and  supporting 
2  curved  blocks  of  wood,  one  at  each  end, 
which  are  firmly  pressed  against  the  periphery 
of  the  wheels.  The  brake  was  formerly  an  in- 
strument of  little  importance,  and  prior  to  1835 
only  one  patent  for  a'brake  was  granted  in  the 
United  States.  Since  that  time  the  adoption  of 
high  speed,  consequent  upon  the  invention  of 
the  railroad  and  the  locomotive,  has  made  the 
subject  prominent,  and  sevend  new  brakes  are 
patented  every  year.  Some  are  only  improve- 
ments on  the  old  plan  by  changing  the  posi- 
tion of  the  friction  blocks,  or  using  2  for  each 
wheel,  so  as  to  avoid  friction  on  the  jonrnals. 
Others  are  mechanical  devices  to  enable  one 
brakeman  to  operate  at  once  the  brakes  of 
several  cars.  But  the  most  important  class  by 
far  are  called  '^ steam  car-brakes;"  their  ob- 

iiect  is  to  produce  the  friction  by  steam  power 
nstead  of  man  power,  and  thus  enable  the  en- 
gineer to  apply  the  brakes,  by  the  turning  of  a 
cock,  much  more  powerfully  and  in  a  much 
shorter  time  than  could  be  done  by  any  num- 
ber of  brakemen.  Conclusive  experiments 
have  been  made  by  railroad  engineers  in  this 
and  other  countries,  showing  that  the  general 
adoption  of  steam  brakes  would  render  rail- 
road travelling  much  more  secure.  These 
brakes  are  made,  in  general,  by  attaching  each 
friction  block  to  the  rod  of  a  piston  playing  in 
a  short  steam  cylmder  fastened  to  the  frame  of 
the  car  near  the  wheel.  All  these  cylinders 
are  connected  with  the  boiler  by  flexible  pipes 
running  all  the  length  of  the  train,  and  by  let- 
ting in  more  or  less  steam,  the  engineer  may 
stop  the  train  more  or  less  suddenly.  Other 
plans,  widely  different  from  the  original  brake, 
have  been  suggested ;  in  some  the  brake  is  ap- 
plied to  the  rail,  in  others  compressed  air,  and 
sometimes  electricity  is  the  moving  power;  bat 
as  yet  these  projects  have  not  been  prodruced 
in  a  practical  shape. 


6a4 


BRAKENBUBG 


BBAMANTE 


BBASXNBURG,  Bsovsr,  a  Dntch  painter, 
bom  at  Uoarlein  in  1649,  selected  his  subjects 
frecaentljr  from  low  life,  which  ho  illustrated 
with  great  truthfulness  and  humor.  Ilis  pic- 
tures are  nomerous  in  France  and  the  Low 
Countries. 

BRAMAH,  Josspn,  an  English  engineer, 
bom  at  Stmnboroush,  in  Yorkshire,  April,  1749, 
died  Dec.  1814.  He  showed  at  an  early  age  a 
remarkable  mechanical  ingenuity,  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  carpenter,  and  afterward  worked 
for  a  cabinet-maker.  In  1784  he  took  out  a 
patent  for  his  widely  renowned  locks.  Among 
many  other  inventions,  he  devised  the  hydraulic 
press,  which  is  used  not  only  in  the  ordinary 
mode  of  a  press,  but  also  for  lifting  enormons 
weights.  lie  was  the  inventor  of  a  mode  of 
printing  the  number  and  date  of  bank  notes 
nsed  in  the  bank  of  England.  Mr.  Bramah 
left  no  writings  except  Uie  specifications  for 
his  numerous  valuable  patents,  and  some  manu- 
script essays  on  religious  subjects.  His  religion, 
like  his  science,  showed  itself  chiefly  by  active 
and  energetic  labors  for  the  public  good,  and 
especially  for  the  benefit  of  his  numerous  work- 
men. 

BRAMAH'S  LOCK,  patented  in  England  in 
1784.  This  lock,  after  being  the  only  safe  one 
for  years,  is  still  considered  one  of  the  best 
The  principle  on  which  it  is  based  will  be  under- 
stooa  by  imagining  a  bar  or  bolt  capable  of  a 
longitudinal  motion,  in  which  are  cut  several 
transverse  notches  reaching  half  way  through, 
and  supposing  in  each  notch  another  bar  placed 
crosswise  to  the  first  These  smaller  bars  are 
themselves  cut  in  snch  a  manner  as  to  allow 
the  long  bar  to  move  lengthwise  when  their 
cuts  are  brought  over  it.  All  these  transverse 
bars  or  sliders  are  pushed  on  one  side  by  springs. 
To  move  the  bolt,  the  first  operation  is  to  push 
the  sliders  against  the  springs,  so  as  to  brinff  all 
their  notches  in  line  over  the  bolt;  this  is  done 
by  pressing  against  their  ends  a  block  on  which 
steps  of  the  proper  depth  are  cut,  one  for  each 
slide.  This  arrangement,  disposed  in  a  circular 
form  around  a  small  barrel,  whidi  is  made  to 
rotate  by  a  small  projection  on  the  side  of  the 
key,  and  which  itself  pushes  the  bolt  forward, 
constitutes  Bramah's  lock.  The  end  of  the  key 
is  made  hollow  to  fit  on  a  short  pin  fixed  in  the 
lock,  and  the  hollow  cylinder  thus  formed  is  cut 
with  4  slits  of  various  depths,  the  function  of 
which  is  to  push  the  sliders  the  proper  distance 
for  allowing  the  barrel  to  turn.  This  lock  was 
first  picked  by  pressing  the  barrel  as  if  to  open 
the  lock  till  it  is  arrested  by  the  slider  that  fits 
best,  then  carefhlly  moving  this  slider  till  it 
Jerks  in  its  notch,  and  so  on  with  every  slider  in 
succession.  This  defect  in  the  lock  was  cor- 
rected bv  Russell,  one  of  the  workmen  in  Bra- 
niah^s  shop,  who  devised  the  plan  of  cutting 
false  notches  of  a  depth  sufficient  to  produce 
the  jerk  mentioned,  but  too  shallow  to  let  the 
barm  turn.  The  other  peculiarities  of  Bramidi^s 
lock  are  of  a  technical  character,  and  foreign  to 
the  patented  principle. 


BRAMAirS  PRESS  was  patented  in  England 
in  the  year  1796.  This  instmrnent  also  cdled 
hydraulic  press,  is  the  most  powerful  and  most 
simple  of  all  presses.  Its  invention  required  no 
mechanical  ingenuity,  but  ^ins;  as  it  is  & 
very  easy  application  of  principles  of  hydro- 
statics which  seem  at  first  sight  to  have  very 
littie  to  do  witii  the  lifting  of  weights,  viz.: 
fiaids  exert  an  equal  pressnre  in  all  directioBSt 
and  water  is  incompressible.  A  hydranlie  prea 
oonsbts  of  a  large  heavy  cylinder,  open  at  one 
end,  in  which  a  solid  piston  is  free  to  move,  and 
of  a  force  pmnp,  to  force  water  into  the  lar«e 
cylinder.  According  to  theory,  the  pressure  of 
the  water  on  both  pistons  is  propofrtiooal  to  their 
surfaces;  conseqnentiy,  by  using  a  force  pmnp 
suffidentiy  small,  or  a  cylinder  suffieienUy  large, 
any  amonnt  of  pressure  may  be  produced  wit& 
a  given  force.  The  large  piston  is  generaDj 
provided,  with  a  platen  to  press  substonoea 
against  another  platen,  or  into  a  box  fastened  to 
the  finme  of  the  machine.  Bramah^s  press  is 
used  by  printers  for  smoothing  printed  she^; 
in  dyeing  bandannas,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
bleaching  liquor  from  destroying  the  ooier 
of  the  pattern ;  to  separate  oils  or  other  flmds 
from  solid  substances ;  for  packing,  &c.  It  tb 
nsed  at  several  of  the  New  York  dry  docks  to  Hd 
ships  out  of  the  water.  The  Bramah  presi  ha 
been  lately  built  in  the  form  of  a  liftii^-jsei 
by  Dudgeon  of  New  York,  and  a  patent  has  bees 
granted  to  him  for  an  in^hioos  device  wiiidb 
enables  the  operator  to  bring  the  lifted  csirisge 
down,  simply  by  lowering  the  lever  handle  be- 
yond a  certain  point 

BRAMANTE  dTbbikOj  whose  real  name  vas 
DoxATO  Lazzabi,  an  Itakan  architect  and  the 
uncle  of  Raphael,  bom  at  Monte  Astnulda, 
near  Fumignano,'  in  1444,  died  in  Rome,  in  1514 
At  an  eany  age,  he  was  placed  as  pnjMl  with 
Fra  Bartolommeo,  and  several  of  his  pictares  sre 
still  preserved  at  Milan.  On  his  way  to  Bcsse. 
he  was  struck  with  the  beanty  and  skilfnl  ceo- 
stmction  of  the  celebrated  dnomo  of  ICilsn,  tb<fl 
in  progress.  At  Rome,  he  ezecnted  a  few  fres- 
coes, but  his  taste  was  wholly  for  architectare^ 
and  his  study  of  the  antiquities  of  the  dty  con- 
firmed this  bias.  His  erection  of  tlie  doister 
of  the  convent  of  Delia  Pace,  obtained  him  the 
patronage  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  for  whom 
ne  executed  the  CanceUeria,  a  pile  of  vast  sad 
with  a  cortile  surrounded  by  open  galleries 
formed  by  ranges  of  arches  resting  on  granite 
columns.  Julius  II.  afterward  emplojca  Bra- 
mante  to  draw  plans  for  the  Belvedm.  The 
influence  which  the  architect  obtained  was  eis- 
ployed  in  recommending  Rapha^  at  the  papal 
conrt ;  he  has  been  chaiged  with  being  insensi- 
ble  or  hostile  to  the  merits  of  MichoL  Ang^:^ 
and  certainly  persuaded  the  pope  not  to  adopi 
the  project  of  a  vast  mansolenm  ornamented 
with  numerous  statues  which  that  artist  hsd 
suggested.  The  pope  had  determined  to  take 
down  the  old  ba»lica  of  St  Peter  and  erett  a 
new  edifice ;  one  of  his  predecessors,  Kichoias 
v.,  had  even  commenced  the  end  tribune  er 


BRAHBAJ^AN 


BHAN 


636 


semioircle,  -vrbioli  Michel  Asgelo  parposed 
adopting  as  the  best  place  for  the  mausoleam. 
Instead  of  this,  Bramante  undertook  to  erect  a 
new  edifice,  and,  in  1518,  designed  and  oom- 
menoed  the  charoh  of  8t.  Peter^s,  %hich  was 
oompleted  bj  Michel  Angelo. 

BKAMBANAN,  a  small  native  town  of 
Java,  in  the  saltanate  of  Yogyakerta,  and  aboat 
10  miles  distant  from  the  capital  of  this  state. 
The  name  signifies  **  abode  of  Brahma  ;^^  and  in 
its  immediate  vicinity  are  the  remfdns  of  sev- 
eral magnificent  temples,  which  evidently  were 
devoted  to  the  worship  of  the  chief  deity  of 
the  Hindoo  triad.  There  are  eight  structures  in 
such  a  state  of  preservation  that  every  portion 
of  their  architecture  and  decoration  can  be  ac- 
curately made  out.  Sir  Stamford  Baffles,  in 
his  history  of  Java,  gives  a  full  account  of 
these  edifices,  and  fine  illustrations  of  them,  in 
a  restored  condition,  are  to  be  fouivl  in  the 
plates  accompanying  the  London  edition  of 
1830  of  this  work. 

BRAMBLE,  the  wild  bush  that  bears  rasp- 
berries and  blackberries,  belonging  to  the  natu- 
ral order  roMcem^  and  constituting  the  genus 
rttbiu.  The  essential  characters  of  the  genus 
are:  calyx  5-parted,  without  braotlets;  petals 
5,  deciduous;  achenia  usually  many,  collected 
on  a  spongy  or  succulent  receptacle,  becoming 
small  drupes.  Nearly  200  species  of  this  genus 
have  been  described.  They  are  perennial 
herbs,  or  somewhat  shrubby  plants,  with  white 
(rarely  reddish)  fiowers,  and  edible  fruit;  and 
they  are  universally  difitised  over  the  moun- 
tainous and  temperate  regions  of  the  old  and 
new  world.  Among  the  European  species  are 
the  R.frutico9U9y  or  common  blackberry,  having 
digitate  leaves,  with  from  8  to  5  leafiets^  white 
panioled  flowers,  and  black  or  purple  fruit 
oommon  throughout  Europe  in  hedges  and 
thickets ;  the  R.  mbmuc,  or  dewberry,  a  rougher 
and  more  prickly  species  than  the  preceding, 
with  trailing  stem,  found  in  Europe  and  in 
K.  £.  Asia;  the  R.  areticiUj  a  dwarf  species, 
found  in  mountainous  and  northern  regions, 
each  stem  producing  a  single  highly  es- 
teemed fruit;  and  the  B.  idoms,  or  common 
ra^berry,  having  minute  leaves,  with  from  8 
to  7  leaflets,  villose,  with  upright  and  bristly 
stems,  drooping  flowers,  and  a  light-red  finely 
flavored  fruit,  common  from  the  Himalayas 
to  Ireland.  Among  the  American  species  are 
the  £,  9trigatu8,  or  wild  raspberry,  closely 
resembling  the  last,  but  having  longer  petals, 
conmion  on  thickets  and  hills,  especially 
.throughout  the  northern  states;  the  J?,  ocei- 
d^ntaUi^  black  raspberry,  or  thimbleberry, 
fl^uoous,  with  recurved  stems,  armed  with 
hooked  prickles,  with  umbellate  flowers  and  a 
purple-black  fruit,  found  in  thickets  and  fields 
from  Canada  to  the  West  Indies;  the  £,  odo- 
rattUf  a  sweet-scented  raspberry,  with  fragrant 
foliage,  large  purple  flowers,  and  a  shrubby 
stem,  found  on  rooky  banks  northward  from  the 
Alleghanies;  the  R,  vUloaui,  or  high  black- 
berry, shrubby,  armed  with   stout  prickles, 


having  8  or  5  ovate,  unequally  serrate  leaflets, 
numerous  raoemed  flowers,  and  a  blackish  fruit, 
common  in  the  borders  of  thickets,  and  varying 
much  in  size  and  aspect;  the  R.  Canademu^ 
low  blackberry,  or  dewberry,  shrubby,  trailing, 
prickly,  common  on  rocky  or  gravelly  hills,  and 
having  a  large  and  sweet  fruit ;  and  the  R. 
trivuUis^  or  low  bush-blackberry,  with  ever- 
green, nearly  glabrous,  ovate-oblong  or  lanceo- 
late loaves,  and  large  petals,  growing  chiefly  in 
sandy  soil  southward. 

BRA  MH ALL,  John,  archbishop  of  Armagh, 
Ireland,  bom  1593,  died  1663.  He  was  m- 
strumental  in  restoring  the  temporalities,  and 
also  in  inducing  the  church  of  Ireland  to  em- 
brace the  89  articles.  In  1640-^1  he  was  im- 
peached, together  with  several  of  Lord  Staf- 
ford's coadjutors,  by  the  Irish  house  of  com- 
mons. After  the  battle  of  Long  Morston  Moor, 
he  retired  to  Hamburg.  In  the  fleld  of  litera- 
ture, Bramhall  is  known  by  the  controversy 
which  he  maintained  with  Hobbes,  *^  concern- 
ing liberty,  n^l&essity,  and  chance.'' 

BRAN,  the  husks  which  separate  from  grain 
when  ground  and  bolted.  Its  proportion  in 
good  wheat,  according  to  Johnston,  is  from  14 
to  16  per  cent,  of  the  whole  weight.  As  bran 
contains  alarge  amount  of  albuminous  matter,  its 
rejection  from  the  flour  is  regarded  by  chemists 
as  a  loss  of  nutriment.  Liebig,  Dr.  Thomson, 
Millon,  and  other  distinguished  chemists,  all 
regard  its  separation  as  rather  injurious  thim 
otherwise.  Its  composition,  as  determined  from 
6  samples  analyzed  by  Johnston,  is: 

Water 13l1 

AlbomeiLooaffulftted 10.8 

OIL 4J 

Husk  and  a  little  starch 65.8 

Saline  matter  (ash) 7.8 

mo 

Payen  found  that  the  gluten  in  the  grain 
increased  in  quantity  from  its  centre  toward 
the  outer  covering,  thus  showing  that  the  re- 
moval of  the  husK  must  abstract  a  part  of  the 
most  nutritious  portion  of  the  grain.  From 
the  tendency  of  bran  to  ferment,  it  has 
the  effect  of  aiding  digestion,  which  may 
perhaps  be  increased  by  the  mechanical  ope- 
ration of  the  coarse  particles  which  it  con- 
tains. Bread  made  of  unbolted  flour  is  often 
used  1^  a  laxative  article  of  diet  in  dyspepsia. 
In  France  and  Germany  it  is  the  common  food 
of  the  peasantry,  and  among  no  people  are 
complaints  of  indigestion  more  rare.  In  the 
use  of  it,  it  is  apparent  also  that  there  is  great 
economy.  It  has  been  found  by  experiment 
that  dogs  can  live  on  bran-bread,  though  they 
cannot  on  flour-bread.  Thb  is  owing  to  the 
nitrogenous  qualities  of  the  bran,  which  are 
absent  from  the  flour. — ^Wheat  bran  is  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  starch,  and  by  calico 

Erinters  for  removing  the  non-mordantod  colors 
*om  maddered  goods.  This  is  done  by  boiling 
them  in  bran  water.  Dyers  also  make  use  of 
it  in  making  the  "sour-water"  with  which 
they  prepare  their  dyes. 


636 


BRAKCALEONE 


BBAKDENBTTBO 


BBAKOALEON£»  Davdolo,  a  noble  of 
Bologna,  who,  althoogh  a  foreigner,  was  made 
chief  nuciatrate  bj  the  people  of  Rome  in 
1258.  The  patricians  and  brigands,  whose 
licentionsness  and  depredations  h^  proved  fatal 
to  the  pablic  good,  were  promptly  consigned 
by  him  to  the  gallows.  He  forced  Innocent 
IV.  to  respect  the  rights  of  the  people,  and 
instituted  a  form  of  government  which  after 
2  years  appalled  the  Romans  themselves  by  its 
seyerity,  and  caused  them  to  depose  him ;  but 
only  to  recall  him  in  1257,  when  he  resumed 
hlB  iron  rule  until  his  death  in  the  following 
year. 

BRANCH,  a  southern  county  of  Michigan, 
bordering  on  Indiana,  and  having  an  area  of 
528  square  miles.  The  St.  Joseph^s  and  Prairie 
are  the  principd  rivers.  The  soil  is  a  rich, 
sandy  loam;  the  surface  undulating,  and  oc- 
cupied by  dense  forests  and  oak  openings. 
Iron  is  found  in  several  places.  The  products 
of  the  county  in  1850  were  161,284  bushels  of 
wheat,  266,818  of  corn,  123,298  of  oats. 
118,692  of  potatoes,  11,008  tons  of  hay,  and 
57,007  pounds  of  wool.  The  public  schools 
numbered  848  pupils.  Capital,  Coldstream. 
Pop.  12,472.  The  county  was  formed  in  1833, 
ana  named  in  honor  of  John  Branch,  secretary 
of  the  navy  under  President  Jackson. 

BRANOn,  Jomv,  an  American  statesman^ 
bom  at  nalifaz,  K.  C,  in  1782.  Ho  was 
educated  at  the  university  of  Korth  Carolina, 
became  a  lawyer,  and  one  of  the  judges  of  the 
superior  court,  and  was  ill  1817  elected  a  sen- 
ator in  the  state  legislature,  and  in  1828  a 
senator  in  the  nationalcongress.  He  was  secre- 
tary of  the  navy  in  the  first  cabinet  of  President 
Jodicson,  returned  home  on  the  dissolution  of 
that  cabinet,  and  was  elected  a  representative  in 
Congress  in  1831.  He  was  in  1834  again  a 
member  of  the  state  senate,  in  1835  a  member 
of  the  state  convention  for  the  revision  of  the 
constitution,  in  1838  the  democratic  candidate 
for  governor,  and  in  1848  was  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  the  territory  of  Florida. 

BRANCHLE  (Gr.  ffpoYxM,  gills  of  a  fish), 
organs  by  which  the  fluids  circulating  in  the 
bodies  of  animals  that  live  in  the  water 
are  minutely  subdivided,  and  in  this  state  pre- 
sented in  respiration  to  the  action  of  the  air 
contained  in  the  water. 

BRANCinOPODA  (Gr.  fiptryxw,  gills,  and 
wQvr^  a  foot),  an  order  of  the  section  entomo9- 
traeta  of  the  Crustacea,  the  animals  of  which 
are  small,  mostly  inhabit  stagnant  fresh  water, 
and  are  provided  with  feet  which  are  used 
only  for  swinmiing,  except  that  in  some  in- 
stances they  contain  the  organs  of  respiration. 
The  bodies  are  protected  by  a  oomeous  or 
membranous  covering,  with  a  shield  in  one 
piece,  or  divided  like  a  bivalve  shelL  One 
species,  the  hranch^nt9  itagnali*,  is  common  in 
Kew  England  in  stagnant  pools.  It  is  about 
an  inch  long,  and  is  furnished  with  numerous 
fringed  legs,  which  are  in  constant  motion. 

BRAND£,  William   Tbomas,  an   ICpg^ii^T^ 


chemist^  bom  in  1780.  He  succeeded  Sir 
Humphry  Davy  in  his  professorship  at  the 
royal  institution,  after  having  long  been  hk 
assistant.  His  chief  works  are:  ^A  Itaaiu! 
of  ChemiJlry,"  "  Outlines  of  Geology,"^  and  a& 
'^  EncyclopsDdia  of  literature^  Science,  and  Art" 

BRANDENBUKG,  the  cradle  of  the  Pmsssin 
kings,  and  the  most  important  Prussian  poT- 
ince,  known  in  the  times  of  Cesar  as  the  home 
of  the  Suevi,  was  invaded  by  many  difiereat 
races,  until  the  Saxon  influence  became  pre- 
dominant in  928  under  Henry  the  Fowler,  ▼]» 
conquered  the  principal  town,  Brannibor.  Tbe 
first  bishopric  was  established  at  Havelbeig  ia 
946.  The  Wends,  however,  could  not  be  en- 
tirely subdued,  and  the  political  organizsSioa 
satisfactorily  completed,  until  the  middle  of 
the  12th  century,  when  the  euxperxxr  Loths 
gave  the  northern  part  of  the  |Ht>vince  to 
Albert  the  Bear,  who  first  assumed  tiie  title  of 
margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  oonqnered  the 
other  parts  of  the  province.  His  desoendsais 
founded  Berlin,  the  capital  of  the  province  and 
afterward  of  Prussia.  Albert^s  dynasty  becnae 
extinct  in  1323  in  the  person  of  Margrave  Henir, 
and  the  province  was  then  given  to  Loob  ci 
Bavaria.  After  passing  through  Tarions  other 
political  changes,  it  was  presented  in  1415  bj 
Emperor  Sigismund,  to  Frederic  YL  of  Ho- 
henzollem,  burgrave  of  Nuremberg;  who  be- 
came the  progenitor  of  the  present  Pruasisa 
dynasty.  The  most  eminent  of  the  prinoes 
who  succeeded  him  was  Joachim  11^  who  vm 
one  of  the  first  German  princes  to  join  the 
reformation,  and  who  signed  his  name  to  the 
protest  of  Spire,  from  which  the  Protestants  toot 
their  name.  Under  the  reign  of  subsequent  sov- 
ereigns, especially  of  Frederic  WiUiflm,thegrest 
elector,  Brandenburg  reached  a  high  d^grt« 
of  prosperity.  The  country  is  now  intersect- 
ed with  canals  and  railroads.  The  pnod- 
pal  rivers  are  the  Elbe,  Oder,  Haver,  and  Spre& 
There  are  700  lakes,  and  many  ewamps  sai 
morasses,  some  of  which,  however,  have  bees 
drained.  The  soil  ii  sandy  and  not  ikverahle 
for  cattle,  though  the  province  has  2»fiOQ,0€0 
sheep ;  and  agriculture  is  pursued  with  neeesa 
The  raising  of  bees  is  an  important  brandi  of 
industry,  and  tobacco  is  produced  in  laige  qem- 
tities.  Manufactures  abound.  Area^ahmtlS.- 
cop  square  miles.  Pop.  in  1856,  2,354,805,  al 
Protestants,  excepting  8T,962  Roman  Osthi^es, 
24,196  Jews,  9  Turks,  95  members  of  the  Greek 
church,  and  19  Mennonites. — ^There  is  also  a  ciiy 
of  the  same  name,  founded  in  the  lih  oentaxr ;  n 
is  the  capital  of  the  circle  of  West  Hav^dbnd,  ia 
the  government  of  Potsdam,  and  province  of 
Brondenbuiv,  with  a  castle,  gymnasiimi,  aad  f 
schools,  public  library,  theatre,  hoqMtal%  Ac, 
manufactures  of  wooIIcts,  linena,  hoaerj,  papa; 
hats,  leather,  ^^,  and  a  ocnaiderahle  tzade. 
Pop.  in  1856.  19,888. 

BRAKDEKBUBG,  Fkxkduch  Wumexm, 
oountL  a  Pmssiaa  general  and  statesman,  the 
son  or  King  Frederic  William  IL  b j  his  mor- 
ganatic marriage  with  the  ooQDteflsVaa  Docn- 


BRANDES 


BRANDY 


637 


ho%  born  in  Berlin,  Jan.  24, 1792,  died  Nov.  6, 
1850.  In  Lis  militarj  career  lie  gave  proofs 
of  courage  and  capacity  on  various  occasions, 
especiollj  in  the  final  campaigns  against  Napo- 
leon ;  but  he  became  chieflj  conspicuous  bjr  his 
position  as  premier  of  the  Prussian  cabinet  in 
1848,  and  hy  his  subsequent  negotiations  with 
the  emperors  of  Russia  and  Austria,  chieflj  on 
the  question  of  tlie  preponderance  of  Austria 
in  German  affairs,  to  which  he  was  much  op* 


BRANDES,  Heinrioh  Wilhblu,  a  Gkrman 
savant,  bom  in  the  village  of  Groden,  July  27, 
1777,  died  in  Leipsio,  May  17,  1834.  Ho 
studied  hydraulics  and  mathematics,  and  after 
perfecting  his  knowledge  at  the  university  of 
Gdttingen,  participated  in  Benzenberg's  astro- 
nomiciu  labors.  In  1811  he  became  professor 
of  mathematics  at  Breslau,  and  in  1826  received 
a  call  to  the  university  of  Leipsic,  of  which 
he  was  rector  at  the  time  of  his  death. 

BRANDING,  in  criminal  law.  was  the  mark- 
ing of  convicted  felons  with  a  not  iron  on  the 
hand  or  face.  A  layman  didming  benefit  of 
clergy,  if  entitled  to  it,  was  discharged  upon 
being  burnt  in  the  hand.  This  was  not  as  a 
punishment  so  much  as  to  show  by  an  indelible 
mark  that  he  had  been  allowed  the  benefit  of 
clergy  ancOj  the  rule  being  that  it  was  not  al- 
lowable to  a  layman  more  than  once.  See 
Benefit  of  Clebot. 

BRANDIS,  .OnBiBTiAK  Auotjst,  a  German 
professor  of  philosophy  at  Bonn,  bom  at 
Hildesheim,  Feb.  18,  1790.  He  studied  at  Kiel 
and  Gdttingon,  and  took  his  degree  at  Copen- 
hagen in  1812 ;  lectured  there  on  philosophy ; 
went  to  Berlin ;  accompanied  Niebulir  to  Rome 
in  1816,  but  soon  returned,  to  engage  in  the 
publication  of  the  works  of  Aristotle.  He  vis- 
ited Greece  in  1837,  at  the  invitation  of  King 
Otho,  and  remained  there  several  years  as  his 
secretary.  His  MittJi&Uungen  uber  Oriechenr 
land^  and  his  Mandfmch  der  OeichiehU  der 
CfriechUeh-Mmiaehen  Fhilowphie^  are  especial- 
ly valuable. 

BRANDIS,  JoAomM  Dibtbioh,  a  German 

giysician,  bom  at  Hildesheim,  March  18, 1762, 
ed  in  Copenhagen,  April  28,  1846.  He 
was  a  skilful  practitioner,  and  published  many 
valuable  origind  works. 

BRANDT,  NiooLATJS,  a  Hamburg  chemist 
of  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  who,  in  order 
to  restore  his  broken  fortunes,  devoted  him- 
self to  alchemical  experiments,  with  a  view 
of  converting  silver  into  gold,  and  of  finding 
the  philosopher's  stone.  One  day  in  1677, 
while  engaged  in  distilling  a  mixture  of  sand, 
lime,  and  urine,  he  discovered  a  shining  sub- 
stance, which  turned  out  to  be  phosphorus. 
He  sold  his  discovery  to  Kraft  of  Dresden, 
who  communicated  it  to  Leibnitz  and  Boyle. 

BRANDT,  the  liquor  distilled  from  the 
juice  of  the  grape  and  of  other  fraits,  as  apples, 
pears,  peaches,  cherries,  blackberries.  &o.    The 

Seculiar  taste  and  aroma  of  wine  brandy  are 
erived  from  a  volatile  oil  of  the  husk  of  the 


grape.  Rectification  by  repeated  distillation 
dears  the  liquor  of  this  fragrant  substance,  as 
also  of  its  water,  and  converts  it  into  alcohol. 
The  average  proportion  of  the  latter  in  brandy 
varies  from  4^  to  64  per  cent.  The  essential 
oil,  when  distilled  from  the  husk  alone,  is  so 
powerful,  that  a  few  drops  of  it  are  sufficient 
to  taint  a  large  cask  of  spirit.  Beside  these 
ingredients,  brandy  contains  coloring  matter, 
tannin,  cenanthio  ether,  and  a  little  acetic  ether. 
Cider,  peach,  perry,  cherry,  and  other  brandies, 
only  differ  from  each  other  and  from  wine 
brandy  by  their  peculiar  volatile  oils,  which 
they  contain  in  very  small  quantity.  These 
give  to  them  the  peculiar  properties  by  which 
ihay  are  readily  distinguished  by  one  familiar 
with  tliem.  Brandies  are  commonly  known  as 
pale  or  dark.  When  first  distilled,  the  liquor  is 
without  color,  and  the  pale  amber  tint  it  ac- 
quires is  derived  from  the  wood  of  the  cask  in 
which  it  is  kept.  This  becomes  deeper  by  age, 
and  to  imitate  it,  burnt  sugar  is  added  to  the 
newly  distilled  brandy.  The  best  brandies 
come  from  France,  the  most  esteemed  of  which 
are  those  of  Cognac  and  Armagnac.  As  the 
value  of  these  is  greatly  increaBcd  in  conse- 

anence  of  partial  railures  of  the  vintage,  and 
tie  largely  mcreased  demand,  it  has  become  an 
object  to  adulterate  them,  so  that  pure  French 
brandy  is  now  hardly  to  be  obtained.  Com- 
mon whiskey  is  exported  from  the  United 
States  to  France  in  large  quantities,  and  is 
brought  back  converted  into  a  factitious  brandy. 
This  is  also  produced  from  a  variety  of  other 
ardent  spirits.  Rum,  beet-root  spirit,  and  that 
of  potatoes,  are  lar^ly  used  in  France  for  its 
manufacture,  and  similar  processes  are  also 
carried  on  in  this  country.  From  the  immense 
quantities  of  pure  spirits  imported  into  France, 
and  the  small  Quantity  exported,  except  in  the 
shape  of  branay  and  wine,  it  follows  that  a 
great  proportion  of  these  are  nothing  more 
uan  grain  or  beet-distilled  liquor,  colored, 
flavored,  and  named  to  suit  the  market  to  which 
it  is  sent.  The  products  of  the  vine  have 
greatly  decreased  in  all  tlie  districts  of  France, 
while  the  exports  of  the  so-called  vinous 
liquors  have  greatly  increased.  The  distilla- 
tion of  beet  spirits  amounted  in  the  year  1858 
in  France  to  but  $100,000,  while  in  1856  it  ex- 
ceeded $10,000,000.  The  inferior  spirits  are 
carefully  rectified  by  repeated  distillations  over 
fre^y  bnrnt  charooal  and  quicklime,  to  de- 
prive them  of  their  peculiar  flavors,  which 
would,  if  left  behind,  betray  the  imposition ; 
and  the  essential  oils  are  then  added,  which 
have  the  odor  of  the  ether  it  is  desired  to  imi- 
tate. Dr.  Ure  does  not  scrapie  to  give  a  recipe 
for  manufactnring  factitious  brandy,  which,  he 
says,  is  free  from  the  deleterious  drugs  too  often 
used  to  disguise  and  increase  the  intoxicating 
power  of  British  brandies,  and  which  may  be 
reckoned  as  wholesome  as  alcohol  in  any  shape 
can  ever  be.  To  pure  alcohol  diluted  to  the 
proof  pitch,  from  half  a  pound  to  a  pound  of 
argol  (crade  winestone)  is  to  be  added,  dissolved 


688 


BRANDYWINE  CREEK 


BRANT 


in  water;  with  this  a  little  acetic  ether,  also 
some  IVench  wine  vin^;ar,  bruised  French 
plums,  and  flavor  stuff  from  Cognac.  (This 
IS  murk,  or  the  refuse  skins  and  pips  of  the 
grape  left  after  distillation  of  the  wine.  It 
contains  the  less  volatile  ingredients  of  the 
grape,  as  the  salts  and  most  of  the  water — the 
alcohol  having  distiUed  over.  It  is  largely 
hnported  into  England  to  redistil  with  molasses 
for  manufacturing  the  article  known  as  **  Brit- 
ish brandy.^^)  The  mixture  is  then  distilled 
over  a  gentle  fire  in  an  alembic  furnished  with 
an  affitator.  Nicely  burnt  sugar  (caramel)  is 
added  to  the  spirit  which  comes  over,  to  give 
the  dark  red  tint  of  age,  and  a  few  drops  of 
tincture  of  catechu  or  oak  bark  give  the 
astringent  taste  and  projierty  of  the  tannin 
contained  in  the  real  brandy.  As  our  knowl- 
edge of  organic  chemistry  becomes  more  pre- 
cise, it  is  probable  that  we  shall  be  enabled  to 
imitate  with  almost  perfect  success  many 
choice  productions  of  nature  in  this  depart- 
ment, as  we  have  already  done  in  reproducing 
many  of  the  brilliant  gems  of  the  inorganic 
kingdom.  But  the  imitations  of  brandy  so  far 
produced  are  not  so  perfect  but  that  they  may 
DC  easily  detected.  In  the  report  of  an  exami- 
nation by  Dr.  Hassall,  of  the  "Lancet,"  of  18 
samples  of  brandy  purchased  in  London,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  malority  consisted  of  the  so- 
called  British  brandy;  the  alcohol  ranged  from 
80  to  50  per  cent. ;  nearly  all  were  colored  with 
burnt  sugar,  but  in  none  of  the  samples  was 
any  cayenne  present,  though  the  rum  and  gin 
purchased  at  the  same  places  were  found  to 
contain  it. — ^As  a  medicine,  brandy  is  consider- 
ed the  most  useful  form  in  which  alcohol  is 
administered.  In  advanced  stages  of  fever,  it 
acts  as  a  cordial  and  stomachic,  when  other 
remedies  afford  no  relief. 

BRANBTWINE  CREEK  rises  in  the  N. 
W.  part  of  Chester  co.,  Penn.,  and  flowing 
throuffh  the  interior  in  a  S.  E.  direction,  empties 
into  the  Christiana  creek  at  the  city  of  Wil- 
mington, Del.  It  ftunishes  power  throughout 
its  course  for  many  valuable  mill  seats.  On  its 
banks  the  Americans,  13,000  strong,  under 
Washington,  were  defeated  by  the  British  and 
Germans,  18,000  strong,  under  Howe,  6ept.  11, 
1777. 

BRANECKI,  or  BRANICKI,  Frakctstek 
Xawikr,  the  last  great  constable  of  the  Polish 
republic,  died  in  1819,  was  bom  of  an  obscure 
family,  most  probably  of  Tartar  origin,  and 
served  in  the  military  household  of  Jan 
Klemens  Branicki.  In  the  events  of  Poland, 
he  appears  for  the  first  time  in  1762  as  an 
attendant  of  Poniatowski,  at  his  visit  to  8t. 
Petersbiirg,  and  as  the  abettor  of  his  amours 
with  Catharine  11.  Poniatowski  owed  his  escape 
to  Branecki  on  one  occasion,  when  one  of  his 
interviews  with  Catharine  was  discovered  by 
Paul.  When  his  master  became  king,  Branecki 
was  rapidly  advanced,  through  the  influence 
of  Catharine,  and  after  the  death  of  the  former 
great  constable,  he  changed  a  letter  in  his 


name,  taking  that  of  Branicki,  on  Eoooce^n^ 
to  that  dignity,  lie  was  always  a  prominenl 
adherent  of  Russia,  and  sustained  that  power 
in  all  its  acts  of  war,  violence,  and  persecutkm 
of  the  patriots  under  the  leadership  of  Pukr- 
ski.  In  1778  he  was  foremost  in  facOitatiog 
and  sanctioning  the  1st  dismembemaent  of  Po- 
land. Afterward,  he  opposed  the  efforts  of 
the  nation  for  a  reinvigorating  reform,  fbnsd 
the  celebrated  confederacy  of  Targovitza  m 
1708,  which  resulted  in  the  2d  dismember- 
ment, and  was  the  death-blow  to  national  exist- 
ence. In  1794  he  was  proclaimed  a  traitor 
to  his  country.  After  the  8d  and  final  divi- 
sion of  Poland  in  1795,  he  retired  with  Ik 
wife,  a  niece  of  the  celebrated  Poiemkin^to 
his  immense  estates,  counting  120,000  e0^ 
called  Biala-Cerkeff,  situated  in  the  Ukraine. 
It  was  a  gift  of  Catharine,  and  was  taken  from 
the  Polish  crown  domains.  There  he  Sed, 
overwhelmed  with  gifts  from  the  Russian  ob- 

gTors,  and  with  the  execration  of  the  Poksw 
is  descendants  are  counted  amonR^the  richest 
private  individuals  in  Russia  and  Poland.  Ic 
1841  they  were  created  counts  by  the  empeicr 
Nicholas. 

BRANICKI,  Jxs  Klbkenb,  a  Polish  bats- 
man, bom  in  1688,  died  in  1771.  In  his  jocth, 
he  served  in  the  French  army.  In  1717  be 
returned  to  Poland.  He  rose  to  the  higbeft 
dignities,  was  an  opponent  of  Xing  Augo^ 
II.,  and  the  zealous  diampion  of  the  nobOitr. 
After  the  death  of  Augustus  III.,  be  offieslied 
as  great  constable  and  first  senator  of  the  kisf- 
dom,  and  stood  at  the  head  of  the  repulSaa 
party,  but  defended  the  privileges  of  the  sot^I- 
ity.  He  was  offered  the  crown  by  a  grest 
majority  of  the  nobles  who  con^tuted  t^ 
nation.  The  party  of  the  Czartoryslas,  baded 
by  Russia,  was,  however,  triomphant.  Pocisr 
towski  was  elected,  and  Branicki  was  ondawed, 
and  escaped  to  Hungary.  As  bis  wife  wist 
sister  of  the  new  king,  he  soon  retumed,  isd 
recovered  his  dignities.  He  was  called  bj  the 
nation  the  last  patriot,  and  at  his  funeral  ve 
performed  for  the  last  time  tbe  mediaeval  cere- 
mony of  the  ancient  chivalry,  that  ot  breaking 
the  coat  of  arms,  and  entombing  it  with  the 
body  of  the  last  member  of  a  noble  line. 

BRAKE,  a  bridle  for  the  tongne,  fbrsBexiv 
used  in  Scotland,  and  sometimes  in  CogUnd, 
for  correcting  scolding  women.  It  reseml^ed 
closely  the  common  horse  bridle;  tbe  head  of 
the  offender  was  inserted  within  it^  and  a  shsrp 
iron  was  brought  as  a  bit  well  into  the  mouth, 
and  made  to  keep  its  place  by  an  arrangemeii: 
of  straps  and  buckles.  The  tongue  was  this 
obliged  to  retreat  to  the  rear  and  keep  qm^ 
In  this  harness  the  tamed  shrew  was  not  ca- 
frequently  led  in  triumph  through  tbe  streets. 
BRANT,  a  south-west  county  of  CanadalTest 
comprising  an  area  of  416  square  miles,  and  drain- 
ed bjr  Grand  river.  The  surface  is  somewhat 
diversified,  but  most  of  it  is  leveL  The  soil  is 
exceedingly  fertile.  The  productions  of  the 
county  in  1852  were  626,741  busheb  of  wheat, 


BRANT 


BRASS 


639 


18,459  of  rye,  126,114  of  Indian  corn,  28,104 
of  buckwheat^  28,886  of  barley,  281^716  of 
oats,  106,244  of  potatoes,  and  79,981  pounds 
of  wool  Capital,  Brautford.  Pop.  in  1857 
estimated  at  29,557. 

BRANT,  Joseph  (THATBNDAifBaAX  a  Mo- 
hawk chie^  bom  in  Ohio  about  1742,  died  Nov. 
24,  1807.  He  was  frequently  spoken  of  as  a 
Shawnee  by  birth,  and  only  a  Mohawk  by  adop- 
tion, and  it  has  also  been  said  that  he  was  a  son« 
of  Sir  William  Johnson.  Having  taken  a  part  in 
the  campaign  of  Lake  George  in  1755,  and  in 
various  subsequent  conflicts,  he  officiated,  after 
Sir  William  Johnson^s  death,  as  secretary  of 
Greorge  Johnson,  .  superintendent-general  of 
the  Indians,  and  when  the  American  revolu- 
tion began  he  was  instrumental  in  exciting  the 
Indians  against  the  colonies.  His  presence  at  the 
massacre  of  Wyoming  is  doubtful^  though  he 
took  part  in  that  of  Cherry  Valley,  and  in  other 
sanguinary  engagements.  He  was  received  with 
great  distinction  on  his  tour  to  England  in 
1786,  and  was  attached  to  the  military  service 
of  Sir  Guy  Garleton,  in  Canada.  He  opposed 
the  confederation  of  the  Indians  which  led  to 
the  expedition  of  General  Wayne,  and  did  all 
he  could  to  prevent  peace  between  the  Indians 
and  the  United  States.  He  was,  however, 
jsealonsly  devoted  to  the  welfare  of  his  own 
people,  and  conspicuous  for  his  efforts  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  ardent  spirits  among  them ; 
was  a  brave  warrior,  and  noted  for  his  ability, 
as  testified  by  his  correspondence.  During  his 
stay  in  England,  he  collected  fhnds  for  a 
church,  which  was  the  first  one  built  in  Upper 
Canada.  He  there  also  published  the  *^  Book  of 
Common  Prayer  "  and  the  Gospel  of  Mark,  in 
Mohawk  and  English.  He  spent  the  latter 
part  of  his  life  at  Burlington  bay,  near  the  head 
of  Lake  Ontario,  where  he  built  a  house  for  him- 
self upon  a  tract  of  land  conferred  on  him  by 
the  British  government  One  of  his  sons  was 
somewhat  distinguished  in  1811  and  1812  as 
the  leader  of  a  body  of  Canadians  and  Indians 
employed  by  Great  Britain  against  the  United 
States.  The  **  Life  of  Brant  ^^  has  been  written 
by  Col.  W.  L.  Stone,  of  New  York. 

BRANTFORD,  a  town  on  Grand  river, 
the  capital  of  Brant  co.,  Canada  West.  A 
canal,  2^  miles  long,  connects  it  with  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  river,  and  thus  opens  an 
uninterrupted  water  communication  with  Lake 
Erie.  The  Buffido  and  Lake  Huron  railway 
was  completed  to  this  point  in*  Jan.  1854, 
and  the  company  have  extensive  buildings  in 
the  town,  comprising  a  repair  shop,  machine 
shop,  foundery,  and  engine  house.  There  are 
churches  belonging  to  various  denominations, 
4  newspaper  offices,  about  60  stores,  agencies 
of  the  bank  of  Montreal,  bank  of  British 
North  America^  and  several  insurance  com-< 
panies.  The  principal  manufactures  are  brass 
and  iron  castings,  tin  and  Japanned  ware, 
sashes,  blinds,  agricultural  implements,  and 
stoneware.    Pop.  in  1858  about  8,000. 

BRANTOME,  Pibubb   db  Boubdsillbs,  a 


French  biographer  and  chronicler,  bom  about 
1540,  died  July  15, 1614.  He  was  chamberlain 
of  Charles  IX.  and  Henry  HI. ;  took  an  active 
part  in  the  campaigns  against  the  Huguenots 
and  Turks;  and  has  written  historical  works 
which  embrace  many  interesting  memoirs,  an- 
ecdotes, and  sketches  of  the  celebrities  of  his 
time. 

BRANXHOLM,  or  BRANKSOME,  a  place 
in  the  county  of  Roxburgh,  on  the  Teviot, 
Scotland.  It  is  the  ancient  seat  of  the  dukes 
of  Buccleugh,  but  owes  its  chief  renown  to  the 
&ct  of  its  being  the  scene  of  Sir  Walter  Scott's 
*'  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel.''  The  ancient 
castle  has  been  replaced  by  a  modem  edifice, 
connected  with  which,  however,  is  a  square 
tower,  the  sole  remaining  relic  of  the  old 
stronghold. 

BRANXTON,  a  parish  of  England,  and  the 
scene  of  the  battle  of  Flodden,  fought  Sept. 
19, 1518.  A  monumental  pillar  marks  the  spot 
where  the  conflict  took  place. 

BRASCASSAT.  Jaoqites  Raymond,  aFrench 
painter,  born  in  Bordeaux,  Aug.  80,  1805.  In 
1825  he  took  the  first  prize  of  the  academy  of 
fine  arts,  for  historical  landscape,  after  which 
he  went  to  Rome  to  complete  his  studies.  He 
has  produced  many  fine  landscapes  with  ani- 
mals, and  became  a  member  of  the  academy  of 
fine  arts  in  1848. 

BRASEQ^R,  Abraham,  a  colonel  in  the  army 
of  the  United  States,  bom  in  New  York,  Dec. 
2,  1784^  died  in  exile  during  the  revolution,  in 
1782.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active  asso- 
ciates of  the  "liberty  boys"  of  his  native 
city.  He  wrote  many  of  the  popular  ballads 
of  the  revolutionary  period,  and  was  a  constant 
contributor  to  the  newspapers  of  his  day. 
Among  his  poetical  productions  .were  "An- 
other New  Year's  Address,"  and  the  "  Greneral's 
trips  to  Morristown,"  both  of  which  were 
favorites  in  the  American  camp. 

BRASIDAS,  son  of  Tellis,  was  the  greatest 
character  produced  by  Sparta  in  the  1st  period 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  After  covering 
himself  with  glory  at  Pylos  and  Megara,  he 
was  sent  with  an  army  into  Thrace  to  succor 
Perdiccas,  and  to  operate  against  the  Athenian 
colonies.  Brasidas  was  slain  at  Amphipolia, 
422  B.  C,  in  a  battle  in  which  he  totally  de- 
feated an  Athenian  armv  under  Geon. 

BRASS.  Of  all  the  alloys  of  one  metal  with 
another,  none  are  more  usefhl  than  those  of 
copper  wilh  zinc,  forming  the  dififerent  varieties 
of  brass.  This  alloy  appears  to  have  been  in 
use  at  a  very  early  period,  if  the  Latin  word  cbs 
is  correctly  translate  brass  instead  of  copper,  for 
Lucretius  observes,  Et  prior  erat  corU  quam  ferri 
eognitus  u»u» — "  the  use  of  brass  was  known 
before  that  of  iron."  Pliny  speaks  of  its  use 
soon  after  Rome  was  founded,  and  states  that 
Numa,  the  successor  of  Romulus,  formed  the 
workers  of  it  into  a  kind  of  community.  It  is 
also  certain  that  before  zinc  was  over  obtained 
as  a  distinct  metal,  its  alloy  with  copper  was  in 
use,  the  zinc  ores  being  reduced  in  process  of 


640 


BRASS 


making  the  alloy'  hj  the  charcoal  mixed  with 
them ;  when  thus  formed,  the  metallic  zinc  is  ab- 
sorbed in  the  copper  placed  in  the  crucible,  with* 
out  once  i4)pearing  in  its  own  form.  Brass  con- 
tinued to  be  manufactured  in  this  manner  till 
the  year  1781,  and  the  process  is  still  in  use, 
tbouffh  the  more  usual  method  is  to  melt  the 
metulic  zinc,  and  introduce  the  copper  in  thin 
slips.  When  enough  copper  Is  added  to  render 
the  alloy  of  difficult  fusion,  the  heat  is  increased 
and  the  additional  copper  required  is  intro- 
duced in  a  melted  state.  Another  process  is  to 
melt  the  copper  first,  and  plunge  beneath  its 
surface  lumps  of  zinc  held  in  iron  tongs.  If  it 
were  attempted  to  melt  the  two  metals  together, 
the  zinc  would  be  in  great  part  consumed  be- 
fore the  mixture  reached  the  high  temperature 
required  to  melt  the  copper ;  and  yet  these  metals 
combine  so  readily,  that  copper  is  sometimes 
conyerted  into  brass  upon  its  surface,  only  by 
the  fwaies  of  burning  zinc.  By  any  method  of 
preparation  there  is  a  considerable  loss  of  zino 
by  its  escaping  in  fumes  of  the  oxide.  A  layer 
of  fine  charcoal  placed  upon  the  melted  zino 
protects  it  from  contact  with  the  atmosphere, 
and  reduces  this  loss  to  the  least  amonnt. 
Pieces  of  glass,  thrown  upon  the  surface  of 
the  metal,  melt  and  cover  it  also  with  a  thin 
protecting  layer ;  these  also  serve  to  prevent  the 
oxide  of  zinc  from  mixing  with  the  alloy,  and 
producing  spots  or  stains  with  little  cavities  in 
the  brass.  Owing  to  the  uncertain  quantity  of 
zino  which  escapes,  the  exact  proportions  of 
the  two  metals  are  rarely  known;  and  the  re- 
cipes of  the  manufacturers  do  not  indicate  the 
use  of  miiform  proportions,  as  these  generally 
include  certain  Quantities  of  old  brass,  the  com- 
position of  which  is  never  exactly  known.  Be- 
side, by  each  remeltin^,  an  additional  loss  of 
nno  is  incurred,  by  which  the  proportions  are 
continually  changed.  It  is,  however,  believed 
that  the  best  qualities  of  brass  are  those  in 
which  the  metals  are  combined  in  the  propor- 
tions of  their  equivalents.  The  usual  compo- 
sition of  brass  is  in  the  proportion  of  2  parts 
by  weight  of  copper  to  one  of  zinc.  The  brass 
founders  express  this  composition  by  the  term, 
^'8  ounces  of  zino"  (to  a  pound  of  copper 
being  understood).  Sixteen  ounce  brass,  or 
copper  and  zino  in  equal  weights,  is  a  beau- 
tiful golden  yellow  alloy  called  princess  metal. 
Muntz^s patent  sheathing  or  *^ yellow  metal"  is 
prodncea  with  this  extreme  proportion  of  zino^ 
or  in  less  proportions,  varying  to  9  ounces. 
The  best  is  2  parts  of  zinc  to  8  of  copper,  which 
is  also  the  most  malleable  composition.  Brass 
composed  of  8  to  4  ounces  of  zinc,  is  known  by 
the  names,  bath  metal,  pinchbeck,  Mannheim 
gold,  &c.,  which  resemble  the  poorer  alloys  of 
gold.  Brass  solders  vary  in  the  proportion  of 
their  ingredients,  acoordinff  to  the  uses  to 
which  they  are  to  be  applieo.  The  most  com- 
mon mixture  is  equal  parts  copper  and  zinc ; 
some  of  the  zino,  however,  is  lost  in  the  fusing 
and  casting.  Brasses  containing  less  than  10 
ounces  of  zino  are,  to  some  extent^  malleable  and 


ductile;  with  additional  one,  ihej  becone 
crystalline,  hard,  and  brittle.     The  red  color  of 
the  copper  merges  into  that  of  yellow  bnm  at 
about  4  or  6  onnoeff  zinc,  above  10  ounees 
'the  white  color  of  the  zinc  predomiiuite&   Gas- 
metal  is  also  called  brass,  though  it  is  on  alloy 
of  copper  and  tin.    This  was  the  composition 
of  the  brass  of  the  ancients,  and  the  same  mix- 
tures are  used  for  bell  metal,  the  tm  hsm% 
the  efifect  of  giving  hardness  and  elasticity,  sfid 
zinc    is    sometimes    added    to    increase  tb« 
shrillness  of  the  sound.   In  the  proportion  of  11 
parts  of  tin  to  4  of  copper  a  very  white  s^ 
DriUiant  alloy  is  produced,  which  is  nsed  ibr 
the   specula   of  telescopes.     Bell-metal  alky 
is  usually  made  of  11  parts  of  tin  and  86  of 
oopper.--Oun-metal  and  hard  castings  for  ma- 
chmery,  as  also  bronze  statues,  contain  fitm  96 
to  108  parts  of  copper  and  11  of  tin.    Com- 
thian  brass  was  a  mixture  of  gold,  ailTer,  and 
copper. — Brass  colors  are  preparations  made  to 
imitate  brass,  and  are  applied  to  fignres  of  ybs- 
ter.     Fresh  and  bri^t  copper  mings  of  the 
smallest  size  are  mixed  with  varnish,  and  if  a 
red  color  is  desired,  finely  pnlverLzed  red  odue 
is  added.     The  varnish  nrotecta  the  copper 
filings  from  oxidation,  ana  the  efiTect  is  t&j 
much  the  same  as  that.of  cast  brass.     The  bess 
varnish  is  made  of  20  ounces  of  alooboi  i 
ounces  of  shellac,  and  2  ounces  of  sandaru. 
Brass  leaf^  which  is  mnch  used  for  gilding,  con- 
sists of  thin  sheets  of  copper,  rendered  yeQow  by 
exposure  to  the  fumes  of  cnc.    The  powderpar»- 
pared  from  these  leaves  by  grinding  them  'm  a 
mortar,  when  mixed  with  gam  water,  is  used  as 
a  wash  to  imitate  bronze  or  evesi  fine  gdd. 
The  color  is  varied  and  heightened  bj  expossie 
to  the  fire,  and  stirring  in  an  earthen  basia. 
Brass  is  obtained  by  the  action  of  the  galranie 
current  fnmi  solutions  of  the  two  n^tab  in 
which  the  proportion  of  zino  greatly  predDmi- 
nates,  this  being  more  difficult  to  rednoe  firom  its 
salts  than  the  copper.   The  operation,  aooor£s^ 
to  Dr.  Heeren,  succeeds  best  with  a  miztareof 
1  part  of  sulphate  of  copper  to  4  parts  of  wsna 
water,  to  which  are  added  8  parts  of  aolphateof 
zinc,  dissolved  in  16  of  wann  water,  and  Id  of 
cyanide  of  potassium  with  85  of  warm  waticr. 
On  mixing  the  solutions,  a  precipitate  appeazs, 
which  redissolves  by  adding  a  little  more  d 
the  potassium  salt.    On  adding  250  parts  of 
distiDed  water,  the  solution  heated  to  elMiIlidca 
is  subjected  to  the  action  of  2  Bmisen  demeBts. 
charged  with  concentrated  nitric  acid  mixed 
with  A  of  oil  of  vitrioL    A  plate  of  brass  is  at- 
tachea  to  the  negative  pole,  and  the  olject  to 
be  coated  to  the  positive  pole.    The  deposat  is 
rapidly  formed  if  the  bath  be  very  hot.    Afta 
a  few  minutes,  there  is  produced  a  layer  of 
brass,  the  thickness  of  which  angments  rapidlT. 
Deposits  of  brass  have  thus  been  made  cs. 
copper,  zinc,  brass,  and  britannia  metaL    PrcC 
A.  K.  Eaton  states  that  he  has  deposited  brass 
without  difficulty,  from  the  cyanide  scdutkai 
alone  heated  to  the  boiling  point,  a  plate  of  brass 
being  attached  to  the  negative  p<de«    The  eoIg- 


BBAS3ABDS 


BBAUK 


641 


tion,  after  a  time,  becomes  ehargod  wifli  the 
two  metals,  and  when  bo  charged,  deposits 
brass  upon  the  positive  pole.  By  varying  the 
temperatnre,  he  noticed  that  the  different  met- 
als may  be  obtained  separately,  or  in  alloys  of 
different  proportions. — ^A  new  alloy  of  copper 
and  zinc  nas  been  lately  prepared  in  France, 
which  by  the  introduction  of  other  substances 
is  made  to  resemble  gold  so  nearly,  that  the 
name  of  areide  has  been  applied  to  it.  It  is 
remarkable  for  its  fine  grain  and  susceptibility 
of  receiving  a  high  polish.  To  prepare  it,  100 
parts  by  weight  of  copper  are  melted  in  a  cru- 
cible, and,  while  this  is  in  fusion,  6  parts  of 
magnesia,  8.6  parts  of  sal-ammoniac,  1.8  of 
quick-lime,  and  9  of  crude  tartar  are  added 
little  by  little,  and  stirred  in,  and  the  stirring  is 
continued  for  about  half  an  hour.  Seventeen 
parts  of  zinc  are  then  added  in  small  grains,  or 
if  tin  is  used  instead,  an  alloy  of  greater  bril- 
liancy will  be  obtained.  After  being  stirred 
agun,  the  crucible  is  covered  and  kept  hot  for 
about  85  minutes.  It  is  then  uncovered,  care- 
fully skimmed,  and  the  alloy  is  cast  in  a  mould 
of  metal  or  damp  sand.  It  is  somewhat  mallea- 
ble, and  melts  at  a  temperature  low  enough  to 
admit  of  its  being  used  as  brass. 

BRASSARDS,  Jointed  plates  of  steel,  pro- 
tecting the  upper  arm,  from  the  shoulders,  which 
were  coverea  by  poldrons,  to  the  elbows,  where 
they  were  met  by  the  gauntlets.  These  pieces 
of  armor  were  not  used  in  the  chivalric  ages,  or 
in  full  suits  of  knightly  armor,  but  in  the  half 
armor  worn  during  the  wars  of  Oustavus 
Adolphns,  Wallenstem,  and  the  Low  Countries, 
in  the  times  of  Oromwell,  when  plate  armor  was 
going  out  of  use.  In  tnYL  suits,  the  shoulders 
were  protected  by  the  pass-guards  and  grande 
garde^  the  upper  arm  by  the  rere-braoes,  the 
elbows  by  the  garde  de  &nw,  the  fore  arm 
by  the  vant-braces  or  vam-braoes — aoant  de 
hrcte — and  the  hands  and  wrists  by  the  steel 
gloves. 

BRATATUDA,  the  most  notable  literary 
production  of  fhe  Javanese,  and  of  the  Malay 
archipelago.  It  is  an  epic;  and  so  far  resem- 
bles uie  fiahabbarata  in  the  prindpal  incidents 
of  its  story,  as  to  be  regarded  as  a  paraphrase 
of  that  well-known  Hindoo  poem.  According 
to  evidence  furnished  by  the  work,  it  was  writ- 
ten near  the  dose  of  the  12th  century  by  a 
Javanese  sage  called  Pusadali.  It  compares 
with  the  Hindoo  epic,  as  the  iBneid  does  with 
the  Iliad,  in  the  extent  of  imitation  of  style  and 
character  of  the  incidents;  and  it  holds  a  simi- 
lar position  among  the  Javanese  and  civilized 
Malays.  Some  of  its  passages  are  quite  Homeric, 
in  describing  the  powers  of  certam  heroes;  as, 
for  instance,  the  effects  produced  by  the  rage 
of  Cresna,  when  informed  of  a  treacherous  plot 
against  his  life :  **  His  huge  body  swayed  to  and 
fro,  and  his  breathing  was  like  a  lion's  roar. 
The  foundations  of  the  earth  were  shaken: 
the  bases  of  the  mountains  were  loosened,  and 
their  tops  nodded ;  the  sea  rising  up  like  the 
mountains,  and  ca^ng  the  deep  water  fish  at 
V0L.Jn. — 41 


their  base.^*    It  also  abounds  in  pathetic  strains. 
It  contains  2,876  metric  lines. 

BRATTLE,  Thomas,  a  Boston  merchant, 
bom  Sept.  5,  1667,  died  May  18, 1718.  He 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1676,  and  was 
afterward  treasurer  of  that  institution.  There 
is  preserved,  in  the  historical  collections,  an 
excellent  account  by  him,  in  the  form  of*a  let- 
ter, of  the  witchcraft  delusion  in  1 692.  Several 
of  his  communications  on  astronomical  subjects 
were  also  published  in  the  '^Philosophical 
Transactions.'* 

BRATTLEBOROUGH,  a  post-township  of 
Windham  co.,  Yt,  situated  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Oonnecticut  river,  about  100  miles 
south  of  Montpelier  and  96  west  of  Boston. 
Fop.  in  1850,  8,816.  The  first  settlement  of  the 
state  was  made  here  in  1724^  when  a  military 
post,  called  Fort  Dummer,  was  erected  on  a  spot 
now  known  as  "Bummer's  meadows.'*  The 
township  contains  an  East  and  West  village. 
The  West  village,  on  Whetstone  creek,  is  do- 
voted  principally  to  agriculture.  The  East  vil- 
lage is  situated  on  the  Oonnecticut  river  at  the 
mouth  of  Whetstone  creek,  and  at  the  Junction 
of  the  Vermont  Valley,  the  Vermont  and 
Massachusetts,  and  the  Oonnecticut  river  rail- 
roads. Pop.  about  1,500.  A  covered  bridge 
across  the  Oonnecticut  river  connects  it  with 
Hinsdale,  in  New  Hampshire.  It  is  one  of 
the  wealthiest  villages  in  the  state;  contains 
6  churdies,  an  academy,' a  bank,  2  newspaper 
offices,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Brattleboroogh 
typogri»hic  company,  established  in  1886,  with 
a  capitsl  of  $150,000,  and  having  a  paper  mill 
and  extensive  printing  house.  An  asylum  for 
the  insane,  endowed  with  $10,000  by  Mrs. 
Anna  Miu^sh,  and  still  further  enriched  by  ap- 
propriations from  the  state,  was  opened  in  1886 
a  short  distance  N.  W.  of  the  village.  There 
are  slso  2  water-cure  establishments! 

BRAUBAOH,  a  circle  and  town  of  the 
duchy  of  Nassau,  Germany,  on  the  Rhine.  On 
a  mountain  overlooking  the  town  stands  the^ 
strong  castle  of  Maxburg,  and  in  the  vicmity 
are  the  old  fortress  of  Philippsburg,  the  mine- 
rsl  springs  of  Dinkhold,  and  silver  and  copper 
mines.  Pop.  of  the  cirde,  12,000 ;  of  tbe  town, 
1,500. 

BRAI7N.  I.  AT70T7BTEMiL,aGennanaroh89ol- 
ogist,  and  author  of  many  works  on  art,  bom 
at  Gotha,  April  19, 1809,  died  in  Rome,  Sept 
12,  1856,  wnere  he  had  resided  since  1888. 
For  more  than  28  years  he  officiated  there  as 
secreta^  of  the  arcAieBolodcal  institute.  His 
last  productions  were:  DUVoneihfuledefKumU 
jryeX^20$ris(Gotha,1854,with  lOOplates;  English 
translation  by  Grant,  Gotha,  1856) ;  Die  Qrieehi' 
iche  OdUerUhre  (Gotha,  1851-*55);  and  his 
exceUent  guide-book  entitled.  Die  Buinen  und 
Museen  Borne  (Brunswick,  1854 ;  translated  into 
English  in  1855).  11.  Johann  Wilhblk  Joseph, 
a  Prussian  Roman  Oatholic  theologiaOf  bom 
April  27, 1801,  near  DQren,  was  consecrated  as 
pnest  at  Rome  in  1825,  and  on  his  return  be- 
came connected  with  the  university  of  Bonn, 


642 


BRAUNAU 


BRAVO 


receiving,  in  1637,  the  appointment  of  profes- 
sor. In  ooi\junction  with  Hermes  and  Droste- 
Hnkhoff,  he  founded  IHe  ZeiUchrtft  Jur  Pki- 
hmphis  und  Ehtholitehs  Theohgie,  In  1885, 
Hermes'  lectures  were  suspended  hj  order  of 
the  Vatican,  and  in  1887  Braun  proceeded  to 
Borne,  but  his  efforts  to  change  the  decision  of 
the  p6pe  were  not  successful,  and,  in  1843,  the 
objection  of  the  papal  court  against  Hermes 
and  his  disciple  proved  also  injurious  to  Braun 
himself^  who  was  compelled  to  relinquish  his 
professorship,  although  the  salary  was  not 
withdrawn*  In  1848  he  became  a  member  of 
the  Frankfort  parliament,  and  in  1850  mem- 
ber of  the  first  session  of  the  Prussian  diet  HI. 
Kabpab,  a  G^erman  artist,  bom  at  Aschaffen- 
burg  in  1807,  founded  the  humorous  publica- 
tion called  the  FUegends  Blatter^  and  is  noted 
for  his  outlines  to  the  Ntbdungenlied^  to  OotM 
wm  Berliehingenj  and  other  works. 

BRAUKAU,  a  Bohemian  circle  in  the  district 
of  Gitschin,  pop.  about  46,000. — ^Also  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  pop.  about  3,000.  The  town  oon- 
tiuns  a  rich  Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  1381 
and  rebuilt  in  the  early  part  of  the  18th  cen- 
tury. In  connection  with  the  abbey  is  a  royal 
gymnasium. 

BRAUNSBERG,  a  Prussian  town  and  capi- 
tal of  a  circle  of  the  same  name;  pop.  of  the 
circle  45,700,  and  of  the  town,  9,600.  In  for- 
mer timeuB,  the  town  was  the  seat  of  the  bish- 
ops of  Ermeland.  It  has  an  ancient  castle,  a 
Catholic  lyceum,  and  a  grammar  school.  During 
tiie  Russian  campaign,  Feb.  1807,  Braunsberg 
was  an  important  strategetical  point,  from  its 
position  on  the  river  Passarge. 

BRAUWER,  or  Bbouwbb,  Adbian,  a  Dutch 
painter,  bom  at  Haarlem,  or  at  Oudenarde 
m  East  Flanders,  in  1608,  died  in  Antwerp 
in  1640.  He  first  made  designs  of  fiowers 
and  birds,  which  were  stitched  upon  caps 
and  bonnets  sold  by  his  mother,  a  poor  woman, 
to  the  peasants.  Francis  Hals,  a  oLBtinguished 
painter  of  Haarlem,  happening  to  see  some  of 
these,  was  so  stmck  by  the  talent  which  they 
evinced,  that  he  invited  the  young  artist  to  re- 
ceive instmctions  at  his  house,  where  he  kept 
him  hard  at  work  in  a  garret,  and  appropriated 
to  himself  the  proceeds  of  his  pictures.  Here 
Brauwer  remained  for  many  months,  ignorant 
of  the  estimation  in  which  his  talent  was  held 
abroad,  until  by  the  assistance  of  his  fellow 
pupil,  Adrian  van  Ostade,  he  was  enabled  to 
escape  to  Amsterdam.  The  discovery  of  the 
reputation  he  had  acquired  seems  to  have 
cru^ed  rather  than  incited  his  ambition.  Per- 
ceiving the  prices  which  his  pictures  command- 
ed, and  his  own  facility  in  executing  them,  he 
yielded  to  a  natural  taste  for  gross  pleasures, 
and  painted  only  when  it  was  necessary  to  pro- 
cure* money  to  indulge  in  dissipations.  During 
the  wars  with  Spain,  he  started  on  a  journey 
to  Antwerp,  but,  being  unprovided  with  a  pass- 
port, he  was  imprison^  on  suspicion  of  bemg  a 
spy.  The  duke  d'Aremberg,  a  fellow  prison- 
er, recognizing  his  talent,  induced  him  to  paint 


8ome(ihing.  The  subject  was  a  groT:^  of  soliSen 
playizig  at  cards,  which  the  artist  sketched  from 
Lis  prison  window,  and  the  picture  being  shown 
to  Rubens,  he  at  once  pronounced  it  a  work  of 
Brauwer,  whose  release  he  immediately  pro- 
cured, and  whom,  from  admiration  of  his  ge- 
nius, he  received  as  an  inmate  into  his  hoosg. 
Brauwer^s  longing  for  his  old  life,  howeTer. 
soon  induced  him  to  leave  his  protector,  and 
after  a  brief  career  of  reckless  aissipation,  he 
died  in  the  public  hospital  of  Antwerp. 

BRAVO.   I.   Lbokabdo,  a  Mexican  rerola- 
tionary  patriot,  bom  near  San  Luis  de  Potos,  ia 
1766,  enlisted  in  the  revolutionary  cause,  and 
died  of  prison  fever,  in  the  hands   of   tk 
Spaniards,  in  the  city  of  Hexico,  in  1812.    Tk 
Spanish  commander  had  repeatedly  offered  Im 
his  liberty  on  condition  of  taking  advice  in  the 
royal  army,  but.,  though  the  fever  caused  by  cq&- 
finement  in  a  filthy  dungeon  was  wearing  oot 
his  life,  he  steadily  refused  to  save  it  on  sodi 
conditions.    U.  Kioolas,  son  of  the  precedBȣ, 
bom  at  Chilpanzingo  about  1792,  died  ihsK 
April  22,  1854.     He  entered  the  serrice  of 
his  countiy  at  the  first  revolutionary  outbredL 
After  the  capture  of  his  father  at  the  evaciatits 
of  Cnautla,  200  Spanish  prisoners,  some  of  flKOi 
of  high  rank,  fell  into  his  hands.     He  iamt- 
diately  sent  a  flag  of  truce  to  Vanegaa,  cffaii^ 
to  liberate  his  own  prisoners  if  the  viceroy  vocU 
send  his  father  as  a  prisoner  to  Spain,  instead 
of  executing  him  in  Mexico.  The  proposal  came 
too  late,  the  fisither  having  died  of  prison  hrs; 
but  Bravo  at  once,  with  the  greatest  ma^- 
nimity,  released  the  whole  of  his  prisoneR,  as- 
signing as  a  reason,  that  he  wished  to  free  lias- 
self  from  the  temptation  of  a  terrible  reveif& 
Ho  was  present  at  the  capture  of  Acapeko  in 
1812,  and  of  O^aca  in  the  same  year,  serving 
also  in  all  the  various  actions  in  181S  and  1814: 
among  them  the  battle  of  Yalladolid,  when 
Iturbide,  who  was  at  that  time  in  the  roya£st 
service,  so  signally  defeated  the  patriots^  Afia 
the  execution  of  the  padre  Matamoraa,  he  wasaa 
unwilling  spectator  of  the  execation  of  the  whsk 
of  the  Spanish  prisoners,  whom  Moirelos  pst  to 
death  by  way  of  reprisaL  After  the  captare  of 
ICorelos  in  the  department  of  Vera  Croz,  who, 
previous  to  his  last  battle,  had  confided  to  lam 
the  guardianship  of  the  congress,  and  afier  Teraa 
had  forcibly  dispersed  that  body  in  Oct  1S14 
Bravo  wandered  over  almost  the  wb^  of  t^ 
Mexican  republic  without  being  aUe  to  make 
head  against  his  pursuers.    When  Hina  cssk 
from  the  United  States  with  his  party,  he  joist^ 
him  and  sought,  but  failed,  to  keep  possesaoc 
of  Corhoro.    In  1817  he  was  taken  by  the 
viceroy  Apodaca,  who  spared  his  life  only  ^ 
the  urgent  solicitation  of  many  prominent  roj- 
alists.  He  was  imprisoned  in  the  city  of  Mex}ct> 
until  the  general  amnesty  granted  by  Ferdinand 
VII.,  on  occasion  of  his  taking  the  oath  to  the 
Spanish  constitution  of  March,  1820.    When,  cc 
Feb.  24,  1821,  Iturbide  esUblished  the  inde- 
jtendence  of  Mexico  by  the  plan  of  Ignala,  he 
was  supported  by  Bravo,  w^  was  a  member  of 


BRAVO 


BRAVO-MURILLO 


943 


the  2d  regency  which  exercised  supreme  power 
from  April  11  till  May  18, 1822,  when  Iturbide 
proclaimed  himself  emperor.  To  this  step 
Bravo  was  opposed,  and  he  contribnted  in  no 
email  degree  to  Itorbide^s  deposition.  He  again 
became  a  member  of  the  provisional  government 
which  remained  from  April  1, 1822,  till  Oct.  10, 
1824,  when  the  federal  constitution  took  effect, 
under  which  he  was  elected  to  be  vice-president 
until  April  1,  1829,  Guadalupe  Yittoria  being 
president.  The  politics  of  Mexico  had  now  be- 
come involved  in  a  controversy  in  which  the  order 
of  freemasons,  divided  into  2  parties,  one  known 
as  E9G09e9  and  the  other  as  Yorhinos^  contended 
at  once  for  the  Scotch  and  ancient  York  rituals, 
and  the  one  for  a  centralized,  and  the  other  for  a 
federal,  form  of  government  Bravo  was  grand 
master  of  the  Scotch  division,  and  when  the 
federal  system  prevuled  he  became  a  leader  of 
the  opposition.  Notwithstanding  this,  he  had 
been  elected  vice-president;  but  when  on  Dec. 
23,  1827,  the  standard  of  revolt  was  reused  at 
Otaviba,  he  became  the  head  of  the  movement 
The  purpose  of  the  pr<munGiamiento  was  to 
replace  the  actaid  members  of  the  executive 
government  with  men  of  the  EsoMes^  and  to  dis- 
miss Mr.  Poinsett,  then  United  States  minister  in 
Mexico,  who  was  charged  with  too  actively 
fjEivoring  the  other  party.  The  insurgents  for- 
tified themselves  at  Salancingo,  where  they  were 
routed  by  Guerrero,  whom  President  Yittoria 
had  sent  against  them.  Bravo,  Barragan,  and  25 
other  officers  were  made  prisoners,  and  after  be- 
ing kept  5  months  in  connnement  were  banished 
to  Guatemala  for  6  years  on  half  pay.  Bravo 
was  recalled  in  1830  by  President  Bustamente, 
and  sent  by  him  against  Gnerrero,  now  an  insur- 
gent in  his  turn.  Guerrero  was  taken  in  arms, 
and  executed  by  Bravo's  orders,  Feb.  14, 1833. 
After  this  Bravo  remained  in  retirement  until 
July,  1839,  when,  aspresident  of  the  council,  he 
was  charged  with  the  supreme  administration  of 
the  government  during  an  interim  of  a  week. 
Again  from  Oct  26,  1842,  till  March,  1843,  he 
was  substituted  as  president  by  Santa  Anna, 
during  his  absence  as  dictator  at  the  head  of  the 
army.  For  the  last  time  he  held  executive 
power  as  temporary  president  from  July  29  to 
Aug  4, 1846,  when  he  was  deposed  by  a  revolu- 
tion. On  the  commencement  of  the  war  between 
Mexico  and  the  United  States,,  he  took  np  arms 
in  behalf  of  his  country,  and  participated  in  the 
bdttle  of  Oerro  Gordo.  In  the  autumn  of  1853 
he  was  accused  by  the  ministers  of  Santa 
Anna  of  having  secretly  joined  Juan  Alvarez 
in  the  insurrection  he  had  set  on  foot;  but  he 
at  once  denied  the  accusation  and  declared  that 
he  had  retired  from  public  life  forever.  In 
Feb.  1854,  Santa  Anna  left  Mexico  to  attack 
Alvarez,  and  while  he  was  at  Ohilpanzingo,  3 
or  4  months  afterward.  Bravo  and  his  wife  sud- 
denly died,  within  3  hours  of  each  other.  This 
gave  rise  to  the  suspicion  that  they  had  been 
poisoned,  but  no  evidence  was  ever  brought 
forward  to  sustain  the  imputation.  Bravo  is 
regarded  by  intelligent  Mexicans  as  one  of  the 


most  upright,  honorable,  and  dbtinguished  men 
whom  their  country  has  produced. 

BRAYO-MURILLO,  Juan,  a  Spanish  states- 
man, born  at  Frejoual  de  la  Sierra,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Badi^oz,  in  June,  1803,  of  an  honorable, 
but  rather  poor  family,  received  the  means 
for  his  education  from  a  generous  priest,  who 
was  struck  with  his  abUities.  In  1825  he 
graduated  as  an  advocate  at  the  university  of 
Seville,  and  although,  for  some  time,  pecuniary 
difficulties  induced  him  to  accept  a  professorship 
of  philosophy,  he  soon  resumed  his  position  as 
lawyer,  and  gradually  distinguished  himself  by 
his  oratories!  power,  especially  by  an  eloquent 
defence  of  Col.  Marquez,  who,  in  1831,  was  im- 
plicated in  a  conspiracy.  This  circumstance 
induced  the  minister  Garelly  to  tender  him 
the  office  of  attorney-general  at  Caceres.  The 
ultra-progresista  party  coming  into  power  in 
1635,  ne  tendered  his  resignation,  partly  to  an- 
ticipate any  action  on  their  part  in  reference  to 
his  office,  but  principally  to  carry  out  along-cher- 
ished project,  and  to  remove  to  a  wider  sphere 
of  activity  in  Madrid,  where  he  established  him- 
self as  a  lawyer,  and,  in  1836,  in  conjunction 
with  Pacheco,  published  the  Boletin  de  Juru- 
prudencia.  During  the  3  months  previous  to 
the  downfall  of  Isturitz,  he  filled  the  office  of 
secretary  in  the  department  of  state  under  his 
administration.  He  was  also  one  of  the  found- 
ers and  principal  contributors  of  jF^  Poroentr,  a 
journal  directed  against  the  government.  He 
took  his  seat  in  the  cortes  as  member  for  Se- 
ville in  1837.  The  ministry  of  justice  was  tender- 
ed to  him,  which  he  refused  on  this,  and  on  a  sub- 
sequent occasion  in  1838,  when  he  declined  to 
take  office  under  the  administration  of  the  duke 
of  Frias.  On  the  advent  of  this  cabinet  he  lost 
his  seat  in  the  cortes,  whidi,  however,  he  re- 
gained in  1840,  when  the  moderate  party  of 
the  province  of  Avila  elected  him  a  deputy. 
His  influence  gradually  increased,  until,  in  1841, 
he  was  looked  upon  as  the  leader  of  tiie  mod- 
erate party,  and,  as  such,  su^ected  to  impris- 
onment on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution. 
He  escaped  to  Bayonne,  where  the  news  of  his 
banishment  and  the  downfall  of  the  revolution- 
ary party  which  had  decreed  it  arrived  simul- 
taneously, permitting  him  to  return  to  Madrid. 
He  resumed  his  profession  until  1847,  when, 
for  a  short  time,  in  the  cabinet  of  the  duke 
of  Sotomayor,  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
ministry  of  justice,  until  Pacheco  came  into 
office.  In  Nov.  1847,  at  the  formation  of  a 
new  cabinet,  he  entered  it  as  minister  of  trade 
and  public  instruction.  In  1849-^50  he  was 
minister  of  finance,  which  office  he  retained  in 
1861,  when,  after  the  return  of  Narvaez,  he 
was  charged  with  the  formation  of  a  new  cabi- 
net. Until  1852,  he  was  president  of  the  cabi- 
net, and,  at  the  same  time,  finance  minister. 
His  promotion  to  the  presidency  of  the  cabinet 
was  due,  to  some  extent,  to  the  regard  in  which 
he  is  held  by  the  queen-mother,  Maria  Christine, . 
who  infincnced  Queen  Isabella  in  his  favor. 
Since  1852  he  has  been  again  a  member  of  the 


644 


BBAVUBA  AIB 


BRAZEN  SEA 


legUUtora;  mora  raoentlT'  he  has  offiokftad  at 
prendent  of  the  house  of  deputies.  He  en- 
1078  the  reputation  of  an  upright  man,  an  able 

iwjer,  and  a  skilfU  financier. 

BRAVURA  AIR  (Ital.  aria  di  lraimra\  an 
air  enaUing  the  singer  to  exhibit  his  skill  in 
execution  by  the  admtion  of  various  embelliah- 
ments. 

BRAXTON,  a  north-western  county  of  Vir- 
ginia, haying  an  area  of  646  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  hilly,  rough,  and  covered  with  large  forests. 
The  soil  is  well  watered,  and  generally  fertile. 
The  Elk,  Little  Kanawha,  and  Holly,  aro  the 
principal  rivers.  Stone-coal  is  found  in  seve- 
ral places,  and  in  the  northern  part  are  salt 
springs.  The  productions  in  1850  were  9,063 
bttdiels  of  wheat,  187,120  of  Indian  com,  4,856 
of  potatoes,  8,743  pounds  of  tobacco,  and  72,409 
of  butter.  Thera  wera  6  com  and  flour  mills, 
4  sawmills,  2  wod-cardinff  establishments,  1 
salt-boiling  establishment  vielding  10,000  bush, 
per  annum,  and  2  churches.  Value  of  real 
estate  in  1850,  ^495,647;  in  1856,  $1,120,298; 
showing  an  increase  of  125  per  cent.  The 
county  was  formed  in  1886,  and  named  in  hon- 
or of  Garter  Braxton,  one  of  the  sipers  of  the 
declaration  of  independence.  Capital,  Sutton. 
Pop.  4,212,  of  whom  89  are  slaves. 

BRAXTON,  Oabtsb,  a  signer  of  the  declara- 
tion of  independence,  bora  at  Newington, 
King  and  Queen  co.,  Virginia,  Sept.  10,  1786, 
died  Oct  10,  1797.  He  inherited  several  plan- 
tations, and  passed  the  early  part  of  his  life 
in  the  enjoyment  of  his  fortune  in  his  native 
state,  and  in  England,  whero  he  resided  some 
years.  In  1765  he  took  an  active  part  in  the 
eventful  session  of  the  house  of  burgesses  of 
Virginia,  in  which  the  resolutions  of  Patrick 
Henrv  were  adopted,  and  in  the  subsequent  as- 
semblies which  were  dissolved  by  the  governor. 
Ue  was  next  a  member  of  the  conventions  which 
were  the  first  step  toward  the  substitution  of 
popular  for  the  royal  govemment ;  and  on  Dec. 
15,  1775,  was  elected  delegate  to  the  continen- 
tal congress,  as  successor  of  Peyton  Randolph, 
and  as  such  affixed  his  name  to  the  declaration 
of  independence.  He  did  not  remain  Ions  in 
congress,  but  served  in  the  legislature  of  Vir- 
ginia until  1786,  when  he  became  one  of  the 
executive  council.  The  close  of  his  life  was 
embittered  by  pecuniary  embarrassments,  and 
the  entire  wreck  of  his  fortune. 

BRAY,  VioAR  OP,  the  vicar  of  a  small  parish 
of  Berkshire,  England,  of  this  name,  28  miles 
from  London.  A  clergyman  who  held  this  office 
in  the  IGth  century,  was  a  Roman  Catholic  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  became  a  Protestant 
with  that  monarch,  and  remained  so  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  VI.,  became  a  Catholic  again 
in  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  turned  Protestant 
again  when  Elizabeth  ascended  the  throne  of 
England.  In  this  way  he  kept  fhst  to  his 
preferment  through  all  the  changes  of  his 
times.  On  bein^  reproached  with  his  frequent 
change!)  of  principle,  ho  made  answer  very  wit- 
tily :  **  Not  BO,  neither ;  fbr  if  I  changed  my  re- 


S  on,  I  am  sure  I  kept  true  to  my 
ich  is,  to  live  and  die  the  vicar  of  Bray  I  * 

BRAT,  AiTNA  EuxA  (KxmfkX  ^^  Endl^ 
authoress,  distinguished  for  her  artistic  cnhme 
and  for  her  literary  attainmentSi  boqm  in  Devon- 
shire, in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century, 
married,  1818,  Hr.  Charles  Btothard,  whom  she 
assisted  in  his  antiouarian  researches,  and  after 
his  death  became  the  wife  of  the  Rev.  Edward 
Atkvns  Bray,  vicar  of  Tavistock,  where  she  now 
resides.  Mrs.  Bray  *8  works  (of  which  a  unifonD 
edition  in  10  vds.  appeared  in  1844)  consst 
chiefly  of  books  of  travel  and  historical  n>> 
mances,  many  of  which  have  been  trandsled 
into  Gcoman.  One  of  her  most  valnaUe  pro- 
ductions is  on  the  ^*  Traditions  and  Legends  of 
Devonshire,*'  in  a  series  of  letters  addressed  to 
Southey.  Mrs.  Bray  has  written  a  memoir  of 
her  first  husband,  and,  in  1851,  that  of  Ids  &- 
ther,  the  eminent  artist,  Thomas  Stothard. 

BRAT,  Thohas,  an  English  clergyman  and 
philanthropist,  bom  at  Morton,  in  Shrop^ure, 
m  1866,  died  Feb.  15, 1786.  He  graduated  st 
Oxford,  and  was  selected  by  Bishop  Comptoii, 
in  1696,  to  build  up  the  infant  Anglican  Amk 
of  Maryland.  By  way  of  securing  a  soppcrt 
during  this  service,  it  was  proposed  tohavetbs 
judicial  office  of  commissary  general  created, 
and  conferred  upon  him  by  the  government  of 
Maryland,  with  a  salary  of  £400  per  ananm. 
In  company  with  Gat  Thomas  Lawrence,  tbm. 
aecretaiV  of  Maryland,  he  waited  on  tiie  prin* 
cess  of  Denmark^  afterward  Qaeen  Ann«,  ssd 
informed  her  of  the  proposed  name  of  the  nev 
capital  of  Maryland,  Annapolis.  In  return  for 
the  compliment,  she  gave  a  munificent  dona- 
tion for  libraries  in  America,  and  £400  voa 
given  to  tlie  one  in  Annapolis.  Beade  these 
parochial  libraries,  he  set  on  foot  throng  Yx^ 
land  and  Wales  lending  libraries  in  every  desn* 
ery,  whence  the  nein^boring  dergj  might  bor- 
row books,  and  where  they  roigfat  meet  lor 
mutual  consultation.  In  16if7  he  succeeded  m 
forming  a  society  for  propagating  Chrisdia 
knowledge  at  home  and  abroad.  He  saQed  fat 
Maryland  I>ec.  16|  1699,  and  arrived  March  19, 
1700.  He  was  received  with  great  cordiafity, 
and  the  '*  act  of  reli^on  "  was  adopted  by  the 
legislature  as  he  desired.  On  Mar  2i,  ITOQ, 
there  was  a  general  visitation  of  dtetgy  at  An- 
napolis, and  under  its  resolves  he  returned  to 
Ei^land  in  1701.  He  afterward  engaged  ia 
the  reformation  of  prison  abuses,  the  establish^ 
ment  of  parish  wonk-housesi  and  other  benev- 
olent  undertakings. 

BBATBROOKE  (Riobabd  Kkthxs  Gm- 
fin),  Lobb,  editor  of  ^^  P^ya's  IMary ,'*  bora  U 
Stanlake,  Busoombe  parish,  Berkshire,  SepC  S€, 
1788,  died  at  Audley  End,  Essex,  March  IS. 
1858.  He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  a&d 
published  the  ^^  Private  Correspondenee  of  Jane, 
Lady  Gorawallis,  1618  to  1644,'*  and,  in  1623, 
edited  *^  The  Diary  of  Samuel  Pepys.'' 

BRAZEN  6£A,  a  curiously  carved  veasd 
constructed  by  Solomon,  and  set  in  iht  temj^e. 
It  appears  to  have  been  an  enlaigement  upon 


BRAZIL 


645 


the  oricinal  layer  of  brass,  whioh  Hoses  con* 
Btrnctea  for  the  tabernacle,  and  to  have  been 
designed  to  serve  only  a  part  of  the  uses 
assigned  to  the  more  ancient  ntensiL  The 
original  laver  was  intended  to  serve  the  doable 
purpose  of  washing  the  parts  of  the  animal  of- 
fered in  sacrifice,  and  the  hands  and  feet  of  the 
priests.  In  Solomon's  structure,  the  first  of 
these  offices  was  discharged  by  the  smaller  la- 
yers, while  the  ablutions  of  the  priests  were 
to  be  conducted  in  the  brazen  sea.  This  was  a 
very  large  reservoir,  made  entirely  of  brass,  and 
placed  between  the  door  and  the  altar  of  burnt 
offering.  It  was  circular  at  the  top  and  80  feet 
in  circumference,  and  square  in  the  8  lower  of 
its  5  cubits  in  depth.  It  stood  upon  the  backs 
of  12  oxen,  8  looking  toward  each  quarter  of 
the  compass.  In  the  2d  temple  there  was  a 
return  to  the  Mosuo  plan  of  having  only  one 
laver ;  but  we  have  no  description  of  it. 

BRAZIL,  a  vast  empire  of  South  America, 
extending  from  lat  4^  28'  N.  to  82""  46'  8., 
and  from  long.  84°  66'  to  73°  20'  W.  It  is  of 
very  irregular  form;  its  greatest  length  from 
K.  to  S.  being  2,640  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  from  £.  to  W.  2,680  miles;  area  about 
8,000,000  sq.  m.  Its  entire  coast  line,  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Oyapok,  which  constitutes  its 
northern  boundary,  to  the  Itahy,  which  forms 
its  southern  limit,  is  somewhat  more  than  8,700 
miles.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Guiana  and  Vene- 
zuela ;  K  £.,  E.,  and  S.  £.  by  the  Atlantic  ocean ; 
S.  by  Uruguay ;  S.  W.  and  W.  by  Uruguay,  the 
states  of  the  Argentine  confederation,  Paraguay, 
Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Ecuador. — Unlike  most  of 
the  other  countries  of  South  America,  Brazil 
has  no  lofty  mountains ;  several  chains,  of  mod- 
erate height,  traverse  portions  of  its  territory, 
particularly  the  eastern  part.  A  ohain  of  monn« 
tains  of  inconsiderable  elevation  separates  it 
from  Guiana  and  Ecuador  on  the  north,  and 
from  Oape  St  Roque  to  the  borders  of  Uruguay 
one,  and  for  a  considerable  portion  of  the  dis- 
tance, two  ranges,  of  moderate  height,  run  near- 
ly parallel  with  the  coast,  and  at  a  distance  from 
it  varying  from  20  to  250  miles.  These  ranges 
culminate  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes^ 
where  there  are  several  peaks,  which  attain 
nearly  to  the  height  of  6,000  feet.  The  Serro 
do  Espinha^o  is  the  inner  or  westernmost  of 
these  two  ranges,  and  extends  from  lat.  16° 
to  28°  S.  It  is  abont  260  miles  from  the  coast, 
and  its  principal  peaks  are  Piedade,  6,880  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  and  Itacolmni,  some  80  feet 
lower.  The  N.  E.  part  of  the  coast  range  bears 
the  name  of  Serra  dos  Orgaos,  from  a  ffmcied  re- 
semblance of  its  peaks  to  the  pipes  of  an  organ, 
while  the  S.  W.  portion  is  called  the  Serro  do 
Mar.  The  highest  point  of  this  range  is  in  the 
Serra  dos  Orgaos  section,  and  bears  the  name 
of  Morro  dos  Oanudos ;  it  is  4,476  feet  high. 
The  greater  part  of  the  range  is  only  20  or  26 
miles  from  the  coast  The  coast  itself  is  mostly 
low,  or  of  very  slight  elevation,  except  that 
portion  lying  between  lat  21''  40'  and  27^  86'  S., 
which  is  rugged  and  mountainous.    The  water- 


shed, which  divides  the  sources  of  the  Madeira 
from  those  of  the  La  Plata,  is  but  little  elevated, 
and  in  time  of  flood,  passages  may  be  made  by 
boat  from  one  river  into  the  other.  North  of 
this  tract,  and  occupying  almost  the  whole  of 
the  interior  provinces  of  Matto  Grosso,  Grao 
Para,  and  Alto  Amazonas,  stretches  a  vast  plain, 
or  pampas,  of  au  average  elevation  of  2,000  or 
2,600  leet  The  area  of  this  plain  is  said 
to  be  more  than  6  times  that  of  France. 
Another  table-land  larger  than  France  extends 
from  the  Serra  Ibiapaba  to  the  river  Tocantins. 
The  tract  lying  north  of  the  Amazon,  and  for- 
merly known  as  Portuguese  Guiana,  is  mostly 
low  and  marshy. — ^The  river  system  is  by  fu: 
the  most  magnificent  in  tlie  world.  The  Ama- 
zon, and  its  numberless  affluents,  water  all  the 
northern  portion  of  the  empire;  the  Rio  Fran- 
cisco, which  in  any  other  country  would  be 
considered  a  river  of  the  first  class ;  the  Maran- 
h2o^  the  Pamahiba  and  the  Parahiba,  the  Pa* 
rana  and  the  Paraguay,  affluents  of  the  La 
Plata,  are  among  its  other  great  rivers.  Several 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  Amazon  are  themselves 
mighty  rivers;  such  for  instance  as  the  Tocan- 
tins, tiie  Araguay,  the  Madeira,  the  Ghingua. 
the  Tapijoz,  we  Purus,  and  the  Rio  Negro.  All 
of  these  streams  are  navigable  for  great  dis- 
tances. The  lakes  are  few  in  number;  the 
largest  is  the  Lagoa  dos  Platos,  in  the  province 
of  Rio  Grande  do  SuL  It  is  160  miles  in  length, 
and  86  in  breadth,  and  is  separated  from  the 
ocean  by  a  narrow  strip  of  land.  Lagoa  Grande, 
in  the  province  of  Goyaz,  is  smaller,  bat  still  of 
considerable  size. — The  climate,  as  a  whole, 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  Lying  almost 
wholly  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  the  heats 
of  summer  are  tempered  by  the  sea-breezes, 
which,  from  the  great  preponderance  of  water 
in  that  hemi^here,  are  much  cooler  and  more 
extensive  in  their  sweep  than  in  the  northern. 
The  provinces  of  the  south  have  an  almost  in- 
sular climate,  owing  to  the  diminished  breadth 
of  the  continent.  The  northern  provinces  are 
subject  to  violent  and  heavy  storms ;  the  soath- 
etn  provinces  have  comparatively  little  rain, 
llie  rainy  season  in  the  north  sets  in  with 
heavy  thunder-storms,  in  October,  and  more  or 
less  rain  falls  till  March.  The  following  table 
gives  t^e  mean  temperature  and  range  of  the 
thermometer  in  6  of  the  principal  cities : 

SU^  lamp.      AT.muc  At.  ah. 

Blo  Janeiro 82*                78-80'     60'  <7' 

Babta IS"                80'          8d'  74* 

Periuunbaoo 8*    «'           78*           86*  70* 

Marmham S*  SI'          80*          85*  7«* 

Vm 1*81'          84*          98*  75* 

So  small  a  range  of  the  thermometer  is  found 
in  very  few  countries,  and  indicates,  except 
where  marsh  miasmata  prevail,  a  diroate  of  ex- 
traordinary salubrity. — ^That  portion  of  Brazil 
lying  on  the  Amazon  and  its  principal  tributa- 
ries, being  often  overflowed  for  some  months, 
and  having  in  addition  avast  amount  of  con- 
stantly decaying  vegetation,  \a  suljeot  to  malig- 
nant mtermittent  and  remittent  fevers,  which 


646 


BRAZIL 


attack  espeeiaOf  the  aannparilla  Hanters,  who 
sleep  on  the  damp  earth  in  the  forests,  and 
otherwise  expose  themselves  to  the  deadly 
inflaence  of  the  malaria.  Lieut  Hemdon 
found  the  Indians  of  the  interior  away  from 
the  marshy  lands  remarkably  long-lired. — 
Little  definite  information  has  ever  been 
gathered  respecting  the  geological  formations 
of  Brazil.  Its  vast  northern  territory  is  rarely 
traversed  except  noon  its  great  rivers,  and  along 
these  the  deep  allavial  deposits  covered  with 
the  dense  ana  almost  impenetrable  forests  of 
the  Ut>pios,  entirely  conceal  the  rocky  strata 
beneath;  and  where  the  regions  back  from  the 
water  courses  have  been  explored  for  their 
mineral  resources,  it  has  been  by  those  whose 
eyes  were  open  only  to  the  precious  metals,  or 
the  more  precious  gems  found  in  the  same  de> 
poeits.  It  is  well  Known  that  granitic  moun- 
tains range  along  the  coast  from  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  country  toward  the  north  for 
perhaps  2,000  miles ;  and  simUar,  nearly  paral- 
lel, ranges  succeed  to  these  in  the  interior,  be- 
tween which  the  rivers  and  their  branches 
flow  in  a  northerly  direction,  the  Parana  and 
its  branches  alone  leaving  the  elevated  valleys 
among  the  mountains  to  eedc  the  ocean  by  a 
southerly  course.  It  is  near  the  heads  of  these 
streams  that  the  mines  of  gold  and  of  precious 
stones  are  found,  which  have  given  to  Brazil 
the  reputation  of  possessing  almost  unbounded 
mineral  wealth ;  and  yet  it  is  stated  that  the 
exports  of  sugar  and  coffee  alone  in  the  course 
of  a  year  and  a  half  have  exceeded  the  whole 
product  of  the  diamonds  found  in  a  period  of 
80  years.  The  diamonds  are  found  in  the  same 
deposits  with  the  gold,  and  are  obtained,  as 
will  be  more  particularly  noted  in  the  article 
Diamond,  by  the  same  method  of  washing 
that  is  everywhere  adopted  for  collecting 
the  deposit  gold.  The  most  famous  localities 
are  those  of  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
K.  N.  W.  from  Rio  Janeiro,  and  of  the  more 
distant  province  of  Matto  Grosso  in  the  cen- 
tral regions  of  Brazil.  These  districts  contain 
the  same  geological  formations  which  prevail  in 
all  gold-producing  regions.  Though  their  range 
must  be  of  great  extent,  they  appear  to  have 
diminished  in  importance  as  the  superficial  de- 
posits have  been  exhausted  of  their  most  avail- 
able products ;  and  the  yield  of  gold  is  now 
stated  to  have  fallen  off  to  about  one-fourth  of 
what  it  was  in  the  latter  quarter  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. The  annual  yield  of  diamonds  was  es- 
timated at  the  beffinning  of  1858  at  12,000  to 
18,000  catava  (eighth  part  of  an  ounce).  About 
6,000  oitava  came  from  Santa  Isabel  in  Bahia, 
and  are  known  as  the  diamonds  of  Oincora, 
after  the  parish  of  this  name,  within  the  boun- 
dary of  which  they  were  discovered  in  1844. 
About  4,000  oitava  are  found  in  the  Rio  San  An- 
tonio, Rio  de  Peixe,  Riberao  do  Inferno,  Rio  do 
Jequitinhonha,  Rio  de  Itanib^,  Rio  Manso,  the 
eastern  affluents  of  the  Rio  das  Velhas,  Rio  de 
Parauna,  and  in  the  Rio  Sipo.  The  remaining 
2,000  to  8,000  oitava  are  found  in  the  provinces 


of  Goyaz,  Ouyaba,  Matto  Grosso,  and  MmasGe- 
raes,  and  in  various  other  places,  but  cluefly  li^. 
in  the  territory  of  the  Kio  de  Bagage,  yshsn 
the  famous  diamond, SkireUa  do  wl^iu]»m 
found.    The  diamonds  of  Gincora  are  the  moi 
inferior.    The  best  diamonds  are  those  fonnd 
in  the  Rio  de  Jequitinhonha,  Riberao  do  Memo, 
and  in  the  Rio  Sipo,  althon^  in  the  li^ 
river  the  produce  is  very  limited;  those  of  tbe 
Rio  Antonio,  Rio  de  Peixe,  and  Rio  de  Itam^ 
are  also  of  fine  quality,  but  exoeedinglj  sM 
and  scarce.    The  diamonds  of  the  proTiocecf 
Matto  Grosso  are  also  small,  but  of  the  ponst 
water,  and  are  distinguished  in  their  prifflitire 
condition  by  a  lustre  which  exceeds  in  bril- 
liancy all  other  diamonds  of  BradL   The  t^ 
of  diamonds  is  extremely  subject  to  fineta- 
ation,  and  is  as  violently  affected  bj  Mlitid 
events  as  the  public  stocks  in  Paris  or  jyrii 
A  few  years  ago,  when  slaves  coold  he  booglit 
at  low  prices,  and  com  was  cheap,  the  cost  <^  ta 
oitava  of  diamonds  hardly  exceeded  ahont  (111, 
but  with  the  present  high  prices  ofUhorisdaf 
food,  it  would  be  at  least  $150l   Intimesof  pr» 
perity  the  trade  in  diamonds  yields  e&oriBoa 
profit.     The  &trella  do  9td  diamond,  vhidi 
weighs  14  oitava,  brought  about  $180,000;  tbe 
present  owner,  however,  who  has  ^ottiOOO 
more  upon  it,  finds  difficulty  in  obtaining  s  ye- 
chaser.    Other  minerals,  which  willproFeof 
greater  permanent  value  to  Brasol,  are  food  in 
the  gold  districts;  among  these, iron  oro m 
described  as  very  abundant,  and  d  eicSect 
qualities.    They  appear,  from  the  descriptm 
to  be  hematites  and  specular  ores,  each  as  occur 
in  the  same  dass  of  rocks  along  the  nogeof 
the  AUeghanies.    Limestone  is  o%en  spoka  i 
and  could  hardly  fail  to  be  found  in  the  ssi» 
group,  and  also  in  tJie  other  formafions  that  are 
known  in  other  parts  of  the  country.  Thens- 
merous  caves  which  have  excited  interest  brt^ 
osseous  remains  found  in  them  are  in  this  rod 
Mineral  coal  of  the  regular  coal  fbrmatiop^ 
not  likely  to  be  met  witii ;  but  various  loealitKs 
furnish  inferior  qualities  belongiog  to  later  fer- 
mations.    In  "  Gardner's  Travels  in  the  Int^^ 
of  Brazil  (London,  1846),  the  existence  of  s 
bed  of  lignite  is  mentioned  near  Onto,  8W 
miles  west  from  Pernambuoo,  and  theroebof 
the  chalk  fbxmation  are  described  as  exteodiit; 
over  an  immense  area.    But  between  the  ro^ 
of  the  cretaceous  series,  and  the  oldest  ^ntified 
formations,  the  author  discovered  no  trses 
either  of  the  carboniferous  or  the  oolite  fonia- 
tions.     In   Santa  Oatarina,  in  tiie  sonthere 
part  of  Branl,  Dr.  Perigot,  who  was  empl^ 
by  the  government  to  znake  geological  eipwo; 
tiona,  reports,  in  1841,  the  existence  of  col 
beds  of  considerable  extent,  the  formation  ei- 
tending  20  to  80  miles  in  breadth,  and  atoaj 
800   mOes   in  a  K   and  S.  direction,   fcaj 
mines  of  considerable   extent  are  fonnd  a 
several    districts   of   the    country,   and  fr^ 
nish  an  important  branch  of  manufectnw.-j 
There  are  no  deserts.     The  vast  surface.  & 
which  scarce  the  160th  part  has  heen  sal^ 


BRAZIL 


647 


jected  to  onltiyation,  is  oor^red  with  a  rich  and 
prodnctiyo  loam,  and  in  the  wilds  of  the  in- 
terior the  Inznriance  and  heanty  of  the  forest 
vegetation  are  nnparalleled,  unless  it  be  b^  the 
forests  of  the  Malayan  isles.     Much  of  the 
vegetation,  too,  is  of  great  commercial  valae. 
The  9iph(mia  elastica  and  the  other  trees  which 
yield  the  caoatchouc  of  commerce ;  tbe  Brazil 
wood,  one  of  the  most  valoable  of  the  vegetable 
dyes;  theannotto;  the bertholettia,  which pro- 
dnoes  the  Brazil  nuts  of  commerce ;  the  cocoa- 
nnt  palm,  the  mahogany,  the  rosewood,  the 
granadiUa,  the  fhstic,  the  BraziHan  ivy,  and  a 
great  variety  of  other  ornamental  woods  and 
dye-stafiEs,  render  the  forests  a  source  of  wealth 
to  tbe  empire.    To  these  productions  of  the 
forest  must  be  added  the  sarsaparilla,  of  which 
large  quantities  are  exported  to  Europe  and  the 
United   States;    vanilla,   ipecacuanha,   copal, 
cloves,  cinnamon,  tamarinds,  cinchona,  and  ca- 
cao, the  nut  of  which  furnishes  chocolate.    The 
bamboo  of  Brazil  stands  next  to  those  of  China 
for  serviceable  qualities.    Several  of  the  forest 
trees  have  leaves  of  a  fibrous  character,  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  cordage.    The  hombax 
eeiba,  or  tree  cotton,  produces  a  silky  cotton, 
which  if  gathered  and  manufactured  would 
fhmish  fabrics  of  great  beauty.    The  principal 
fruits   are   the   pineapple,    the   banana,    the 
orange,  the  maracuja  or  fruit  of  tbe  passion 
flower,  the   mango,  the   custard   i^ple,  the 
gnava,  the  cashew,  the  rose  apple,  the  melon, 
and  the  water-melon.    The  agricultural  pro- 
ducts are  maize,  wheat,  beans,  rice,  and  cas- 
sava root,  among  the  farinaceous  plants ;  coffee, 
of  which  Brazil  furnishes  nearly  one-half  of  the 
entire  product  of  the  world;  sagar,  tobacco, 
cotton,  cacao,  and  to  a  limited  extent,  tea.    Tea 
is  raised  chiefly  in  the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  of  San  Paulo.  Minas  Geraes  produces  1 6,000 
to  20,000  lbs.  of  tea,  which  is  superior  to  that  of 
the  province  of  San  Paulo.  A  species  of  tea,  call- 
ed herva-matte^  is  cultivated  in  the  province  of 
Parana.  The  coffee  received  from  Brazilian  ports 
in  the  United  States  alone,  during  the  year  end- 
ing June  80, 1856,  was  over  180,000,000  pounds, 
and  the  value  was  $16,091,714.     During  the 
same  period  in  1857  it  was  197,294,922  pounds, 
and  the  value  was  $17,981,426.    In  1854  the 
export  of  coffee  to  Europe  amounted  to  $20,- 
000,000.    The  same  year  the  total  export  of 
BQgar  was  256,510,016  lbs.— The  fauna  of  BrazU 
is  unrivalled,  in  variety  and  extents  by  any 
oonntry  of  the  western  continent    It  differs, 
however,  materially  from  that  of  the  adjacent 
countries.    None  of  the  llama  family  are  found 
here.     Monkeys  seem  to  find  their  paradise  in 
this  oonntry.    Nowhere  are  they  so  numerous 
or  of  so  many  species  and  varieties.    The  most 
remarkable  species,  perhaps,  is  the  coati,  a 
bearded  monkey,  with  a  remarkable  resem- 
blance to  man  in  his  countenance,  and  whose 
body  is  covered  with  a  black  and  glossy  fur. 
Among  the  camivora,  the  jaguar,  the  ounce. 
the  fox,  tbe  tiger  cat,  hyena,    saratus,  and 
wol^  are  the  principal  animals.  The  tapir  and 


the  peccary  are  the  oxilv  pachyderms,  and  are 
less  in  size  than  their  East  Indian  congeners. 
The  porcupine,  oapibara  or  water-hog,  arma- 
dillo, sloth,  and  ant-eater,  are  among  the  more 
remarkable  quadrupeds.  Several  species  of 
deer  are  found  in  the  forests.  In  the  elevated 
plains,  immense  herds  of  wild  cattle  and  wild 
horses  roam,  and  are  slaughtered  mainly  for 
their  hides.  The  most  remarkable  feature  of 
animal  life  in  Brazil,  is  the  variety  and  beauty 
of  its  feathered  tribes.  The  ouira,  whose  plu- 
mage is  variegated  like  that  of  the  guinea  fowl, 
exceeds  the  condor  in  strength  and  size;  the 
salian  seems  a  cross  between  the  ostrich  and 
stork,  and  runs  with  incredible  swiftness ;  the 
aral,  with  its  plumage  of  blue  and  scarlet,  and 
the  candidi,  with  adornings  of  blue  and  gold, 
are  not  surpassed  in  beauty  by  any  birds  on  the 
western  continent.  The  humming  birds,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  glitter  like 
gems  amid  the  gorgeous  flora;  the  parrots 
and  parroquets,  emus  or  American  ostriches, 
pigeons  of  numerous  varieties,  toucans,  fly- 
catchers, tanagers,  cuckoos,  jackass  birds,  and 
a  thousand  oUiers,  make  the  forests  vocsl  with 
their  songs,  or  brilliant  with  their  plumage. 
Nor  is  the  country  less  prolific  in  insect  life. 
The  butterflies  of  Brazil  are  renowned  for 
their  brilliant  and  varied  hues,  and  the  attempt 
was  actually  made,  and  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, some  years  since,  by  an  eccentric  naturalist, 
to  illustrate  the  flora  of  the  country,  by  imitat- 
ing the  flowers  with  the  wings  of  its  butterflies. 
Many  of  the  insects  of  the  country  are  destruc- 
tive, and  some  are  annoying  and  venomous.  The 
ants  are  perhaps  the  most  formidable  of  all ; 
the  large  red  ant,  which  varies  in  length  from 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  an  inch,  inflicts  a  painful 
bite,  but  is  mainly  a  vegetable  eater,  and  ren- 
ders some  districts  dmost  barren  by  its  ravages ; 
it  is  particularly  fond  of  the  mandioc  or  csssa- 
va  root,  which  is  the  staple  food  of  the  poorer 
classes.  It  has  a  ^fierce  and  determined  foe  in 
the  small  black  ant,  which  is  carnivorous,  and, 
though  very  small,  makes  fearful  havoc  in  the 
ranks  of  its  antagonist.  The  acarus,  the  plum, 
a  kind  of  tick,  the  mutuca,  a  large  and  trouble- 
some fly,  the  maricumum,  a  minute  but  venom- 
ous insect,  the  carapata  and  the  mucocooa,  are 
among  the  other  insect  plagues  of  the  countrv ; 
wasps,  bees,  and  hornets  also  abound.  The 
rivers  and  sea-coast  are  abundantly  stocked  with 
fish,  and  turtles  of  all  sizes  are  so  numerous, 
that  a  thriving  business  is  transacted  along  the 
Amazon  in  extracting  the  oil  fi*om  their  eggs. 
Among  the  serpents  of  Brazil,  the  rattle-snakeu 
the  cord  or  corral  snake,  the  surrucucu.  and 
thejararaca,  are  the  most  venomous;  while,  in 
the  forests,  the  anaconda  and  boa  constrict- 
or coil  themselves  on  the  boughs  of  the  trees, 
and  with  sudden  spring,  embrace  in  their 
deadly  coils  the  luckless  animals  which  pass  be- 
low. The  alligator  abounds  in  the  rivers.  Liz- 
ards are  also  found  in  great  numbers,  and  of 
numerous  species.  Along  the  coast  the  sperm 
whale,  the  manatee  or  sea-cow,  the  porpoise,  and 


648 


BRAZIL 


other  mooiten  of  the  deep,  mar  be  leea  4ie- 
pordng  in  the  flood.— The  foUowing  table  givea, 
it  is  beKevedy  ae  neerlx  ae  poesible,  the  ectual 
popohuioa  and  extent  of  the  proTinoee  of  the 
empire  in  1868 : 


OrfoPan.... 


FlaaM 

Cmn 

Sio  Orande  do 
Norto... 


PanhtlM... 
PeroMnlmM 
AbcoM...... 

BarglpedAlBal 


Itplrita  B«ato 
Biod*Jaadte« 
Bio  Paulo. 

CorlUba 

BanteOaterlBA 

BloOnadodo 

Bui 


AltoAnuioQM 
Ulnas  Qen«t, 
MaUo  Oi 
Panuui, 
Oo/M. 


Aim, 


HfiOO 


42,100 
$8^800 


UfTOO 
»,iOO 
1&»000 

iMOo 


IHTOO 
tt.000 
•1,800 
69,000 
7T,600 


650,000 
«V0OO 


M.700 
818,000 


ToUl., 


.  MI8k400 


isu. 


P«p.  to 


900^000 
890,000 
180.000 
910,000 

170^000 


990,000 
•40,000 
988,000 


990,000 
70,000 
900,000 
890,000 
108,000 
109,000 

988,000 


119,000 

1,800,000 

lOOyOOO 

80,000 

190,000 


7,U1^     9.88 


8.88  B«loin, 

'•^     Mmnkio, 
Oeiru, 
PorUl«sa» 


3.41 
6 


8.9 


10.14 
98, 
17,7 
11.11 


OURaeilb, 

-   ICaoeio^ 

8«8l|^ 


8.14 
8.04 
98.8 

4.78 
9.01 
8 

9.9 


.90 

5.81 

.94 


NaUl, 


FanhilM, 


8.8alTador, 

Vlttorto, 

NltlMror, 

88o  Paalo^ 

CarltilM, 

DattoRo, 

Porto  AUo- 


Barra, 

OaioPnto^ 

Cnnba, 
84  Nunuida» 
•^Ctoyaa, 


Bio  JijnB- 


Per.  b 


14,008 

88,008 
8.008 
8,000 

19,000 


18,008 
99,008 

8.008 
18,008 


118,088 
5,000 

18,000 
7,000 

19,008 
8,008 

19,008 


8,000 

10,008 

15,000 

1,000 

8,000 


800,008 


We  Babfoin,  also,  the  statlstios  of  the  popnk* 
tion  in  1856,  which,  howevep,  idthongh  drawn 
np  bj  order  of  the  government,  are  not  gen* 
erallj  oonsidered  aocorate : 

Orio  Para. 907,400 

Hanubio 880,000 

PlaaW 180,400 

Caaim 885,800 

Bio  Grande  do  Norta. 190,000 

Parahiba. 909,808 

Pernambaeo 900,000 

Alagoas 904,900 

Bergipe  del  B«l 188,800 

Bahla. 1,180,000 

Bapirita  Banto 51,800 

Bio  de  Janeiro 1,900,000 

Bio  Paulo 600,008 

BaataCatarUuL 105,000 

BloOrande  doSol 901,800 

MlnasGeraea 1,800,000 

liattoOroaao 85,000 

Ooyaa 180,000 

Altoa  Amaionaa. 48,800 

Fferaaa 79^ 

Pop.  In  1858 7,8n,800 

Of  thiB  population  it  io  estimated  that  2,000,- 
000  are  whitee,  1,121,000  mixed  free  peo- 
ple (mnlattoesi  me8ti2oe«^  &c.),  800,000  oivil- 
ixed  Indiana,  600,000  mixed  slave  population, 
and  2,000,000  blacks,  or  African  slaves.  Hie 
estimateB  of  the  free  mixed  races  and  of  the  In- 
dians are  only  approximations,  and  maj  be  in- 
aooorate.  The  dmerent  classes  of  the  Brazilian 
population  merit,  perhaps,  a  fuller  description. 
At  the  discovery  of  the  country  by  the  Dutch 
and  Portuguese  adventurers,  it  possessed  prob- 
ably not  far  from  2,000,000  inhabitant^  be- 


ionging  to  a  great  manbar  4^  tribes,  and  speak- 
ing dmerent  languaces.      The  Indian  of  Uie 
Amazon  oonld  not  underatand  the  Indian  <tf  the 
FrancisoQ,  nor  could  either  comprehend  the 
lai^^uige  of  Uie  Indians  of  the  interior.    It  ii 
stated  by  Hervaa  that  there  were  160  difoctt 
languages  spoken  in  the  limits  of  the  pvcaeiifc 
enipire.    Great  numbers  of  these  Indians  wen 
reduced  to  slavery  by  the  Portagaese,  bat  thej 
found  them,  for  the  most  part»  improfitaUo 
slaves^  and  accordingly  they  imported  negroa 
from  their  African  possessions.     The  iahsbt- 
tants now  consisted:  l,£uropeaiia, a laise pro- 
portion of  whom  are  Portugoese,  thoogji  ranet 
and  Germany  have,  of  late  yean,  oontribaied 
a  fiur  share ;  2,  white  persons  Ixxn  ia  the  eon- 
try,  and  who  call  themselves  Braaliana ;  8,iiii- 
lattoes,  embracing  all  the  shades  of  color,  inpo^ 
sons  descended  from  the  white  and  negro  raoes; 
4,  mamalucoes,  the  descendants  of  whites  and 
Indianift ;  5,  cabocoloea,  or  domesticated  Indians; 
6,  wild  Indians;  7,  free  negroes  bam  in  Brazil; 
8, manumitted  Africans;  9,  mestizoeai^ or aaa^ 
boes,  a  mixed  race  between  Indiana  and  ne- 
groes.   The  Brazilians  are  generaUy  a  Uoftr- 
ate  people,  and  attain  a  good  degree  of  loBaev- 
ity;  but  the  climate  hastena  female  defeup- 
ment,  and  produces  the  early  decay  of  thi 
beauty  of  the  sex.    The  Brazilian  ladies  aie 
skilfm  and  devoted  players  of  the  tnanioKw; 
and  paasicmately  fond  of  music  generally,  mid 
ilancing  the  voluptuous  Battteea  and  light cnafaa- 
dances.  The  ladies  of  the  hi^^erdaaeea aienn- 
ly  seen  in  publia    The  tendency  generally  n 
toward  exdnsivenesB,  and  women  are  noiiatiM 
habit  of  makinfftheir  appearance  in  the  pwamca 
of  strangers.    The  jeakuay  of  the  men  is  gnat^ 
and  the  Brazilian  hearthstone  ia  gaarded  al- 
most   with   oriental   vigilance.      SlaTeiy  in 
Brazil,  though  often  attended   with  drena- 
stonces  of  individual  hardship,  baa  not  pro- 
duced the  distinctions  ai  caste  whidi  attmi 
it  in  most  other  countries.    The  laws  of  the 
.country  render  manumission  ea^y;   and  odbs 
emancipated,  the  negro  finds  every  callii^  sad 
office  as  fully  open  to  him  as  to  the  white.   In 
the  army  or  navy,  in  commerce,  agiieoltare,  or 
manufactures,  in  social  or  poUtioal  poatka, 
color  is  no  barrier  to  the  bluest  aoooeaB.    It 
results  from  thii^  that  the  dimger  of  iuaimee- 
tion  does  not  exist ;  the  humblest  dave  looks 
forward  with  hope,  not  only  to  fntore  freedom, 
but  to  wealth  and  power.    Within  the  ftast  few 
years  vigorous  efforts  have  been  made  by  the 
government,  in  connection  with  "KngUnH  nid 
France,  to  put  a   fitop  to  the   alave   trad^ 
and  with  considerable   success. — The   estab- 
lished religion  of  the  empire  is  Roman  Cath- 
olic, but  others  are  tolerated.    The  patronage 
of  the  church  is  in  tiie  hands  of  the  crown 
and  the   bishopa.     The  Jesuits    exerted,   ia 
the  early  history  of  the  countiy,  a  vecy  fe- 
vorable  influence  on  the  native  inhabitants 
They  labored  unweariedly  to  communicate  in- 
struction, and   to   improve   their   condition, 
and  with  8om<8  saocess* — ^TheoreticaUy  very 


BRAZIL 


649 


tiberal  proridioiu  are  made  for  tne  education 
of  the  masses;  but  there  are  great  practical 
defects  in  the  carrying  ont  of  the  plans  adopted. 
By  law,  a  schoolmaster  for  boys  and  a  school- 
mistress for  girls  must  be  maintained  in  every 
parish,  and  a  lyceum  in  every  considerable 
town.    In  tlie  smaller  towns,  Latin,  French,  and 
philosophy,  or  rhetorio,  are  taught  in  these  ly- 
ceums.     In  the  larger  towns,  in  addition  to 
these  branches,  instruction  is  given  in  the  Eng- 
lish language,  in  geomphy,  mathematics,  nat> 
ural  philosophy,  and  cnemistry.    There  are  uni- 
versities for  jurispmdence  at  San  Paulo  and 
Pemambuco,  academies  of  medicine  at  Rio 
Janeiro  and  Bahil^  and  several  theolo^cal  sem- 
inaries.   A  new  institntion  of  leamm^,  after 
the  plan  of  the  German  universities,  is  pro- 
jected by  the  government;  and  for  the  fur- 
therance of  this  object,  several  young  Bra- 
zilian scholars  were  sent  on  a  tour  of  inves- 
tigation to  continental  Europe,  especially  to 
Grermany,  in  the  early  part  of  1857.    At  Olin- 
da  and  8an  Paulo,  there  are  professors  of  civil 
and  common  law,  political  economy,  and  social 
science ;  at  Bahia,  of  medicine,  surgery,  zoology, 
mineralogy,  botany,  chemistry,  and  physics. 
At  Rio  Janeiro  there  are  the  same  professor- 
ships as  at  Bahia,  and  in  addition,  chairs  of 
mathematics,  and  military  and  civil  engineer- 
ing.    The  public  schools  are  all  free;  but  a 
preference  is  given  to  the  private  schools  by  a 
large  number  of  persons.    There  were,  in  1857, 
20  lyoeums,  2  mercantile  academies,  148  gram- 
mar schools  with  8,718  pupils,  and  1,506  pri- 
mary schools  with  61,700;  beside  the  pupils 
who  attend   private   schools.     The  educated 
Brazilians  have,  very  generally,  a  strong  pre- 
dilection for  the  natural  sciences,  and  seve«> 
ral  of  them  have  attained  to  eminence  in  their 
investigations.    The  modem  literature  of  Por- 
tu^  is  but  scanty,  but  some  of  the  finest  con- 
tribations  to  it  have  been  fh>m  the  pens  of  na- 
tives of  Brazil.    The  tendency  in  Brazil,  how- 
ever, is  to  prefer  the  English  and  French  schools 
of  literature  to  that  of  the  mother  country. 
The  present  emperor  is  a  zealous  patron  of  lit- 
erature, science,  and  the  fine  arts,  and  great  ac* 
tivity   is   beginning  to  be  mai^estea   in  all 
spheres  of  culture  and  learning.    The  press  is 
free,  and  there  are  about  100  political  and  lite- 
rary  joarnals  and  periodicals  published  in  Bra- 
zil.     One,  and  in  some  cases  more,  political 
journals  are  published  in  all  the  towns ;  but  the 
principal  political  papers  are  those  issued  at  Rio, 
of  which  the  Jcrnal  do  Oamereio,  the  Jomal 
do  liio,  the  Diarw  do  Bio  do  Janeiro^  and  the 
Correio   Mercantile  are  the  most  important 
The   public  library  of  Rio  Janeiro  contains 
about  100,000  volumes.    The  imperial  and  the 
Benedictine  libraries  at  Rio,  ana  the  libraries 
of  Bahia  and  San  Paulo,  contain  additional  and 
large  collections  of  books.     There  are  also  at 
Rio  Portuguese,  English,  French,  and  German 
private  libraries.    The  principal  learned  bodies 
are  the   imperial  historico-geographical  soci^ 
etj  ot  Bio,  and  the  academy  of  fine  arts  and 


geological  society  in  the  same  city. — The  gov- 
ernment of  Brazil  is  a  hereditary,  limited,  and 
constitutional  monarchy,  sharing  wiUi  the  gen- 
eral assembly  the  law-making  power.  The 
succession  to  the  crown  is  in  the  heirs  of  Doa 
Pedro,  the  reigning  emperor,  and  these  failing, 
a  new  dynasty  is  to  be  chosen  by  the  general 
assembly,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  last  of  tiie 
race.  This  new  dynasty  must  be  a  native  one, 
the  accession  to  the  throne  being  prohibited  to 
foreigners.  The  assembly  consists  of  a  senate 
and  chamber  of  deputies,  the  former  chosen  for 
life,  the  latter  for  4  years.  Both  are  chosen  by 
electors,  who  represent  every  16  families,  and 
are  themselves  elected  by  voters,  who,  in  order 
to  ei\]oy  the  elective  franchise,  must  be  worth 
$50  of  annual  income.  Each  province  has  also 
a  provincial  assembly,  elected  in  some  provinces 
for  2,  and  others  for  8  years.  The  judiciary 
consists  of  the  Eelofdoi,  of  which  there  are  4, 
each  consisting  of  8  judges ;  and  the  supreme  tri- 
bunal of  justice,  consisting  of  12  judges.  The 
judges  are  only  removable  by  impeachment. 
Freedom  of  the  press,  the  liberty  of  the  sub- 
ject, the  private  rights  of  the  individual,  and 
the  trial  by  jury,  are  all  guaranteed  by  the 
constitution.  The  revenues  of  the  empire  are 
mainly  derived  from  duties,  which  are  laid  on 
all  commodities  imported  or  exported.  The 
export  duty  is  levied  on  the  cost  of  the  arti- 
cle at  the  port  where  it  is  shipped,  and  not 
on  the  original  cost  of  production.  The  debt 
of  the  empire  is  now  about  $65,000,000 
(consisting  of  a  5}  per  cent.  English  loan  of 
£6,500,000  sterling,  of  a  Portuguese  loan,  and 
of  6,  6,  and  4  per  cent.  Brazilian  loans) ;  in 
1850  it  was  $82,000,000.  Up  to  1853  there 
had  been  for  many  years  an  annual  deficit  in 
the  receipts  of  the  treasury,  as  compiured  with 
the  expenditures ;  but  a  wiser  policy  has  since 
prevailed,  the  tariff  has  been  remodeled,  and  a 
new  impulse  has  been  given  to  commerce,  so 
that  for  the  last  8  years  there  has  been  a  mod- 
erate surplus  in  the  treasury.  The  revenue  of 
1858-'4  was  about  $17,000,000,  the  expendi- 
tures $15,285,000;  in  1867-8  the  revenue  and 
expenditures  were  about  $17,500,000,  and  the 
estimates  for  1858-'9  are  $19,500,000  for  reve- 
nue, and  $18,100,000  for  expenditures.  The 
standing  army  in  1856  was  22,540 ;  in  1857-8, 
18,500  men  for  ordinary,  and  20,000  for  extra- 
ordinary times;  beside  the  national  gufffd,  a 
species  of  militia  whose  officers  are  tiioroughly 
drilled,  and  one-third  of  the  rank  and  file  are 
liable  to  be  called  into  service,  in  case  of  inva- 
ffion.  This  national  guard  oonsists  of  106,880 
men.  The  navy,  in  1857,  consisted  of  42  ships 
in  active  service,  10  in  ordinary,  and  29  gun* 
boats.  The  42  ships  in  active  service,  of  which 
15  were  steamboats,  were  manned  by  8,885 
seamen  and  marines.  The  total  naval  force 
(1858)  oonsLsts  of  4,600  men,  and  several 
new  boats  are  nbw  in  course  of  construction. 
The  circulating  medium  of  Brazil  consists  of 
the  bills  of  tlie  bank  of  Brazil  and  of  the  gov- 
ernment paper  money.    The  circulation  of  the 


650 


BRAZIL 


precious  metals  also  begins  to  increase.  Beside 
the  bank  of  Brazil,  there  are  now  several  pri- 
vate banks  in  Rio  Janeiro.  The  bank  of  Brazil 
has  branches  at  Baliia,  Pemambnoo,  San  Panlo, 
Maranham,  and  Rio  Grande  do  Bol.  Bahta, 
moreover,  has  2  private  banks,  and  the  last- 
named  cities  have  each  a  private  bank. — ^The 
exports  of  the  year  185d-'4  amomited  to 
$40,865,958,  and  the  imports  of  the  same  year 
to  $45,972,667.  Each  year  of  kte  has  wit- 
nessed a  remarkable  increase  in  the  exports 
and  imports  of  the  empire ;  and  England  and 
the  United  States  have,  thus  far,  kept  pace 
with  each  other  in  their  demand  for  Brazilian 
products.  In  1854  the  amount  exported  to 
each  was  about  $11,000,000.  In  1856  the 
exports  to  the  United  States  had  risen  to 
$19,262,657,  and  those  to  England  to  proba- 
bly a  nearly  equal  amount,  lotal  amount  of 
exports  in  1856,  $56,000,000.  The  exports  to 
France  in  1854  were  $8,350,000.  The  exports 
from  Brazil  to  Great  Britain  were  as  follows : 

rfWBjMi.ltolf«7l,)MT.  VNaiJa.ltA  May  1,1888. 

Cottoiucwt. 108,5M 51,820 

Wet  Hides,  no 18,040 9,020 

Coffee,  pounds 108,989 1,472,0S4 

BagAr.Gwt 196»M0 287,994 

The  following  was  the  value  of  some  of  the 
principal  items  of  export  to  the  U.  S,,  in  1856 : 


Coffse $ie,ooi,fu 

Sugar 618,458 

Baw  hides. 1,980,988 

India  robber 771,896 


Hair ....$188,Sa 

Rosewood. 81,4M 

Brazilwood 89,006 

BrazUants 48,078 

The  imports  from  the  U.  S.,  are  mainly  of  flour, 
cotton  goods,  lumber  manufactured,  bacon  and 
lard,  naval  stores,  household  furniture,  India  rub- 
ber goods,  &o.  The  enormous  increase  of  the 
commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Brazil, 
may  be  gathered  from  the  fact  that  the  exports 
from  Brazil  to  the  United  States  have  risen  from 
$605,126  in  1821  to  $21,460,738  in  1857,  and  the 
exports  from  the  United  States  to  Brazil  from 
$1,881,760  in  1821  to  $5,645,207  in  1857.  The 
imports  from  Great  Britain  for  the  first  8  months 
of  1857  amounted  to  $6,400,000  and  for  the  same 
period  of  1858  to  $4,100,000.  The  soundness 
of  the  general  financial  condition  of  the  coun- 
try was  made  evident  during  the  commercial 
panic  in  the  latter  part  of  1857,  when  Brazil 
stood  firm,  while  almost  all  other  countries 
were  drawn  into  the  vortex  of  the  crisis. — Brazil 
was  first  discovered  by  Europeans  in  January, 
1500,  by  Yincente-  Yanez  Pinion,  a  companion 
of  Columbus,  who  landed  at  Gape  St.  Augustin, 
and  took  possession  of  the  country  in  tiie  name 
of  the  king  of  Oastile.  Its  more  complete  dis- 
covery is,  however,  due  to  Pedro  Alvarez  de 
Cabrfd,  a  Portuguese  navigator,  who,  in  April 
of  the  same  year,  sailed  for  many  days  along 
the  coast,  and  finally  landed  at  Oabralia,  lat  16^ 
80'  S.,  which  he  named  Porto  Seguro  (safe  har- 
bor), and  where,  with  imposing  ceremonies,  he 
took  possession  of  the  whole  country  in  the 
name  of  the  kins  of  Portugal,  giving  it  the 
name  of  Tierra  de  Santa  Cruz.  Spain  never 
urged  her  claims  to  the  country,  and  the  Portu- 
guese established  a  colony  on  the  coast  in  1504, 
and  subsequently  others  at  different  points.   As, 


however,  the  home  government  had  no  sus- 
picion of  the  mineral  wealth  of  Brazil,  these 
colonies  were  suffered  to  languish  till  1549, 
when,  it  being  found  that  the  natives  possessed 
gold  ornaments,  the  presence  of  gold  in  the  beda 
of  the  rivers  was  suspected,  and  the  country 
was  regarded  with  more  interest  by  the  court. 
In  this  year  Bahia,  or  San  Salvador,  was  found- 
ed. About  1555,  Yillegagnon,  a  knight  of 
Malta,  ambitious  of  founding  a  colony  in  Brazil, 
applied  to  Admiral  de  Coligni  to  interest  Hen- 
ry II.,  of  France,  in  behalf  of  the  enterpriae, 
allemng  that  it  would  furnish  a  safe  retreat  for 
the  Huguenots,  then  bitterly  persecuted  by  the 
Catholics.  Coligni  accordingly  procured  per- 
mission and  fomished  assistance  and  colonista, 
and  nearly  10,000  emigrated  within  the  next  2 
years,  and  founded  the  city  of  Rio  Janeiro. 
No  sooner,  however,  was  the  colony  established, 
than  Yillegagnon  threw  off  the  mask,  and,  bj 
his  perfidy  and  cruelty,  drove  them  back  to  En- 
rope.  His  treachery  was  boob,  virited  on  his 
own  head,  for  4  years  later  he,  and  the  few 
colonists  who  remained  with  him,  were  driven 
from  the  country  by  the  Portuguese.  Subse- 
quently, in  the  latter  part  of  the  16th,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  17th  century,  the  English, 
then  at  war  with  Spain  and  Portugal,  attiMsked 
and  Blundered  the  cities  on  the  Brazilian  coasts 
The  X^etherlands  too,  then  waging  war  against 
Spain,  attacked  and  ci^tured  San  Salvador,  in 
1624,  obtaining  an  immense  booty.  As  the 
war  continued,  they  subsequently  conquered 
Pernambuco  in  1680,  and  in  1688-'4-'5  and  ^6, 
reduced  nearly  the  whole  of  the  Portuguese  set- 
tlements in  nortbem  Brazil,  and  ea^liahed 
Dutch  colonies  in  their  place.  Here,  though 
often  menaced  with  extermination,  they  main- 
tained an  unstable  footing  till  1654,  when,  by 
Portuguese  treachery,  they  wero  driven  oat. 
After  that  time,  with  only  some  trifling  oon- 
flicts  with  the  Englbh  and  French,  the  Portu- 
guese remained  undisturbed  masters  of  the 
country  until  the  revolution  of  1822.  In  1808, 
John  YL,  then  prince  regent  of  Portugal,  perceiv- 
ing that  that  kingdom  must  inevitably  nil  into 
the  hands  of  Napoleon,  made  his  escape  to  Bra- 
zil, and  finding  the  government  of  the  country 
in  a  most  disjointed  state,  commoiced  such  re- 
forms and  granted  such  privileges  as  restored 
unanimity  of  feeling,  and  increased  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  country.  Brazil  was  to  be  entitled  to 
the  same  privileges  as  the  mother  country ; 
and  in  1816,  John  YI.  was  crowned  monarch  of 
the  united  kingdom  of  Portugal,  Brazil,  and 
Algarve.  In  1819,  assisted  by  the  Ei4;liah, 
Brazil  recovered  possession  of  Portuguese  Gui- 
ana. In  1821,  the  cortes  of  Portu^  recalled 
John  YI.,  who  appointed  his  son,  Don  Pedro, 
regent,  and  sailed  for  Portugal.  In  Oct.  1822;, 
the  Brazilians,  provoked  by  the  impolitic  and 
oppressive  acts  of  the  Portuguese  cortes,  pro- 
claimed their  independence,  and  organizing  the 
empire  of  Brazil,  conferred  the  imperial  crown 
on  Don  Pedro,  under  the  title  of  Pedro  L,  wbo 
abdicated  April  7,  1881,  in  favor  of  his  son. 


BRAZIL 


BRAZIL  WOOD 


651 


then  a  child  5  jeara  old,  the  government  be- 
ing conducted  daring  his  minority  by  a  re- 
genojr,  appointed  bj  the  Brazilians  them- 
B^ves.  In  July,  1841,  Pedro  II.  was  crowned 
emperor  of  Brazil.  His  sister  married  the 
prince  de  Join ville  in  1843.  Under  the  spirited 
administration  of  the  emperor,  Brazil  is  advanc- 
ing rapidly.  The  government  made  extensive 
crants  of  land,  nnder  condition  that  100,000 
immigrants  shall  settle  npon  it  before  1862. 
The  principal  German  colonies  are  at  San  Leo- 
X>oldo  (Rio  Grande  do  Sol),  Donna  Francisca 
and  Blamenau  (Santa  Oatarina),  Porto  Allegro 
(Rio  Grande  do  Sal),  Garavellas  (Esperita  San- 
to), Petropolis,  and  Fribourg  (Rio  de  Janeiro). 
The  2  latter  colonies  contain,  respectively,  a 
population  of  8,000  Germans  and  Swiss,  noted 
for  their  prosperity  and  wealth.  San  Leopoldo 
is  a  thriving  Grerman  colony,  with  a  population 
of  10,000,  which  exported  in  1854  preface  to 
the  value  of  $600,000.  There  are  6  colonies 
in  the  province  of  San  Paulo:  Superaguhy, 
Santa  Cruz,  San  Dommgo,  Toires,  Teco  For- 
qnilles,  and  Novo  Mundo,  containing  an  aggre- 
gate population  of  40,000  Germans,  Swiss,  Por- 
tuguese, Galicians,  and  natives  of  the  Azore 
Islands.  Muoury  is  a  colony  in  coarse  of  devel- 
opment in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes.  In 
all  there  are  about  50  foreign  colonies,  with  a 
population  of  about  60,000.  The  increase  in 
the  German  population  has  called  into  existence 
a  direct  postal  communication,  by  treaty  of 
Aug.  18,  1857,  the  mail  being  carried  hf  the 
new  Hamburg  Brazilian  steamboat  company. 
Beside  the  steamboats  to  the  principal  Euro- 
pean ports,  there  have  been,  since  1838,  2 
steamboats  on  the  coast  between  the  capital 
and  Para  and  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  and  smaller 
ports.  A  new  company  was  formed  in  1852, 
for  the  steamboat  navigation  of  the  Amazon 
and  of  its  2  tributary  rivers,  the  Tocantins 
and  Rio  Negro,  and  a  new  line  projected  to 
go  from  Rio  to  Montevideo  and  Buenos  Ayres, 
Uience  ascending  the  Parana  and  Paraguay, 
to  the  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  is  in  active 
operation  as  far  as  Montevideo.  Public  roads 
are  to  be  laid  out,  and  leased  to  companies,  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  railways.  Bridges  be- 
gin also  to  receive  a  fair  share  of  public  atten- 
tion, and  a  new  and  beautiful  bridge  (with  4 
iron  pillars  and  iron  railing)  on  the  Parahiba 
was  inaugurated  Dec.  18,  1857,  thus  saving  the 
immense  loss  of  time  which  was  heretofore  en- 
tailed by  the  uncertain  and  tedious  crossing 
by  the  ferry  boats.  Four  ^reat  railway  lines 
are  projected  and  partly  m  course  of  con- 
struction, named  the  Rio  Janeiro  or  Pedro 
IT.  railway,  the  San  Paulo,  the  Bahia,  and 
the  Pemambuco  railway.  Tne  cost  of  the  first 
is  estimated  at  (23,000,000,  the  government 
guaranteeing  a  dividend  of  5  per  cent,  for  33 
years,  the  province  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  an  addi- 
tional dividend  of  2  per  cent,  the  privilege  of 
the  company  extending  over  90  years.  This 
line  is  to  pass  through  the  province  of  Rio  de 
Janeiro,  and  to  unite  by  two  branches  the  fron- 


tiers of  the  provinces  of  Minas  Geraes  and  of 
San  Paulo.  It  was  inaugurated  with  great 
solemnity  on  March  29,  1858,  the  portion  com- 
pleted being  to  the  extent  of  about  40  miles. 
In  1857  a  law  was  passed  authorizing  the  gov- 
ernment to  contract  a  loan  to  the  extent  of  one- 
third  of  the  capital  required  for  each  of  the  4 
great  railways,  and  in  May,  1858,  it  was  an- 
nounced in  London  that  a  4^  per  cent,  loan  of 
£1,600,000  had  been  concluded  by  the  Brazilian 
government  with  the  house  of  Rothschild,  the 
money  to  be  applied  to  the  completion  of  the 
Pedro  II.  railroad.  The  portion  of  that  line  com- 
pleted was  built  by  an  English  engineer.  The 
remaining  sections  are  in  charge  of  Col.  Gar- 
nett,  an  American  engineer.  The  Pernambuco 
railroad  is  finished  as  far  as  Cabo,  and  the  Ba- 
hia railroad  is  expected  to  be  finished  in  1858, 
while  the  other  lines  are  prosecuted  with  great 
activity.  In  addition  to  these  4  great  lines, 
a  small  local  railway,  from  Maua  to  Petropolis. 
has  been  for  some'time  past  in  active  operation, 
and  there  are  2  small  railways,  built  by  private 
companies,  namely,  from  Porto  las  Oiuxas  to 
Oantagollo,  and  from  Nitherohi  to  Oampos. 
The  capital,  Rio  Janeiro,  is  the  largest  and  one  of 
the  finest  cities  of  South  America.  The  har- 
bor is  excellent  and  well  defended.  The  other 
grincipal  seiyoorts  are  San  Salvador  or  Bahia, 
ergipe  del  Key,  Pemambuco  or  Recife,  Para- 
hiba, Para,  Na^  Maranham,  Nitherohi,  Porto 
Allegre.  Diamentina  (formerly  Tejuco),  one  of 
the  most  important  inland  towns  of  Brazil, 
is  famous  for  its  trade  in  diamonds.  In 
the  interior,  Goyaz,  Onyaba,  Curitiba,  Ouro 
Preto,  Egas,  and  Barra  are  the  largest  towns. 
—(See  Southey*s  "History  of  Brazil;"  Hen- 
derson's "  History  of  Brazil ; "  Kidder  and  Flet- 
cher's "  Brazil  and  the  Brazilians  "  (Philadelphia. 
1857) ;  Edwards's  "  Voyage  up  the  Amazon;" 
Ewbank's  "Brazil;"  Herndon  and  Gibbons's 
"  Tour  of  Exploration  of  the  Amazon  River.") 
BRAZIL  NUTS,  the  fruit  of  the  b&rtholletia  ex- 
eeUa^  a  large  tree  of  the  order  leeylhidaeeay  found 
on  the  Orinoco.  The  nuts  are  of  the  form  of  tri- 
angular prisms,  with  very  bard  shells;  and  con- 
tain a  rich  oily  meat  in  one  piece  like  an  almond. 
They  are  arranged  in  4  cells,  each  of  which 
contains  6  or  8  nuts,  and  all  are  included  in  a 
spherical  case,  as  large  as  a  man's  head.  The  Por- 
tuguese formerly  carried  on  an  extensive  trade 
in  these  nuts.  They  are  now  chiefly  exported 
from  Para,  and  conUnue  to  form  an  article  of 
great  commercial  importance.  When  fresh,  they 
are  highly  esteemed  for  their  rich  flavor;  but 
they  become  rancid  in  a  short  time  from  the 
great  quantity  of  oil  they  contain.  This  has 
been  largely  extracted  to  be  consumed  in  lamps. 
BRAZIL  WOOD,  the  name  given  to  several 
varieties  of  red  dye  wood,  brought  from  South 
America,  Oentral  America,  and  the  West  India 
islands.  The  genuine  Brazil  wood,  sometimes 
called  Pemambuco  wood,  is  brought  from  the 
province  of  this  name  in  Brazil.  The  tree  is 
Known  as  the  ccMolpinia  crUta,  Other  varie- 
ties are  the  braziletto  (the  most  inferior  kind 


*    652 


BRAZING 


BRAZOS 


sA  Bnudl  wood),  from  the  Weet  Indies,  tlie 
prodoot  of  the  (7.  (roM/Mfuif^  the  mifQii^ 
or  sampfea  wood  of  the  O,  9ap<m;  and  the 
Kioaragaa  or  peaoh  wood,  also  from  a  ^>eciea 
of  cmtalpuUa,  It  u  said  that  the  name  was 
applied  to  the  wood  (of  which  there  are  species 
in  the  East  Indies),  long  before  the  discovery 
of  America,  and  that  the  great  territory  in  South 
America  was  named  Braadl  in  conseqaenoe  of 
the  abondance  of  the  cnaalpinia  trees.  So 
▼aloable  were  these  regarded,  that  the  wood 
was  monopolized  by  the  crown,  and  called  Fao 
da  rainha^  queen's  wood.  The  tree  grows  to 
a  large  uze,  is  crooked  and  knotty,  bears  fro* 
grant  red  flowers  and  small  leaves.  The  wood 
u  heavy  and  hard,  takes  a  fine  polish,  and  sinks 
in  water.  When  first  eat,  it  is  pale,  bat  the  red 
odor  deepens  on  exposure.  The  heaviest  qual- 
ities arespreferred.  By  boiling  Brazil  wood, 
reduced  to  powder,  in  water,  the  wood  beoomes 
black,  while  the  water  receives  the  red  coloring 
principle,  which  is  a  crystallizable  substance, 
named  braulin.  Long-continaed  boiling  ex- 
tracts it  all ;  but  a  deeper  red  is  imparted  to  al- 
cohol or  ammonia.  The  dye  is  improved  by 
standing  a  few  weeks,  even  if  it  ferments.  At 
the  best,  however,  it  is  not  permanent;  the 
edors  are  fixed  only  by  a  preparation  of  the 
articles  to  be  dyed,  which  consists  in  impreg- 
nating them  with  suitable  mordants,  as  alum 
and  tartrate  of  potash.  Acids  and  alkalies 
affect  differently  the  shades  of  color  of  the  dye ; 
the  former  making  it  more  yellow  and  perma- 
nent, and  the  latter  deepening  the  hue  to  purple 
and  violet  shades.  Brazil  wood  is  somewhat 
superseded  of  late  years  by  a  dye  wood  of  supe- 
rior quality,  called  camwood,  supposed  to  be 
the  product  of  the  lahia  nitida.  It  grows  in 
AiHca,  and  is  obtained  at  Sierra  Leone.  It  was 
fonnerly  supposed  that  there  were  some  medi- 
cinal properties  in  Brazil  wood ;  it  was  observed 
to  have  a  sweet  taste,  and  to  stain  the  saliva 
red,  and  it  was  made  an  ingredient  in  some 
prescriptions.  It  is  now  used  in  pharmacy  onl^ 
to  color  tinctures.  Red  ink  is  prepared  from  it 
by  boiling  the  wood  in  water,  and  adding  a  lit- 
tle gum  and  alum;  it  is  also  used  to  make  a 
lake-red  paint  Paper  saturated  with  it  is  used 
in  chemical  analyses  as  a  test  for  solphurous 
acid,  by  which  it  is  bleached;  also  for  fluorine, 
which  turns  it  yellow. 

BRAZING,  the  uniting  of  two  pieces  of 
metal,  as  of  brass  or  copper,  or  one  piece  of 
each,  by  hard  solder.  Hard  solder  is  distin- 
guished from  soft  by  being  mode  of  metals 
that  require  a  higher  temperature  to  melt  them ; 
but  all  solders  should  melt  more  easily  than  the 
metals  they  unite ;  and  to  give  the  maximum  of 
strength,  they  should  have  about  the  same 
hardness  and  malleability  as  these  metak.  For 
brass,  copper,  iron,  Gennan  silver,  4^,  the 
solder  used  is  an  alloy  of  rinc  and  copper  in 
equal  parts,  or  for  a  harder  mixture,  2  parts 
of  zinc  to  8  of  copper.  The  3  surfaces  to 
be  united  are  to  be  made  perfectly  dean  and 
bright ;  they  are*then  brou^t  together  and  se- 


cared  with  wire,  or  otherwise;,  in  their  plsee, 
and  covered  around  thdr  edges  with  the  ^aoo- 
lated  solder,  mixed  with  poauded  borax  ani  wet 
with  water.  The  parts  are  then  heated;  the 
borax  mdts,  and  runs  over  the  bright  sorfaea^ 
protecting  them  from  oxidation;  and  as  the 
heat  increases,  it  fluxes  the  solder,  and  Una  sod- 
denly  flushes,  or  runs  through  the  joints,  uiutiflj 
with  the  2  surfaces,  and  making  with  them 
one  piece,  as  the  parts  cool,  and  the  solder  seti 
The  pieces  are  then  dressed  with  the  file,  ll  is 
sometimes  convenient  to  cover  tlie  joints  sad 
the  rolder  before  heating  with  a  clay  late;  this 
is  done  in  sddering  iron,  to  prevent  a  aesk  d 
iron  forming  on  the  surface.  The  borax  la&j 
be  first  melted  and  run  into  ^ass  of  bwai^o? 
allowed  to  froth  up  upon  the  joints. 

BRAZORIA,  asonth-eastern  ecfonty  of  Texas, 
bordering  on  the  gulf  of  Mexico,  and  oompiia- 
ing  an  area  of  about  1,830  sq.  m.  It  is  watered 
by  BraxQS  and  San  Bernard  rirers,  and  bj  s 
number  of  small  bayous  setting  up  from  the 
coast  It  has  a  level  surfiiMe,  ono-faalf  of  which 
is  covered  with  magnificent  and  highly  valiuhte 
oak  forests,  while  the  remainder  is  oceopied  hf 
prairies.  The  soil  is  red,  deep,  and  Tcfy  yn- 
dootive.  The  climate  is  healthy  on  the  coast, 
but  in  the  interior  and  along  tho  water  ooaisei, 
chiUs  and  fevers  are  prevalent  at  oerts^ 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  staples  are  sngg, 
cotton,  and  Indian  oom.  In  1850,  the  pno^W 
tions  amounted  to  4,811  hhds.  of  sugar  {mon 
than  was  yielded  by  any  other  county  m  the 
stateX  8,581  bales  of  cotton,  218,535  busb^  of 
Indian  com,  and  78,100  of  sweet  potatoes.  In 
1857,  theie  were  in  the  county  53,456  hesi  U 
cattle,  valued  at  $271,000,  and  8,993  hones. 
valued  at  $165,740 ;  the  value  of  real  estate 
was  $1,814,260,  and  the  aggregate  value  of  £i 
taxable  property,  $4,649,613.  Gafutal,  Biaio- 
ria.  Pop.  in  1856,  6,696,  of  whom  4,029  woe 
slaves;  slave  pop.  in  1857, 4,188. 

BRAZOS,  a  central  county  of  Texas^  nasied 
from  Brazos  river,  whidi  forms  its  aoatfaeoi 
and  western  boundiary,  bordered  on  the  east  by 
Kavasoto  river,  which  joins  the  Brazoa  at  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  county,  and  eosapm- 
ing  an  area  of  about  585  sq.  m.  It  has  an  un- 
dulating surface,  about  one-half  of  which  b 
covered  with  a  growth  of  oak  and  other  timber. 
A  great  deal  of  tlie  soil  is  rich  loam,  pfodadsg 
grain,  cotton,  and  pasturage.  The  Hoostoa 
and  Texas  Central  railroad,  when  completed, 
will  pass  through  the  county.  In  1850,  it  yidd* 
ed  15,984  bushels  of  Indian  com,  142  bales  cf 
cotton,  and  8,096  lbs.  of  butter.  Thera  were  75 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  In  1857  ths 
county  contained  17,114  head  of  cattle,  valuai 
at  $117,700,  and  1,150  horaes,  valued  at 
$65,500.  The  value  of  resl  esUte  was  tSBQr 
100,  and  the  aggregate  value  of  all  taxalis 
property,  $778,710.  Oi4>ital,  Boo&vOle.  Pop.ia 
1856,  1,847,  of  whom  487  were  alaves;  tfavs 
pop.  in  1867,  519. 

BRAZOS,  or  BaAJDoana  Dioa,  a  river  ofTeza^ 
the  largest  in  the  state,  excepting  the  Ckiksada. 


BRAZOS  SANTIAGO 


BBEAD 


653 


It  rises  in  the  Gaaditlapo  maantains,  near 
lat  83^  N.,  &nd  flows  into  the  golf  of  Mexico, 
about  40  miles  8.  W.  of  Galveston.  Its  whole 
length  is  estimated  at  over  900  miles ;  the  di- 
rect lino  from  its  source  to  its  month,  at  600 
miles.  During  the  spring  or  rainy  season,  steam- 
boats can  pass  up  to  Wa^ington,  800  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  thejr  can  always  go  up  to  Co- 
lumbia, about  40  miles.  For  500  miles  from 
the  gulf,  its  width  varies  from  200  to  150  yards. 

BRAZOS  SANTIAGO,  a  village  80  mUes  K 
of  Brownsville,  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Jtio 
Grande,  in  Cameron  county,  Texas.  The  battles 
of  Palo  Alto  and  Rcsaca  do  la  Palma,  in  1846, 
were  fought  about  half  way  between  Brasos 
and  Matamoras. 

BRAZZA,  an  island  of  the  Adriatic,  in  the 
Austrian  province  of  Dalmatia,  circle  of  Spalato. 
near  the  coast,  8  miles  south  of  Spalato;  area 
about  170  sq.  m.,  pop.  about  15,000,  with  20 
villages. 

■  BREACH,  in  fortification,  a  gap  or  a  wall 
made  by  the  artillery  or  mines  of  tne  besiegers 
preparatory  to  an  assault  upon  the  place. 

BREAD.  Bread  may  be  made  of  the  meal 
of  any  of  the  cereal  trains;  but  as  wheaten 
flour  is  generally  used  for  that  purpose,  and 
makes  the  most  perfect  bread,  we  shall  speak 
mainly  of  that  kind.  Bread  is  either  unleavened 
or  leavened.  When  flour  is  mixed  with  water 
into  a  thick  paste,  and  being  flattened  out,  if 
submitted  in  an  oven  to  a  temperature  of  212^ 
F.,  until  thoroughly  dried,  it  forms  a  dense  and 
more  or  less  hard  cake,  in  which,  except  that 
a  portion  of  the  starch  is  rendered  more  soluble 
bv  the  heat,  no  chemical  change  has  taken  place. 
•From  the  small  quantity  of  moisture  it  contains 
such  bread  can  be  kept  good  for  a  long  time. 
It  forms  the  passovor  or  unleavened  bread  of 
the  Jews.  In  the  form  of  oaten  or  barley  cakes, 
it  is  still  largely  used  by  the  peasantry  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland.  As  sea  biscuit,  or  pilot 
and  navy  biscmt,  &o.,  it  is  an  article  of 
extensive  consumption.  When  flour  is  mixed  in 
due  proportions  with  water,  and  some  ferment 
is  added,  a  moderate  degree  of  heat  being  main- 
tained, the  dough  thus  formed  rises  and  increases 
'  in  bulk ;  this,  when  baked,  constitutes  leavened 
bread.  The  chemical  changes  which  take  place 
in  the  process  of  bread-making  are  curious  and 
interesting.  According  to  Mitaoherlioh,  flour 
made  from  fresh  sound  wheat  contains  no  sugar ; 
but  in  the  presence  of  water  a  minute  proportion 
of  the  starch  is  quickly  converted  into  grape 
sugar.  By  the  addition  of  ferment,  hop  yeast  be- 
ing generally  used,  this  is  further  increased  at  the 
expense  of  the  starch  in  the  process  of  fermenta- 
tion, and  grape  sugar  is  converted  into  alcohol 
and  carbonic  acid.  The  carbonic  acid  formed 
everywhere  throughout  the  mixture  is  entan- 
gled and  retdned  by  the  tenaoions  gluten,  and 
the  dough  is  thus  rendered  light  and  cellular. 
When  submitted  in  an  oven  to  a  baking  temper- 
at^e  (803^-500**  F.),  the  outer  surface  becomes 
roasted.  aAsnming  a  brown  color,  and  undergo- 
ing a  chemical  change,  the  nature  of  which  is 


not  perfectly  understood.  The  starch  Is  first 
converted  by  the  heat  into  gum,  this  is  then 
further  roasted  or  submitted  to  a  chemical 
process,  of  which  all  we  know  is,  that  it  is  the 
commencement  of  decomposition  by  means  of 
heat,  which  is  characterized  in  naarly  all  organio 
substances,  even  of  the  most  different  natures, 
by  the  appearance  of  a  brown  color,  an  agree- 
able bitter  taste,  and  a  much  greater  solubility 
in  water.  Daring  the  baking  the  alcohol  de- 
veloped by  the  process  of  fermentation  is  driven 
off,  a  part  of  the  water  evaporated,  and  the  starch 
rendered  more  soluble;  and  when  a  high  tem- 
perature is  maintained  during  the  whole  opera- 
tion, which  is  requisite  to  make  good  wholesome 
bread,  another  chemical  change  is  effected  by 
the  hydration  of  the  constituents  of  the  flour. 
The  Gennans,  before  placing  their  loaves  in 
the  oven,  pass  a  wet  brush  over  their  surface; 
this  moderates  the  action  of  the  heat,  and  gives 
the  loaf  a  shining  appearance.  The  quantity  of 
water  taken  up  by  the  flour,  in  mixing  the  dough, 
varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the  flour; 
that  made  from  wheat  grown  in  southern  lati- 
tudes takes  up  more  than  that  grown  at  the  north, 
that  grown  on  high  more  than  that  on  low 
l&nds,  and  that  grown  in  dry  more  than  that 
grown  in  wet  seasons.  The  best  flour  takes 
up  in  dough  about  45  per  cent,  of  its  weight 
of  water,  common  flour  about  85  per  cent, 
while  the  ordinary  quantity  is  about  40  per  cent 
Thorough  kneading  is  necessary  for  the  intimate 
incorporation  of  the  ingredients;  and  it  has 
beside  a  fhrther  use  by  acting  mechanically  on 
the  texture  of  the  dough,  rendering  it  fibrous  and 
delicate.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to 
obviate  the  necessity  of  employing  manual  labor 
in  kneading,  which  in  large  bakeries  is  not  al-^ 
ways  the  most  cleanly  of  processes ;  and  recently 
both  in  France  and  this  country  the  difficulties 
which  long  baffied  inventors  have  been  over- 
come, and  kneading  machines  wliich  perform 
the  woric  more  perfectly  than  the  hand  have  been 
constructed.  The  alcohol  lost  in  the  process  of 
baking,  though  trifling  in  amount  in  a  single 
family  baking,  becomes  enormous  in  the  aggre^ 
gate  of  public  consumption  of  bread ;  thus  it 
has  been  calculated  that  the  amount  of  bread 
annually  consumed  in  London  involves  a  loss 
of  800,000  gallons  of  spirit,  and  in  the  Ger- 
man customs  union  7,500,000  gallons.  Various 
attempts  have  been  made  to  collect  this  product, 
and  at  one  time  j£20,000  sterling  was  expended 
for  the  purpose  at  Chelsea,  London,  without  any 
successful  result  In  the  ordinary  mode  of  bread- 
making,  by  means  of  leaven  or  yeast,  a  certain 
quantity  of  the  starch  is  converted  into  alcohol 
tmd  carbonic  acid,  and  thus  becomes  lost  as  a 
DUtrildve  element  of  the  flour.  Various  methods 
have  been  proposed  at  once  to  prevent  this  loss 
and  obviate  thenecessity  of  employing  a  ferment 
Most  of  these  methods  are  founded  on  the  Uber« 
ation  of  carbonic  acid  from  one  of  its  compounds 
by  means  of  an  acid.  As  salt  is  used  in  making 
bread,  Henry  of  Manchester  proposed  as  long 
ago  as  the  latter  part  of  the  16th  century  to 


654 


BREADALBANE 


BREAKWATER 


fona  this  sabetanoe  in  the  dough  itself^  by  tho 
addition  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  hydrocblorio 
acid.  In  other  cases  tartaric  or  bitartrate  of 
potash  (cream  of  tartar),  and  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  are  the  materials  employed ;  while  others 
again  recommend  the  substitution  of  the  sesqui- 
carbonate  of  ammonia  for  the  bicarbonate  of 
soda.  The  great  objection  to  all  these  sub- 
stances is  that  they  cause  a  rapid  but  not  con- 
tinuous evolution  of  carbonic  acid,  so  that  there 
is  danger  of  the  bread  sinking  again  before  it  is 
put  into  the  oven.  There  is  no  real  economy 
in  these  substitutes  for  yeast  or  leaven,  since  the 
cost  of  the  materials  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
starch  which  is  lost  by  the  ordinary  process. 
Certain  mineral  substances  when  added  to  dam- 
aged flour  improve  materially  the  appearance 
of  the  bread,  rendering  it  whiter  and  hrmer.  In 
Belgium  small  quantities  of  sulphate  of  copper 
(blue  vitriol)  are  commonly  used;  while  in 
England,  and  to  some  extent  in  this  country, 
alum  (sulphate  of  alumina  and  potassa)  is  em- 
ployed. This  latter  substance  would  appear  also 
to  enable  the  flour  to  take  up  or  retain  a  larger 
amount  of  moisture.  Though  not  perceptible  to 
the  taste,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  their  con- 
tinued use  must  exercise  an  injurious  effect  upot 
the  animal  economy.  Warm  bread  when  mas- 
ticated forms  a  tenacious  gummy  mass,  not 
readily  dissolved  by  the  saliva  which  aids  in  the 
digestion  of  the  starch,  nor  easily  penetrated  by 
the  gastric  juice.  Bread  less  than  from  12  to 
24  hours  old  should  never,  therefore,  be  eaten  by 
those  who  have  any  regard  for  their  digestive 
organs. 

BREADALBANE,  an  extensive  district  of 
Scotland,  comprising  the  western  part  of  the 
county  of  Perth.  Itis  traversed  by  the  Grampian 
hills,  and  abonnds  in  picturesque  scenery.  The 
banks  of  Loch  Tay  are  remarkable  for  their 
beauty.  There  are  mines  of  copper  at  Aithra, 
and  of  lead  at  Tyndrum.  Taymouth  castle,  the 
residence  of  the  marquis  of  Breadalbane,  the 
chief  proprietor,  is  in  this  district. 

BREADFRUIT,  the  product  of  a  tree  {arta- 
carpus  incisa,  Linn.)  found  native  in  the  Ladrone 
and  South  sea  islands,  where  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  40  feet  or  more.  Its  leaves  are  deeply 
divided  into  sharp  lobes,  and  are  in  size  about 
18  inches  long  and  1 1  broad.  The  fruit  is  a  large 
green  berry,  resembling  a  cocoanut  or  melon 
in  size  and  form,  and  is  in  the  greatest  perfec- 
tion about  a  week  before  it  ripens.  An  agree- 
able beverage  may  be  obtained  from  it ;  it  is 
baked  in  the  West  Indies  like  bread ;  and  the 
bark  furnishes  the  material  for  a  species  of 
doth.  The  breadfruit  is  mostly  vdued  for 
the  receptacle  of  the  seed,  fllled  with  a  farina- 
ceous fibrous  pulp,  though  the  nuts,  when  roasted, 
are  as  good  as  the  best  chestnuts.  When  ripe, 
the  breadfruit  becomes  soft,  tender,  and  white, 
resembling  tho  crumb  of  a  loaf ;  but  it  must  be 
eaten  while  fresh,  or  it  becomes  hard  and  choky. 
Tho  flavor  is  compared  with  that  of  a  roasted 
potato.  Itis  usually  cut  into  several  pieces,  and 
roasted  or  baked  in  an  oven  in  the  groundl    It 


is  often  mixed  with  orange  juice  or  cocoanut 
milk.  The  breadfiruit  furnishes  the  chief  susten- 
ance of  the  Society  and  other  South  sea  island- 
ers. The  tree  has  been  introduced  into  the  West 
Indies,  and  been  planted  on  the  continent  of 
America.  This  is  the  genus  which  has  given 
its  name  to  the  natural  order  artaearpaeec^  which 
is  so  nearly  related  to  the  nettle  tribe,  urtieaeem, 
that  some  botanists  class  them  in  one  order. 
The  former  are  distinguished  from  the  latter, 
however,  by  the  portion  of  then*  ovules,  the 
manner  in  which  their  flowers  are  arranged, 
and  by  their  yielding  a  milky  juice  ;  the  jtdce 
of  urtieaeea  being  watery.  The  species  are  all 
found  in  the  warmer  climates  of  the  globe. 
Hany  of  them  have  an  acid  and  int^isely 
poisonous  milk,  as  the  upas  tree  of  Java,  and 
certain  Indian  species  of  fig. 
"  BREAKERS,  the  waves  of  the  sea  which  are 
broken  violently  by  rocks  lying  under  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  or  by  the  shore  itself^  and 
which  dissolve  their  volume  into  white  foam. 

BREAKWATER,  an  obstruction  of  any  kind 
raised  to  oppose  the  action  of  the  waves,  and 
make  safe  harbors  and  roadsteads.  The  onter 
mole  of  the  harbor  of  Oivita  Yecchia  was  buQt 
by  the  emperor  Trajan  for  this  purpose ;  and 
the  piers  of  ancient  Pirsns  and  of  Rhodes  are 
of  the  same  class  of  structures.  Herod,  it  is 
stated  by  Josephus,  in  order  to  form  a  port  be- 
tween Dora  and  Joppa,  ordered  mighty  stones 
to  be  cast  into  the  sea  in  20  fathoms  water,  to 
prepare  a  foundation;  the  greater  number  of 
them  50  feet  in  length,  9  feet  deep,  and  10  feet 
wide,  and  some  were  even  larger  than  these. 
In  the  use  of  such  immense  blocks  of  stone, 
the  true  principles  of  constructing  a  permanent  * 
barrier  to  the  waves,  appear  to  have  been  bet- 
ter understood  than  they  were  17  centuries 
afterward.  In  modem  times,  the  great  break- 
waters are  those  of  Cherbourg  in  France,  of 
Plymouth  in  England,  and  of  Delaware  bay  in 
this  country.  From  the  experience  acquired 
by  their  construction  and  history,  principles 
before  little  understood  have  been  established, 
upon  which  such  works  must  be  built  to  with- 
stand the  enormous  forces  opposed  to  their  per- 
manency. These  were  so  little  understood  in 
the  last  century,  that  one  of  the  commissionera 
appointed  by  direction  of  Louis  XVI.  to  report 
upon  the  best  locality  for  establishing,  opposite 
the  English  coast,  a  port  and  naval  arsenal,  re- 
commended the  construction  of  a  dike  of  2,000 
toises  in  length,  in  water  70  feet  deep,  in  front 
of  the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  by  sinlong  a  vast 
number  of  ships  filled  with  masonry  as  a  nu- 
cleus, and  covering  these  with  heavy  stones  to 
within  18  feet  of  the  surface.  And  when  at 
last  4  of  the  ablest  naval  officers  and  engineers 
of  France  were  appointed  to  execute  the  work, 
which  was  regarded  as  one  of  the  most  stupen- 
dous operations,  certainly  the  greatest  piece  of 
hydraulic  architecture,  ever  undertaken  by  man, 
the  plan  they  adopted  was  one  which  proved  im- 
practicable after  having  been  prosecuted  from 
the  year  1784  to  1789,  at  enormous  expense. 


BREAKWATER 


666 


This  plan  was  the  construction  of  huge  tnmcated 
cones  of  timber,  which,  of  the  reduced  size  at 
which  thej  were  actually  built,  measured  86  feet 
in  height,  with  a  circumference  of  472  feet  at 
base,  and  839  feet  at  top,  the  angle  of  the  slope 
being  60^.     This  was  strengthened  by  an  inte- 
rior concentric  cone,  6  feet  10  inches  within 
the  outer  one.    The  frame  of  each  was  made 
of  80  large  upright  timbers  24  feet  long  and  1 
foot  square.    On  these  were  erected  80  more 
of  14  feet  in  length,  making,  for  the  2  exterior 
and  2  interior  portions,  820  of  these  uprights. 
The  machine  was  then  planked,  hooped^  and 
firmly  bolted  together.     The  first  cone  was 
built  and  floated  at  Havre,  then  taken  to  pieces, 
transported  to  Oherbourg,  and  floated  off  and 
fiunk  on  June  6,  1784 ;  and  the  second  on  July 
7  following,  in  the  presence  of  10,000  specta- 
tors ;  but  before  the  cavity  of  this  one  could 
be  filled  with  stones,  its  upper  part  was  demol- 
ished in  a  storm  of  5  days^  continuance  in  Au- 
gust, and  the  stones  it  contained  were  spread 
over  the  bottom,  interfering  with  the  placing 
of  the  next  cone.    The  original  plan  was  to 
Bet  90  of  these  cones,  of  150  feet  diameter  at 
base,  60  at  top,  and  65  feet  height,  in  succes- 
sion, and  fill  them  with  loose  stones  or  mason- 
ry, and  the  spaces  between  them  with  a  net- 
work of  iron  chains,  to  break  the  force  of  the 
waves.    The  number  was  afterward  reduced  to 
64.    After  the  2d  cone  went  to  pieces,  the  gov- 
ernment directed  that  the  remamder  should  be 
set  192  feet  apart    This  distance,  by  a  new  or- 
der, was  increased  to  1,280  feet,  the  spaces  to  be 
filled  in  with  loose  stones.    At  last,  when  18 
cones  had  been  sunk  at  enormous  expense,  and 
with  serious  damage  to  many  of  them,  the 
plan  was  abandoned,  the  tops  of  those  left 
standing  were  cut  off  down  to  low-water  mark 
in  1789,  and  the  system  of  construction  by 
sinking  rocks  was  recognized  as  the  only  pro- 
cess sure  to  succeed.    The  filling  in  of  stone 
was  continued  till,  at  the  end  of  the  year  1790, 
the  quantity  sunk  was  estimated  at  5,800,000 
tons ;  and  the  total  expenditure,  by  the  esti- 
mate presented  to  the  legislative  assembly  in 
1792,  was  about  81,000,000  francs,  or  $5,800,000. 
The  commission  appointed  by  the  departments 
of  war,  marine,  and  the  interior,  in  1792,  re- 
ported, after  careful  examination  of  the  dike 
and  of  the  partial  protection  it  already  afford- 
ed at  different  stages  of  the  tide,  that  ^ts  sta- 
bility could  not  be  depended  upon  except  by 
the  use  of  larger  blocks  of  stone  as  a  facing 
than  had  before  been  employed — these  stones 
should  be  at  least  of  15  to  20  feet  cube ;  and 
they  recommended  that  the  dike  be  raised  81 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  lowest  tide,  which 
would  make  it  about  9  feet  above  that  of  the 
highest  tides.    Bat  the  revolution  succeeding, 
further  work  was  interrupted.     In  1802,  by 
advice  of  a  new  commission  appointed  2  years 
previously  by  a  new  government,  it  was  deter- 
mined to  raise  the  central  portion  of  the  break- 
water to  the  height  before  recommended,  for 
195  metres  (640  feet)  in  length,  and  to  give  it  a 


breadth  at  top  of  19.5  metres,  in  order  to  con- 
struct upon  it  a  battery  of  20  pieces  of  the 
heaviest  artillery ;  and  the  2  extremities  it  was 
proposed  to  finally  complete  in  the  same  man* 
ner.    At  that  time  the  old  work,  which  had 
originally  been  raised  to  low-water  mark,  was 
reduced  by  the  action  of  the  sea  to  15  or  18 
feet  below  it,  and  the  profile  imparted  to  it 
was  regarded  as  that  of  greatest  stability  with 
least  expenditure  of  material.     The  interior 
slope  was  one  of  equal  height  and  base,  12.5 
metres.    The  slope  exposed  to  the  sea  had  at 
bottom  a  height  of  6.8  metres  to  a  base  of  9, 
succeeded  by  one  of  6.2  to  a  base  of  47.5 ;  its 
original  form  was  a  uniform  slope  of  1  in 
height  to  8  of  base.    The  sea  washing  over  the 
top  tended  to  move  the  stones  from  the  out- 
side to  the  inside ;  and  this  action  it  was  essen- 
tial to  oppose  by  raising  the  top  above  the  sur- 
face .of  the  water.    In  1803,  the  central  por- 
tion was  completed  to  low-water  mark,  and  a 
superstructure  or  parapet,  of  blocks  of  60  to  80 
cubic  feet  each,  was  raised  along  the  south  or 
inner  side  to  the  height  of  the  highest  tides, 
along  which  the  smaller  stones  used  in  the 
construction,  pressed   upward   by  the   great 
waves   in  the  winter   storms,  collected  and 
formed  a  solid  and  compact  surface,  at  a  new 
slope,  of  which  the  base  was  about  quadruple 
the  vertical  height.    It  was  observed  that  the 
lateral  movement  of  the  small  stones  by  the 
storms,  driving  obliquely  along  the  outer  face 
of  the  dike,  caused  them  to  collect  at  each  ex- 
tremity in  a  conical  mound  of  the  precise  con- 
figuration traced  for  the  proposed  terminal  bat- 
teries ;  but  to  prevent  their  extending  into  and 
obstructing  the  passes,  it  was  found  indispensa- 
ble to  face  the  whole  exterior  with  blocks  large 
enough  to  resist  these  oblique  impulsions.    In 
May,  1805,  the  battery  on  the  central  portion 
was  armed  with  20  pieces  of  heavy  oronance. 
In  February  and  May,  1807,  occurred  2  great 
storms,  the  effects  of  which  upon  this  portion, 
as  also  of  the  unprecedentedly  severe  storm  of 
Feb.  12,  1808,  are  described  in  the  "Memoir 
upon  the  Dike  of  Cherbourg,  compared  with 
the  Jetty  or  Breakwater  at  Plymouth,"  by  the 
baron  Cachin,  inspector-general  of  roads  and 
bridges.    In  the  last-named  storm  the  battery 
was  submerged,  the  parapet  was  upset,  and  the 
barracks   and  garrison,  with    60  men,  were 
swept  away.    The  large  blocks  of  stone,  with 
which  the  dike  was  faced,  were  by  this  storm 
arranged   in   new  positions,  and   se   closely 
stow^,  that  they  appeared  as  if  placed  by 
the  hand   of  man  in  positions  of  the  most 
perfect  stability.     As  thus  arranged,  the  out- 
er side  presents  4  slopes.    At  the  upper  part, 
reached  only  by  the  tops  of  the  waves,  the 
height  is  to  the  base  as  100  to  185.     Be- 
neath this  is  the  space    between   the  high 
and  low-water  marks,  which  is  exposed  at 
all  times  of  tide  to  the  most  violent  action  of 
the  sea.     Its  slope  is  the  most  inclined,  the 
height  being  to  the  base  as  100  to  640.    Below 
the  lowest  spring  tides  is  a  space  but  little  ez- 


656 


BREAKWATER 


poMd  to  the  action  of  the  waves ;  the  height 
of  this  slope  to  its  base  is  as  100  to  802.  The 
lowest  part  which  is  always  submerged  has  a 
height  of  100  to  a  base  of  125.  The  slope  on 
the  inner  side  is  of  46^.  From  ^e  experi- 
ence of  these  2  breakwaters,  incomparably  the 
greatest  of  their  sort  which  the  mind  of  man 
has  ever  contemplated  to  undertake,  M.  Ca- 
chin  concludes  with  the  observotioi^  that  if 
man  be  strong  enough  to  heap  togetiier  rocks 
in  the  midst  of  the  ocean,  the  action  of  the  sea 
alone  can  dispose  them  in  the  manner  most 
likely  to  inanre  their  proper  stability.  This,  it 
may  be  added,  will  necessarily  vary  in  fonn 
with  the  specific  gravity  and  size  of  the  stones 
used.  The  length  of  the  dike,  as  reported  hj 
H.  Cachin,  is  8,768  metres— 2^  miles;  and  the 
area  of  its  transverse  section  1,850  square  me- 
tres. When  complete,  it  is  intended  to  extend 
from  8  to  4  miles,  running  nearly  W.  N.  W. 
from  the  Isle  Pil^  toward  Qnerqueville.  In 
1830  it  was  decided  to  raise  the  dike  by  build- 
ing up  a  wall  of  rubUe  masomy  faced  with 
granite  to  the  height  of  6  feet  above  highest 
water.  This  is  protected  by  a  foreshore  of 
great  blocks  of  stone  on  the  outer  side,  which 
extend  in  a  slope  of  120  feet  to  the  depth  of 
21  feet  below  low-water  mark.  This  nearly 
vertical  wall  (the  slope  of  its  sides  being  |  to 
1)  is  86  feet  S  inches  wide  at  base,  and  29  feet 
8  inches  wide  at  top.  A  parapet  is  raised  to 
the  height  of  6  feet  upon  its  outer  edge,  which 
is  8  feet  8  inches  thick ;  at  top  8  feet  6  inches 
wide.  The  altitude  of  the  breakwater  is  given 
by  the  United  States  conmiission  of  engineers 
and  naval  officers,  who  examined  it  in  1829,  at 
T2|'Vv  f^t,  the  base  of  its  sea-slope  beii^ 
228^9^  ^^^ ;  <^d  they  state  that  similar  propor- 
tions were  adopted  at  the  Plymouth  break- 
water, the  altitude  of  which  is  57  feet  and 
base  180  feet  The  inner  slope  of  this,  how- 
ever, was  built  at  an  angle  of  82''.  although  that 
of  Cherbourg  had  stood  perfectly  well  at  45^. 
The  adoption  of  the  general  plan  of  this  work 
by  the  English  and  American  enj^^neers,  suffi- 
ciently proves  the  correctness  of  its  principles, 
though  by  some  English  authorities  the  work 
is  alluded  to  as  a  failure. — ^The  breakwater  at 
Plymouth,  England,  was  commenced  in  1812, 
and  it  was  considered  as  completed  in  1841. 
Its  object  was  to  protect  the  inner  harbor  from 
the  heavy  sea  that  is  driven  in  by  southerly 
storms.  Its  dimensions  are  only  about  |  those 
of  the  breakwater  at  Cherbourg,  its  total  length 
being  1,700  yards,  made  up  of  a  central  por- 
tion of  1,000  yards,  and  a  wing  bendmg  in 
from  eacn  end,  at  an  angle  of  120^,  of  860 
yards.  Its  profile  is  998  square  feet.  It  was 
designed  to  have  a  base  of  210  feet,  breadth  at 
top  80  feet,  and  height  in  the  middle  40  feet 
Its  actual  height  exceeds  this,  but  it  is  only 
about  8  feet  above  the  highest  tides.  It  is 
built  of  large  blocks  of  limestone,  some  ex- 
ceeding 5  tons  in  weight,  brouflfat  in  vessels 
from  the  quarries  at  Catwater,  about  2}  miles 
up  the  harbor.     The  convenience  of  position 


of  these  qnarries  for  loading  tite  vends,  ^ 
Ibcilities  <»  quarrying  the  stone,  aod^ejiidi- 
dous  arrangements  introduoed,  msde  the  vork 
of  comparatively  light  expense.    After  book 
experience  was  had,  the  stone  was  tpunA 
by  contract  at  2i.  5i2.  (58  cents)  per  tim,  inl 
transported  for  84  cents ;  and  the  total  (sA 
of  th«  stone  laid,  including  land  pmthasea.  al- 
aries,  buildings,  &c^  was  estnnated  in  imn 
about  8a.  1|£  per  ton.    In  1841,  it  vis  t^ 
oulated  that  8,8^9,261  tons  of  stone  had  ka 
laid,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  a  million  and  a  M  of 
pounds.   In  1854  the  expenditores  had  mim 
ed  to  £1,528,689;   the  snm  of  il&,000  ts 
^propriated  for  ftirther  expenses,  and  £21^000 
more  estimated  as  necessary  to  eompletithe 
work.    The  15  vessels  kept  employed  in  tn» 
porting  the  stone  were  tonished  with  S  tsI- 
ways  laid  along  in  the  hold,  upon  whiehvcn 
run  the  loaded  cars  from  the  qnarries,  entensj 
through  2  stem-porta    These  oonld  be  tiglittj 
dosed  when  the  vessel  was  loaded.  On  edi 
side  were  arranged  8  trucks  of  the  extreme » 
pacity  of  5  tons  each.    In  discharging,  tbea 
were  drawn  out  by  a  windlass  on  deck,  nil 
upset  as  they  passed  out  of  the  porta,  eaehoai 
being  drawn  up  on  the  deck  axid  nm  forrri 
to  make  room  for  those  behind.   At  theiior 
ries  they  left  the  deck,  and  the  track  on  vlud 
they  descended  over  the  stem  being  nise^^ 
the  loaded  cars  were  ran  under  it,  into  tb 
hold.    The  usual  cargo  of  45  to  65  touco^ 
thus  be  dischaiged  in  less  than  an  boor.  Ob 
Jan.  19,  1817,  the  work  was  tried  bjosid 
the  most  severe   storms  ever  known.  Ibe 
breakwater,  though  in  an  unfinished  cco&ki, 
caused  perfect  protection  to  the  inner  bsfbor, 
where  without  it  the  damage  woold  baTebca 
immense.     Previous  gales  had  had  no  e&d 
upon  it;  but  this  caused  the  upperstntma 
the  finished  part,  200  yards  in  lengUtand^a 
breadth,  to  be  stripped,  and  the  huge  staMsfi 
2  to  5  tons  weight  to  be  carried  over  fion » 
outside,  and  deposited  up<m  the  northenadi 
of  the  breakwater.      The  quantity  thus  n- 
moved  was  estimated  at  8,000 ton&  Sncetb^ 
time  the  outer  slope  has  been  ^'^^^^^^ 
regular  courses  of  masonry,  dowdled,  jops 
dovetauled,  and  cramped  tc^iether;  the^TBg- 
bell  being  brought  into  requiation  fo^.P*^ 
the  lower  courses,  whidi  were  of  g'*"^^^ 
were  laid  horizontally  on  their  natnril  m 
and  dovetaUed,  lewised,  and  bolted  togeti^. 
This  work  was  rqwrted  by  Mr.  Stnart, » 
superintendent  of  the  breakwater,  to  »« 
been  done  on  a  slope  of  5  to  1,  as  ue  ta 
had  left  it    The  foot  of  the  outer  dope  W 
also  been   extended   further  out  with  w« 
stones,  to  give  protection  to  the  courses  of  ^ 
sonry. — ^In  the  plan  of  constroction  of  ^ 
breakwater  for  a  narboar  of  refuge  at  Dots  J 
England  in  1848,  a  proposition  was  ftjw 
entertained  by  the  commission,  of  l>™*^^ 
vertical  wall  for  a  breakwater,  hraced  tf  » 
base  by  slopmg  piles  of  sjtone;  and  th»  *» 
recommended  by  many  eminent  men  as  an  eco* 


BREAKWATER 


657 


Bomioal  method,  and  one  that  might  he  de- 
pended upon  for  stability.  By  their  reports  it 
would  seem  they  attached  bnt  little  importance 
to  the  horizontal  shook  which  a  wave,  driven 
hj  the  winds  and  swaying  backward  and  for- 
ward, gives  by  its  inertia,  when  it  impinges 
upon  a  vertical  wall.  Sir  Howard  Douelas, 
one  of  the  commission,  strongly  dissented  from 
their  views  in  the  able  report  he  presented  to 
the  house  of  commons.  lie  also  strongly  op- 
posed the  use  of  bricks  cemented  into  blocks, 
as  was  recommended  by  some,  or  of  any  mate- 
rial but  stone,  in  the  forms  already  proved  so 
advantageous  at  Oherbourg  and  Plymouth. — 
The  construction  of  an  important  breakwater 
was  commenced  at  Portland  on  the  southern 
coast  of  England,  in  1849.  It  is  to  consist  of 
an  outer  and  inner  mole,  the  total  length  of 
which  is  to  be  2,500  yards.  The  area  these 
will  protect  is  about  2,107  acres  of  Portland 
bay,  over  which  the  depth  of  water  is  from  2 
to  10  fathoms.  The  entrance  is  made  available 
for  the  largest  men-of-war  and  steamers.  About 
8,000,000  tons  of  stone  had  been  deposited  up 
to  the  early  part  of  the  year  1858,  and  the 
arrangements  are  so  complete  for  running  down 
the  stone  upon  the  several  lines  of  railway 
laid  from  the  quarries,  that  nearly  500,000  tons 
oan  be  deposited  annually.  These  quarries  are 
of  the  oolitic  limestone  or  Portland  stone,  the 
same  which  furnished  the  stone  for  8t.  Paulas 
cathedral,  London,  and  for  the  bridges  of 
Westminster  and  Blackfriars.  They  are  upon 
summits  of  considerable  elevation — one  fbll  800 
feet  above  the  water,  from  which  the  wagons 
descend  by  gravity  to  the  breakwater,  the 
loaded  oars  drawing  up  the  empty.    Stone  is 

auarried  by  convicts,  of  whom  928  are  kept 
iitts  employed ;  and  896  other  laborers  are  en- 
gaged in  other  work  connected  with  the  con- 
struction. The  stone  used  is  rubble,  faced  with 
laroe  blocks,  some  of  which  are  quarried  and 
laid,  weighing  5  to  6  tons.  Although  the  work 
considerably  exceeds  in  extent  the  breakwater  at 
Plymouth,  its  estimated  cost,  from  the  economi- 
cal arrangements  and  convenient  supplies  of 
stone,  is  less  than  one  million  pounds  sterling. — 
In  1828,  a  commission  appointed  by  the  govern- 
ment of  the  United  States,  under  act  of  con- 
zress  of  May  24,  1824,  consisting  of  Commo- 
dore Rodgers  of  the  navy.  Brigadier-general 
Bernard  of  the  engineer  corps,  and  William 
Strickland,  architect  and  engineer,  recommend- 
ed the  construction  of  a  breakwater  in  Dela- 
ware bay,  just  within  Oape  Henlopen.  The 
work  was  required  from  the  fact  that,  from 
New  York  harbor  to  the  mouth  of  Chesapeake 
bay,  there  was  no  good  place  of  shelter  along 
the  coast  for  vessels  exposed  to  easterly  gales. 
The  entrance  of  Delaware  bay  on  the  south 
side  was  judged  the  most  advantageous  point 
for  constructing  a  harbor  of  refuge,  though  it 
was  exposed  both  to  the  most  dangerous  sales 
from  the  Atiantio  between  £.  S.  £.  and  l4.  E. 
by  N.,  and  those  across  the  waters  of  Dela- 
ware bay  from  N.  E.  by  N.  around  to  the  TV. 
VOL.  m.- 


The  place  is  also  exposed  to  the  fields  of  ice 
that  are  brought  down  by  the  ebb  tide  in  the 
winter,  and  urged  on  bv  the  heavy  northerly 
gales  of  this  season.  The  plan  of  the  break- 
water was  consequentiy  aesigned  to  guard 
against  daneers  from  these  different  directions. 
It  consisted,  first,  of  a  straight  viole,  1,203 
yards  Ions,  in  water  of  5  to  6  fathoms  depth, 
the  sea  uope  having  a  base  of  105f  feet  to  a 
height  of  89  feet,  and  profiled  after  the  curvi- 
linear figure  assumed  by  the  breakwater  at 
Cherbourg;  the  inner  slope  to  be  at  an  ansle 
of  45^.  The  width  at  top  was  designed  to  oe 
22  feet  ^afterward  increased  to  80),  and  the 
entire  width  at  base  166f  feet  (afterward  in- 
creased to  175  feet).  Its  position  was  in  a  line 
tangent  to  the  seaward  extremity  of  Cape  Hen- 
lOpen,  extending  E.  S.  E.  and  W.  N.  W..  which 
is  in  the  original  conrse  of  the  ebb  tiae ;  the 
shore  of  tiie  cape  is  1,000  yards  distant  from 
its  eastern  end  on  the  conrse  of  the  break- 
water, but  only  500  yards  opposite  toward  the 
south.  This  mole  protects  the  harbor  behind 
it  from  the  northern  and  eastern  winds.  The 
second  mole,  designated  as  the  ice-breaker,  is 
opposite  the  western  end  of  the  breakwater 
proper,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  channel  of 
860  yards.  It  lies  in  an  E.  by  K  and  W.  by  S. 
direction,  making  an  angle  of  146}°  with  the 
course  of  the  other.  The  area  protected  against 
all  the  most  dangerous  winds,  with  a  depth  of 
8  to  6  fathoms,  is  estimated  at  860  acres.  The 
work  was  commenced  in  1829,  under  direction 
of  Mr.  Strickland,  and  in  1884  it  was  so  far 
advanced,  that  vessels  found  protection  behind 
it.  Blocks  of  rubble  from  the  nearest  quarries 
were  thrown  in  to  form  their  own  slopes  for  a 
foundation.  The  outer  covering  to  within  6 
feet  of  low-water  mark  was  of  blocks  from  2 
to  8  tons  weight ;  from  this  to  low-water  mark 
they  were  of  8  tons;  thence  to  high-water 
mark,  8  to  4  tons,  and  above  this,  4  to  5  tons, 
to  a  height  of  4  feet  8  inches  above  highest 
water.  The  ordinary  rise  of  tide  is  nearly  5. 
feet,  equinoctial  tides  7  feet,  and  extreme  tides 
10  feet.  As  the  breakwater  was  built,  its  ex- 
terior slope  for  the  first  16  feet  from  bottom  was 
at  an  angle  of  45^.  thence  to  summit  28^,  or  8 
to  1.  The  inner  slope  was  45^.  The  surfaces 
of  both  slopes  to  the  -level  of  low  water  were 
paved  with  rough  blocks  set  at  right  angles  to 
the  slope,  and  well  wedged  together,  thus  pre- 
senting as  littie  surface  as  practicable  to  the 
action  of  the  waves.  The  stone  used  in  this 
work  was  obtuned  from  a  variety  of  sources, 
some  trap  rock  from  the  Palisades  on  the  Hud- 
son river,  greenstone  ftx)m  the  northern  part  of 
Delaware,  and  gneiss  from  different  quarries  in 
Delaware.  These  rooks,  though  averaging  a 
weight  of  175  pounds  to  the  cubic  foot,  and 
employed  of  the  dimensions  named,  were  in- 
sufficient to  withstand  the  action  of  the  sea  in 
the  course  of  the  construction  of  the  moles. 
Durinff  the  winter  season,  those  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  work  were  more  or  less  displaced, 
and  a  large  piece  of  7  tons  weight  was  moved 


658 


BR£AKWAT£B 


BREAK 


in  one  etorm  18  feet  to  the  inner  slope  of  the 
ice-breaker,  down  which  it  was  lost  At  the 
same  time  about  200  tons  of  other  heavj  stone, 
that  had  been  thoroughly  wedged  and  com- 
pacted together,  was  torn  up  and  swept  over  to 
the  inner  side. — ^The  experience  acquired  by  all 
.these  breakwaters,  and  by  the  action  of  the  waves 
upon  coasts  exposed  to*  their  greatest  violence, 
establidies  the  principle  that  blocks  of  stone  of 
large  dimensions  only  can  be  depended  upon  to 
retain  their  places;  that  though  smaller  ones 
may  be  dovetailed  together,  and  present  an 
apparently  solid  foundation,  the  heavy  waves 
exert  a  hydrostatic  pressure  upward  propor- 
tional to  their  height,  while  the  horizontal 
movement  of  the  wave  is  exerted  to  thrust  the 
mass  forward.  Mr.  James  Walker,  president 
of  the  British  institution  of  civil  engineers, 
advanced  the  opinion  in  1841  that  a  partial 
vacuum  is  created  by  the  action  of  the  waves, 
and  the  atmospheric  pressure  being  taken  off 
for  an  instant^  the  mass  of  stone  is  the  more 
readily  influenced  by  the  forces  which  at  the 
same  time  solicit  it.  (^' Civil  Engineer  and 
Architect's  Journal,"  Sept.  1841.)  If  the  whole 
atmospheric  pressure  were  taken  off  the  sur- 
tacey  it  would  be  equivalent  to  the  removal  of 
a  weight  represented  by  a  column  of  rock 
m  feet  deep,  weighing  175  pounds  to  the  cubic 
foot  Under  such  circumstances,  and  exposed 
to  the  action  of  a  wave  20  feet  liigh,  which  is 
capable  of  moving  masses  of  rock  71  feet  deep, 
stability  would  be  insured  only  by  me  addition 
of  this  amount  to  the  11}  feet.  But  as  it  is 
not  probable  that  a  large  proportion  of  tlie  at- 
mospheric pressure  is  ever  thus  removed,  and 
as  22  feet  is  regarded  as  the  maximum  height 
of  waves,  a  depth  of  solid  stone  of  15  feet, 
used  as  a  coping,  would  probably  resist  all  ac- 
tion of  the  waves.  The  subject  is  ably  treated 
in  a  pi^>er  *'  On  the  Force  of  the  Wind  and 
Sea,"  Dy  EUwood  Morris,  civil  engineer,  who 
was  employed  as  an  assistant  in  the  construc- 
tion of  the  Delaware  breakwater,  published  in 
the  *^  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,"  8d  se- 
ries, vol.  iii.,  1842.  Mr.  Morris  proposes  a 
new  form  of  construction  of  breakwaters,  of 
which  a  transverse  section  is  figured  in  the 
article  referred  to.  It  consists  essentially  of 
a  semi-cylindrical  mass  of  stone  at  least  82  feet 
in  diameter,  formed  within  of  rubble  stone 
well  set  in  cement  mortar,  and  without  of  large 
blocks  shaped  and  arranged  as  arched  stones, 
and  cemented  and  bonded  together ;  the  base 
of  the  arch  to  be  upon  a  cemented  floor  sloping 
toward  the  sea  with  an  inclination  of  about  6  . 
feet  base  to  1  foot  rise.  The  seaward  side  of 
the  arch  is  to  be  protected  by  a  foreshore  of 
rough  cubical  blocks  weighing  above  10  tons 
each;  this  work  to  reach  a^ve  the  highest 
tides,  and  slope  down  at  an  angle  of  2}  or  8 
to  1,  and  below  low  water  2  to  1.  Thus  built, 
the  whole  cylindrical  mass  would  gravitate  as 
one  body ;  and  the  weight  of  the  upper  por- 
tion would  be  most  advantageously  distributed 
to  bind  together  and  hold  down  all  parts  of  the 


work.  The  construction  and  history  of  tiie 
principal  breakwaters  are  fully  treated  in  the 
great  work  of  Sir  John  Rennie,  president  of 
the  institution  of  civil  engineers,  upon  British 
and  foreign  harbors,  published  in  1854,  in  2 
folio  volumes. — Breakwaters  of  considerable 
magnitude  have  been  constructed  upon  the 
great  northern  lakes  for  the  protection  of  har- 
bors, as  at  Buffalo  and  Cleveland  on  Lake 
Erie,  and  Chicago  on  Lake  Michigan.  The 
first-named  is  a  massive  pier  of  stone-work. 
Piles  driven  in  rows  into  the  sand  are  some- 
times employed  for  the  construction  of  break- 
waters; but  they  are  of  littie  service  in  ex- 
posed situations.  Beaches  are  protected  from 
the  inroads  of  the  sea  by  this  method,  by  lay- 
ers of  brush  kept  down  by  stones,  intended  to 
hold  the  sand  together  and  collect  more,  and 
also  by  triangulsur  frames  of  timber,  arranged 
closely  together  and  kept  in  place  by  stones 
placed  upon  the  projecting  ends  of  the  timbers 
which  serve  as  the  base  of  the  frames. 

BREAM  (pamotiaimlgariSyCxiy,')^  an  acantho- 
pterygian  fish,  of  the  fajnWy  j>erctdm,  of  whidi 
severd  species  are  found  m  North  America, 
and  of  which  the  above,  called  also  sunfish, 
pondperch,  and  roach,  is  the  most  common.  In 
this  genus  the  borders  of  the  preoperculum  have 
a  few  denticulations ;  no  toeth  on  the  palative 
bones  and  tongue,  but  with  minute  teeth  on  the 
jaws,  vomer,  and  pharyngeals ;  branchial  nj9 
6 ;  a  membranous  elongation  at  the  angle  of  the 
operculum.  This  beautifully  colored  species  is 
common  in  fresh  ponds^  and  is  an  exodlent 
edible  fish ;  the  length  rarely  exceeds  8  inches. 
The  color  above  is  greenish  brown,  with  rusty 
blotches  irregularly  distributed,  in  some  speci- 
mens arranged  longitudinally ;  undulating  deep 
blue  lines,  longitudinally  across  the  gill  covers ; 
opercular  membrane  black,  with  a  bright  scarlet 
bloteh  at  its  posterior  portion ;  abdomen  wUtiah 
or  yellowish;  dorsal,  anal,  and  caudal  fins  daric 
brown;  ventrals  and  pectorals  yellowish.  The 
body  is  compressed ;  the  back  curves  very  gradu- 
ally as  far  as  the  posterior  extremity  of  the  dorsal 
fin,  and  then  abruptiy  gives  place  to  the  fleshy 
portion  of  the  tail;  the  eyes  are  large  and  drcu- 
lar ;  nostrils  double,  the  anterior  tubular;  mouth 
small  and  minute,  teeth  sharp ;  the  lateral  line 
assumes  the  curve  of  the  back ;  the  scales  of 
the  body  are  large,  and  dentated  at  the  base, 
small  at  the  base  of  the  fins ;  the  pectorals  are 
long,  and  the  caudal  emarginate.  The  bream 
builds  a  circular  nest  along  the  shore,  by  remov- 
ing the  weeds  and  excavating  the  sand  to  a  depth 
of  ^  a  foot  and  an  extent  of  2  feet;  sometimes 
20  or  80  occur  within  the  space  of  a  few  roda^ 
and  often  in  very  shallow  water ;  over  the  nesfe 
the  fish  hovers,  protecting  its  eggs  and  young 
for  weeks ;  it  darts  against  other  fishes  which 
come  near,  and  is  so  intent  on  its  guard  duty, 
that  a  spectetor  can  approach  very  near,  and 
even  handle  it.  This  species  has  a  wide  dis- 
tribution, being  found  in  New  Brunswick,  the 
Canadian  lakes,  the  New  England  states,  Ohio, 
Kentucky,  &c.    The  name  of  bream  is  given  in 


BR£ASTPLATE 


BR£B£UF 


659 


Great  Britidn  to  seyend  marine  species  of  the 
&miiy  tparidm,  as  to  the  eantharuagriseus^  Out., 
and  to  2  speoies  of  pagellus  ;  also  to  some  mala- 
oopterygtaos  of  the  carp  fiunily,  as  eyprimu 
hrama,  Linn. 

breastplate;  the  prineipalpieceof  defen- 
sive armor  for  the  body,  called  in  Greek  impafj 
which  is  also  the  word  for  the  ohest;  in  Liatin 
hricOf  supposed  to  be  derived  from  lorum,  a 
strap,  as  if  It  had  been  originally  made  of  leather ; 
and  in  French  euinutey  of  certainly  the  same  ety- 
mology which  is  more  questionably  assigned  to 
the  word  lorica.  In  the  oldest  authorities,  both 
scriptural  and  classical,  we  find  that  defensive 
armor  of  all  sorts  was  made  of  brass  or  bronze 
except  the  bnckler  or  shield  only,  the  basis  of 
which  was  various,  sometimes  of  bull-hides  mac- 
erated and  doubled  many  times,  sometimes  of 
osier,  and  lastly,  sometimes  of  thin  plank  cov- 
ered with  leather.  The  breastplate  was  inva- 
riably of  metal,  unless  in  some  instances  among 
the  oriental  nations,  who  substituted  quilted 
jackets  of  cotton  for  corslets  of  metal,  as  did  the 
Mexicans  and  Peruvians  at  the  time  of  the  dis- 
covery and  conquest  of  this  continent  by  the 
Spaniards.  The  Greek  corslet,  which  was  open 
on  the  chest,  and  shaped  much  like  the  modem 
corsets  of  female  wear,  with  straps  of  metal 
crossing  the  shdulders  and  fastened  in  front  by 
aid  of  bosses,  often  representing  lions*  or  sphinxes' 
heads,  was  usually  modelled  to  represent  the 
naked  body,  with  the  paps,  the  ribs,  the  abdo- 
men, and  even  the  navel,  clearly  figured  by  de- 
pressions or  elevations  in  the  material.  The  lat- 
ter was  usually  a  bronze  of  many  metals,  among 
which  the  most  precious  minerals,  as  gold  and 
silver,  were  frequently  mingled  with  copper, 
tin,  and  electrum,  whatever  gpay  be  the  sub- 
stance intended  by  that  name,  which  is  fre- 
quently found  in  Homer.  Among  the  orien- 
tal nations  scale  armor  was  in  use ;  and  it  is  siud 
by  many  authors  that  the  Roman  legionaries 
wore  chain  mail.  This  does  not,  however,  ap- 
pear to  be  the  case,  from  the  ancient  statues, 
which  represent  the  consuls  and  imperators 
wearing  corslets  of  the  Greek  fashion,  closely 
imitating  the  natural  form  of  the  naked  body ;  or 
from  the  figures  of  Roman  soldiers,  on  Tri^an's 
and  Antonine's  columns,  who  usually  are  armed 
with  breast  and  back  pieces,  formed  of  broad, 
overlapping,  horizontal  plates,  like  the  bands 
of  an  armadillo.  The  breastplates  of  the  com- 
plete ^suits  of  the  middle  ages  were  formed  of 
two  pieces,  for  the  breast  and  back,  covering 
the  whole  trunk  from  the  collar-bone,  where 
they  were  overlaid  by  the  plates  of  the  gorgets,  to 
the  hips,  where  tliey  were  finished  by  a  wide 

Srojecting  rim  or  flange,  sloping  outward  and 
ownward  so  as  to  overhang  and  cover  the 
Jointed  plates  called  tuilettety  or  taslets,  which 
defended  the  thiglis.  The  two  pieces  were  con- 
nected above  the  shoulders^  and  on  the  sides,  by 
dasps  and  riveta,  and  covered  the  whole  body, 
leaving  the  arms  entirely  unprotected,  exactly 
resembling,  in  that  respect,  a  modem  coat  with- 
out the  sleeves,  until  the  shoulders  were  covered 


by  the  poldrons,  which  were  pnt  on  over,  and^ 
of  course,  after  the  breastplate.  This  piece  ot 
armor,  in  the  middle  ages,  was  invariably  made 
of  steel,  and  was  peaked  in  front,  in  the  form 
of  what  is  called  a  pigeon  breast  in  order  to 
cause  all  lance  points,  missiles,  or  tnrusts  of  the 
sword  to  be  glanced  aside  innocuous.  The 
modem  cuirasses  of  the  heavy  cavalry  of  the 
last  and  present  century,  are  framed  exactly  on 
the  plan  of  the  knights'  corslets  of  the  middle 
ages ;  except  that,  as  no  gorget  or  armor  for  the 
limbs  is  now  worn,  they  are  finished  at  the  neck 
and  shoulders  by  projecting  rims,  like  those 
which  guard  the  hips.  In  the  English  and 
Austrian  services,  the  breastplates  of  the  cuiras- 
siers are  invariably  of  bright  steel ;  in  the  French 
and  Russian,  some  of  the  regiments,  as  the  gen- 
darmerie and  carabineers  of  tlie  former,  wear 
them  of  polished  brass. — ^The  breastplate  of  the 
Jewish  high  priest,  worn  as  an  ornament,  not 
as  a  defence,  was  composed  of  rich  stufi^  adorned 
with  12  precious  stones,  engraved  with  the  names 
of  the  12  tribes  of  IsraeL  It  had  a  typical, 
mystic  meaning. 

BREAST-WORE,  an  elevation  raised  for  the 
purpose  of  protecting  troops  agiunst  the  shot  of 
an  enemy.  It  is  usuallv  a  mass  of  earth,  but 
may  also  be  made  of  gabions,  fascines,  or  bags 
of  sand,  wool,  or  cotton.  Its  thickness  must  be 
made  to  vary,  according  to  the  artillery  of  the 
enemy,  but  should  seldom  be  less  than  10  feet, 
and  its  height  should  be  such  that  the  interior 
of  the  intrenchments  cannot  be  commanded 
from  any  external  point. 

BREATH.    See  Rbspibation. 

BREATHITT,  a  county  in  the  eastem  part  of 
Kentucky.  It  has  an  area  of  600  sq.  m.,  and 
the  surface  is  diversified  by  high  hills  and  fer- 
tile valleys,  and  mostly  covered  with  forests. 
The  north  and  middle  forks  of  Kentucky  river 
intersect  it.  Iron  ore  and  stone  coal  are  found 
in  some  abundance,  and  a  bed  of  sandstone  un- 
derlies the  whole  countv.  Timber,  coal,  bees- 
wax, and  ginseng  are  the  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port. The  productions  in  1850  were  155,840 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  2,088  of  oats,  8,916 
pounds  of  wool,  and  1,586  of  fiax.  There  were 
8  sawmills,  9  grist  mills,  5  churches,  and  80 
pupils  attending  public  schools.  Value  of  real 
estate  in  1855,  $878,817.  Pop.  in  1850,  8,785, 
of  whom  170  are  sUves.  The  county  was 
formed  in  1889,  and  named  in  honor  of  John 
Breathitt,  late  governor  of  the  state.  OapitaJ, 
Jackson. 

BRSBEUF,  JsAif  DB,  one  of  the  earliest 
French  missionaries  to  Canada,  born  in  1593,  died 
in  1649.  He  set  sail  in  1625  with  Champlain, 
arrived  at  Quebec  when  but  a  single  house  was 
seen  there,  and  fixed  his  residence  among  the 
Hurons.  He  learned  their  language,  and  gained 
their  confidence.  In  1649  they  were  suadenly 
attacked  by  the  Iroquois,  and  Br^beuf  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  latter,  by  whom  he  was  put  to 
death  with  frightful  tortures.  His  "  Catechism 
transhited  into  the  language  of  the  Hurons"  was 
published  at  Paris  in  1652. 


660 


BBECOIA 


BBEGEINBIDGE 


BRECCIA,  a  term  from  the  Italian,  appHed 
to  rooks  composed  of  angalar  fragments,  whioii 
appear  to  have  once  existed  in  other  formations. 
These  broken  np,  and  their  pieces  again  united, 
constitute  the  rocks  called  breccias.  If  the  frag- 
ments, before  being  reunited,  are  rolled  into  the 
forms  of  pebbles,  the  new  rock  is  then  call- 
ed conglomerate  or  pnddingstone.  These  and 
breccias  are  of  frequent  oconrrence  among  the 
stratified  rocks.  The  Potomac  marble,  of  which 
fine  specimens  are  seen  in  the  colnmns  of  the 
house  of  representatives  at  Washington,  is  a  brec- 
cia of  marble,  sandstone,  and  other  mineralsfonnd 
in  the  new  red  sandstone  formation,  where  it 
crosses  the  Potomac.  Its  various  components 
having  different  degrees  of  hardness,  make  it 
a  difficult  rock  to  polish,  and  prevent  its 
coming  into  general  use.  as  its  beauty  would 
render  desirable.  Quarries  of  a  fine  brecciated 
nature  have  been  recently  opened  on  the  shores 
of  Lake  Champlain,  near  Burlington,  which 
promise  to  Ornish  large  supplies  of  a  beautiful 
ornamental  stone,  susceptible  of  a  high  polish, 
and  presenting  a  variety  of  fine  colors,  in  which 
salmon  and  different  shades  of  ydlow  and  brown 
are  most  prominent  When  breccias  are  pro- 
duced from  rocks  originally  stratified  in  their 
layers,  it  is  curious  to  observe  how  the  lines  of 
these  layers  are  preserved  in  the  broken  frag- 
'  ments,  and  may  be  traced  in  the  various  direc- 
tions in  which  they  are  thrown  together.  Brec- 
cias are  also  an  aitificial  preparation,  as  in  the 
article  concrete. 

BRfiOHE-DE-ROLAND,  a  defile  of  the  Py- 
renees between  France  and  Bpain,  about  11 
miles  south  of  Laz.  It  forms  a  difficult  pas- 
sage 200  or  800  feet  wide,  and  is  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  9,600  feet  above  the  sea.  On  either 
side  rises  a  rocky  waU  from  800  to  600  feet 
high,  and  surrounding  it  are  the  rocks  called 
Tours  de  Marbor^.  The  name  of  this  defile 
signifies  the  ^'  breach  of  Roland,"  and  a  popular 
tradition  is  current  among  the  peasants  of  the 
neighboring  country  that  Roland  opened  it  by  a 
blow  of  his  sword. 

BRECKENRIDGE,  a  county  in  the  K  W. 
part  of  Kentucky^  bordering  on  Indiana.  The 
Ohio  forms  its  Is.  W.  boundary,  and  its  south- 
ern limit  is  marked  by  Rough  creek.  The  sur- 
face consists  of  undulating  uplands.  The  soil 
has  a  basis  of  red  clay  and  limestone,  is  fertile 
and  well  watered.  The  most  remarkable  stream 
in  this  county  is  Sinking  creek.  A  few  miles 
below  its  source  it  suddenly  plunges  below  the 
surface,  and  is  lost  for  6  or  6  miles,  when  it 
emerges  from  the  ground,  and  flows  into  the 
Ohio.  Penitentiary  cave,  near  this  creek,  is 
said  to  contain  chambers  of  vast  size,  but  it  has 
never  been  thoroughly  explored.  The  produc-, 
tions  in  1850  amounted  to  621,766  bushels  of* 
Indian  com,  12,867  of  wheat,  188,070  of  oats, 
2,288,844  pounds  of  tobacco,  24,280  of  wool, 
and  20,818  of  fiaz.  There  were  10  sawmills, 
17  com  and  flour  mills,  8  tanneries,  21  churches, 
and  600  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Value 
of  real  estate  in  1855,  $1,836,825.    The  county 


was  formed  in  1799,  and  named  in  honor  of 
John  Breckinridge,  a  statesman  of  Kentucky. 
Area,  450  eq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1850, 10,598,  <^  whom 
1,966  were  slaves. 

BREOKENRIDGE,  Jahbs,  a  prominent  citi- 
zen of  Yirgmia,  bom  March  7,  1768,  in  the 
county  of  Botetourt,  died  there  May  18,  1838. 
He  was  a  soldier  of  the  revolution,  a  Bucceasfol 
member  of  the  bar,  a  prominent  leader  of  the 
old  federal  party  in  the  general  assembly  of  the 
state,  and  for  many  years  a  representative  of 
the  Botetourt  district  in  the  United  Btates  con- 
gress, an  active  and  efficient  friend  of  that  great 
improvement  by  which  Virginia  proposes  to 
connect  the  waters  of  the  Ohesapeake  with 
those  of  the  Ohio,  and  a  zealous  co-laborer  with 
Mr.  JefiHsrson  in  the  enterprise  of  founding  and 
establishing  the  university  of  Yir^nia.  Shortly 
after  his  death,  Mr.  Be^jamin  Watkins  Leig^ 
described  his  character  in  these  terms:  "Knowl- 
edge of  men  ;  acquaintance  with  businees; 
habits  of  cool  and  deep  reflection;  profound 
judgment  of  the  effidot  of  measuree  proposed  for 
his  consideration ;  an  unerring  moral  aeiiae  of 
what  was  just ;  an  inflexible  resolution  to  main- 
tain it;  the  utmost  fairness  and  candor  in 
judging  of  men  and  measures ;  courage  and  for- 
titude, moral  as  well  as  personal,  which  nothing 
could  subdue  or  shake;  a  striking  dignity  <^ 
manners  and  deportment,  founded  upon  con- 
scious rectitude  and  honor,  and  sustained  with- 
out effort  or  pretension;  these  were  the  good 
and  noble  qualities  which  he  carried  to  the  ser- 
vice of  his  country  in  her  public  coundls,  and 
which  gave  him,  in  whatever  affiurs  he  bore  a 
part,  an  influence  universally  felt  and  acknowl- 


(RECEINrBiapE,  Jomr,  U.  8.  attorney- 
general  under  Jenerson,  died  at  Lezinffton,  Ey., 
Dec.  14,  1806.  He  was  elected  U.  B.  senator 
from  Kentucky  in  1801,  and  introduced  in  1802 
a  resolution  for  the  repeal  of  an  act  of  1801,  by 
which  the  judiciary  system  of  the  United  States 
had  been  essentially  changed,  several  new  tri- 
bunals being  established.  This  resolution  gave 
rise  to  a  protracted  and  able  debate,  in  which 
Mr.  Breckinridge  distinguished  himself  by  his 
eloquent  speeches.  He  also  took  an  active  part 
in  the  discussion  relative  to  the  free  navigadon 
of  the  Ifississippi. 

BRECKINRIDGE  Johk.  D.  D.,  a  Presby- 
terian  clergyman,  son  of  the  pre<^ing^  bom 
at  Cabell's  Dale,  Ky.,  July  4,  1797,  died  at 
the  same  place,  Aug.  4, 1841.  He  graduated 
at  Princeton  college  in  18ia  While  at  Ftinofr- 
ton,  he  joined  the  Presbyterian  church,  and 
thoi^h  his  fother  had  designed  him  for  the 
law,  he  was  led  to  make  choice  of  the  profesnon 
of  the  ministry.  While  prosecuting  his  theo- 
logical studies  at  Princeton,  he  acted  as  tutor  in 
the  ooUege.  In  the  year  1823  he  was  licensed 
by  the  presbytery  of  New  Brunswick  to  preach, 
and  shortly  after  served  as  chaplain  to  congress. 
Having  been  subsequently  transferred  from  the 
New  fimnswick  to  the  Lexington  presbytery, 
he  was  by  the  latter  body  ordained  to  the 


BRECKINRIDGE 


661 


ministry,  and  installed  pastor  of  a  dhnroh  in 
Lexington,  Ky.  After  remiuning  in  this  charge 
4  years,  during  whioli  time  he  established  a  re- 
ligioos  newspaper  entitled  the  ^  Western  Lumi- 
nary," he  was  called  to  the  second  Presbyterian 
church  in  Baltimore,  as  colleague  with  the  Rev. 
Dr.  Glendy.  Being  appointed  in  1631  secretary 
and  general  agent  of  the  board  of  ednoation  of 
the  Presbyterian  church,  he  remoyed  to  Phila- 
delphia, and  entered  npon  the  duties  of  his  of- 
fice. He  occupied  this  post  for  a  period  of  6 
years,  at  the  expiration  of  which  he  was  elected 
by  the  Presbyterian  general  assembly  professor 
in  the  Princeton  theological  seminary.  He 
filled  the  chair  with  singular  ability.  While  at* 
tending  to  his  duties  as  professor,  he  was  fre- 
quently called  to  preach  in  the  New  York  pul- 
Sits.  During  his  connection  with  the  seminary 
e  engaged  in  a  public  controversy  with  Bishop 
Hughes,  of  New  York,  the  subject  of  which  em- 
braced the  distinctive  doctrines  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  church.  This  controversy  was  subse- 
quently published  in  a  volume  entitled  "  Roman 
CathoUo  Controversy."  He  delivered  an  ad- 
dress before  the  literary  societies  in  the  New 
York  university,  which  also  was  published  with 
several  other  papers,  all  of  which  show  his 
ability  as  a  polemical  writer.  He  took  an  active 
part  in  the  controversies  which  agitated  the 
Presbyterian  church,  and  whether  in  presby- 
teries, synods,  or  general  assemblies,  he  always 
stood  firmly  on  the  old  school  platform.  As  a 
debater  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts,  or  on  the 
platform,  he  wasgenerally  direct  and  to  the  point 
All  his  sermons,  speeches,  and  arguments  were 
extempore,  yet  correct  and  logical  In  1888, 
npon  the  organisation  of  the  board  of  foreign 
missions,  he  was  elected  its  secretary  and  gene- 
ral agent,  and  he  devoted  his  entire  time  and 
energy  to  the  snperintendenoe  of  its  operations. 
His  abundant  labors  were,  however,  too  great 
for  his  physical  constitution,  and  prematnre 
exhaustion  was  the  result.  He  had  but  Just 
reached  the  meridian  of  life  when  his  health 
gave  way,  and  he  was  obliged  to  retire  from  his 
position  at  the  head  of  the  missionary  enter- 
prise in  the  Presbyterian  church.  He  died  on 
the  spot  where  he  was  bom.  At  the  period 
of  his  decease  he  was  pastor  elect  of  a  Pres- 
byterian church  of  New  Orleans,  and  president 
elect  of  Offlethorpe  tmiversity,  Georgia. 

BRECKINRIDGE,  John  C,  vice-president  of 
the  United  States  in  1867,  bom  near  Lexingtcm, 
Kentucky,  Jan.  21, 1821,  is  a  grandson  of  John 
Brecidnridge,  U.  &  senator  and  attorney-gene- 
ral. He  was  educated  at  Centre  college,  at 
Danville,  and  studied  law  at  the  Transylvania 
institute  in  that  state.  After  a  short  residence 
in  Iowa,  he  returned  to  Eentudcy,  married 
Miss  Birch,  of  Georgetown,  and  settled  at  Lex- 
ington, where  he  has  been  nnoe  one  of  the 
leading  members  of  his  proiSMsion.  At  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Mexico  he  entered 
the  military  service,  and  was  elected  major  of 
the  third  regiment  of  Kentucky  volunteers. 
The  regiment  was  mustered  late,  so  that  he  had 


little  opportunity  for  aoUve  service.  When  on 
duty  in  Mexico,  however,  he  was  employed  as 
counsel  for  G^n.  Pillow,  in  the  series  of  sin- 
gular prosecutions  between  him  and  his  associ- 
ates and  superiors.  On  his  return  he  was  elected 
to  the  house  of  representatives  of  Kentucky, 
where  he  first  had  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  his 
powers  as  a  debater.  In  1851  he  was  elected 
to  the  federal  house  of  representatives,  after 
an  animated  contest,  over  Gen.  Leslie  Combs. 
In  1858  he  carried  the  election  to  the  same  of- 
fice, after  a  still  more  violent  and  protracted 
contest,  during  which  he  exhibited  remarkable 
vigor  and  perseverance,  over  Governor  Robert 
Letcher.  One  of  his  first  public  performances 
was  the  deliverv  of  a  eulogy  on  Henry  Clay, 
soon  after  his  decease,  although  he  was  of  a 
different  party  from  that  distinguished  states- 
man. During  the  first  sesnon  of  the  83d  Con- 
gress, in  the  course  of  the  discussion  of  the 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  he  was  involved  in  a 
personal  altercation  with  Mr.  Cutting,  a  mem- 
ber from  New  York,  which  led  to  the  prelim- 
inaries of  a  dueL  The  meeting  was,  however, 
avoided  without  any  imputation  upon  the  char- 
acter or  conduct  of  Mr.  Breckinridge.  Upon 
the  accession  of  President  Pierce,  he  was  of- 
fered the  ministry  to  Spain,  previously  to  the 
appointment  of  Mr.  Soul6,  but  declined  it  In 
1850  he  was  nominated  and  elected  vice-presi- 
dent, in  conjunction  with  Buchanan  as  president, 
and  entered  upon  the  office  March  4, 1857.  Al- 
though the  youngest  officer  who  has  ever  held 
that  position,  he  has  presided  over  the  senate  of 
the  United  States  with  dignity  and  impartiality. 
BRECKINRIDGE,  Robkbt  J.,  D.  D.,  LL.  D, 
uncle  of  the  preceding,  an  American  divine 
of  the  Presbyterian  church,  born  at  Cabell's 
Dale,  Ky.,  March  8, 1800.  He  studied  succes- 
sively in  Princeton,  Yale,  and  Union  colleges, 
graduating  at  the  last  in  1819.  He  then  fitted 
himself  for  the  bar,  and  practised  law  in  Ken* 
tucky  for  8  years  from  1823,  being  in  that  pe- 
riod several  times  a  member  of  the  state  legis- 
lature. His  fimiily  had  been  Presbyterians 
since  the  time  of  the  reformation,  and  upon 
profession  of  his  faith  in  1829  he  Joined  that 
ohnroh.  He  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  first 
Presbyterian  church  in  Baltimore  in  1882,  in 
which  pontion  he  remained  13  years,  and  rose 
to  eminence  for  his  eloquence  and  power  In  the 
pulpit  In  1845  he  was  elected  president  of 
Jefferson  ooUege,  Pa.,  where  he  remained  2 
years,  at  the  same  time  being  pastor  of  the 
chur(ui  in  a  neighboring  village ;  after  which  he 
removed  to  Kentucky,  assumed  the  pastorate 
of  the  first  Presbyterian  church  in  Lexington, 
and  became  sup^intendeut  of  public  instruc- 
tion for  the  state.  In  1853  he  resigned  these 
charges,  having  been  elected  by  the  general  as- 
sembly profdssor  of  exegetic,  didactic,  and  po- 
lemic theology  in  the  newly  established  semi- 
nary at  Danville,  Ky.,  an  office  which  he  con- 
tinues to  hold.  He  has  participated  largely  in 
the  religious^  moral,  and  philanthropic  move- 
menta  luid  controversies  of  the  last  85  years. 


662 


BREOKKOOK 


BBEDA 


While  in  Baltimore  he  edited  the '' Literary  and 
Religious  Magazine"  and  the ''  Spirit  of  the  19th 
Oentarj,**  and  his  discussions  with  the  Roman 
Oatiioli<»)  which  extended  over  the  whole  field 
of  faith  and  practice,  gave  evidence  of  tiie  ex- 
tent of  his  knowledge  of  church  history  and 
systematic  theology.  In  the  general  assembly 
of  the  Presbyterian  churdi,  in  which  he  has 
often  had  a  seat,  he  has  exerted  a  commanding 
influence.  During  the  controversies  which  led 
to  the  disruption  of  the  church  into  the  old  and 
new  schools^  he  steadfastly  maintained  the  old 
landmarks  in  opposition  to  every  innovation, 
but  was  efficient  in  removing  from  the  discus- 
sion all  personal  aspects,  and  in  basing  it  upon 
fhndamental  principles.  It  was  chiefly  through 
his  agency  that  the  managers  of  the  American 
Bible  society,  after  voting  to  adopt  the  revised 
edition  of  the  Bible  as  their  standard,  subse- 
quently receded  fh>m  that  action.  He  is  the 
principal  author  of  the  common  school  system 
of  Kentucky,  and  the  prosperity  of  the  theolog- 
ical school  at  Danville  is  idmoet  wholly  due  to 
him.  In  the  anti-slavery  discussion  by  which 
the  country  has  been  agitated  he  has  taken  a 
decided  course  in  opposition  to  extreme  opin- 
ions on  either  side,  and  for  his  kind  services  to 
the  free  blacks  of  Maryland  on  one  occasion  he 
received  a  piece  of  gold  plate  as  a  present  from 
more  than  1,000  of  them.  He  published  2  vol- 
umes of  ^^  Travels  in  Europe*'  in  1888,  and,  be- 
ude  a  great  number  of  tracts,  essays^  and  let- 
ters, has  recently  (1857)  published  an  important 
work  on  theology  objectively  considered. 

BREOENOGK,  or  Bbboost,  an  inland  county 
in  the  8.  of  Wales,  traversed  by  the  Black 
mountains  and  other  ranges,  containing  the 
Van  or  Beacon  monntidn,  2,662  feet  high,  and 
noted  for  its  magnificent  scenery.  Area,  T54 
sq.  m. ;  pp.  in  1851,  61,474.  The  river  Wye 
bounds  It  on  the  N.  £.  and  N.,  the  Uek  fiows 
through  it,  and  near  its  centre  is  Brecknock- 
Mere,  or  Llans-afeddar,  one  of  the  largest  lakes 
in  S.  Wales.  The  soil  on  the  mountains  is 
poor,  but  the  valleys  yield  grain,  potatoes,  and 
turnips  in  abundance,  and  these,  together  with 
timber,  wool,  cattle,  and  dairy  produce,  consti- 
tute the  chief  resources  of  the  county.  About 
half  of  the  land  is  under  cultivation.  The  min- 
eral productions,  embracing  coal  and  iron,  are 
inconsiderable.  There  are  iron  works  in  the 
E.  part;  but  they  draw  both  ore  and  fhel  prin- 
cipally fW)m  other  counties.  The  manufBM)tures 
are  coarse  woollens  and  worsted  stnfls. 

BREOENOGE,  Bbboon,  or  Abeb-Hondxt, 
a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  pop. 
6,070,  and  market  town  of  Whales,  capital  of  the 
counl^  of  its  own  name,  and  seat  of  the  quarter 
sessions,  county  assizes,  and  petty  sessions.  It 
ifl  situated  in  a  healthy  and  beautifol  valley,  at 
the  confiuence  of  the  rivers  Honddn  or  Hondey, 
Tarrell,  and  Usk,  the  first  of  which  is  crossed 
by  8  bridges,  and  the  last  by  one.  It  has  8  long 
avenues,  intersected  by  a  number  of  shorter 
ones,  all  well  kept  and  paved,  and  most  of  them 
straight     The  public  walks  are  remarkably 


beantifbL  In  one  important  respect,  howeTer 
— -A  supply  of  good  water — the  town  is  deficient; 
and  though  gas  has  been  introduced,  the  ar- 
rangements for  lighting  the  streets  are  also 
susceptible  of  considerable  improvement.  The 
Brecxnock  and  Abergavenny  canal  connects  it 
with  the  Monmouth  canal,  and  a  railway  with 
Merthyr  Tydvil,  14  miles  S.  There  is  littie 
trade,  except  with  the  immediate  vicinity,  and 
the  manufactures,  consisting  of  woollens,  flan- 
nels, and  hats,  are  insignificant.  Many  of  the 
shops  and  dwellings  are  built  with  much  ele- 
gance, and  the  public  edifices  are  generally 
handsome  and  substantial.  The  principal  are  a 
new  town  hall  in  tlie  Grecian  style,  a  coUegiate 
and  otherlschools,  alms  bouses,  a  barrack,  sev- 
eral churches  and  chapels,  a  mechanics'  insti- 
tute, and  a  large  market-house.  The  town  was 
once  surrounded  by  walls,  which  were  demdi- 
ished  by  the  inhabitants  during  the  last  civU 
war. — ^Brecknock  was  founded  about  1092.  It 
grew  up  around  a  castie  built  in  that  year  by 
Bernard  Newmarch,  a  relative  of  William  the 
Oonqueror,  who  assumed  the  titie  and  power  of 
lord  of  Brecon,  and  designed  this  stronghold  to 
secure  his  new  possessions.  Under  Humphrey 
de  Bohun,  earl  of  Hereford  and  high  constable 
of  Enffland,  it  was  considerably  strengthened 
and  eiuarged.  Its  ruins,  but  little  of  which  still 
exists,  are  included  in  the  grounds  of  the  castle 
hoteL  Two  convents,  one  a  Benedictine^  the 
other  a  Dominican,  were  built  here  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  I.  by  the  founder  of  the  castle.  The 
former  is  now  the  parish  church  of  St.  J<4m, 
usually  called  the  pnory  church.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  cross,  with  a  tower  ri»ng  from  the 
centre.  The  style  of  architecture  is  pardy 
Norman,  partly  English.  In  the  neighborhood 
are  Roman  antiquities  and  remains  of  encamp- 
ments. Brecknock  was  the  birthplace  of  Mrs. 
Siddons,  the  actress. 

BREDA,  a  strong  town  and  fortress,  formerly 
of  the  first  order,  of  the  Netherlands,  province 
of  North  Brabant,  capital  of  the  district  of  the 
same  name.  Pop.  of  the  district,  90,000 ;  of 
the  town,  14,000.  A  canal  connects  the  town 
with  the  Meuse.  Woollen  goods,  carpets,  and 
tapestry  are  manufactured  here ;  there  are  also 
tanneries  and  breweries.  The  town  is  noted 
for  its  military  and  naval  academy,  the  latter 
with  about  800  cadets.  The  principal  Protee- 
tant  church  contains  many  interesting  monu- 
ments and  works  of  art.  Being  one  of  the 
frontier  fortresses,  it  was  of  great  importance 
to  Holland.  During  the  wars  of  the  reforma- 
tion, of  the  Spanish  occupation  of  the  Netherw 
lands,  and  the  later  wars  between  the  Dutch, 
Spaniards,  and  French,  it  was  a  constant  ob- 
ject of  contention.  It  was  taken  by  sorpriseL 
in  1581,  and  was  recaptured  by  a  akilful 
stratagem,  in  1690,  by  Prince  Manrioe  of 
Orange,  who  contrived  to  smuggle  a  par^  of 
Dutch  soldiers  into  the  town,  concealed  in  a 
turf-boat,  which  was  carried  up  the  river  Me^ 
through  the  outer  defences.  In  1625  it  endured  a 
siege  of  10  months,  by  Spin<^  and  again,  one  of 


BBEnSBODE 


BBEEDING 


663 


4^  by  'Beaij  of  Orange,  its  renstanoe  in  neither 
instanoe  being  tacoeaafnL  During  the  French 
war  of  the  revolution  it  was  taken  bjr  Dnmou- 
ries  in  1798,  but  liberated  In  consequence  of 
his  losing  the  battle  of  Neerwinden;  in  1794  it 
was  besieged  bj  Pichegm,  and  held  out  until 
the  whole  of  Holland  surrendered ;  and  lastly, 
in  1818,  when,  on  the  approach  of  the  Russian 
vanguard,  the  French  garrison  sallied  against 
BesJkendor^  the  townspeople  rose  and  shut 
the  gates  on  the  defenders,  and  flnaUjr  surren- 
dered it  to  the  allies  for  Holland.  It  is  most 
noted  for  2  events,  the  former  being  the  fa- 
mous declaration  of  Breda,  issued  bjr  Charles 
Btnort  previously  to  his  restoration.  May  1, 
1660,  in  the  shape  of  letters  to  the  parliament, 
promising  a  general  amnesty,  liberty  of  cour 
science,  a  settlement  of  forfeited  estates  by  con- 
sent of  the  2  houses,  and  liquidation  of  the 
arrears  due  to  the  army.  The  latter  was  the 
peace  of  Breda,  concluded  between  Holland, 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  Denmark,  July  81^ 
1667. 

BREDERODE,  Hbhdbix  vak,  the  most 
distinguished  member  of  a  family  noted  in  the 
annals  of  the  Netherlands  since  Uie  11th  centu- 
ry, bom  in  Brussels  in  1581,  died  at  Gkmmen, 
duchy  of  Gleves^  in  1668.  He  was  originally 
in  the  Spanish  service,  but  joined  the  party  of 
Egmont  and  Horn.  In  1566  he  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  Flemish  nobles,  and  the  foU 
lowing  year  presented  a  petition  to  the  regent 
Margaret,  praying  for  the  removal  of  the  inqui* 
sition*  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
patriotic  association  of  the  Beggars  (lea  Qiuux\ 
who  contributed  so  much  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  Spaniards.  On  the  breaking  out  of  the 
war  he  levied  a  strong  force,  at  the  head  of 
which  he  was  for  some  time  successful,  but  the 
overwhelming  strength  of  the  Spanish  monarch 
compelled  the  insurgents  to  retire,  and  Brede- 
rode  took  refuge  in  Germany,  where  he  died. 

BREDOW,  Gabhikl  Gottfrikd,  a  German 
historian,  bom  in  Berlin,  Dec.  14, 1778,  died 
in  Breslau,  Sept  5,  1814.  He  was  a  (graduate 
of  Halle,  forsook  theology  to  devote  himself  to 
the  study  of  the  geography  and  astronomy  of 
the  ancients,  on  which  he  published  several 
worics,  ofSoiated  as  professor  in  different  insti- 
tutions, and  finally  in  the  university  of  Breslau. 
His  historical  works  met  with  reniarkable  suo- 
oees,  particularly  his  "  Memorable  Events  of 
Universal  History"  and  his  *' Elaborate  Narnh 
tive"  of  the  same,  the  former  having  passed, 
from  1804  to  1862,  through  not  lees  than  26 
editions,  and  the  latter  through  18. 

BREEDE,  a  river  of  Cape  Colony,  S.  Africa. 
It  rises  in  a  mountain  basin  called  the  Wann- 
Bokkeveld,  and  breaking  through  the  moun- 
tains at  Mostert  and  Hock  pass,  takes  a  S.  £. 
course  to  the  sea,  at  Port  Beaufort.  It  is  one  of 
the  deepest  and  largest  rivers  of  the  country, 
but  navigation  is  much  impeded  by  a  bar  at  its 
month. 

BREEDING,  the  method  of  improving  the 
various  species  of  domestic  animals  oy  selection 


of  parents,  such  as  are  ascertained  by  ezperi* 
ment  to  be  most  likely  to  produce  ezcdlence  in 
the  progeny.  Other  points  of  consideration 
are  also  involved  in  the  question  of  breeding,  as. 
for  instance,  the  relative  age  of  the  sires  and 
dams;  the  state  of  physical  health,  which  is 
ordinarily  termed  condition,  to  be  muntiuned 
in  both  parent  animals  at  the  period  of  genera* 
tion,  and,  in  the  female,  during  the  whcue  time 
of  gestation  and  of  the  nutrition  of  the  younff ; 
the  food,  lodging,  clothing,  temperature  to  be 
proserveo,  and  degree  of  exercise,  which  are 
most  conducive  to  the  production  and  mainten- 
ance of  such  condition  in  the  parents  and  in  the 
young  animals.  Much  experiment  within  the 
last  few  years  has  had  the  result  of  establish- 
ing what  may  be  called  principles  of  breed- 
ing, founded,  in  the  first  instance,  on  theoretic 
views,  and  subsequently  confirmed  by  the  ef- 
fect of  many  tnals.  Until  a  comparatively 
recent  date  breeding  in  a  scientific  method  had 
been  applied  only  to  race  horses,  and  to  dogs  of 
some  few  choice  and  well-known  breeds,  among 
which  pedigrees  had  been  preserved  as  regular- 
ly, though  not  to  so  remote  a  date,  as  those  of 
race  horses.  Latterly,  the  same  plans  have 
been  adopted  with  other  breeds  of  horses,  with 
animals  of  the  ox  family,  with  sheep  and  swine, 
as  also  with  some  species  of  poultry  and  pigeons. 
The  last,  however,  are  ratiier  articles  of  fan- 
cy and  ornament  and  luxury  than  of  real,  eco- 
nomical, or  political  utility ;  but  in  the  case  of 
horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  this  is  by 
no  means  the  case,  since  they  constitute 
a  large  item  in  the  estimate  of  the  wealth 
of  nations ;  and  when  it  can  be  shown,  as  it 
recently  has  been  of  the  a4jacent  countries  of 
France  and  England,  that  a  much  inferior  num- 
ber of  acres  in  one  country  feeds  a  vastly  supe- 
rior number  of  sheep,  and  that  the  same  number 
of  sheep  in  the  one  supply  a  vastly  superior 
quantity  of  animal  food  to  those  in  the  other,  it 
follows  that  the  advantages  of  agriculture,  and 
of  the  science  of  breeding,  as  a  most  important 
part  of  agriculture,  cannot  but  be  admitted,  and 
can  scarcel  V  be  too  highly  estimated.  In  cattle 
and  sheep  breeding  the  same  method  precise- 
ly has  been  pursued  as  in  the  improving  of  the 
particnUr  cold-blooded  fiunUies  of  the  horse, 
and  that  with  results  perfectly  astonishing.  It  is 
simply  the  selecting,  in  the  ^rst  instance,  of  the 
most  perfect  animals,  male  and  female,  where- 
from  to  breed,  and  to  allow  none  other  but  the 
most  perfect  to  be  bred  from,  looking  to  all  the 
points  desirable  in  the  animals  on  which  the 
improvement  is  to  be  made — ^health,  size,  beau* 
ty  of  form,  and  goodness  of  constitution  in  all 
animals ;  in  milch  cattle,  the  milk-produdng  to 
the  loss  of  the  &t  and  muscle-giving  quality: 
in  beef  cattle,  the  tendency  to  make  fat  and 
musde,  with  the  smallest  proportion  of  bone 
and  offal ;  in  general  cattle,  the  union  of  the  2 
qualities  of  yielding  milk  and  producing  muscle 
and  fat  combined,  to  the  greatest  extent  to 
which  they  are  found  to  be  oombinable.  In 
sbeep-raising,  2  qualities  are  principally  aimed 


684 


BBESDIKG 


at,  the  meat-produoiDg  aiid  vool-^rielding  ten* 
denoiM;  and  thcM  2  qoalitiea,  with  one  excep- 
tion, are  not  generally  nnited  in  one  breed — 
that  breed  is  the  Soathdowna  In  cattle,  the 
finest  milkera  are,  probably,  the  Aldemeya, 
Devone,  and  Ayrshirea ;  the  beet  beef  cattle, 
the  Heref<M'd«,  long-horns,  and  the  small  8oot^ 
tish  Eyloes ;  the  bost  breed,  ineomparably,  for 
the  onion  of  milk  and  meat  yielding^  are  the 
Dnrhama,  and  some  of  the  mongrel,  or,  as  it  is 
now  the  fashion  to  call  them,  grade  breeds; 
those  particolariy  may  be  speciflea  between  the 
Dnrhuns  and  Demons,  the  Durhams  and  At> 
sbures,  the  Ayrshires  and  Devons,  and  that  be- 
tween both  the  Dnrhama  and  AjrshiFes  and 
the  common  American  natives,  which  partake 
more  of  the  Devon  than  of  any  other  breed. 
The  American  native  also  interbreeds  well  with 
the  Devon,  its  original  anceator.  In  sheep- 
raising  the  greatest  advantage  has  been  ob- 
tained firom  the  improvement  c^  partionlar  races 
by  carelhl  selection  of  stocks,  not  by  intermix- 
ture of  breeds.  The  degree  of  improvement 
e£fected,  both  in  the  yield  and  textnre  of  the 
wool,  and  in  the  qnality  and  quantity,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  offiu,  of  the  mntton,  by  no  othw 
method  than  that  of  selecting  the  finest  ani- 
mals, generation  after  generation,  for  parents, 
nntil  a  breed  is  established,  and  then  by  breed- 
ing within  that  breed — avoiding  too  close  and 
direct  a  consanguinity  of  the  individual  animals 
— ^would  be  entirely  incredible,  were  it  not  es- 
tablished beyond  the  possibility  of  doubt  by 
innumerable  experiments.  No  one,  looking  at 
one  of  the  improved  Bakewell  breed  of  sheep^ 
not  cogniEant  of  the  fEict,  would  believe  that  it 
was  nothing  mon  than  the  old,  coarse,  long, 
shaggy-wooUed  native  sheep,  with  no  cross  of 
any  other  stock,  merely  purified  by  exclusion  of 
fimltv,  and  selection  of  excellent,  types  of  the 
family  as  progenitors,  any  more  than  he  would 
believe  that  a  foxhound  or  greyhound  of  the 
highest  class  was  merely  an  improved  wolf. 
Tet  so  it  is.  And  so  it  would  be  with  any 
other  race  of  animals,  from  man  downwod,  U 
none  but  the  finest  and  most  perfect  spedmena 
were  allowed  to  interbreed  and  produce  off- 
spriog.  It  was  formerly  believed  that  all  in- 
breeding is  ix\jurious  in  all  animals,  but  late  expe« 
rienoe,  which  also  corresponds  with  nature  and 
natural  history  in  this  point,  goes  to  show  that, 
in  gregarious  animals,  crossing  directly  sire  to  off- 
ering, for  2  or  even  8  generations,  though 
tiie  latter  is  not  desirable,  is  beneficial  rather 
than  detrimental  But  after  that  number  of 
crosses,  the  forther  one  can  get  away  fix>m  the 
original  blood  in  crossing  the  better,  as  is, 
again,  analogous  to  the  habits  of  the  animals  in 
a  state  of  nature.  After  many  out-oroeses  it  has 
been  recentiy  proved  that  a  return  to  the  original 
6train,or  to  an  in-oro8sing,asitu»  technically  term- 
ed, often  produces  results  the  most  extraordinary. 
Buch  is  the  history  of  the  improvement  effect* 
ed,  within  the  kst  half  century,  on  the  Ameri* 
can  race-horse,  by  the  new-old  English  blood  of 
the  Sir  Archy,  Messenger,  and  more  recent 


£Mluoittble  English  straiii^  interfond  into  {^ 
old  Virginia  blood,  flowing  origuDslljr  firom  ^ 
same  identical  sonrces,  but  too  bag  bred  maad 
in,  among  cousins  and  second  ooosiitt,  witlnt 
reverting  to  the  old  stcesm,  st  fint  fand.  b 
horse-braeding,  size,  form,  bone,  and  ooutita* 
tion,  of  whatever  faimly  of  hcrw,  nuotfinibe 
Tttrarded;  then  blood,  and  then  pecfoniine« 
All  are  hereditary — virtaea^  vices,  uaUonBi- 
tions,  defects,  dinoasoQ,  pow^rtogo,  ai^povflrto 
Midore.    Above  all  thingB,  one  most  nerer  ei- 
pect  to  produce  a  perfiMtaaunalfoinitheiniB 
<^2  imperfect  animah,  or  of  a  perfect  toibt 
perfect  one.    To  breed  a  mare  with  cxodkBt 
nind  quarters  and  bad  fore  kgs  to  a  BtaSiaL  a- 
cellent  before  and  bad  behind,  will,  in  0  CMioit 
of  10,  result  in  the  production,  notof  sootsi 
good,  but  of  one  bad,  all  around.   Bo^tokoi 
undersized  females  to  gigantic  maMB^oriiei 
venA^  in  the  hope  of  arriving  at  a  nwdirad 
excellence,  is  an  absurdity;  the  prodneeiS 
generally  be  out  of  proportion  somewim  er 
other,  rickety,  and  deformed.    To  prodon^ 
best  stock,  the  beet  parents  nnut  be  doa. 
Still,  where  an  animal  of  great  exoelleKe  in 
most  points  is  sli^^itly  defective  in  some  vit, 
yet  not  so  much  so  as  to  affect  its  geoenliiiw 
pects  as  a  stock  producer,  it  will  be  iHMk 
to  select  for  the  other  parent  an  animal  piitX' 
ularly  strong  in  the  defective  point  Hm  ex- 
cellence of  Uie  one  may  correct  tiie  Macf 
of  the  otiier.    If  both  parents  be  bid  b^ 
same  point,  it  is  a  thousand  to  one  tiat  the 
progeny  will  be  worse  than  other  in  i^ 
point.    In  raidng  the  cold-blooded  races  of  da 
horse  by  admixture  of  thorcMigfa  blood,  it  isi^ 
be  always  borne  in  mind  that,  in  order  to  ^ 
good,  tlie  blood  most  be  on  tiie  Adeof  tiieiai^ 
the  size  and  beanty  on  that  of  tbe  fensk 
though,  of  course,  both  had  better  be  laigesti 
beautiful.    But  in  no  ease  are  raoea  of  aaiBiii 
improved  by  breeding  femalesof  aaopcriarto 
males  of  an  inferior  race  or  blood.   The  pms- 
eny  of  a  tlioroughbred  stallion  and  a  balfM 
mare  will,  09  times  out  of  100,  beat  tbAcfi 
half-lnred  stallion  and  a  tlioroughbred  moe,  a 
easily  as  one  of  the  ftOl  blood  will  beat  eitber 
of  the  half-bred. 

BBEESE,  ILutT,  aneooentrioEng&ihinM. 
bora  at  Lynn  in  the  oonnty  of  Norfolk  in  l^^ 
died  there  in  1799.  Her  ruling  paanoa  ia 
hunting,  and  at  her  request  her  dogaandfw 
ite  mare  were  killed  after  her  death  and  Med 
in  tiie  same  grave.  8he  regulariy  took  oatt 
shooting  license,  was  as  sure  a  ahot  as  aDfistf 
iu  the  countv,  and  no  pack  of  greyhounds  coold 
be  compared  to  hers. 

BRE6ENZ,  the  smallest  of  tiie  drdeBii^ 
which  the  Tyrol  is  divided,  formed  in  18^, «» 
comprising  the  Vorariberg  territory.  Aio. 
987  sq.  m.;  pop.  108,800.  It  ia  a  v^ 
watered,  mountainous  tract  of  coontrj,  ^ 
duoing  abundance  of  ftnit  and  wine,  loim- 
tie  grain.  The  principal  rivers  are  thcBlu»^ 
the  lUer,  the  Lech,  and  the  Bregenz.-io« 
caiHtal  of  the  circle  of  the  same  name^  Bngeoz, 


BRSomsr 


BKESMEN 


or  Bregentz,  is  aitiiated  on  Ltkb  CtonBtaQML 
near  the  month  of  the  Aaoh,  is  well  bailt,  and 
has  ooosidevsble  trade.  Wooden  honaes,  ready 
made  for  the  Alpine  distriots  of  Bwitserland, 
and  Tine-poles  for  the  Tinejards  on  the  lake, 
are  exported  in  large  nambers.  Pop.  4,000. 
The  treaty  between  Aostria^  WOrtemberg^  and 
Bavaria  against  Bossia,  was  oonclnded  here 
Got  13, 1850. '  A  conference  for  the  regulation 
of  the  navigation  was  held  here  in  Oct  1866. 

BR£;GU£T,  Abbaham  Louis,  a  Swiss  watch- 
maker, born  at  Neafch4(3b],  Jan.  10,  1747,  died 
Sept  17,  1828.  He  established  a  mannfootory 
in  Paris,  and  acquiring  a  high  reputation,  Im 
was  appointed  chronometer-inaker  to  the  navy, 
member  of  the  bureau  of  longitudes,  and  at  last 
member  of  the  institote.  His  pocket  chronom- 
eter^ marine  timepieces,  sympathetic  pendn* 
lams,  metallic  thermometers,  aod  mechanism 
of  telegraphs,  as  established  by  Ghappe,  attest 
his  inventive  skill  and  industry. 

BREHAB,  or  Bbthxs,  one  of  the  Sdlly 
islands ;  pop.  2,500,  mainly  fishermen.  It  con- 
tains some  druidical  remains. 

BR&HAT,  a  small  island  of  France,  in  the 
English  channeL  It  is  about  8  miles  long  and 
2  mUes  broad,  lies  about  a  mile  from  the -main- 
land, and  has  a  lighthouse  and  12  small  batteries. 
BR£ISGAn,  an  old  division  of  Germany,  m 
the  S.  W.  of  Swabia.  For  a  long  time  it  was 
under  the  authority  of  the  counts  of  Breisaoh. 
It  was  afterward  added  to  the  Austrian  domin- 
ions, and  in  1806  was  ceded  to  Baden,  Switzer- 
landi,  and  Wdrtemberg,  Baden  receiving  the 
largest  portion. 

BRE&LAK,  SoDPioNX,  an  Italian  geologist,  of 
German  parentage,  bom  in  Rome,  1748,  died 
at  Tnrin,  Feb.  15,  1820.  He  was  professor  of 
physics  and  mathematics  at  Ragusa,  and  went 
to  Paris  to  study  natural  history;  published 
Topogram  Jisiea  deUa  0€mpania^  and  a  variety 
of  geological  treatises,  and  bequeathed  his  min- 
oralogicd  cabinet  to  the  Borromeo  funily. 

BB£IT£NF£LD,  a  village  of  Saxony,  4  miles 
from  Leipstc.  During  the  80  years'  war,  it  was 
the  scene  of  2  Swedish  victories,  the  one  gained 
Sept  7,  1631,  and  the  other  Get  23, 1642.  A 
monnmeut,  in  honor  of  the  first  victory,  has 
been  erected  on  the  battiefield. 

BBEITHAUPT,  Joachim  Justus,  a  German 
evangelical  divine,  bom  at  Nordheim  in  Hano> 
ver,  in  1658,  died  March  16,  1732.  He  was 
professor  of  theology  at  Halle,  from  1691  to 
1705.  He  wrote  several  hymns  of  remaricable 
beanty,  which  were  adopted  by  the  Moravians, 
and  throngh  John  Wesley's  admirable  transla- 
tions have  passed,  with  various  mutilation^ 
into  almost  all  hymn  books  used  in  the  U.  S. 

BBEITKGFF^  Johann  Gottlob  ImcAznTBL,  a 
learned  German  printer,  bom  in  Lelpsic,  Nov. 
28, 1719,  died  Jan.  28, 1794.  His  father  united 
the  business  of  bookselling  with  printing  and 
type-fonnding,  and  was  anxious  to  bring  up  his 
son  to  his  own  occupation.  The  latter  n^ished 
to  obtain  a  liberal  education,  but  while  pursuing 
his  college  studies  rendered  important  aid  in  the 


industrial  operations  of  his  father.  He  finally 
determined  to  devote  himself  entirely  to  the 
improvement  of  the  art  of  printing.  He 
changed  the  form  of  the  types  tnen  in  general 
use,  and  in  other  respects  introduced  a  better 
taste  into  German  typogri^hy.  Some  of  his 
innovations,  as  his  plan  of  printing  music, 
geographical  maps,  and  portraits  with  movable 
types,  were  not  socceffifnl,  but  he  rendered  im- 
portant services  in  the  composition  of  type- 
metal,  and  the  constraction  of  presses.  He 
wrote  an  essay  on  the  ^^  History  of  Printing," 
and  labored  for  several  years  on  a  more  elabo- 
rate work  on  the  same  subject^  which  he  did 
not  live  to  complete.  His  printing-office  and 
fonndery,  at  the  tune  of  his  death,  were  among 
the  largest  in  Germany. 

BREMEN,  one  of  the  4  free  cities  of  Ger- 
many, on  the  Weser.  Area  of  the  whole  Bre* 
men  territory,  110  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1856,  88,856, 
comprising  a  country  population  of  19,480,  the 
towns  of  Vegesack  and  Bremerhafen  in  the 
Hanoverian  territory  with  a  population  of  9,289, 
and  Bremen  itself  with  a  population  of  60,087, 
chiefiy  Protestants.  The  city  is  better  built 
than  most  other  German  cities,  and  on  the 
site  of  the  old  fortress  are  delightful  pleasure 
grounds.  The  new  and  the  old  city,  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  river,  are  connected  by  2* 
bridges.  Among  the  noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  cathedra],  built  in  1050  by  Ardibishop 
Adalbert,  with  a  tower  324  feet  high,  and  a 
vault  (Bleikeller)  which  has  the  property  of 
preserving  free  from  decomposition,  after  the 
lapse  of  ages,  several  bodies  interred  in  it;  the 
church  of  St.  Anscarius;  the  council-house, 
with  the  celebrated  wine-cellar  and  casks, 
called  the  rose  and  the  12  aposties,  filled  with 
fine  hock,  some  of  it  a  century  and  a  half  old, 
at  one  time  valued  at  $3  per  glass ;  tiie  Roland 
statue,  the  public  square  called  the  SehAUinff, 
the  theatre,  the  post-office,  the  ezchauffCL  and 
the  museum.  The  statue  of  Gustavus  Adoiphns 
was  placed  in  one  of  the  public  squares  in  1856. 
Among  the  public  buildings  must  be  mentioned 
the  commercial  school,  the  2  orphan  asylums, 
the  new  infirmary,  the  naval  academy,  the 
institution  for  dei^  mutes,  the  normal  school, 
the  drawing  school,  the  EunsthaUe^  the  observ- 
atory (founded  by  the  astronomer  Gibers,  a  na- 
tive of  the  town,  to  whom  a  monument  was 
erected  in  1850),  the  dty  library,  and  the  gym- 
nasium. There  are  1 1  printing  establishments,  8 
publishing  houses,  several  re^ing«rooms,  about 
60  sdiook,  many  benevolent  institutions,  vari- 
ous literary  periodicals,  and  a  number  of  pofiti* 
cal  jonmab,  of  which«  the  Bremer  Zeitang  and 
the  WeterteituTig  are  tne  best  The  town,  how* 
ever,  is  chiefiy  important  as  a  great  commercial 
emporium.  In  1857  Bremen  owned  271  ves- 
sels, of  about  12,000  tons,  and  120  coasting 
and  lightering  vessels  of  ^000  a£^;regate  ton- 
nage, and  employed,  beside  2  steamers  which 
ply  between  New  York  and  Bremen,  and  carry 
the  mail,  over  100  vessels  under  the  flag  of 
Hanover  and  Gldenburg.    The  arrivals  in  1856 


666 


BBEMElir 


BBEMER 


were  3,958,  and  the  dearftnces  8,110 
The  intercourse  with  the  United  States  forms 
a  principal  item  in  the  commercial  activity  of 
Bremen,  the  exports  to  the  United  States,  dur- 
ing the  year  ending  June  80, 1856,  amounting  to 
$11,846,580,  and  the  imports  from  the  United 
States,  in  the  same  period,  to  $10,281,451. 
The  aggregate  value  of  imports  and  exports, 
to  and  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  in  1857, 
amounted  to  $45,000,000.  Bremen  is  the  prin- 
cipal continental,  and  next  to  Liverpool  the 
greatest  European  shipping  port  for  emigrants, 
chiefly  to  the  United  States.  Their  number 
was  in  1843,  9,844;  1844,  19,868;  1845,81,- 
158;  1846,  82,872;  1847,  88,628;  1848,  29,- 
947;  1849,  28,629;  1850,  25,888;  1851,  87,- 
493;  1852,  58,551;  1858, '  58,111 ;  1854, 
76,875.  The  commercial  ascendency  of  Bre- 
men is  further  promoted  by  the  practice  of 
the  merchants  of  sending  their  sons  to  establish 
themselves  in  foreign  countries.  Bremen  mer- 
chants enjoy  a  world-wide  reputation  for  com- 
mercial genius  and  integrity.  The  Weser  be- 
coming too  low  from  year  to  year,  in  spite  of 
all  efforts  in  dredging  it,  it  became  necessary 
in  1830  to  abandon  Yegesack,  which  since  the 
16th  century  had  been  the  port  for  laiiger  ves- 
sels, for  Bremerhafen,  which  then  was  built 
<  on  territory  bought  of  Hanover,  and  in  1850- 
'54  provided  with  a  grand  dock  and  basin, 
at  a  cost  of  over  $1,200,000.  Bv  a  treaty,  con- 
cluded in  1853,  Hanover  undertakes,  until 
1868,  the  military  defence  of  Bremerhafen  at 
the  annual  rate  of  $2,500.  The  railroad  con- 
necting Bremen  with  Hanover,  Berlin,  DttBsel- 
dorf,  Cologne,  and  the  interior  of  Germany, 
was  finished  in  1850;  another  is  building  to 
Bremerhafen.  There  is  a  merchants'  exchange, 
a  bank  of  issue,  a  discount  bank,  several  insur- 
ance companies,  a  commercial  court,  and  public 
institutions  for  the  security  and  comfort  of  emi- 
grants. A  Lloyd  for  northern  Germany  {K&rdr- 
Deutsche  Lloya),  after  the  plan  of  the  X%i 
AuBtriaeo  of  Trieste,  was  founded  in  1856. 
Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  to  a  greater  extent 
than  in  any  other  German  port,  rivalling  even 
English  and  American  constructors  if  not  in 
swiftness  and  size  of  the  vessels,  at  least  in  so- 
lidity. Bremen  sulors  enjoy  a  high  reputation, 
and  the  captains  are  noted  for  their  skill  and 
good  sense.  Sugar  refineries,  iron  founderies, 
lord-boiling,  manufactures  of  oil,  soap,  and  sail- 
cloth, and  cotton-spinning,  are  also  carried  on ; 
in  the  manufacture  of  cigars  more  than  4,000 
persons  are  employed,  the  annual  exportation 
exceeding  300,000,000  cigars,  valued  at  ^,000,- 
000 ;  the  increase  of  the  duties  on  raw  tobacco, 
of  which  the  importations  average  more  than 
24,000,000  lbs.,  tends,  however,  to  diminish 
the  production.  —  Bremen  was  founded  by 
Charlemagne  in  788,  and  endowed  with  a  bish- 
opric, and  in  1050  became  an  archiepiscopal  see. 
In  the  course  of  time  the  city  increased  in 
strengtli,  wrested  the  temporal  power  firom  the 
hands  of  the  church,  and  becoming  one  of  the 
early  participants  in  the  league  of  the  Hanse 


towna,  it  oonqaered  a  number  of  Korwegtsn 
and  livoniaa  ports,  sobdafog  and  ehristianiziiig 
by  fire  and  sword  the  whole  of  Gooriand  and 
of  Livonia.  It  founded  Riga  in  1158,  took  part 
in  the  conquest  of  Prussia,  extorted  commereisl 
privileges  from  all  ports  between  Bremen  and 
Amsterdam,  from  England  and  FLandeTS,  and 
subjected  to  its  contrcH  a  krge  strip  of  land  on 
both  banks  of  the  Weser,  since  then  called  the 
duchy  of  Bremen.  In  common  with  Hambm^ 
it  purged  the  North  sea  of  pirates.  It  was  one 
of  the  earliest  cities  to  decide  for  Protestantism, 
but  religious  dissensions  within  the  city,  look- 
ing to  the  adoption  of  the  Galvinist  creed,  and 
finally  the  80  years'  war,  brouglit  it  under 
Swedish  and  afterward  under  Hanoverian 
sway,  other  causes  consjHring  agmnrt  its  pros- 
perity. In  the  Napoleonic  wars,  when  the  ci^ 
suffered  much,  the  Bremen  vohmteer  militia 
was  among  the  earliest  and  bravest  defenders  of 
German  independence. — ^Bremen  has  one  vote 
in  the  larger  council  of  the  German  confed- 
eration, and,  together  with  Hamburg,  Lobedc, 
and  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  one  vote  in  the 
smaller  council  of  17.  Tbe  legislative  powwis 
vested  in  the  senate,  wiiich  is  composed  of  16 
members,  elected  for  life,  and  in  an  assembly 
of  citiaens  of  150  members.  Tho  executive 
is  represented  by  2  burgomasters,  who  are 
members  of  the  senate.  The  present  bui^go- 
masters  are  Earl  Friedrich  Gottfried  Mohr, 
whose  term  of  office  expires  Dec  81,  1861, 
and  Arnold  Dnckwitz,  whose  term  expires 
Dec.  81, 1868.  The  latter  functionary  is  also 
president  of  the  senate  for  the  year  1858,  hia 
colleague  having  filled  that  office  in  1857.  Tbe 
negotiations,  opened  with  a  view  of  indnoing 
Bremen  to  Join  the  German  customs'  union, 
have  not  yet  been  successful.  Among  the  re- 
cent enactments  of  Bremen  is  a  law  passed  Dec 
20,  1854,  in  favor  of  the  emancipation  of  the 
Jews,  the  only  remaining  restriction  h&ng  that 
some  caution  shall  be  used  by  the  government 
before  granting  to  new  Jewish  residents  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  Estimate  of  the  budget  in 
1857:  receipts,  $644,817;  expenditures,  ^3,- 
018 ;  public  debt,  $4^000,000  to  $4,600,000. 

BR£M£R,  a  new  county  in  the  central  part 
of  Iowa,  with  an  area  of  430  sq.  m.  The  cli- 
mate is  siud  to  be  healthy,  and  the  land  of 
good  quality,  weU  watered,  and  abundantly 
supplied  with  timber  The  productions  in  1606 
were  2,090  tons  of  hay,  17,453  bushels  of 
wheat,  116,516  of  Indian  com,  20,634  of  oats^ 
18,827  of  potatoes,  and  81,192  lbs.  of  bntter« 
Ci^ta],  Waverly.  Pop.  in  1856,  8,228.  Tha 
county  was  first  settled  in  1 848-'49.  Named  in 
honor  of  f^edrika  Bremer,  the  Swedish  author- 
ess, who  spent  some  time  in  this  region  in  1860« 

BR£M£R.  Frbdbika,  a  Swedmh  novelist, 
bom  near  Abo,  in  Unland,  in  1802.  Her  &mi- 
ly  removed,  while  she  was  a  child,  to  the  pror- 
ince  of  Scania,  in  Sweden;  subsequently  she 
spent  some  time  in  Norway  in  tbe  house  of  her 
friend,  the  countess  Sonnerhjelm;  officiated 
next  as  teacher  in  a  female  seminary  at  Stock- 


BREMERHAPEN 


BBENZ 


667 


bolm;  and  afterward  traTelled  extensively  in 
Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States.  Her 
novels  have  been  translated  into  En^ish,  G^- 
xnan,  French,  and  Dntoh,  her  reputation  de- 
pending chiefly  npon  the  ^^  Neighbors,'*  of  which 
a  5th  edition  ox  the  German  translation  ap- 
peared in  1850.  The  most  complete  German 
collection  of  her  works  is  that  published  at 
Leipsio,  comprising  20  vols.,  from  1841  to  1858. 
On  her  tonr  to  the  United  States  m  1850-'51, 
Miss  Bremer  was  received  with  great  cordiality, 
and  the  work  which  appeared  from  her  pen  in 
1858,  on  the  ''  Homes  of  the  New  World,"  was 
evidently  written  under  a  strong  impulse  of  (prat- 
itnde  and  affection.  This  work,  translated  into 
English  by  Mary  Howitt,  has  had  a  large  circula- 
tion in  the  United  States.  A  German  translation 
appeared  at  Leipsio,  1854«'55.  Her  ^  England 
in  1851"  appeared  at  Altona  in  1852,  ana  her 
new  nov^  ^^Hertha,*'  waa  brought  out  in 
1856. 

BBEMERHAFEN,  a  town,  situated  on  the 
estuary  of  the  Weser,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Geeste,  in  the  Hanoverian  territory  ceded  in 
1837  to  Bremen  for  the  accommodation  of 
large  vessels  connected  with  its  trade^  is  garri- 
soned by  Hanoverian  troops,  and  defended  by 
the  Hanoverian  fort  Wilhelm,  which  stands  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  river.  It  consists  of  an 
outer  harbor,  a  sluiced  dock,  and  an  inner  har- 
bor. An  establishment  was  opened  here  by 
the  authorities  of  Bremen,  in  1850,  which  ac- 
commodates more  than  8,000  emigrants.  Pop. 
in  1856,  5,496. 

BREMGARTEN,  a  circle  in  the  Swiss  canton 
of  Aargau,  and  a  town  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Benss.  Fop.  of  the  circle  18,100,  of  the  town 
1,800.  From  1Y98  to  1795  Louis  Philippe 
lived  here  in  concealment  under  the  name  of 
Gorbv,  while  his  sister  and  Madame  de  Genlis 
found  refuge  in  a  nunnery. 

BRENDITZ,  a  village  of  Moravia,  2  miles 
fh>m  Znaym.  During  the  battle  of  Znaym,  in 
1809,  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the  archduke 
Gharles.  The  imperial  porcelain  manufactory 
of  Vienna  is  supplied  with  clay  fk'om  this  vicinity. 

BRENNER,  a  monntun  of  Austria,  in  the 
Tyrol,  between  the  Inn,  the  Aicha,  and  the 
Adige,  6,788  feet  high.  The  road  from  Inn- 
apmck  to  Brixen  crosses  this  mountain  at  an 
elevation  of  ^650  feet 

BRENNUS,  the  leader  of  the  Senonian 
Gauls,  who  defeated  the  Romans  at  the  Allia, 
and  took  Rome,  882  B.  0.  Having  quitted 
the  city  npon  receiving  a  ransom  for  the  capi- 
tal, he  returned  home  with  his  gold.  A  popu- 
liur  legend,  however,  relates  that  another  army 
appeared  at  the  moment  the  gold  was  being 
weighed,  defeating  and  slaying  Brennns  and 
his  followers.— Another  warrior  of  the  same 
name  was  chief  leader  of  the  Gauls,  who  made 
an  irruption  into  Greece  and  Macedonia,  279 
B.  0.  Having  defeated,  in  the  following  year, 
Ptolemy  Oerannus,  and  afterward  Sosthenes, 
the  Grecian  chief,  who  succeeded  the  Mace- 
donian king,  he  invaded  the  aonth  of  Greece, 


bnt  was  defeated  at  Delphi  with  great  loss,  and 
subsequently  died  by  his  own  hand. 

BRENTA  (anc  Medoacus^  or  Meduaeus  Mch 
j&r)j  a  river  which  rises  in  the  Tyrol,  traverses 
Lombardy,  and  aftor  passing  Dolo,  and  feecUng 
a  number  of  canals,  joins  the  Bacchiglione, 
The  canal  of  Brentelle  connects  it  with  the 
Bacchiglione  at  Padua.  The  Brenta  Morta  canal, 
of  Brenta,  called  in  its  lower  course  the  Brenta 
Magra,  receives  its  waters  at  Dolo,  and  in  its 
turn  supplies  the  Brenta  Novissima,  which  com- 
municates with  the  Brenta  river  (here  called 
Brenta  Nuova)  near  Brondolo,  and  through  it 
and  its  confluent,  the  Bacchiglione,  enters  the 
Adriatic  after  a  course  of  90  miles. 

BRENTANO,  Clkicrns,  brother  of  Bettina 
von  Amim,  a  German  novelist  and  dramatist, 
bom  in  Frankfort-on-the-Mmn,  in  1777,  died  at 
Aschaffenburg,  June  28,  1842.  His  writings 
are  sparkling  and  brilliant,  but  morbid  and 
eccentric.  His  comedy,  Ponce  de  Lean,  is  the 
most  witty  and  amnnng^  and  his  OrHndung 
JPrags  the  most  powerful  and  comprehensive  of 
his  plays.  His  smaller  works  are  readable,  es- 
pecially his  Oeechiehte  vom  bra/oen  Ecupar  und 
tehonen  Annerl  (Berlin,  1851).  His  fairy  tales, 
published  by  Guido  G5rres,  in  1848,  mclude 
his  satire  of  Chlcel^  Hinhel,  und  GaheUia.  In 
conjunction  with  his  brother-in-law,  Achim  von 
Amim,  he  published  a  coUection  of  German  na- 
tional and  popular  songs,  under  the  title  of  Dee 
£haben  Wunderham. 

BRENTFORD,  a  market  town  of  England, 
and  the  nominal  capital  of  the  county  of  Mid- 
dlesex. It  is  situated  on  the  Thames,  is  con- 
nected bv  a  bridge  with  Kew,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  river,  and  stands  on  the  line  of  the 
Great  Western  railroad.  The  river  Brent,  idso 
crossed  by  a  bridge,  divides  the  town  into  Old 
and  New  Brentford.  Pop.  of  the  former,  5,058 ; 
of  the  latter,  2,068.  Although  usually  con- 
mdered  the  county  town,  it  has  little  to  distin- 
guish it  as  such.  The  parliamentary  elections 
are  held  here,  but  the  magisterial  business  of 
the  county  is  transacted  at  Olerkenwell.  It  has 
some  trade,  which  is  facilitated  bv  the  Grand 
Junction  canal,  which  connects  with  the  Brent 
river.  The  town  is  indifferently  built,  mainly 
on  one  long  paved  street,  and  its  condition  fre- 
quently justifies  the  appellation  bestowed  upon 
it  by  thepoet  Thomson,  of  **a  town  of  mud." 

BRENTON,  Edwasd  Pblham,  captain  in  the 
British  navy,  bom  July  18, 1774,  died  April  6, 
1889.  He  was  on  active  service  during  the 
war,  1798-1815.  He  wrote  a  life  of  the  first 
earl  St.  Vincent,  and  a  bulky  "  Naval  History 
of  Great  Britun  from  1788  to  1822."  He  also 
founded  the  "Children's  Friend  Society,"  by 
whose  aid  hundreds  of  young  people  of  both 
sexes  have  been  rescued  from  want  and  vice, 
and  enabled  to  live  by  virtuous  exertion. 

BRENZ,  JoHAKV,  a  Lutheran  reformer  of  the 
16th  century,  born  1499,  died  1570.  He  was 
one  of  the  aftthors  of  the  Syngrcmma  Suevievn^ 
bearing  npon  the  controversy  with  ZwinRli  ana 
(Eoolsmpadius,  on  the  subject  of  the  Lord's  8up< 


'  608 


BBE8CIA 


BRESLAU 


p«r.  He  wflfl  the  most  resolnte  among  the  op* 
ponents  of  the  interdict  of  Ohariee  V^  esca^g 
death  only  by  resorting  to  flight 

BRESCIA,  a  provinoe  of  Lombardy,  bounded 
N.  by  Bergamo  and  Tyrol,  W.  by  Verona  and 
Hwitoa,  8.  by  Cremona,  £.  by  Lodi  and  Ber^ 
gamo.  Area,  1,800  aq.  m. ;  pop.  860,000.  The 
fertility  of  tlie  soil  is  favoraUe  to  the  choicest 
productions,  and  (me  of  the  most  important 
Dranches  of  industry  is  the  trade  in  silk,  of 
which  1,000,000  pounds  are  annnally  pro* 
daced;  the  namber  of  silk  manofactories  is 
27,  and  of  silk  weaving  establishments  1,046. 
Abont  70,000  lb&  of  very  soperior  wool  are 
raised  annually,  and  there  are  not  less  than 
46  woollen  mann&ctories,  40  mannftctories  of 
woollen  and  cotton  goods,  18  of  doth,  27  of 
gold,  silver,  and  bronjse,  12  of  hardware  and 
porcelain,  7  printing  estabUshments,  187  man- 
n£sbctories  of  iron  and  other  metals  (Brescia 
steel  eqjoying  a  world-wide  repntation),  and  77 
of  fire-arms  and  weapons,  the  excellency'  of 
which  gave  to  Brescia,  in  former  times»  the 
name  of  VArmata,  Butter,  cheese,  wheat, 
maize,  hay,  flax,  chestnuts,  oil,  and  wine,  afford 
additional  elements  of  prosperity.  The  trade  of 
the  province  is  principally  carried  on  in  the  cap- 
ital of  the  same  name. — ^The  town  (anc.  Bnxia) 
has  a  population  of  40,000,  and  is  situated  on  the 
rivers  Mella  and  Garza,  at  the  foot  of  a  hilL  The 
strong  castle  on  the  top  of  the  hill  was  in  former 
times  called  the  falcon  of  Lombardy.  It  is  a 
well-buUt,  pleasant,  and  animated  town,  notedfor 
its  abundant  supply  of  fountains,  of  which  there 
are  not  less  than  72  in  the  streets  and  squares, 
beside  some  100  in  private  houses.  The  an* 
cient  cathedral,  and  the  other  churches,  contain 
many  paintings  of  the  great  Italian  master*. 
The  new  cathedral,  or  Duomo  Ifuovo^  was  begun 
in  1604,  but  the  vaulting  of  the  cupola  was  only 
completed  in  1826.  The  chief  ornament  of  the 
church  of  Banta  Afra  is  **The  Woman  taken  in 
Adultery,"  by  Titian.  There  are,  on  the  wholci 
over  20  churches^  all  noted  for  their  treasures 
of  art.  Among  the  remarkable  pubUo  buildings, 
is  the  Palaeto  deUa  Loggia  in  the  Fiaega  F«e- 
ehia^  intended  for  the  town  hall,  the  beauti* 
fol  facade  of  which  suffered  much  from  the 
bombardment  in  April,  1849.  The  Palazzo  Tosi 
was  presented  to  the  town  by  Count  Tosi,  and 
contains,  among  many  famous  pictures,  the 
celebrated  *^  Saviour,"  by  Raphael.  The  picture 
galleries  in  the  Palazzo  Averoldi,  Fenaroli,  Leo- 
chi,  Martinecgo,  and  in  other  palaces,  are  equals 
ly  noted  for  their  artistio  attractions.  A  whole 
street,  II  Cano  del  Teatro^  has  the  fronts  of  the 
2d  stories  decorated  with  scriptural,  mytholog- 
ical, and  historical  paintings.  The  BibUoteea 
Quirinina,  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  by  Cardinal  Quirini,  contidns  upward 
of  80,000  volumes,  beside  a  vast  collection  of 
curious  manuscripts  and  objects  of  antiquity. 
The  most  unique  monument  of  Brescia  is  the 
cemetery  (Campo  Santo\  the  finM  in  Italy, 
built  in  1810,  consisting  of  a  semi-circular  area 
in  front,  surrounded  by  tombs,  and  a  row  of 


oypraasea.  Brescia  is  the  seat  of  the  ptovindsl 
government,  of  a  hishopric,  of  a  tribunal  of 
commerce,  and  of  other  coorts  of  law.  There 
are  various  charitable  institutions,  a  theological 
seminary,  2  gymnasinma,  a  lycenm,  a  b^m- 
ical  garden,  a  cabinet  of  antiquities  and  one 
ot  natural  history,  an  agricultural  society,  sev- 
eral academies,  the  philharmonic  being  one  of 
the  oldest  in  Italy,  a  casino,  a  fine  theatre,  and  a 
large  booth  oatrade  of  the  town  for  the  annual 
fidr— a  period  of  great  aetivity  and  rejoidi^ 
The  weekljT  Journal  of  Brescia  is  called  fyrnMe 
della  provincia  Bretciana.  A  Roman  temple  of 
marble  was  excavated  in  the  vicinity  in  1828. 
Brescia  is  connected  by  railway  with  Verona, 
and  other  Italian  citiesw  Tbe  town  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  by  the  Etms- 
cans.  After  the  Hill  of  the  Roman  empire  it 
was  pillaged  by  the  Goths,  and  evaitoally  pass- 
ed into  the  hands  of  the  Franks.  Otno  the 
Great  ndsed  it  to  the  rank  of  a  f^  imperial 
city,  but  the  contests  between  the  6uelpl]»  and 
the  Ghibellines  became  a  source  of  trouble  to  tibe 
town.  Having  been  for  some  time  under  the 
sway  of  the  lords  of  Verona,  it  fell  in  1878  into 
the  power  of  the  MUaneae.  In  1426  it  was  taken 
by  Carmagnda;  in  1488  beneged  by  Pidnino; 
in  1609  it  surrendered  to  the  French ;  in  1612  it 
was  c^tored  by  the  Venetian  genaul  Gritti,  but 
eventually  liberated  by  Gaston  de  Foix.  Subject- 
ed to  8  more  si^^  during  the  16th  oentmy,  it 
remained  in  the  possession  of  Venice  until  the 
fall  of  that  republic.  During  the  Napoleonic  era 
i  t  was  tbe  capital  of  the  department  of  Mdla.  In 
the  revolution  of  1849,  die  Brescians  rose  in 
arms  against  the  power  of  Austria,  to  whidi 
they  had  been  subjected  since  1814.  The 
town  was  bombarded,  March  80,  by  General 
Haynau,  and  held  out  until  the  noon  of  April 
2,  when  it  was  compelled  to  surrender,  and  to 
pay  a  ransom  of  $1,200,000,  in  cvder  to  avert 
utter  destruction. 

BRESLAU  (Polish,  Wroelaw),  the  capital  of 
Prussian  Silesia.  Pop.  in  1868, 127,000  (inclnd- 
ing  6,000  sddiers),  aU  Protestants,  exceptii« 
9,000  Jews  and  87,000  Catholics.  It  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  the  river  Ohlau  with  the 
Oder,  which  is  navigable  from  Breslan  down 
for  large  boats,  and  some  distance  up  for  smaller 
ones.  It  is  the  second  city  in  size  and  import 
tance  in  Prussia.  It  is  connected  by  railway 
with  Cracow,  Warsaw^  and  Vienna,  wiUi  lAei^ 
nitz,  Berlm,  Leipsio^  with  Schweidnitz  and  the 
rich  manufacturing  and  mining  districts  of  the 
Riesengebirge.  The  Posen  railway  connecting 
Breslau  direcdy  with  the  Baltic  was  opened  in 
1867.  It  is  an  important  emporium,  has  abont 
100  mercantile  establishmentB,  large  annual 
fairs,  and  is  the  most  considerable  wool  market 
in  the  world.  From  90,000  to  100,000  cwt  <rf 
the  finest  8axony  wool,  of  an  iq>proximate  value 
of  $6,000,000  to  $8,000,000,  are  sold  annnaDx- 
All  the  immense  agricultural,  manufacturing 
and  mineral  produce  of  Upper  and  If  iddle  SOesia 
comes  to  its  market;  the  trade  in  cotton  and 
linen  goods  being  over  $6,000,000,  in  metals 


BRESLAU 


BKESSON 


OTer  td,000,000,  in  spirits  nearly  (3,000,000, 
in  broadcloth,  glasa^  paper,  grain,    dyestnffsb 
wood,  and  minor  articles,  over  $15,000,000,  and 
in  coal  over  $4,000,000  annuallj.    In  the  city 
itself  there  are  mann&otories  of  dyed  goods, 
and  of  leather,  needles,  liquors,  refined  snsar,  to- 
bacco, oU,  cotton,  linen,  fine  iron,  gold  and  silver 
ware,  broadolotns,  laces,  earthenware,  straw 
hats,  beer,  vinegar,  &c.  There  are  a  royal  bank, 
a  city  bank,  many  private  bankers,  an  exchange, 
and  a  commercial  oonrt.  The  town  is  well  built, 
and  has  a  ciroomference  of  11  miles.    It  has 
many  remarkable  buildings,  of  which  we  may 
mention  St.  Elizabeth's  church,  built  about 
1250,  with  a  tower  854  feet  high,  and  a  oele- 
'brated  organ,  the  church  of  Mary  Magdalen, 
with  2  towena,  the  Reformed  ohuroh^  the  Cath- 
olic cathedral,  with  many  monuments  of  the 
18th  oenturv,  the  SandkireKe,  ihe  church  of  St. 
Dorothea,  the  Bathhautj  a  fine  old  monument 
of  architecture,  the  university  building,  the 
royal  palace,  the  new  hall  of  the  diet,  the 
Jesuits'  college,  now  belonging  to  the  universi- 
ty, the  residence  of  the  prince  archbishop,  the 
theatre,  the  palace  of  Count  Henkel,  and  tlie 
new  railway  depot  which  was  opened  in  1857. 
The  market  place,  with  the  statue  of  Frederic 
the  Great,  and  the  Blftcher  place,  with  that 
of  Bltloher,  are  worthy  of  notice.    The  streets 
are  well  paved  and  broad,  with  granite  side- 
'      walks,  and  lighted  with  gas.    There  are  over 
60  lithographic   an#  mnsical  establishments^ 
and  various  literaiy  magazines  and  weekly  pub- 
'      licationa,  and  8  daily  political  journals  of  large 
'      circulation,  namely,  the  Brealauer  ZHtung^  the 
'      SMssisehe  Zeitung,  and  the  Neue  Odeneitung. 
>      The  benevolent  institutions  are  more  numerous 
I      and  better  provided  than  in  most  cities  of  Ger- 
many.   There  are  4  gymnasiums,  80  grammar 
I      schools,  and  several  high  schools  for  boys  and 
^     girls,  a  seminary  for  classical,  and  one  for  popu- 
lar teachers,  an  architectural  and  artistic  acad- 
emy, and  a  university  with  a  libranr  of  860,000 
I     volumes,  and  manv  manuscripts.    In  the  win- 
ter term  of  1857-58,  there  were  721  students. 
Among  the  professors  who  have  acquired  di»* 
tinction  in  different  branches  of  study  at  the 
nniversity  of  Brealan  may  be  mentioned  Bit- 
ter, Theiner,  David  Schultz,  Ohler,  Nees  von 
Esenbedc,    Schneider,    Passow,  Braniss,   Bo- 
gushiwski,  Bredow,  and   Siebold.      There  is 
a  missionary  and  a  Bible  institution,  and  the 
Leopold's  or  imperial  society  of  naturalists, 
under  Kieser's  direction,  has   its  seat   here. 
There  are  4  large  libraries  beside  that  of  the 
I     university,  with  perhaps  500,000  volumes,  sev- 
eral small  but  valuable  picture  galleries,  a  numis- 
\     matio  cabinet,  18  hospitals,  and  4  orphan  asy- 
lums.   Schleiermacherwas  bom  here,  and  Blfl- 
cher  died  within  14  miles  of  the  city. — ^Breslau  is 
built  on  Slavic  territory,  the  original  tribe  being 
Poles ;  it  was  founded  about  1000.    When,  in 
1168,  the  surrounding  territory  was  separated 
from  Poland  by  the  emperor  lYederic  I.,  who  in- 
tervened in  a  quarrel  of  the  sons  of  the  Polish 
I     duke  Wratislaw,  and  made  2  of  them,  Konrad  and 


Boleslaw,  independent  dukes  of  what  is  now  Sile- 
sia, a  city  charter  was  given  to  Breslau,  which 
was  already  inhabited  by  a  large  population  of 
Germans.  After  the  death  of  the  last-named  Si- 
.  lesian  duke,  in  1885,  it  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  Bohemian  kings,  and  with  Bohemia,  in 
1526,  into  that  of  the  Austrians,  until  Frederic 
the  Great  wrested  it  from  them  by  the  invasion 
of  1741,  and  the  7  years'  war.  Like  nil  Silesia, 
it  shared  the  good  and  bad  fortune  of  Bohemia 
in  the  14th,  15th,  and  16th  centuries,  lyid  suc- 
cumbed in  2  attempts  of  the  citizens  to  make 
themselves  independent  of  the  archbishops  and 
the  patrician  families.  It  never  became  a  free 
German  or  Hanse  town,  in  spite  of  its  commercial 
importance.  It  early  embraced  the  reformation. 
In  1742,  the  first  peace  between  Frederic  the 
Great  and  Austria  was  concluded  here.  In  1757 
the  Austrians  conquered  near  the  city  a  weaker 
Prussian  army,  but  were  driven  out  again  in 
the  same  year  by  Frederic's  victory  at  Leuthen. 
In  1760,  Tauenzien  bravely  defended  the  town 
against  Laudon's  besieging  army.  In  1806-7,  it 
was  beleaguered  bv  the  French  under  Yan- 
damme,  taken,  and  the  fortifications  demolished. 
In  1818,  the  king  c^  Prussia  sent  out  hence  tiie 
first  armies  for  the  war  of  independence  against 
Kapoleon.  In  1848  Breslan  was  an  important 
revolutionary  focus,  and  had  a  severe  street 
fight  with  the  Prussian  army.  May  2  and  8, 1849. 

BRESSA,  or  Brbssat,  one  of  the  Shetiand 
islands.  It  supplies  Lerwick  with  peat,  and  the 
whole  of  Shetiand  with  slates.  Bressay  sound, 
which  lies  between  this  island  and  the  main- 
land, is  a  place  of  rendezvous  for  English  and 
Dutch  herring-boats  and  whalers. 

BRESSASTI,  Fbanouoo  Giussmrae,  an  Italian 
missionary  to  Canada,  bom  in  Rome,  1612,  died 
in  Florence,  Sept.  9, 1672.  He  labored  during 
9  years  among  the  Hurons,  when  he  was  cap- 
tured and  ill-treated  by  the  Iroquois,  and  after- 
ward sold  to  the  Dutch  and  kept  in  bondage 
until  1644,  when  he  was  ransomed.  On  his 
return  to  Italy,  he  published  a  book  on  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  in  Canada. 

BRESSON,  Chables,  comte  de,  a  French 
diplomatist,  born  in  Paris,  toward  the  dose  of 
the  18th  century,  died  by  his  own  hand,  in 
Naples,  Nov.  2,  1847.  His  father  was  one  of 
the  chief  clerks  in  the  department  of  foreign 
affidrs,  and  he  early  entered  upon  the  same 
career.  During  the  restoration,  he  was  sent  on 
a  special  mission  to  the  republic  of  Colombia. 
After  tiie  revolution  of  1880,  he  became  a  d^ 
voted  and  confidential  servant  of  Louis  Philippe. 
He  announced  to  the  Swiss  republic  Louis  Phil- 
ippe's accession  to  the  throne,  was  then  first 
secretary  to  the  legation  in  London,  and  was 
delegated  to  communicate  to  the  provisional 
government  of  Belgium  the  decisions  of  the 
London  conference.  He  was  intrusted  by  Louis 
Philippe  with  the  duty  of  ezplaihing  the  cir- 
cumstances which  prevented  the  duke  of  Ne- 
mours fh>m  becoming  king  of  Belgium,  and  ar- 
^ranged  the  marriage  of  the  princess  Louise  of 
Orleans  with  Leopold.    He  was  charg6  d'affaires 


670 


BRETHREN  OF  THE  OOMMOH  LIFE 


and  aftenrard  minister  In  Barlin.  In  1834  he 
was  made  secretary  of  formgn  aflEain,  and  after- 
ward sent  again  to  Berlin  as  ambasndor.  Dar- 
ing tilts  embassy,  in  1837,  he  neptiated  the 
marriage  of  the  dnke  of  Orleans  with  the  prin- 
oesB  Helen  of  Mecklenhorg,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  was  created  peer  and  count  As  peer, 
he  made  a  celebrated  q)eech  in  the  chamber 
snstuning  the  project  of  snrronnding  Paria 
with  fortifications.  In  1841  he  was  oiade  am- 
basMdoc  to  Madrid,  where  he  baffled  the  En^ish 
policy,  and  brought  about  the  Spanish  marriages, 
namely,  of  the  dnke  of  Montpensier  with  the 
in&nta  Luisa,  younger  sister  of  Isabel  II.,  and, 
as  the  result  of  the  former,  the  marriage  of  the 

2aeen  herself  with  her  first  cousin,  the  Infante 
'ranciBoo  de  Assis.  No  children  being  expect- 
ed to  result  from  the  queen^s  marriage,  the 
succession  to  the  Spanish  throne  was  thus  held 
open-to  the  duke  of  Monlpensier  or  to  hb  de- 
scendants. Fur  this  negotiation  Bresson  wss 
created  a  grandee  of  Spain  of  the  first  class. 
Recalled  to  Paris,  he  was  ambitious  to  receiTO 
the  embassy  to  London.  In  this,  however,  he 
was  disappointed,  Louis  Philippe  sending  him, 
in  1847,  as  ambassador  to  Naples.  The  king  of 
Kaples,  whose  hope  of  secunng  the  hand  of  a 
Spanish  princess  for  one  of  his  brothers  had 
been  frustrated  by  the  negotiations  of  Bresson, 
received  him  in  the  most  offensive  and  vindic- 
tive spirit,  and  the  affront,  preying  upon  a  mind 
already  smarting  under  the  nnmiliation  inflicted 
upon  it  by  Louis  Philippe  in  withholding  from 
him  the  London  embassy,  had  such  an  effect 
upon  him  that  he  killed  himself. 

BREST,  a  fortified  town.  870  miles  W.  S.  W. 
from  Paris,  in  the  French  department  of  Finis- 
tdre,  on  the  coast  of  France,  the  chief  station 
of  the  French  marine,  and  one  of  the  first  mili- 
tary and  naval  ports  in  Europe.  Including  its 
suburb  Reoouvraoce,  it  is  about  8  miles  in  circuit, 
and  is  surrounded  with  ramparts  planted  with 
trees.  Itsouter  harbor  is  unsurpassed  for  safety, 
and  is  exceeded  in  extent  only  by  those  of  Con- 
stantinople and  Rio  Janeiro.  It  communicates 
with  the  sea  by  a  single  long  and  narrow  pas- 
sage, divided  b^  a  rock  in  its  centre,  so  that 
vessels  are  obliged  to  pass  immediately  under 
the  batteries,  its  inner  harbor  can  accommo- 
date 60  frigates,  and  is  most  strongly  fortified. 
Brest  is  divided  into  the  upper  and  lower  towns, 
which  are  connected  by  steep  streets,  or,  where 
the  declivity  is  most  rapid,  only  by  stairs.  The 
prison  for  galley  slaves  is  the  largest  in  IVanoe, 
containing  about  8,000  convicts.  It  has  a  naval 
school,  communal  college,  public  library,  and 
botanic  garden.  Brest  was  first  rendered  for- 
midable by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  and  in  1694  it 
withstood  a  combined  attack  of  the  British  fleet 
and  army.  Municipal  pop.  41,612 ;  total  pop. 
with  military  and  convlc^  61,160.  Entrances 
of  vessels  in  1858,  95,  with  12,470  tons ;  clear- 
ances only  2  vessels,  with  194  tons,  all  others  in 
ballast.  Entrances  of  coasting  vessels  in  the 
same  year,  1,612,  with  58,854  tons ;  clearances, 
8,901,  with  89.104  tons. 


BRETEUIL,  Loins  Avocbtk  ix  Toxmin, 
baron  de,  a  French  statesman  and  dipiloDtat^ 
horn  in  1738,  died  Nov.  2, 1807.  He  was  ims- 
ister  plenipotentiary  to  the  court  of  Cologiie  is 
1758,  and  was  afterward  sent  aoooeasivi^j  to 
8t  Petersburg  and  Stockholm,  and  at  a  bter 
period  to  Holland,  Yieima,  and  Kaplea.  h 
1788  he  became  a  member  cf  the  govenineii, 
and  effiected~^  various  beneficial  changes  ia  tb 
management  of  the  national  priaons.  Whentia 
revolution  hroke  out,  he  endemwored  to  moda^ 
ate  its  videnoe,  and  to  save  from  the  tarjui^ 
mukitode  the  magnificent  buOdings  and  moos- 
ments  of  the  French  metropolis. 

BRETHREN,  Whits,  a  tranment  sect  of  tte 
15th  century,  an  outgrowth  of  that  remariable 
religious  enthusiasm  which  cfaaractmied  tiid 
latter  half  of  tiie  14th  and  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century,  and  which  may  be  said  to  fatre 
culminated  about  that  tune.  The  White  Bmdk- 
ren  first  appeared  in  the  Italian  Alps^  aal 
were  headed  by  a  priest  of  nnoeriain  otipa, 
probably  a  Spaniara,  thougH  some  ssy  k 
was  a  Prov6nc«l,  and  others  even  that  he  wm 
a  Scotchman.  Whoever  he  was,  he  seaaed 
to  have  been  willing  to  ignore  himsdf^  kr  h 
claimed  to  be  the  prophet  Eliaa  recently  retard 
from  a  couple  of  thousand  years'  Gcjonm  is 
Paradise.  He  and  his  followers  were  mtnjti 
in  white  (whence  their  name),  and  esrned 
around  large  crucifixes  from  which  a  Uoodj 
sweat  appewed  to  exude.  Kb  claimed  thst^  was 
his  mission  to  announce  the  speedy  destraetion 
of  the  world  by  an  earthquake.  He  eommmced 
his  prophetic  ministrations  in  Lombsrdy,  oA 
thence  extended  them  to  the  Ligurian  Alpa 
So  great  was  his  success  that  he  entered  Geaos 
at  the  head  of  5,000  followers.  From  (koos^ 
the  enthusiasm  rolled  like  a  wave  to  LaecL 
Pisa,  and  Florence,  till  its  progress  waa  arrested 
by  the  discovery  of  the  imposture.  The  whob 
transaction  occupied  but  a  few  months.  Bt 
prescribed  and  practised  mortification  and  pea- 
ance  vrith  great  rigor,  and  endeavored  to  pa^ 
suade  to  a  renewal  of  the  holy  war.  QeflKs; 
YI.  had  (1849)  opposed  such  enthnsiastie  jn^ 
cessions,  which  had  been  for  some  time  in  vogsK. 
The  church  began  to  see  that  they  woe  aioce 
potent  with  the  people  (for  they  were  generaflj 
resorted  to  in  time  of  some  greed  public  es- 
lamity,  as  the  black  death,  whidi  swept  of« 
Europe,1348)  tbanitsown  prayersand  <^Boe6^al 
Boni^e  IX.  put  an  end  to  the  movement^  by  or- 
dering the  leader  to  he  wprehended  and  burned. 

BRETHREN  AND  CLERKS  OF  THE 
COMMON  LIFE,  a  religious  order  which  spraa^ 
up  in  the  Netherlands  near  the  dose  of  the 
14th  century,  led  by  Gerhard  de  Groot  It  v« 
divided  into  2  classes,  the  lettered  and  the  filii' 
erate.  The  first  dass  was  mainly  composed  d 
the  clergy,  who  gave  themselves  to  stodv,  sod 
copying  books,  while  the  second  class  eogagei 
in  manual  labor.  They  Uved  in  corauKUL  so 
far  as  possessions  were  concerned,  thoo^  thej 
inhabited  separate  houses.  They  woe  8Bl^ 
tioned  by  the  oonndl  of  Oonstaooe  in  the  Ut^ 


BRETHREN-  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOLS 


BRETON  LANGUAGE 


671 


centnry.  There  were  houses  also  for  sisters 
of  the  order.  This  order  is  frequently  ooafound- 
ed  with  the  Beguins  and  Lollards.  They  lived 
under  the  rule  of  Augustine.  To  them  we  owe 
the  preservation  of  many  valuable  manuscripts. 
BRETHREN  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
SCHOOLS,  an  order  established  at  Rheims  by 
the  Abb^de  La  Salle  in  1679,  and  sanctioned  by 
Benedict  XIIL  in  1725,  6  years  after  the  death 
of  the  founder.  The  object  of  the  order  was  to 
provide  instruction  for  the  poorer  classes  of  the 
population,  and  hence  the  name.  The  members 
of  the  order  take  upon  themselves  the  vows  of 
chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience.  These  vows 
are  first  taken  for  3  years  only,  and  then  re- 
newed for  life  by  those  who  desire  to  remain  in 
the  order.  Their  costume  is  a  coarse  black  cas- 
sock, and  a  small  collar  or  band  around  the  neck, 
for  the  house,  and  a  hooded  cloak  and  a  wide 
hat  for  oat-door  purposes.  Their  diet  is  of  the 
simplest  kind.  Their  teaching  is  mainly  rudi- 
mentary, although  in  some  of  their  schools 
Latin  and  the  higher  mathematics  form  part  of 
the  course.  Priests  may  be  admitted  to  the 
order,  but  no  member  may  become  a  priest,  and 
lest  they  should  aspire  to  that  dignity,  the 
brethren  are  forbidden  to  study  Latin  until 
reaching  the  age  of  80.  In  1688  the  order  was 
introduced  into  Paris.  In  1792,  they  refused 
to  take  the  oath  to  the  civil  constitution,  and 
were  driven  from  their  houses,  and  debarred 
the  exercise  of  their  functions.  At  the  peace 
of  1801,  they  returned  to  their  schools,  and 
soon  spread  themselves  again  over  France, 
whence  they  extended  into  Italy,  Corsica,  Cay- 
enne, Belgium,  and  Algiers.  They  are  exempt 
from  military  duty  in  France.  In  1880,  in 
the  revolution  of  July,  the  persecution  which 
fell  upon  the  Jesuits  also  visited  them.  The  aid 
of  government  was  withdrawn.  At  that  epoch, 
they  opened  evening  schools  for  adults,  wherein 
they  received  and  taught  mechanics  and  other 
poor  laborers,  who  had  no  time  to  devote  to 
learning  in  the  day.  The  brothers  of  the 
Christian  schools  have  modified  their  instruc- 
tion fh>m  time  to  time,  to  mcdce  .it  meet  the 
wants  of  the  classes  whom  they  teach.  Thus, 
in  1831,  geometry  in  its  application  to  linear 
drawing  was  introduced  into  their  course.'  The 
following  table  shows  the  condition  of  tiie  order 
in  1856: 


EMaUtthm*U 

Ko.«f 

No.  of 
Sehecb. 

No.oi 
P-Vta. 

France, 

680 

88 

M 

1« 

21 

16 

19 

4 

9 

9 

1 

1 

869 

190 

919 

157 

188 

189 

69 

99 

8 

9 

18 

87 
*88 
99 
99 

80 
10 

Iliiiils^ 

B€lg!ttm, 

Savoy, 

Piedmont, 

Papal  States,.... 
Canada,  .     .    .. 
United  States,'. . 
Levant, 

Pruaala, 

MaUysla, 

Switzerland,.... 
England, 

940 
808 

81 

Total 

827 

6.66S 

1,500 

800^15 

•  Ho.  of  puplto  In  the  U.  S.  in  18S8,  about  8,800i 


The  brethren  of  the  Christian  schools  are 
sometimes  improperly  called  the  **Cliristian 
Brothers."  The  latter  are  a  branch  of  the 
fonner,  and  have  nearly  the  same  rule  and  ob- 
ject, but  form  an  independent  order.  They  are 
very  numerous  in  Ireland. 

BRETHREN  CF  THE  FREE  SPIRIT,  a  sect 
which  sprang  up  on  the  upper  Rhine  near  the 
close  of  the  18th  century.  They  are  frequently 
confounded  with  the  Lollards,  Beguards,  or  Be- 
guina  They  held  that  the  universe  was  a  di- 
vine emanation ;  that  man,  so  far  as  he  gave 
himself  to  a  contemnlative  life,  was  a  Christ,  and 
as  such,  free  from  law,  human  or  divine  (Ro- 
mans viii.  2, 14).  Many  edicts  were  published 
against  this  sect,  but  they  continued  till  about 
the  middle  of  the  15th  century. 

BRETHREN  OF  THE  HOLY  TRINITY,  a 
society,  founded  in  France  near  the  dose  of  the 
12th  centnry,  whose  members  pledged  them- 
selves to  give  a  third  part  of  their  revenues  to 
procuring  the  redemption  of  Christians  who  had 
fallen  captive  to  the  infidels,  and  were  in  Mo- 
hammedan slavery.  It  was  established  by  John 
of  Matha,  a  Parisian  theologian,  and  Felix  de 
Valois. 

BRfiTIGNY,  a  village  of  France,  on  the 
Paris  and  Orleans  railway.  The  French  king 
John,  who  had  been  made  prisoner  at  the  battle 
of  Poitiers  in  1356,  regained  his  freedom  by  a 
treaty  between  France  and  England,  concluded 
at  this  place  in  18G0. 

BRETON,  Jean  Baptistb  Joseph,  far  a  long 
time  the  oldest  journalist  and  stenographer  of 
France,  born  in  Paris,  Nov.  16, 1777,  died  Jan. 
6,  1852.  His  public  career  was  nearly  parallel 
with  representative  government  in  France.  He 
was  present  as  stenographer  at  the  session  of 
Aug.  10, 1792,  when  the  power  passed  from  the 
hands  of  an  individual  to  those  of  an  assembly ; 
and  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  when  it  passed  from  the 
hands  of  an  assembly  to  those  of  an  individuaL 
His  services  were  also  in  constant  requisition  at 
the  courts  as  an  interpreter  for  English,  Grer- 
man,  Italian,  Spanish,  Dutch,  and  Flemish  suit- 
ors. He  was  a  frequent  contributor  to  the  DiC" 
tionnaire  de  la  converxUian^  and  among  other 
papers  wrote  the  article  on  stenography. 

BRETON  LANGUAGE  (Fr.  Bcu  Breton), 
properly  Bbeizad  Lanouaob,  or  language  of  the 
Breutiz^  is  a  dialect  of  the  Celtic  family,  constitut- 
ing with  the  Welsh  its  Cymric  branch.  The  sub- 
dialects  of  this  language  are  those  of  L^on,  Tr6- 
guier,yannes,  and  Cornouailles.  It  has  been  more 
modified  by  the  Latin  than  other  Celtic  tongues, 
owing  to  the  length  of  Roman  domination;  it 
was  also  modified  by  settlers  from  Britain  in  the 
8d  and  4th  centuries.  It  employs  Roman  letters, 
some  of  which  (a,  ft,  d!,  «,  /,  p,  A,  ♦,  f, «»,  ti,  <?,  p,  r, 
f  f,  t<,  v)  sound  as  in  the  ancient  Latin,  others  (^ 
to,  z)  as  in  English,  2  ( j,  and  the  combination  cA) 
as  in  French,  and  the  combination  e'h  like  the 
Grerman  ck  (strongly  guttural) ;  I  and  n  are  some- 
times what  the  French  call  mouilU^  and  n  is  some* 
times  nasal ;  to  is  also  used  as  a  vowel ;  the  diph- 
thongs are  genuine  and  distinct.    Some  initials 


672  BRETON  D£  LOS  HERREROS 


BREUGHEL 


of  noQOfl  and  of  verbs  are  altered  after  the  finala 
of  the  preceding  words,  viz.  :btOf>  aud  p^  as 
hd9  (LbX.  hactUu8)y  Oft  tdij  the  stick ;  Jb  to  ^,  e% 
as  ib  (canis)^  ar  <^hi^  the  dog ;  her  (cttria),  eur 
^r,  a  city  \  d  ta  t^z;  gwto  hOy  to  ;  m  to  v,  as 
mamm  imater\  or  wktnm^  the  mother ;  j?  to  (, 
fy  as  penn^  head,  tri  fen^  8  heads ;  tX/od^z;  9 
to  s.  The  definite  article  has  8  forms,  ann  be* 
fore  vowels  and  before  c2,  n^  t,  al  before  ^  ar 
everywhere  else  ;  the  indefinite  article  also  va- 
ries, eufin^  eul,  eur,  in  the  same  positions  as  the 
definite.  Both  are  thus  used  in  the  singolar  and 
plural  sense.  The  genitive  is  denoted  by  edz,  the 
dative  by  %  in  both  numbers.  The  plural  is 
made  by  suffixing  cu  or  iou  (aeSl-au^  winds; 
JyrMrioUy  wars),  or  ion,  ed^  en  {hanerirejkf  sing* 
ers ;  Iden-ed^  animals ;  iUred-^n^  stars).  Irregu- 
lar are :  Breitady  plural  Breiau;  cuikoum^  bone, 
atikem^  bones;  mab^  son,  plural  mipien.  There 
are  2  genders,  masculine  and  feminine.  The 
comparative  degree  is  formed  bv  oc^\  thus, 
hairoe%  more  beautiful ;  the  superlative  by  pre- 
fixing the  article,  thus,  ar  c^hai/rck^  most  beauti- 
ful. The  numerals  are:  unan^  1 ;  daou^  2;  tri^ 
8 ;  jM9ar,4;  pemp^  5 ;  e^hau€e%  6 ;  me,  7 ;  ms, 
8 ;  ndo,  9 ;  dek,  10.  The  ordinals  are  made  by 
suffixing  wd  (triced^  8d,  Ac) ;  these  are  irregu- 
lar: henta^  1st;  eil^  2d.  The  personal  pronouns 
are  m^,  I ;  tS^  thou ;  hen^  he ;  hi,  she.  The  ter- 
minations of  the  verbs  are,  ann  for  I,  «s  for  thou, 
the  radical  for  he,  she,  it,  amp  for  we,  it  for 
you,  ant  for  they ;  thus,  r^aTin,  rS-eZy  rd,  rd^ 
ampy  rS-itf  r^-ant—l  give,  thou  givest,  he,  she, 
it  gives,  we,  you,  they  give.  The  past  tense  is 
formed  by  is,  the  future  by  iTm,  &c.  Each  verb 
is  preceded  by  the  particle  a  before  nouns  and 
pronouns^  by  6  ^or  ^  Sc'h)  before  adverbs. 
There  are  8  auxilmry  verbs,  viz. :  hSza,  to  be ; 
iaauty  to  have;  ^ber^  to  do.  There  are  some 
specific  prefixes.  The  syntax  is  free,  vnth  some 
anomalies ;  thus,  the  8d  person  singular  of  a  verb 
may  be  joined  to  the  1st  and  2d  personal  pro- 
nouns, ssmSarSy  which  is  If/ivetApstead  otgioe. 
We  subjoin  a  short  specimen :  Eon  tad^  pehini 
a§o  en  eon,  Koc^h  ano  hezet  aanetifiet;  literally, 
^'Father  our,  who  is  in  heaven,  your  name  be 
sanctified.''  Grammars  have  been  pubh^ed  by 
Rostrenen(17d8),  Dumoulin  (1800),  Le  Gonideo 
(1838);  dictionaries  by  Rostrenen  (1782),  Le 
Pelletier  (1752),  Le  Gonidec  (1821). 

BRETON  DE  LOS  HERREROS,  Makitkl, 
a  Spanish  dramatist,  bom  at  Guel,  province  or 
Logrono,  Dec.  19,  1796.  Li  early  life  he  was 
in  the  army,  and  until  1840,  when  he  was 
keeper  of  the  national  library,  he  offidated  in 
various  public  offices.  He  is  the  author  of  mis- 
cellaneous poetry,  his  satirical  poem  on  dramat- 
ic elocution  being  considered  one  of  his  best 
efforts.  As  a  writer  for  the  stage  his  lively 
and  facile  pen  gained  him  the  title  of  the 
'*  Spanish  Eugene  Scribe."  He  produced  more 
than  150  plays,  partly  original,  partly  adapta- 
tions and  translations  from  the  French,  and 
wrote  several  tragedies,  one  of  which,  the  '*Mer- 
ope,"  was  received  with  favor.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  works  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1850. 


BBETSCHNEIDER,  Hxnrsios  GormoE^ 
a  Gertnan  writer,  born  at  Gera,  in  Sazonj, 
March  6, 1739,  died  near  Piisen,  in  Bohemia, 
Nov.  1, 1810.  Entering  the  army  in  eariy  life, 
he  became  a  prisoner  of  the  French.  He  ob- 
tained an  official  employment  in  Nassau;  but 
his  office  being  suppressed,  he  undertook  in 
1778  adventurous  travels  through  Franca,  Hol- 
land, and  England.  His  account  of  this  journey 
was  afterward  translated  and  pubUsbed  in 
^^Blackwood's  Magazine."  Among  his  many 
productions  is  the  **'  Horrible  Story  of  the  Death 
of  young  Werther,"  in  which  he  ridiculed  ih/d 
Wertherism  then  prevalent  in  Germany. 

BBETSCHNEIDER,  Kabl  Gottusb,  a  Ger- 
man theologian,  bom  at  Gersdor^  Feb.  11, 1778, 
died  at  Gotha,  Jan.  22, 1848.  He  became  general 
superintendent  at  Gotha  in  1816,  and  was  ap- 
pointed superior  councillor  of  the  consistory  in 
1840.  With  an  eminentlj  rational  mind,  he 
constructed  his  theological  system  formally  ac- 
cording to  logical  rules,  and  sympathized  neither 
with  the  speculations  of  Schleiermacher  and 
Hegel,  nor  with  the  sentiments  which  prompt- 
ed pietism,  mysticism,  and  German  Catholicisnu 
His  principal  work  is  a  "Handbook  of  Dog- 
matica, "  which  has  had  many  editions.  Among 
his  other  numerous  works  are  several  religious 
novels.  He  published  valuable  editions  of  the 
works  of  Calvin,  Beza,  and  Melanchthon.  His 
autobi(^apby  was  published  in  1852. 

BREUGHEL.  I.  Petxb,  the  first  of  a  cele- 
brated fiiunily  of  Dutch  and  Flemish  paintera, 
bom  near  Breda,  in  1510,  died  in  Brussels  in 
1570.  He  studied  with  Peter  Eoeck,  travelled 
through 'portions  of  France,  Italy,  and  Switzer- 
land, making  sketches,  and  went  to  reside  at 
Antwerp,  where,  in  1551,  he  was  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  academy.  From  the  whimacal  char- 
acter of  his  subjects,  Peter  Breughel  has  been 
called  the  *^  droll"  He  painted  vi&age  festivals, 
attacks  of  banditti  in  wild  landscapes,  or  scenes 
amonir  tiie  gypsies.  K.  Jan,  eldest  eon  of  the 
preceding,  commonly  known  as  ^^  Ydvet 
Breughel,"  either  from  his  habit  of  dr^sing  in 
velvet,  or  from  the  softness  and  delicacy  with 
which  he  painted  flowers,  bom  at  Brassels 
in  1585,  died  in  1642.  His  first  pictures  were 
miniatures,  and  frait  and  flower  pieces,  but 
after  a  tour  through  Italy  he  took  to  painting 
landscapes,  which  are  remarkable  for  exquisite 
finish,  and  the  spirit  and  character  of  the  mi- 
nute figures  introduced  into  them.  He  returned 
to  Flanders  with  so  great  a  reputation  as  a  land* 
scapist,  that  artists  frequently  applied  to  him 
to  punt  backgrounds  and  other  accessories  to 
their  pictures.  In  this  way  he  asmsted  Rubens 
in  the  celebrated  pictures  of  "  Adam  and  Eve 
in  Paradise,"  "  The  Four  Elements,"  and  ^  Ver- 
tumnus  and  Pomona,"  the  figures  of  which  were 
painted  by  the  latter.  lU.  Peteb  the  younger, 
brother  of  the  preceding,  called  "Hell  Breughel," 
from  the  diabolical  character  of  his  Bu£(jeets, 
bom  about  1569,  died  in  1625.  His  pictures 
generally  represent  scenes  in  which  devils, 
witches,  sorcerers,  or  robbers  play  a  oonspicu- 


BREVE 

0 

ens  pfirt.    Ono  of  his  mo6t  ftunons  works  is  .the. 
"  Temptation  of  St  Anthony." 

BREVE,  (Lat.  hretnsy  short),  in  mnsio,  a  note 
of  the  8d  degree  of  lensrth.  It  is  half  the  length 
of  the  longciy  or  long,  which  precedes  it,  and  one 
quarter  the  length  of  the  maxima^  or  greatest 
note  of  all,  which  is  the  longest  nsed,  With 
these  two  notes,  however,  it  has  almost  entirely 
passed  ont  of  use,  the  modem  German  method 
of  designation  having  sahstituted  the  semibreve, 
a  note  properly  of  hal£|  the  duration  of  the 
breye,  as  unity,  and  applied  to  it  the  name  of 
whole-note.  The  breve  was  formerly  much 
med  for  ohour  service,  and  is  generally  of  this 
fbrmJOj. 

BREVET,  a  French  term,  signifying  a 
royal  act  conferring  some  honor  or  privileffe. 
In  England  and  the  United  Btates  it  is  usually 
applied  to  military  rank,  and  imports  a  commis* 
sion  ffiving  a  nominal  rank  higher  Uian  that  for 
which  pay  is  received ;  thus,  a  brevet  m^jor 
receives  pay  only  as  captain. 

BREVIARY,  a  book  contidning  the  '<  canoni- 
cal hours''  or  ^^  divine  ofSce"  which  t^e  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  and  religious  are  oblised  to  re- 
cite every  day,  and  which  was  formerly  said  by 
the  laity  likewise.  The  name,  derived  from 
the  Latin  hreviariumy  h'eviSy  is  supposed  to  have 
been  given  because  the  office  now  in  use  is  an 
abridgment  of  one  much  longer.  The  origin  of 
the  breviary  was  different  in  different  parts  of 
the  church.  Thus  the  diocese  of  Antioch  is 
said  to  have  received  it  from  Diodoms  or  Fla- 
vian, that  of  Constantinople  from  St  John 
Chrysostom,  that  of  Milan  from  St.  Ambrose 
(A«  D,  886),  Rome  obtained  it  probably  from 
Pop|e  Gelasius  I.,  in  494^  and  the  dmrohes  of 
Spain  frx)m  St  Leander,  bishop  of  Seville  about 
620.  These  office  books  dif&red  greatly  both 
from  one  another  and  irom  the  Roman  breviary 
of  the  present  dav.  In  the  course  of  time  t^ey 
became  filled  with  legends  of  the  saints  of  very 
doubtful  authenticity,  and  many  reforms  were 
attempted,  but  without  much  success,  until  Pope 
Pius  Y.  and  the  council  of  Trent  establi^ed  a 
uniform  office  for  the  whole  church.  Iliis  was 
Bubs^qnentiy  corrected  by  Clement  VIII.  and 
Urban  VIII.,  and  is  the  one  now  in  use.  Before 
the  council  of  Trent,  however,  Cardinal  Qui- 
gnon  had  published  in  France  an  expurgated  and 
amended  breviary,  which,  though  condemned 
by  the  Paridan  faculty  of  theolory^  was  ap- 
proved by  Julius  in.  and  Paul  Tv.,  passed 
through  several  editions,  and  for  many  years 
was  generally  used  by  the  French  clergy.  In 
the  Greek  church,  the  office  book  is  called  ra(is 
(order),  »po\oyiop  (dial),  or  <v;^oXoyiov  (collec- 
tion of  prayers).  It  is  very  nearly  the  same  in 
aU  the  monasteries  and  churches,  and  is  divided 
into  2  parts,  one  containing  the  morning,  the 
other  the  evening  office.  The  psalter  is  in  30 
divisions,  called  KaSii(rtAara  (seats),  because  a  rest 
or  pause  is  made  after  each  one;  The  Arme- 
nians and  other  nations  have  breviaries  of  like 
description, 
BREVINE,  La,  a  parish  and  village  of  Swit- 
VOL.  III.— 43 


BREWING 


678 


xeriand.  It  has  a  population  of  8,819,  mo«Uy 
engaged  in  watchmaking,  the  manufacture  of 
lace,  and  working  in  metals.  In  the  vicinity  is 
a  bed  of  coal,  supposed  to  be  the  fossil  relic  of 
a  forest  which  was  swallowed  up  during  an 
earthquake,  September  18, 1856. 

BREWER,  ANTHoinr,  an  Engflish  poet  in  the 
reign  of  James  I.  He  was  highly  esteemed 
among  the  wits  of  his  time,  and  is  known  to 
have  written  6  plays.  In  one  of  these,  called 
'*  Lingusa,  or  tiie  Five  Senses,'*  Cromwell  is  sdd 
to  have  acted  when  a  youth  at  Cambridge. 

BREWING,  the  manufacture  of  beer.  Great 
attention  is  paid  in  Europe  to  the  selection 
of  the  grain  to  be  subjected  to  the  first  pro- 
cess in  brewing,  which*  is  the  malting.  The 
most  profitable  barley  is  the  rath,  which  is  the 
earliest  ripe.  The  gram  must  be  full,  round, 
heavy,  and  sweet  and  of  uniform  quaUty.  not 
a  mixture  of  ola  and  new;  it  should  have 
sweated  and  seasoned  in  tiie  stack.  Other  grains 
when  used  instead  of  barley  d^ould  be  selected 
with  similar  care.  Any  grains  are  suitable  that 
contain  a  large  proportion  of  starch.  This  is 
converted,  as  the  seeos  begin  to  germmate,  into  a 
fdrmentable  sugar,  that  resembles  cane  sugar, 
first  passing  through  the  stage  in  which  the  sub- 
stance is  called  dextrine,  and  ftom  this,  by  the 
action  of  diastase,  whicn  is  generated  in  the 
chemical  change,  it  becomes  sugar.  Halted 
barley  yields  only  about  1  part  in  500  of  dias- 
tase, but  this  is  sufficient  to  saccharify  2,000 
parts  of  dry  starch.  This  action  of  diastase 
takes  place  only  below  the  boiling  point  of  water ; 
from  158<»  to  167®  F.  is  found  the  most  fevor- 
able  temperature.  .  By  the  fermentation  of  the 
jngar  the  alcoholic  portion  of  the  beer  is  ob- 
tained. Thus  it  is  explained  why  those  grains 
which  contidn  the  largest  quantity  of  starch  are 
best  adapted  to  the  manu£eu3ture  of  beer.  Malt- 
ing is  this  germinating  process,  in  which  the 
starch  is  converted  into  sugar.  The  grain  is 
first  subjected  to  the  operation  called  steeping. 
This  is  effected  in  lai^e  cisterns,  in  which  tiie 
grain  is  covered  with  water,  6  or  7  inches  above 
its  surface.  For^  hours  is  the  usual  period  of 
this  operation.  If  the  water  in  this  time  shows 
an  V  symptoms  of  fermentation,  it  must  be  drawn 
ofi,  and  replaced  with  fresh  cold  water.  It  is 
completed  when  the  grain  has  absorbed  so  much 
water,  that  it  is  fully  swollen,  and  is  easily  per- 
forated with  a  needle.  The  gaia  in  weight  is 
often  47  lbs.  to  the  cwt.  of  baney.  The  liquor 
is  now  drawn  of^  and  the  grain  is  left  to  drain 
for  6  hours.  The  next  operation  of  the  malting 
process  is  that  termed  couching.  The  grain  is 
thrown  upon  a  malt  fioor,  in  rectangular  heaps 
of  12  to  16  inches  in  depth,  called  couches.  In 
this  condition  it  is  quite  dry,  but  in  the  course  of 
a  day  it  begins  to  grow  moist  and  acquires 
a  temperature  10®  higher  than  that  of  the  sur* 
rounding  air.  It  gives  out  a  pleasant  fruity  smell, 
and  germination  bogina  by  the  shooting  out  of  the 
fibrils  of  the  young  roots  from  the  tip  of  every 
grain.  This  takes  place  about  96  hours  after 
tiie  removal  of  the  grain  from  the  steep.    The 


«74 


BBSWIKa 


nidiiDMiti  of  the  ftatord  Btein,  called  hj  tb^ 
maltsters  aerospire,  begin  to  appear  abont  a  day* 
after  the  gennioatioQ  of  the  rootlets.  The  ger^ 
mioation  most  now  be  cheeked,  and  the  coooh-* 
log  be  snooeeded  hj  the  flooring  operation, 
which  is  merely  spreading  the  grain  more  thinly 
npon  the  floor,  and  taming  it  over  with  snades 
8  or  8  times  a  day.  The  depth  of  the  layer 
diminishes  each  time,  till  it  is  at  last  rednced  to 
only  8  or  4  inches.  Care  is  taken  that  the  tem- 
peratnre  shall  not  mnch  exceed  62*.  By  the 
absorption  of  oxygen,  and  the  emismon  of  car- 
bonic acid,  the  tendency  is  to  an  increase  of 
heat  conriderably  beyond  this  point  The  aero- 
spire  or  stem  shoot  creeps  along  nnder  the 
hnsk  of  the  grain  fhmi  the  end  at  which  it  an* 
peared  toward  the  other,  from  which  it  womd 
bnrst  forth  in  ttie  form  of  a  leaf^  if  the  {Nrocess 
were  not  stopped;  bnt  when  the  shoot  has 
reached  this  end,  and  the  gluten  and  mncilage 
have  mostly  disappeared  from  the  grain,  and 
this  has  become  woite  and  crumbly  like  meal, 
the  flooring  process  is  terminated,  and  the  malt 
is  now  subjected  to  the  last  process,  which  is 
kiln-drying.  The  couching  and  flooring  occupy 
a  period  of  2  weeks  in  England,  but  in  ^ootiand, 
where  the  temperature  is  lower,  8  weeks  are 
sometimes  required.  The  grain  is  converted 
fh>m  starch  into  sugar  as  the  acrospire  moves 
along  under  its  surlaoe.  One  end  is  thus  at  <»ie 
time  mostly  starch,  and  the  other  mostly  sugar. 
If  the  vegetation  were  allowed  to  go  on  till  the 
stem  shoots  forth,  the  ^in  would  soon  be  ex- 
hausted of  its  saccharine  properties.  In  the 
drying,  the  malt  is  spread  m  a  layer  upon  the 
floor  of  the  kiln  fh>m  8  to  10  inches  deep,  and 
kept  at  a  temi)erature,  till  the  moisture  is  mostly 
expelled,  of  about  90^,  which  is  afterward  in- 
creased to  140^  or  more.  The  malt  should  be 
flrequently  stirred  up  with  spades  during  this 
process,  which  should  last  in  all  about  2  days. 
The  malt  has  now  acquired  a  pale  amber  or 
brown  color,  and  is  freed  from  the  roots  and 
acrospires,  which  have  become  brittle,  and  being 
broken  off  in  the  stirring,  are  separated  by  sift- 
ing. The  grains  are  round,  of  a  sweetish  taste 
and  agreeable  smell,  and  are  fall  of  soft  flour. 
"The  bulk  is  greater  than  that  of  the  original 
barley,  but  the  water  gained  in  the  steeping  is 
all  expelled,  and  a  loss  of  weight  is  incurred, 
amounting  to  from  12  to  20  per  cent,  by  waste 
and  cleaning.*  The  variety  of  color  is  due  to 
the  greater  or  less  degree  of  heat  employed  in 
the  drying.  These  £stinctions  of  color  con- 
tinue through  the  brewing  into  the  liquors  pro- 
duced, giving  to  them  those  peculiar  properties 
which  cause  them  to  be  distinguished  as  ale, 
beer,  and  porter.  Ale  is  made  from  the  palest 
molt;  porter  from  the  brownest,  which  is 
partially  charred  and  acquires  a  bitter  taste. 
The  same  effect  is  produced  by  mixing  with 
the  stronger  liquor  made  of  pale  malt,  the 
darkest-colored  molts,  or  of  using  these  together 
in  mixtures  called  grists,  while  the  agreeable 
taste  is  imitated  by  introducing  quassia,  coocu- 
lus  indicus,  or  other  bitter  substuioes  of  simi- 


lar chaxaoter.    This  prDcees  of 
however,  is  strictly  forbidden  in  Great  Britaui^ 
under  heavy  penalties  by  several  acts  of  parfii- 
ment    The  liquor  prodnoed    by  mixing  tbt 
different  sorts  of  ale  was  fonnd  to  be  Tay 
strengthening,  and  became  popular  with  Un 
laboring    classes^    particolarlj    tbe   portos; 
hence  its  name. — ^The  brewing  prooess  profiQ^ 
like   the  malting,  consists   of   aeveral  £fe- 
ent  operations.    The  first  is  the  grinding  or 
crushing  of  the  ms^t   to  a    ooane  powda 
This  is  best  done  between  rollers  of  case4uid» 
ed  iron.    The  mashing  prooeas  saooeeds  tU& 
The  crushed  malt  is  shi&en  into  laxige  maah-tidi^ 
containing  water  at  a  temperature  of  lao"*.  la 
these  it  isthorougly  stirred  npi,  with  no  mn 
water  than  is  snflicient  to  completdy  sosk  ^ 
malt    By  this  operation  the  sugar  is  parlitSj 
dissolved,  and  what  starch  there  may  be  o- 
changed  is  again  suli^eoted  to  the  action  eftbi 
diastase,     i^r  reposing  a  half  hoar,  i»n  , 
water  is  introduced  at  a  tempenUm  df  \U\ 
raising  the  whole  to  a  temperature  cf  sboa 
167°.    After  remidning  2  or  3  hoora,  the  street 
wort  is  drawn  off  into  a  lowor  veasel  esUed  b 
underback.    Great  care  is  required  inroBBa^ 
off  the  infusion,  that  it  shall  be  <dear,  and  foe 
from  any  mixtures  of  finely  divided  grsia.  la 
color  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  ndt 
employed.    It  is  a  solution  of  the  sae^gnat 
matters  prindpally,  the  mncilaginona  and  z«sb- 
ous  not  being  yet  dissolved.     Water  is  ^la 
added  to  the  mash-tub  at  a  temperature  of  iu\ 
which  is  immediately  rednced  by  the  cod  lah 
to  176*".    This  is  drawn  off  aod  mixed  with  ^ 
first    The  product  of  the  8d  aolutioa  wkk 
water  at  the  boiling  temperature  is  not  miiad 
with  the  other  infiisionsi  but  is  aoroetiiBei  si- 
ployed  for  wetting  new  malt^  or  it  is  iBsdlx 
mfliing  small  beer.    Great  care  must  be  nsad  k 
introdudng  the  water  into  the  madi-tab  at  tb 
proper  temperature,  and  it  ia  very  qoesueei^ 
whetlier  the  high  temperature  of  194"  at  wiaek 
the  water  of  the  second  mashing  is  immdaoal 
is  not  attended  with  the  iiynrioiis  effiM^  of  je&- 
dering  the  starch,  albumen,  and  ^uten  wT6k 
which  it  first  comes  in  contact  insoluble;  thofpg^ 
this  temperature  is  inmiiediid;ely  redoeed^  ss  sr 
ready  mentioned.    Even  the  tempenatme  of  tin 
surrounding  atmosphere  materially  inficttaces 
the  result  of  the  operation*    Ingenioos  madnisei 
have  been  contrived  to  serve  the  do«ihle  poipoat 
of  masher  and  attemperator.    Descriptioins  of 
these,  with  full  details  of  the  mannfartnre.  tn 
given  by  Dr.  Mm^ratt,  in  his  work  on  obemisaj ; 
Dr.  Ure  also  treats  the  subject  very  fidly.     Tu 
strength  of  the  worts,  or  the  proportkai  of  ae- 
charine  matter  they  contain,  must  be  aeoncate^ 
ascertained,  that  an  article  of  uniform  qs^iT 
may  be  obtained.    This  is  done  by  the  use  of  a 
variety  of  hydrometer,  which  is  called  a  aae^ft- 
rometer.    By  means  of  this,  diffiarent  worts  an 
mixed  in  the  proper  proportions  to  produce  tbt 
desired  stren^.    The  next  process  is  bail£B& 
This  is  done  in  large  copper  vesaels^  fomisLe;! 
with  steam  valves,  which  are  oontrived  to  i 


BREWING 


BBEW8TEB 


075 


fhestoam  at  a  temperature  somewhat  higher  thaa 
212''.  In  this  process  the  hops  are  introdaoed, 
and  the  boilii^  of  the  miztore  is  eontinned 
-with  frequent  stirring,  effected  hy  means  of  a 
rod  passing  through  a  stuffing  box  at  the  top  of 
the  vessel,  and  carry inff'at  the  lower  end  a  hori* 
Eontal  bar,  the  whole  being  moved  around  by 
machinery.  By  tiie  boiling,  the  liquor  is  oon« 
eentrated,  the  albumen  or  mucilage  is  coagulat* 
ed,  and  the  glutinous  matter  is  rendered  insolu- 
ble by  combining  with  the  tannin  of  the  hops. 
The  proper  nse  of  the  hops  depends  upon  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  peculiar  qualities  of 
the  beer,  and  its  relations  to  the  season,  the  time 
it  is  to  be  kept,  and  the  climate  for  which  it  is 
designed.  The  exact  qualities  of  the  hops,  also, 
should  be  well  understood.  More  hops  are  re- 
qoired  in  warm  Uian  in  cold  weather,  and  differ^ 
ent  varieties  of  hops  are  selected  for  different 
varieties  of  beer.  A  general  rule  in  Eogbmd 
Ibr  the  stronger  kinds  of  ale  and  porter  is  to 
allow  1  lb.  of  bops  for  every  bushel  of  malt, 
bot  for  common  beer  not  more  than  i  this  quan- 
tity of  hops  is  often  allowed.  In  consequence 
of  the  boiling  causing  the  loss  of  a  portion  of 
the  aromatic  constituents  of  the  hops,  different 
expedients  have  been  resorted  to  for  collecting 
and  condensing  these,  as  they  escape  with  the 
steam,  or  for  substituting  for  the  hops  an  extract 
prepared  from  them.  This  portion  of  the  pro- 
cess is  probably  still  susceptible  of  great  im- 
provements.— ^The  next  process  is  straining  of 
the  worts.  This  is  done  by  passing  them  through 
a  cistern  called  a  hop-back,  which  has  a  metal- 
lic bottom  full  of  small  holes. — The  next  process 
IB  the  cooling.  This  must  be  accomplishec^as 
rapidly  as  posable,  to  prevent  aoetification* 
Varioua  expedients  have  been  adopted  for 
faasteninff  tlie  cooling.  The  old  method  is  to 
expose  the  wort  in  broad  shallow  cisterns,  over 
which  currents  of  air  are  made  to  play.  These 
are  usually  placed  under  the  roof  of  the  brewery^ 
the  rooms  being  ventilated  by  Venetian  blinds, 
which  form  the  sides  of  the  apartments.  An- 
other method  is  to  pass  cold  water  through»pipes 
which  are  laid  in  the  divisions  of  the  cisterns 
which  hold  the  wort.  The  liquor,  now  called 
gyle,  is  brought  to  the  temperature  of  66^  to 
64^,  and  is  then  passed  into  the  fermenting  tubs, 
or  gyle-tuns,  as  they  are  termed.  These  are 
huge  woa||Bn  vats,  strongly  hooped  and  close, 
with  the^ception  of  a  hole  through  which  the 
process  may  be  inspected.  Yeast  is  now  added, 
Bometimes  previoiuly  mixed  with  a  quantity  or 
the  wort  in  which  fermentation  has  alroidy 
commenced.  One  gallon  of  yeast  is  usually 
sufficient  to  set  100  gallons  of  wort  into  fermen- 
tation. In  cold  weather  more  is  reqidied  than 
in  warm.  No  portion  of  the  work  requires 
more  care  than  the  introduction  of  the  proper 
quality  and  quantity  of  yeast,  and  the  man«^ 
ment  of  the  process  to  which  it  gives  rise.  ^Hie 
temperature  is  liable  to  sudden  increase,  and  the 
fermentation  to  go  on  at  too  rapid  a  rate,  or  to 
proceed  too  sluggishly,  leading  to  a  putrefactive 
decomposition.    By  ^e  color  of  the  froth  or 


barm  the  state  of  th^  operaition  is  indicated,  and 
this  is  regulated  by  its  removal  at  the  proper 
time  and  in  proper  quantity,  and  by  suitable 
control  of  the  temperature.  The  fermenting  is 
continued  in  En^and  from  24  to  86  hours,  and 
in  Scotland,  at  a  sloww  rate,  from  6  to  12  days, 
which  renders  the  further  fermentation  in  casks 
nuneoessary.  The  head  of  froth  is  finally  beaten 
down  and  mixed  with  the  wort  before  all  the 
sugar  is  converted  into  alcohol ;  and  in  order  to 
anticipate  the  acetous  fermentation,  which 
would  soon  ensue,  as  also  to  retain  the  alcohol, 
the  aroma  of  the  hop,  and  the  carbonic  add  in 
solution,  the  beer  is  drawn  off  into  large  casks 
or  *^  rounds,"  in  which  it  is  further  fermented 
and  cleansed.  The  frothy  matters,  consisting  oi 
the  particles  of  yeast  puffed  out  by  the  carboniq 
acid,  which  is  liberated  and  mixed  with  them, 
slowly  flow  over  by  the  bung  hole,  and  the  casks 
are  kept  tail  by  adding  fresh  supplies  of  ale. 
Isinglass,  dissolved  in  sour  beer,  is  sometimes 
added  to  hasten  this  cleansing  process.  It  fines 
the  liquor,  by  forming  at  the  surface  a  scum  or 
web,  which,  as  it  slowly  sinks  to  the  bottom, 
carries  with  it  the  different  floating  impurities. 
In  this  final  *'  attenuation"  all  muddiness  is  re- 
moved from  the  liquor,  which  becomes  dear  and 
transparent,  and,  if  shilfully  managed^  with 
some  saccharine  matter  left  not  converted  into 
alcohol,  and  yet  not  so  much  of  this  as  to 
give  to  the  liquor  a  mawkish  sweet  taste^ 
From  the  cleansing  casks  the  liquor  is  transferr 
red  to  the  great  store  vats^  or  to  the  barrels  in 
which  it  goes  to  the  consumer. — ^Pale  Indian  or 
Burton  ale  undergoes  a  long-continued  and  slow 
fermentation,  particular  care  being  taken  that 
the  temperature  does  not  exceed  65^.  The  best 
malt  and  hops  are  selected,  and  more  than 
twice  as  much  of  the  latter  is  used  as  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  other  kinds  of  beer. 
It  thus  has  less  saccharine  and  more  bitter 
matter  than  the  other  beer,  and  is  better  adapt* 
ed  for  use  in  hot  clunates.  Scotch  ale  is  more 
heady  and  less  wholesome  than  the  other  ales. 
Mr.  Roberts  fbund,  in  examining  71  sampl^  an 
average  of  14.59  per  cent,  of  proof  spirit.  Until 
a  taste  had  been  developed  for  mild  fresh  ales^ 
it  was  the  practice  to  keep  an  enormous 
stock  on  hand  from  18  months  to  2  years  in  the 
store  vats  of  the  great  English  breweries.  One 
vat  at  Whitehead's  was  said  to  contain  no  less 
than  20,000  barrels  of  the  capacity  of  86  ffallons 
each.  By  the  bursting  of  such  a  vat  at  Meux's 
brewery  some  years  since,  several  houses  with 
their  inhabitants  were  swept  into  the  river. 
Bavarian  beer  has  been  highly  recommended  by 
Liebig  as  less  liable  to  become  sour  than  the 
French  and  English  beers.  Dr.  Ure,  after  a  pejr- 
sonal  examination  of  them  while  travelling  in 
Germany,  does  not  confirm  the  views  expressed 
by  Liebig. 

BREWSTER,  Sib  David,  a  British  savant, 
born  at  Jedburgh,  Scotknd,  Dec.  11, 1781.  His 
attention  was  first  directed  to  optics  in  1808,  and 
he  independently  made  several  discoveries  in 
regard  to  the  polarization  of  light,  which  were 


676 


BBEWSIEB 


BBIABE 


a]ao  made  hj  Mains  and  Arago.  From  1818 
Mb  oontribaiions  to  the  London  and  Edinburgh 
philosophioal  tranaaotiona  contain  the  record  of 
nuinj  of  the  moat  brilliant  of  modem  disoover- 
iea  in  optics,  espedally  with  regard  to  the  po- 
larization of  light  His  experiments  in  the  ab- 
sorption of  light|  in  passing  through  Tariona 
media,  have  also  led  to  singular  results.  He 
has,  moreover,  contributed  to  other  sciences^ 
particularly  to  thermotios  and  meteorology. 
His  popuhu:  fame  arises  chiefly  from  his  inven* 
tion  of  the  kaleidoaoope,  his  life  of  Bir  Isaao 
Newton,  and  an  elementary  treatise  on  optics. 
He  edited  the  Edinburgh  **  Journal  of  Sdenoe,'* 
commenced  in  1824,  and  the  "Edinburgh  En- 
eyolopffidia,"  completed  in  1880,  after  22  years* 
labor. 

BREWSTER,  Willlui,  elder  of  the  Ply- 
mouth pilgrims,  bom  at  Scrooby,  England,  in 
1660,  died  at  Plymouth,  Mass.,  April  16,  1644. 
He  waa  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  entered 
the  service  of  William  Davison,  ambassador  in 
Holland,  but  presently  retired  to  the  north 
of  England,  where  his  attention  was  chiefly 
occupied  by  the  interests  of  religion.  He 
was  one  of  the  company  who  with  Mr. 
Bradford  attempted  to  nnd  an  escape  to  Hol- 
land, and  were  thrown  into  prison  at  Bos- 
ton. Having  obtained  his  liberty,  he  first  as- 
sisted the  poor  of  the  society  in  their  embark- 
ation, and  then  followed  them  to  Holland. 
Here  he  opened  a  school  at  Leyden,  for  instrac- 
tion  in  English,  and  also  set  up  a  printing  press. 
He  was  chosen  a  ruling  elder  in  the  church  at 
Leyden,  and  accompanied  them  to  New  England 
in  1620,  where  until  1629  the  principal  care  of 
the  church  devolved  upon  him,  though,  as  he 
was  not  a  regular  minister,  he  could  never  be 
persuaded  to  administer  the  sacraments. 

BRETDENBAOH,  Bkbnhabd  tok,  a  priest 
of  Mentz,who  visited  Palestine  in  the  middle  of 
the  15th  century.  On  his  return  to  Germany 
he  wrote  an  account  of  hb  travels  in  Latin, 
which  was  published  in  1486.  This  work  was 
accompanied  by  engravings  on  wood  of  the 
scenery,  costumes,  and  animals  of  the  Holy 
Land,  and  contained  several  oriental  alphabets, 
whidi  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  ever 
printed. 

BRIAN  BORII,  or  Borodchb,  meaning  '<of 
the  tributes,"  the  most  celebrated  of  native 
Irish  kinzs,  bom  about  927,  slain  at  Olontarf 
on'  Good  Friday,  1014.  He  was  the  son  of 
Kennedy,  king  of  Mnnster,  and  succeeded  his 
fiither  in  966.  His  first  exploits  were  against 
the  Danes  of  Limerick  and  Waterford.  He 
confined  them  within  the  limits  of  those  cities, 
and  made  them  pay  tribute  in  pipes  of  wine. 
In  1002  he  made  himself  ard'TigL  or  supreme 
monarch  of  Ireland,  putting  ande  the  legitimate 
families,  the  O'Neills  and  O'Melaghlins.  He 
now  levied  a  heavy  tax  upon  the  subordinate 
kings ;  from  Connaugbt  he  demanded  800  hogs ; 
from  Tyrconnell  (the  present  county  of  Donegal), 
£00  mantles  and  600  cows;  from  Tyrone,  60 
loads  of  iron ;  from  the  clan  Rory  of  Ulster,  150 


oowsmndlSO  hogs;  from  Oriel,  160  cows;  from 
Leinster,  800  cows,  800  hogs,  and  800  loads  of 
iron ;  from  Ossory,  60  cows,  60  hqn,  and  60 
loads  of  iron ;  from  the  Danes  of  Dublin,  150 
hogsheads  of  wine ;  from  the  Danea  of  Dmeridc 
and  Waterford,  866  hogsheads  of  red  wine,  ffia 
palace  was  at  Eincora,  in  the  county  of  dare, 
near  the  present  town  of  Killaloe.  He  cansed 
a  road  to  be  constracted  round  the  coast  cxf  the 
whole  kingdom.  Valiancy  states  that  in  lus 
day  the  country  people  cidled  it  Brian  Borahs 
road.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  reign  MaeKmora, 
the  \mg  of  Leinster,  revolted  and  called  in  the 
Danes  to  his  assstanoe.  Brian  Bora  repulsed 
the  allied  Danes  and  Leinstermen  at  Clontarf^ 
and  died  on  the  battlefield.  His  son  Morrogh 
also  fell  in  the  same  fight.  The  Danes  never 
regained  any  independent  podtion  in*  Ireland 
after  this  defeat  An  ordinance  of  Ms  pre- 
scribed that  every  one  ahould  adopt  as  a  surname 
the  name  of  his  father.  Tlienceforth  surnames 
became  permanent  in  Irish  families.  He  is  the 
founder  of  the  O'Brien  family,  now  represented 
by  Lord  Inchiquin,  and  Mr.  William  Smith 
O'Brien. 

BRIANCON,  the  highest  town  in  France^ 
being  4,283  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  for- 
merly capital  of  the  district  of  Brian^oimaia, 
but  now  included  in  the  department  of  Hvites- 
Alpes.  It  is  at  the  Junction  of  the  2  sources  of 
the  river  Durance  and  at  the  foot  of  Mont  6e- 
nevre,  about  100  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
on  the  eastern  frontier  of  France.  It  commands 
the  principal  pass  to  the  Italian  and  Swiss  fron- 
tiers; is  a  depot  of  military  stores  for  the 
French  Alps,  and  is  surrounded  with  a  triple 
line  of  ramparts.  Seven  forts  whose  cross-fires 
protect  all  the  approaches  to  the  town  are  con- 
nected with  each  other  by  subterranean  pas- 
sages cut  in  the  solid  rock.  The  eminence 
whidi  rises  in  the  centre  of  the  town  is  crown^ 
with  a  fort.  The  town  is  poor  in  agricultural 
and  mechanical  resources.  The  most  fiunoua 
productions  of  Brian^n  are  chalk  and  manna 
(the  latter  from  larch-trees,  also  called  Venice 
turpentine).  Its  only  importance  is  aa  a  milita- 
ry station.    Pop.  in  1866,  8,544. 

BRIAKSE;  capital  of  the  Rusrian  circle  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  government  oi  Orel,  on 


toe  nver  ueana,  witn  it)  cnurcnes  and  cb^ieia^ 
a  convent,  an  arsenal,  a  cannon  fou,|dery,  and 
various  manufactories.  Pop.  of  Be  ^rde^ 
98,200 ;  of  the  town,  8,600. 

BRIANZA,  a  mountainous  district  in  the 
Austrian  circle  of  Oomo,  in  Lombardy,  includ- 
ing the  hilly  country  between  the  Adda  and  the 
Lsmbro,  from  the  neighborhood  of  Arosio  to 
Oomo,  the  foot  of  the  mountain  lying  between 
the  lakes  of  Oomo  and  Lecco.  Brianzais  cele- 
brated for  producing  the  finest  silk  in  Lombardy, 
for  the  bCMauty  of  its  scenery,  the  intelligence 
of  its  inhabitants,  and  for  its  salubrious  dimate. 
It  is  justiy  called  the  garden  of  Lombardy. 

BRIARE,  a  French  town  in  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  Glen,  department  of  Loiret,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Loire,  at  the  junction  of  the 


BRTAREUS 


BRICK 


677 


Briars  oand  with  that  river.  This  o^al  id 
the  oldest  in  France,  began  in  1606,  under 
Henry  IV.,  and,  with  that  of  Loiny,  connects 
the  Loire  with  the  Seine,  at  Montargis.  The 
2  canals  have  41  locks.  Briare  is  a  place  of 
some  trade  in  wine,  wood,  and  charcoal.  Pop. 
8,110. 

BRIAREUS,  or  Majsovf^  a  renowned  giant 
of  Greek  mythology,  the  son  of  Ooolas  and  Ter- 
ra, is  said  to  have  had  100  arms  and  50  heads. 
THien  the  inferior  deities  conspired  against  Ju- 
piter and  endeavored  to  dethrone  hira,Briarea8 
rendered  effective  aid  to  the  £ftther  of  the  gods  ^ 
but  when  Briarens  himself  presumed  to  rebel 
he  was  pnt  in  dorance  onder  JStna,  which 
belched  forth  fire  and  flame  as  often  as  the 
monster  straggled  in  his  subterranean  dnngeon. 

bribery;  in  English  law,  is  the  giving  or 
receiving  a  reward  for  the  violation  of  official 
duty.  It  includes  every  act  of  a  public  officer, 
judicial  or  ministerial,  civil,  ecclesiastical,  or 
military,  corruptiy  done  for  a  mercenary  con- 
sideration, and  is  a  misdemeanor  at  common 
law.  It  is  honorable  to  the  j  udiciary  of  England 
and  the  United  States  that  tiie  bribery  of  Judges 
is  very  rare,  which  shows  a  moral  tone  of  the 
public  mind  strikingly  in  contrast  with  what  is 
exhibited  in  some  periods  of  English  history. 
The  sole  apology  onered  for  Lord  Chancellor 
Bacon's  receiving  presents  from  suitors  was  that 
the  practice  was  common.  In  the  reigns  of 
Oharles  11.  and  James  II.  there  was  a  shameful 
venality  of  judges;  but,  since  the  act  settling 
the  succession  of  the  house  of  Hanover  (1701), 
which  included  a  provision  that  the  commission 
of  judges  should  no  longer  be  at  the  pleasure 
of  the  crown,  but  quamdiu  »e  bene  geteennt^  sub- 
ject to  removal  only  upon  the  address  of  both 
bouses  of  parliament^  the  integrity  of  English 
jadges,  at  least  of  tne  higher  rank,  has  been 
uniform.  One  case  of  corruption  by  Ohancellor 
KacdesfieldyWho  made  sale  of  the  offices  in  his 
patronage,  and  connived  at  the  ixse  of  moneys 
on  deposit  in  his  court  for  nrivate  purposes,  for 
which  he  was  impeached  and  removed  from  office 
in  1723,  is  the  only  exception  to  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  judges;  but  the  office  of  chancellor 
was  and  still  is  at  the  pleasure  of  the  king,  its 
incumbent  being  a  member  of  the  cabinet.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Chief  Justice  Thorpe 
was  lianged  for  taking  bribes.  By  statute  11 
Henry  Iv.,  all  judges  and  officers  of  the  king 
convicted  of  bribery  are  sulgect  to  forfeiture  of 
treble  the  amount  of  the  bribe,  are  punishable 
at  the  king's  will,  and  to  be  discharged  from  his 
service  forever.  Bribery  at  elections  has  been 
guarded  against  by  several  statutes,  Ihe  princi- 
pal provisions  of  which  are  that  any  can.^diite 
for  election  to  parliament  who  shall  give  money 
or  entertainment  to  his  electors,  or  promise  so 
to  do,  is  incapacitated  to  serve  for  that  term  in 
parliament,  and  the  giving  or  receiving  any  re- 
ward for  a  vote,  whether  money  or  any  ^ft,  is 
made  liable  to  a  penalty  of  £500,  and  the 
person  so  giving  or  receiving  is  forever  dis- 
abled from  voting  or  holding  any  office.   This 


last  provision  applies  to  all  elective  offices. — 
In  tms  country  similar  statutory  provisions  have 
been  enacted.  In  the  state  of  New  York 
bribery  of  any  member  of  the  le^shitnre,  or 
any  officer  of  the  state,  or  any  judicial  officer,  is 
punishable  by  imprisonment  in  the  state  prison 
for  10  years,  and  a  fine  of  $5,000 ;  and  it  is  de- 
fined to  be  the  offering  of  money  or  any  gift 
with  intent  to  influence  the  vote,  opinion,  or 
judgment  of  such  officer  in  any  matter  broi^^ht 
before  him  in  his  official  capacity.  Bribery  of 
a  juror,  referee,  or  arbitrator,  is  in  like  manner 
puniBhable  by  the  laws  of  New  York,  by  im- 
prisonment in  the  state  prison  6  years  and  a  fine 
of  $1,000.  Bribery  of  an  elector  is  punished  by 
imprisonment  one  year  and  a  fine  of  $600.  As 
before  remarked,  judicial  purity  has  been  main- 
tained in  this  country,  4>ut  all  penalties  against 
improper  infiuence  at  elections,  and  upon  mem- 
bers of  legislative  bodies,  have  been  ineffectual 
both  in  England  and  this  country. 

BRIBIESCA^  or  Bbiviesoa,  a  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  provmce  of  Burgos,  on  the  river  Oca,  on 
the  road  from  Birgos  to  Yittoria.  At  a  meeting 
of  the  cortes  held  here  in  1388,  by  King  Juan  1., 
the  titie  of  prince  of  Asturias  was  conferred  in 
perpetuity  on  the  heir-presumptive  of  the  crown 
of  Spain.    Pop.  in  1852,  2,064. 

BKlOK,abuildingmaterial  made  of  cUy.mould* 
ed  commonly  in  rectangular  blocks,  and  baked 
in  the  sun  or  by  fire.  The  most  ancient  records 
make  mention  of  their  use.  The  early  descend- 
ants of  Noah  found  on  the  plain  in  the  land  of 
Shinar  the  clay  for  theur  construction,  and  "said 
one  to  another,  Go  to,  let  us  make  brick,  and 
burn  them  thoroughly ;  and  they  had  brick  for 
stone,  and  elime  had  thev  for  mortar.''  (Gen.  xL 
3.)  The  slime  was  probably  the  semi-fiuid  bi- 
tumen used  at  early  periods  in  Egypt. and  Pales- 
tine as  a  cement ;  and  no  better  building  mate- 
rials have  ever  since  been  used  than  those  ancient 
bricks,  and  the  natural  mortar  employed  to  bind 
them  together.  The  walls  of  Babylon  were  built 
of  burnt  bricks  laid  in  bitumen,  as  were  the  ex- 
terior walls  of  the  still  existing  mounds,  the 
largest  of  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
tower  of  Babel.  The  interior  of  this  mound  is 
filled  np  with  unburnt  bricks  set  in  clay,  with 
layers  of  reeds  between  every  5  or  6  courses. 
In  other  parts  of  the  work  the  bricks  were  laid 
in  lime-mortar  of  exceeding  toughness.  Erom 
the  frequent  reference  to  i^he  making  of  brick 
in  the  Old  Testament,  the  manu&cture  appears 
to  have  been  an  important  one  with  the  Israel- 
ites and  Egyptians.  It  was  a  principal  task 
imposed  by  the  latter  npon  their  captives.  The 
gathering  of  straw  and  stubble  for  mixing  with 
the  day  indicates  that  they  were  sun-dried,  like 
those  seen  at  this  day  in  some  of  the  pyramids 
of  Egypt  Upon  one  of  these,  probably  the  brick 
pyramid  of  Howara,  10  leagues  from  Cairo,  was 
lormerly  an  inscription,  cited  by  Herodotus,  of 
which  uie  following  is  a  translation:  "Do  not 
undervalue  me  bv  comparing  me  with  pyra- 
mids of  stone.  Ix>r  I  am  better  than  they,  as 
Jove  exceeds  the  other  deities.    I  am  made  of 


678 


BRIOK 


bricks  from  elay,  broagBt  up  from  the  bottom 
of  the  lake  adhering  to  poles."  The  same  ma- 
terial was  used  for  other  structures  of  high 
antiquity.  The  Greeks  gave  particular  atten- 
tion to  the  qoality  being  perfectly  adapted  to 
the  nse  to  which  mey  were  to  be  applied ;  in 
some  mstances,  as  stated  by  Pliny,  not  allowing 
them  to  be  used  nntil  after  they  had  been  sea- 
soned 5  years,  and  then  obtained  the  approval 
of  a  magistrate.  The  palaces  of  Oroasns,  king  €^ 
Lydia,  of  Mansolns  of  Halicamassas,  and  of  At- 
tains of  Tralles,  some  of  the  ancient  temples  of 
Athens,  and  the  walls  of  that  city  looking  to- 
ward Mount  Hymettus,  were  built  of  this  ma- 
terial The  Bomans  perfectly  understood  the 
lurt  as  the  bricks  in  the  baths  of  Titus  and  Oara- 
calla  bear  witness.  The  stone  of  the  Colosseum 
has  not  proved  bo  durable.  In  the  ruins  of 
their  forts^  walls,  &c.,  in  Great  Britain,  they  are 
found  of  an  excellent  quality,  of  a  deep  red  color, 
well  burnt,  and  verj  hard.  The  brick  made  by 
their  successors  in  Enghmd  was  not  particularly 
noteworthy  until  about  the  middle  of  the  14th 
Century.  In  the  time  of  Henr^III.  and  Queen 
Elizabeth  so  good  an  article  was  produced,  that 
it  was  employed  in  the  construction  of  many 
fine  edifiees.  In  modem  times  the  manufacture 
is  more  remarkable  for  the  immense  scale  upon 
which  it  is  conducted,  than  for  the  good 
quality  of  the  product — a  fact  attributed  by  the 
English  writers  to  the  practice  so  generally 
adopted  in  London  of  building  houses  upon 
lands  leased  for  a  certain  period,  at  the  ezpira* 
tion  of  which  the  property  reverts  to  the  owner 
of  the  ground.  The  l>utch  appear  to  have  suc- 
ceeded better  than  the  English  to  the  skill  of 
the  Romans.  Their  bricks  have  been  famous 
from  an  early  period  for  their  soundness  and 
durability.  So  substantial  were  they,  that  they 
served  well  for  the  floors  of  houses,  and  even 
for  the  pavement  of  the  streets.  Specimens  of 
Holland  brick,  brought  over  by  the  early  set- 
tlers, are'  to  be  met  with  in  some  of  the  old 
Dutch  houses  of  New  York.  Among  the  Asi- 
atic nations  the  manufacture  has  continued  at  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  from  the  remotest 
periods.  In  the  hiUv  country  of  Kepaul  to  the 
north  of  Bengal,  bricks  are  now  made  of  such  re- 
markably compact  texture,  and  so  elegantly 
ornamented  upon  their  surface,  as  to  be  pecu- 
liarly fitted  for  architectural  decorations.  The 
Chinese  ^vo  to  the  face  of  their  brick  the  tex- 
ture of  porcelain.  The  ancient  Peruvians  ex- 
celled in  the  manufacture  of  brick,  as  in  many 
other  of  the  useful  arts.  Their  edifices,  whether 
of  porphyry,  granite,  or  brick,  built  after  one 
type,  80  that  one  would  say,  as  Humboldt  re- 
marks, that  a  nng^e  architect  had  constructed 
them  all,  excited  the  admiration  of  the  early 
Spanish  adventurers  for  the  excellence  of  the 
materials,  and  the  solidity  with  which  they 
were  put  together.  UHoa,  after  carefully  ex- 
amining the  large  bricks,  was  confident  there 
must  have  been  some  secret  in  their  composition, 
which  was  lost  in  his  time,  so  superior  were 
they  to  those  made  by  any  process  then  known. 


They  foPQ  described  by  Pt^soott  as  large  blocks 
or  squares,  made  of  a  tenaeious  earth  mixed  up 
with  reeds  or  tough  grass. — ^The  plastic  nature 
of  day  and  its  property  of  hardening  by  beat 
into  a  substance  like  stone  are  qualities  so  obvi- 
ously adapting  it  for  building  purposes,  par- 
ticuLsurly  where  good  stone  is  not  to  be  obtained, 
that  no  people  requiring  permanent  dweffings 
have  failed  to  perceive  them,  and  avail  tiiem- 
selves  of  its  use.  But  clay  is  not  an  article  of 
uniform  oomposition,  and  all  that  is  met  with 
is  by  no  means  adapted  to  this  manu&cture 
without  some  admixture  of  other  subetanees. 
The  purer  aluminous  earths  consist  of  about  S 
parts  of  silica  to  1  of  alumina,  together  with  a 
fairer  or  smaller  proportion  of  water.  They 
are  remarkable  for  their  plastidity  and  mixing 
freely  with  any  quantity  of  water.  But  tnck 
materials,  if  moulded  and  baked,  would  shrink 
greatly  and  bend  and  warp ;  cracks  too  would 
be  produced  from  the  outside  hardening  be- 
fore the  moisture  of  the  interior  oould  escape 
through  the  viscid  mass.  Such  rich  or  &t  days 
require  to  be  tempered  with  sand,  or  dndeis 
and  ashes,  which  render  their  texture  more 
open,  so  that  they  retain  their  form ;  bnt  they 
may  vrithout  this  tempering  serve  for  baking 
into  thin  sheets  as  tiles.  The  quantity  of  sand 
or  other  substance  required  for  any  day  can 
only  be  determined  by  actual  experiment.  Any 
strange  elay  should  always  be  tested  by  making 
some  bricks  of  it  before  its  quality  is  pronomiced 
upon.  Some  clays  contain  a  proper  proportion 
of  sand  naturally  mixed  with  them.  Oth»« 
contain  too  much,  and  the  bricks  from  these 
will  fall  to  pieces.  Admixture  of  iauer  clays 
is  the  only  method  of  makins  such  nsefd;  un- 
less an  expensive  process  be  adopted  of  aospend- 
inff  the  earth  in  water,  and  drawing  off  and 
ooUeoting  that  which  is  hdd  longest  in  sus- 
pension. Beside  the  sandy  clays  or  loam,  cd- 
careous  clays  or  marl  are  sometimes  nsed  for 
the  manufacture  of  brick;  but  if  mudi  lime  be 
present,  the  compound  may  be  too  fumble  ^to 
answer  the  purpose  of  making  good  brick.  Ox- 
ide of  iron  is  rardy  absent  In  the  process  of 
burning  it  is  converted  into  the  peroxide,  and 
imparts  to  the  whole  brick  its  red  color,  more 
or  less  deep  according  to  the  degree  of  oxida- 
tion. The  first  of  the  following  analyses  is 
of  a  day  highly  charged  with  oxide  of  iron, 
given  in  Enapp^s  "  Chemicd  Tedmology."  It 
is  largely  used  in  the  neighborhood  of  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  for  making  brick.  The  quantity 
of  water  is  less  than  is  commonly  given  in 
the  andyses  of  days.  The  second  is  of  a  di^ 
suitable  for  potters*  nse  or  the  manu&ctnre  of 
brick: 

SUIa 4S.44  ^5 

Alamlna. M.M  S8.S 

Protoxide  of  iron. 7.74  1.0 

Lion. 1.48  8.5 

Water....: l.M  IS.O 

Ks^esiA. 6.14  Loos,     0.8 

100.00  100.00 

The  more  tne  the  day  is  from  other  ingredi- 


BRIOK 


679 


entB  tbim  silica  and  ftlomina^  the  bettor  adaptod 
it  18  for  inakiDg  bricks  tbat  withatand  high 
temperatures.  Claj  taken  freshly  from  its  bed, 
eyen  if  of  saitable  composition,  is  not  in  a  con* 
dition  to  be  at  once  moulded  into  brick.  It 
must  first  be  exposed  to  the  weather  until  its 
particles  are  disintegrated,  and  it  can  be  kneaded 
into  a  mass  of  uniform  consistency.  This  is 
best  effected  by  the  action  of  frost,  the  water 
diffused  through  the  substance  expanding  by 
freezing  and  breaking  it  in  every  direction. 
The  longer  the  exposure  is  continued  the  more 
effectually  is  the  day  reduced.  This  is  followed 
by  oorering  the  day  with  water  and  leaving  it 
for  a  short  time  in  a  pit  or  tank.  The  knead- 
ing was  formerly  conducted  by  treading  of 
horses,  oxen,  or  men ;  and  the  work  was  no 
doubt  more  efBciently  done  by  the  naked  feet 
of  men  than  by  the  machinery  afterward  intro- 
duced for  this  purpose;  for  the  lumps,  stones, 
sticks,  iDo^  mixed  with  the  day  were  thus 
readily  detected  and  removed.  The  pug-mill 
is  the  first  form  of  machinery  introduc^  for 
grinding  the  day.  It  is  a  conical  or  cylindrical 
tub.  Btandiug  on  end,  with  a  shaft  passing  ver- 
tically through  it,  armed  with  blades,  which 
cut  and  knead  the  day  ddivered  in  the  top, 
forcing  it  down  by  their  oblique  position  to  ^e 
line  of  the  shaft,  as  this  is  carried  round  by  a 
horse  attached  to  a  horizontal  arm.  The  day 
thus  ground  and  kneaded  continually  passes 
throng  an  opening  in  the  bottom  of  the  miU, 
and  is  then  out  into  convenient  pieces  and 
stadced  away  for  use.  It  must  then  be  handled 
again  for  moulding  it,  and  the  practice  was 
formerly  to  dash  with  force  a  quantity  into  the 
mould,  which  was  a  box  of  wood  or  of  brass 
without  top  or  bottom,  and  then  strike  off  what 
was  superfluous.  The  mould  is  always  sanded 
to  prevent  the  day  adhering  to  it.  A  box  con- 
taining a  row  of  5  or  7  moiuds  open  at  bottom 
was  uterward  contrived  to  run  m  under  the 
lower  part  of  the  pug-mill  and  receive  the  day, 
the  further  exit  of  which  was  at  the  same  time 
arrested  nntO  another  box  of  moulds  replaced 
the  one  just  removed*  The  work  was  thus 
rendered  more  expeditious  with  less  expenditure 
of  labor.  In  whatever  way  the  kneading  is 
conducted,  espedal  care  is  taken  to  separate 
from  the  day  roots,  sticks,  and  pebbles,  the 
presence  of  which  in  the  bricks  would  disfigure 
and  weaken  them.  Even  if  the  stones  were 
bnried  in  the  interior  of  the  bricks  a  cavity 
would  be  left  around  them,  for  the  reason  that 
the  stones  first  expand  while  the  clay  contracts 
by  heating,  and  aiterward  contract  by  coding 
in  a  much  greater  degree  than  the  clay.  In 
tempering  the  day,  it  was  long  since  found 
highly  advantageous  at  the  great  brick  yards 
near  London  to  introduce  a  portion  of  coal 
ashes,  which  always  contain  more  or  less  fine 
coal.  The  use  of  fine  anthradte  was  intro- 
duced for  the  same  purpose  at  the  kilns  on  the 
Hudson  river  in  1838,  and  has  been  found  so 
serviceable  that  it  has  been  ever  since  continued. 
The  quantity  employed  is  about  75  bushds  to 


100,000  bricks.  It  is  thoronghly  intermixed  in 
the  kneading,  and  has  the  effect  of  saving  a 
portion  of  the  fuel,  while  it  diminishes  the  time 
of  burning;  the  quality  of  the  bricks,  however, 
is  not  so  good,  as  of  those  made  in  the  old  wa> 
For  drying  the  bricks  previously  to  baking,  the 
first  requisite  is  a  smooth  levd  yard  fully  exposed 
to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  or,  if  covered  by  a  roof, 
open  to  a  free  droulation  of  air  all  around.  To 
this  the  moulds  containing  the  bricks  are 
brought,  and  being  placed  upon  the  ground, 
are  cautiously  lifted  off,  leaving  the  bricks 
behind.  T^ey  are  arranged  in  rows,  and 
in  case  of  rain,  if  not  under  a  roof^  must  be 
covered  with  boards,  as  they  are  in  danger  of 
being  washed  away.  The  drying  should  be 
thorough,  or  the  bricks  will  be  likely  to  crack 
in  bakmg.  After  depositing  the  bricks  on  the 
dryiuff  fioor,  the  moulds  are  taken  back,  are 
dipDed  in  water,  and  then  into  sand,  ana  are 
refly  to  be  refilled.  The  bricks  are  left  upon 
the  drying  ground  a  longer  or  shorter  time  ac- 
cording to  the  weather,  and  when  well  dried 
are  removed  to  be  baked.  This  is  effected  in 
England  sometimes  in  permanent  kilns,  whidi 
hold  as  many  as  20,000  bricks,  and  which  are 
filled  and  emptied  like  those  for  baking  earthen 
ware,  the  burning  being  completed  in  about  48 
hours.  The  meUiod  in  common  use  in  this 
country  of  piling  the  green  bricks  upon  one 
another  to  make  their  own  kiln  is  also  adopted 
there;  but  the  arrangement  is  called. a  damp 
instead  of  a  kiln.  By  this  method  half  a  mil- 
lion bricks,  or  even  a  million,  are  burned 
in  one  opco^tion.  A  central  double  wall  is 
built  lengthwise  along  the  kiln,  its  lower  por- 
tion of  bricks  already  baked,  and  on  each  side 
are  parallel  lonffitudinal  fire-fiues  built  of  on- 
burnt  brick,  laid  very  open;  over  them  the 
great  body  of  brick  is  piled  after  an  exact  sys- 
tem, vertical  fiues  ascending  to  the  top,  and  the 
whole  work  being  laid  in  an  open  manner  for 
the  free  circulation  of  the  gases.  The  fires  are 
made  in  one  end  of  the  fiues,  and  the  heat  is 
increased  by  the  combustion  of  the  small  coal 
which  was  scattered  throughout  the  heap  aa  it 
was  built  up.  The  top  and  sides  of  these  damps 
are  usually  built  of  bricks  that  have  been  ahreaay 
once  baked.  The  underbaked  bricks  of  previous 
firings  may  thus  be  conveniently  finished. 
Over  the  whole  a  covering  of  loam  is  some- 
times laid  to  prevent  the  fire  from  burning  too 
rapidly;  and  screens  of  wood  or  other  mar 
terial  are  used  to  protect  portions  against  the 
wind.  The  time  reauired  to  bum  a  kiln  varies 
with  its  extent  ana  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  fired.  The  English  accounts  state:  "So 
very  dow  is  the  progress  that  bricks  in  the 
neighborhood  of  London  take  about  8  months  in 
the  burning.^'  The  time  formerly  required  on  Uie 
Hudson  river  for  burning  the  great  damps  of 
from  800,000  to  1,000,000  bricks  was  about  2 
weeks,  and  the  consumption  of  oak  wood 
was  about  40  cords  to  100,000  bricks.  The 
quantity  usually  regarded  as  sufiident  is,  how- 
ever, only  ^^  cordis    After  the  introduction  of 


680 


BBICK 


anfiiraolte  dost  in  the  olay,  the  time  of  burning 
was  redaoed,  according  to  Prof.  Mather  (Greolog, 
Report,  p.  144),  to  8  or  4  days,  and  the  con- 
sumption  of  fuel  to  16  oords  to  100,000  bricks. 
The  mere  expenses  of  burning  this  number  of 
bricks  are  rated  in  the  report  at  $80  for  16  oords 
of  wood,  $8  for  76  bushels  of  anthracite  dust, 
and  $6  for  4  days'  attendance ;  total,  $89.  The 
preparation  of  the  day,  moulding,  drying,  build* 
iDg  up  of  the  kilo,  waste,  dec,  make  all  together 
a  larger  amount  than  the  buruing.  Aa  the 
brides  in  a  damp  are  exposed  tq  great  differ- 
ences of  temperature,  they  are  found  of  yarious 
qualities,  when  the  process  of  burning  is  com- 
pleted. Those  near  the  flues  are  parti^y  yitri- 
ned  and  mdted  together.  Ulany  are  dighthr 
fused  on  the  sur&ce,  and  baked  to  a  stony  hard- 
ness. These  are  called  dinker-bricks,  and  are 
used  in  situations  where  they  will  be  exposed  to 
the  weather,  or  to  rough  wear.  The  soft  bricks 
are  selected  to  be  laidn^r  work  in  shdteredtit* 
nations.  The  yery  slackest  baked  are  returned 
to  the  next  kiln. — ^The  immense  consumption  of 
bricks  in  cities  has  made  it  an  important  object 
to  reduce  the  labor  employed  in  ^eir  manuflGuy 
ture  as  much  as  possible,  and  consequently  a 

Sreat  deal  of  ingenuity  has  been  expended  in 
evising  machinery  for  grinding  and  moulding 
the  day.  The  number  of  patents  issued  in 
Great  Britfun  was  recently  stated  to  be  280. 
The  great  number  of  these  machines  renders  it 
impossible  to  more  than  mention  the  general 
principles  upon  which  they  are  constructed. 
One  has  already  been  referred  to,  in  which  the 
moulds  are  filled  in  the  lower  part  of  the  milL 
Others,  on  the  same  plan,  are  furnished  with  a 
contriyanoe  for  pushing  out  the  brick  from  the 
mould,  and  the  mould  is  then  instantly  returned 
to  be  refilled.  Some  on  this  plan  hayeonly 
single  moulds ;  others  a  frame  containing  seye- 
ral,  which  reyolyes  upon  a  plate  or  the  bottom 
of  a  cylinder,  and  into  this  the  day  is  forced  by 
a  steam  piston.  Another  class  is  oontriyed  to 
force  along  a  continuous  rectangular  block  of 
day  of  the  size  of  the  brick,  which  is  cut  by  a 
wire,  as  it  passes  out  of  the  machine,  into  the 
right  lengths.  Other  machines  haye  been  made 
to  stamp  out  the  brick  from  a  cake  of  clay  of 
the  proper  thickness,  as  cakes  are  stamped  from 
a  sheet  of  dough.  In  seyeral  machines,  as  the 
day  is  deliyercd  into  the  moulds,  it  is  subjected 
to  the  pressure  of  a  heayy  roller,  and  as  the 
moulds  pass  from  under  this,  the  clay  is  scraped 
off  smoothly,  and  the  fiice  is  handsomdy  finish- 
ed by  the  action  of  gauge-plates  and  kniyes. 
l£aohines  are  also  in  operation  which  pulyerize 
the  dry  day,  and  press  this  into  moulds  ready 
for  burning.  8ufBcient  moisture  is  always  pres- 
ent  to  insure  cohesion  of  the  day.  A  patent 
for  this  was  granted  in  Dec.  1847,  to  Mr.  Nathan 
Bawyer,  of  Baltimore.  Another  on  the  same 
principle  was  inyented  and  patented  by  Wood- 
worth  andMowen,  of  Boston,  which  worked  by 
a  steam  engine  of  20  horse  power,  pulyerized 
and  screened  the  day,  and  moulded  and  pressed 
2,500  brioks  per  hour.    The  pressure  U  applied 


by  a  hammer  or  ram  sometimes  of  4,000  IbSL 
weight.  The  whole  machinei  as  originally  made, 
wdghed  with  the  pulyeriser  and  screen  oyer  20 
tons.  Bricks  are  thus  made  on  Staten  Island, 
and  extensiyely  used  in  New  Tork«  They  |»o- 
sent  a  smooth  appearance,  but  the  edges  are  not 
firm  and  sharp,  md  thus  do  not  weaker  as  well 
as  the  beautiful  bride  brought  from  Philadel- 

Ehia  and  Baltimore.  These  haye  the  adyantage, 
oweyer,  of  a  better  material,  as  well  as  a  more 
perfect  method  of  manu&ctare.  In  order  to 
diminish  the  weight  of  bridEs,  they  haye  been 
made  partially  hollow  on  one  side— an  effect 
produced  by  the  mould-  haying  a  rectangular 
block  projecting  from  its  bottom.  From  some 
experiments  made  not  long  nnce  in  Belfiist,  Ire* 
land,  with  a  powerful  hydraulic  press,  to  asoer- 
tdn  the  comparatiye  strength  of  these  bricks  it 
would  appear  that  they  sustain  a  much  heayier 
pressure  than  the  solid  bricks  of  ordinary  good 
quality.  The  experiments  were  tried  upon  piers 
of  each  kind,  one  9  inches  and  one  18  iiu^es 
square,  laid  in  Roman  cement  The  mean  resolts 
were,  that  the  solid  brick  was  crushed  wiUi  a 

Eresi»ure  of  68}  tons  to  the  square  foot;  the 
oUow  brick  with  184}  tons.  Bricks  haye  also 
been  hollowed  out  on  one  side,  with  a  yiew  of 
forming,  when  laid,  yentilating  flues  in  the  wall, 
the  oaylties  in  adjacent  bricks  being  brought 
opposite  to  each  oUier. — ^The  red  color  of  bride, 
as  before  stated,  is  owing  to  the  peroxidation  of 
the  iron  contained  in  the  day.  If  the  iron  is 
deficient  or  only  partially  oxidized  through  in* 
sufficient  heat,  the  bricks  are  of  a  pale  cdor. 
The  clay  in  the  yicinity  of  Milwaukee,  Wiscon- 
sin, is  remarkably  free  from  iron,  and  the  bricks 
made  of  it  are  of  an  agreeable  straw  color,  with 
no  tinge  of  redness.  These  are  so  higUy  yalned, 
that  they  are  transported  ey en  to  New  York  dty, 
where  several  ^ne  structures  haye  been  built 
of  them;  Trinity  building,  just  aboye  Trinity 
church,  is  one  of  these.  Other  colors  may  be 
imparted  to  brick,  provided  that  of  the  oxide  of 
iron  does  not  oyeipower  all  other  coloring  mat- 
ters introduced.  In  England,  it  is  stated  sadi 
bricks  have  been  manufiactured,  which  present  a 
beautiful  appearance.  American  bricks  tuj  in 
size  in  the  different  states,  running  from  7i  to  8( 
inches  in  length,  4  to  4(  in  width,  and  from 
2i  to  2i  in  thickness.  In  New  York  5  courses 
of  front  brick  are  usually  allowed  to  the  foot  in 
hei^^ht.  In  New  Enghind-the  brick  would 
make  this  without  the  mortar.  In  New  York, 
21  common  bricks  are  redconed  to  the  cubic 
foot  of  wall  laid.  The  weight  is  commonly 
reckoned  at  4  lbs.  to  the  brick ;  but  this  yaries 
of  course  with  tiie  size,  with  the  amount  of 
pressure  to  which  the  day  has  been  sul^ected, 
and  the  heat  applied  in  baking.  Soft  htick  may 
contain  seyeral  ounces  more  of  water  than  a 
dinker-brick  of  the  same  quantity  of  original 
material.  English  bricks  are  commonly  9  inches 
long,  4^  wide,  and  2i  thick.— UmuBirr  Bbiok. 
These  are  highly  reconunended  by  Mr.  Ells- 
worth, late  commissioner  of  patents,  for  the 
eonstmotion  of  cottages.    He  built  seyeral  of 


BRICK 


681 


thoM,  and  fonnd  flie  material  cheap  and  dura- 
Hie*  The  clay  is  well  trodden  with  cattle,  and  2 
bundles  of  straw,  cat  in  6  inch  lengths,  are 
added  to  enough  for  every  100  bricks.  Moulds 
are  prepared  of  planlc,  with  a  bottom,  but  this 
must  not  be  air-tigiit.  They  may  be  a  loot  long, 
6  inches  wide,  and  4  inches  deep*  The  moulding 
is  done  by  hand,  and  the  surplus  clay  is  struck 
off  with  a  strip  of  ux)n.  As  the  bricks  are  dis* 
obarged  from  the  moulds  they  are  set  on  edge  to 
dry,  and  the  second  day  are  turned  over.  In  8 
days,  if  the  weather  be  dry,  they  are  ready  to  be 
piled  up  under  cover,  where  they  should  lie  two 
weeks  or  more  before  using.  In  building  walls, 
the  foundation  should  be  of  other  material,  and 
a  layer  of  shite  or  burnt  brick,  laid  in  cement, 
should  protect  the  unbumt  brick  from  the 
dampness  arising  from  the  ground.  Walls  of 
cottages  are  built  the  lenffth  of  one  brick  thick, 
with  courses  of  alternate  headers  and  stretchers. 
This  is  the  mode  of  laymg  brick  known  as  the 
old  English  bond.  It  is  necessary  to  con- 
struct tiie  roof  projecting  2  feet  or  more  over 
the  walla,  and  tnese  may  be  further  protected 
by  plastering,  and  a  second  coat  pebble-dashed. 
(See  Adobe  Houses.)  In  France,  as  near  Lyons, 
not  cottages  merely,  but  some  of  the  villas  of 
such  pretensions  that  their  inner  walls  are 
painted  in  fresco,  are  built  in  this  manner. — 
FtoATiNo  Bbigk3.  A  Very  light  silicious  earth 
is  occasionally  met  with,  of  which  bricks  have 
been  make  that  float  upon  the  water.  Clay  may 
be  added  to  the  silica,  if  required,  to  bind  the 
material  together.  Such  bricks  were  made  in 
ancient  times,  and  were  described  by  Posidonius 
and  Strabo,  and  particularly  commended  by 
Vitruvius,  Pollio,  and  Pliny.  In  1791,  they 
were  again  brought  into  notice  by  Giovanni 
Fabroni  in  Tuscany.  The  bricks  are  remarkable 
not  onl^  for  their  extreme  lightness,  but  also 
for  their  infusibility,  and  for  being  very  poor 
conductors  of  heat.  They  may  be  held  by  one  end 
while  the  other  is  red  hot.  Similar  earth, 
fonnd  by  Ehrenberg  to  consist  of  microscopic 
silicious  shells,  has  been  discovered  in  France 
and  at  Berlin,  and  it  is  probably  the  same 
whitish  substance,  that  is  onen  found  under  our 
peat  bogs.  (See  Cla.t.)  Bricks  made  of  it  are 
about  one-fourth  the  weight  of  ordinary  bricks. 
At  Berlin,  made  with  r^  mixture  of  common 
day,  they  were  used  for  building  the  museum. — 
Firb-Bbioks.  When  bricks  are  required  to 
withstand  high  temperatures,  they  are  made  of 
the  most  infusible  days,  such  as  contain  fh>m 
63  to  80  per  cent,  of  silica,  with  ftom  18  to  25 
per  cent  of  alumina,  and  the  remainder  water. 
Oxide  of  iron  may  be  present,  but  the  light 
oolor  of  fire-brick  shows  that  this  is  in  very 
amall  quantity.  Lime  would  render  the  mix- 
ture fosible,  and  this  is  necessarily  always  absent. 
Such  olays  are  of  common  occurrence  m  the  bi« 
tnminous  coal  measures,  where  they  are  found 
making  the  floor  or  underlying  stratum  of  the 
coal-bMSL  The  material  is  indurated,  so  that 
it  is  broken  up  like  a  soft  stone.  When  used,  it 
ia  ground  in  a  mUl,  and  mixed  with  fragments  of 


previously  baked  fire-brick,  or  of  some  refractory 
stone,  or  with  a  coarse,  clean  silicious  sand  and 
graveU  The  materials  are  made  into  a  paste  with 
water,  moulded  in  hand-moulds,  and  baked  in 
permanent  kilns  at  a  very  high  temperature. 
Good  clay  for  fire-brick  is  also  found  associatea 
with  other  clays  of  more  recent  formations.  The 
potters'  day  formation  found  at  South  Amboy, 
Kew  Jersey,  contains  beds  of  excellent  quality, 
together  with  others  of  very  pure  sand,  suitable 
for  mixing  with  the  clay.  The  manufacture  of 
fire-brick  has  long  been  carried  on  at  this  locality. 
At  Athens,  opposite  Hudson,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Hudson  river,  is  another  locality  where  good 
fire-bricks  have  long  been  made.  At  Benning- 
ton, Vermont,  an  excdlent  clay  is  found  of 
the  character  of  kaolin,  from  which  fire-bricks 
of  very  refractory  quality  are  made  by  mix- 
ing with  it  stones  that  withstand  heat,  crush- 
ed sufficiently  fine.  These  bricks  are  exten- 
sively employed  at  the  blast  furnaces  in  that 
part  of  the  country.  It  is  for  the  lining  of 
such  furnaces  that  fire-bricks  are  principally 
in  demand,  and  for  this  use  they  are  prepared 
of  a  variety  of  sizes  and  shapes,  adapted  to  fit 
the  curves  in  the  lining  of  the  stacks,  and  the 
arches  of  the  flues.  The  standard  size  to  which 
all  the  larger  bricks  are  referred  in  reckoning 
then*  number  is  that  of  the  common  rectangular 
fire-brick,  which  measures  9  inches  in  length,  4^ 
in  breadth,  and  2i  in  width ;  of  these  the  weight 
is  7  lbs.  These  bricks,  specially  adapted  to  each 
pattern,  are  also  employed  as  a  lining  for  the 
anthracite  coal  stoves  so  extensively  in  use  in  the 
United  States. — ^Bbioklatino.  The  form  and 
proportions  of  the  faces  of  brick  to  each  other 
are  such,  that  they  may  be  laid  in  various  meth- 
ods, according  as  the  object  is  to  produce  the 
greatest  strength  of  wall,  or  the  most  pleasing 
effects.  Ornamental  work,  as  cornices,  beads, 
dsc,  is  produced  by  causing  courses  of  brick  to 
project  beyond  the  plane  of  the  rest  By  the 
introduction  of  mortar,  bricks,  notwithstanding 
their  rectangular  shape,  are  curried  round  to 
form  arches  of  any  desired  curve;  they  are 
easily  broken  also  into  any  required  shape  by 
the  trowel,  and  thus  are  made  to  receive,  if  de- 
sired, the  approximate  form  of  arched  brick* 
Fire-bricks,  as  mentioned  above,  are  moulded  in 
shapes  for  laying  curves,  as  also  common  bricks 
for  the  lining  of  wells,  ^  In  kying  walla,  the 
first  principle  to  be  observed  is  causing  the 
bricks  of  successive  courses  to  overlan  each 
other,  so  that  the  joint  between  2  is  overlaid  by 
the  middle  of  a  brick.  The  courses  are  thus 
bound  together,  and  the  greatest  resistance  is 
offered  to  any  force  tending  to  separate  the 
bricks.  As  the  width  of  two  bricks  laid  side 
by  side  equals  the  length  of  one,  the  position 
may  be  reversed  with  each  course,  thus  secur- 
ing additional  strength.  What  is  called  the  old 
English  bond  method  of  laying  a  wall,  which  is 
the  strongest  mode,  is  to  arrange  the  bricks  in 
alternate  courses  of  stretchers  and  headers,  the 
former  being  bricks  laid  longitudinally  with  the 
wall,  and  the  other  transversdy,  presenting 


682 


BRIOK 


BBEDE  AXD  BRIDEGROOM 


tbeir  eods  or  heads  onlj  to  thelkoeof  the  "wtSL 
Kezt  the  oomer,  a  qoarter  brick  on  the  row  of 
headers  most  be  intruduoed,  so  that  the  stretch* 
ers  overlying  maj  lap  to  the  middle  of  the  second 
headers.  The  headers  are  also  oalled  binden^ 
from  their  effect  in  binding  the  bricks  of  the 
other  ooorses  together.  Owing  to  their  pre* 
senting  a  greater  number  of  joints  in  the  face  of 
the  wall,  their  effect  is  not  so  pleasing  as  is  that 
of  the  stretchers,  and  it  is  too  often  the  case 
that  the  front  walls  oi  costly  edifices  are  seen 
too  largely  built  of  stretohm^  merely  for  the 
sake  of  their  better  effect  In  New  York  city 
it  b  required  by  the  fire  laws  that  1  course  in  6 
shall  be  headers.  This  is  effected,  while  stretch- 
ers only  are  seen  on  the  fiice,  by  laying  every 
5ch  course  in  what  is  called  herring-bone,  break- 
ing off  the  back  corners  of  the  stretchers  to  let 
the  comers  of  the  brick  behind  come  nearly 
to  the  outside  line  of  the  wolL  In  the  Flernl^ 
bond  the  bricks  are  laid  alike  in  each  course,  a 
header  and  stretcher  alternating  along  the  course. 
The  effect  is  thought  to  be  more  pleasing  than 
the  English  bond,  but  at  the  sacrifice  of  some 
strength.  Walls  vary  in  thickness  bv  the  dif- 
ference of  the  width  of  a  brick.  They  are  8 
inches  or  the  length  of  a  brick  thick,  12  inches 
or  a  brick  and  a  half,  16  inches  or  2  bricks^  and 
so  on.  Laid  in  Englbh  bond,  all  the  bricks  on 
one  course  must  be  placed  in  the  same  direction, 
even  when  the  wall  turns  at  right  angles,  and  in 
turning  the  comer  no  2  bricks  must  be  arranged 
side  by  side,  but  the  end  of  one  must  lap  to  the 
middle  of  the  next  contiguous  to  it,  excepting 
where  the  quarter  brick  is  introduced  at  the  cor- 
ners to  prevent  a  continued  upright  Joint  in  the 
face  work.  The  work  is  strengthened  by  the 
occasional  introduction  of  pieces  of  hoop-iron, 
which  bind  it  together,  particularly  if  the  iron  is 
somewhat  rusty,  which  causes  the  mortar  to  ad- 
here better.  The  bricks,  in  dry  weather  espe- 
cially, should  be  wet  before  being  laid,  for  the 
same  object  of  uniting  more  closely  with  the  mor- 
tar. As  the  wall  is  built  up,  no  part  should,  at 
any  time,  reach  more  than  4  or  6  feet  above  the 
rest ;  for  unless  all  upon  the  same  level  settles 
together,  cracks  will  be  produced  where  the 
newer  work  is  joined  upon  the  older. — ^UoUow 
walls,  long  a  favorite  mode  of  constraction  in 
various  parts  of  Europe,  are  highly  recommend- 
ed by  the  kte  A.  J.  Downing,  as  by  far  the  best 
mode  of  building  brick  houses,  and  various  plans 
of  hiying  the  brick  for  8-inoh,  12-inch,  and  16* 
inch  walls,  are  civen  in  his  "  Architecture  of 
Country  Houses.'^  The  method  has  been  adopt- 
ed in  nearly  all  the  best  villas  at  New  Haven. 
Its  advantages  over  solid  walls  of  the  same 
thickness,  are-Hi  saving  in  bricks  and  mortar ; 
also  in  the  lathing  and  studding  for  furring  off,  the 
air  space  for  preventing  dampness  being  in  the 
wall  itself;  and,  lastly,  greater  security  against 
the  spreading  of  fire,  as  no  combustible  material 
is  introduced  in  the  walls.  The  8-inch  wall  in- 
troduced by  Mr.  Deam,  an  English  builder,  is 
worthy  of  particular  notice  for  its  great  economy. 
He  describes  it  as  requiring  only  one-third  of 


the  bricks  and  one-half  of  the  inortar  of  a  f 
mon  solid  wall  of  the  same  thickneas.  It  ii 
sufficiently  strong  foramall  cottages,  and,  heisg 
hollow,  is  warmer  in  winter  and  cooler  in 
•amroer  than  a  solid  walL  Two  rows  d 
stretchers  are  first  laid  on  edge  tiie  wM 
length  of  the  wall,  so  that  they  are  coveted  bj 
the  next  course,  which  is  one  of  headers.  Upoa 
this  the  stretchers  are  kid  again  in  2  ptnM 
rows,  and  covered  by  another  layer  of  header 
The  mortar  between  the  headers  at  their  ends 
causes  an  open  qiace  between  them  in  the  mid- 
dle, and  thus  the  mr  qiaoea  <^  the  oomxid 
stretchers  are  all  connected.  As  the  headers  go 
entirely  through,  they  serve  to  convey  dampoen 
from  the  outside,  and  oonseqnently  a  wall  of 
this  thickness  should  have  a  protecting  cost«{ 
stucco  or  cement  upon  the  outside. 

BRIDAINE,  Jacques,  a  French  preacte, 
bom  Harch  21,  1701,  died  Dec  22, 1767.  He 
surpassed  the  greatest  orators  in  tho  power  of 
moving  an  aodioice  by  hfs  eloqnsaoe,  nd 
going  forth  in  the  cities  of  France  widi  Inslk- 
tle  bell,  would  rivet  the  attention  of  nwltitsdei. 
Mauy  extraordinary  conversiona  were  the  fiinss 
of  his  efforts.  He  had  just  aoooDEipIialied  b 
256ih  raistton  when  he  died. 

BRIDE  Aim  BBIDEaROOlC  aiB  dented 
from  2  Ang^o-Siucon  words,  hridatn  and  gfam, 
and  mean  the  cherished  and  cberiabR-,  bnls 
being  applied  to  the  newly  married  wife,  asd 
bridegroom  to  the  newly  married  husband.  Ai 
the  enjoyment  of  these  titles,  and  of  the  hoaon 
which  belong  to  them,  is  neoeaaarilj  hrieC  ithn 
been  usual,  finom  the  earliest  period  of  antiqiritT, 
to  make  the  most  of  a  bride  and  a  brideipooa 
during  their  ephemeral  existence.     They  exist 
as  such,  indeed,  only  for  one  day,  that  of  the 
wedding ;  becoming,  on  the  next,  simply  he- 
band  and  wife ;  and  in  every  age,  and  anoag 
every  people,  the  wedding-4ay  has  been  de> 
voted  to  joyous  and  solemn  oeremoniea.    It 
was  celebrated  among  the  Athenians  hy  oftr- 
ings  made  in  the  morning  to  particalar  ^vna- 
ties,  to  Zeus  and  Hera,  and  especially  to  Arte- 
mis^ who  was  thought  to  look  with  dls&vw 
upon  marriages^    The  bride  oonseerated  lods 
of  her  hair  to  the  Fates,  and  botii  tfa^  bride  ssd 
bridegroom  bathed  in  water  bron^t  firtaa  soae 
favorite  fountain.    At  night-fall  she  was  coe- 
ducted  to  the  bridegroom's  hoose,  in  a  divi^ 
drawn  by  a  pair  of  mules,  and  funuriwd  vriih  a 
kind  of  couch,  on  which  she  sat  between  bs 
husband  and  one  of  his  nearest  irienda.    She 
was  veiled,  and  all  were  in  th^  best  atkare, 
with  chaplets  about  their  heads.     The  hnM 
procession  moved  on,  greeted  and  accoxnnankd 
by  friends  bearing  nuptial  torches  and  atngmg 
hymenean  songs  to  the  accompaniment  of  Lyd- 
ian  lutes.    As  the  bride  alighteid,  the  axle  of  the 
carriage  was  in  some  parts  of  Greece  boned,  to 
signify  that  she  was  from  that  time  to  remaiB  si 
home ;  and  as  she  entered  throogfa  the  door,  hang 
with  festoons  of  ivy  and  bay,  aweetaxeata  vrae 
showered  upon  her,  as  emblems  of  plen^.   Thea 
followed  the  marriage  £Mst^  to  whidb^  oontivy 


BBroE  AND  BRIDEGROOM 


683 


to  the  Qsmil  Greek  practioo,  women  as  wdl  m 
men  were  invited ;  and,  at  its  dose,  the  bride 
was  oonducted  hj  the  bridegroom  to  her  apart- 
ment, where  a  law  of  Solon  reonired  that  the^ 
should  eat  a  quince  together,  before  the  door 
the  qnthalaminm,  or  bridal  song^  was  sung,  as 
thos  represented  by  Theocritus: 

Tw«1to  BpATtan  TtislnB,  the  Lacontan  bloom, 
Cboired  Deforo  ftir  Helenas  bridal  room ; 
To  the  tame  tane  with  cadence  true  they  beat 
The  rapid  round  of  many  twinkling  feet, 
One  maasore  tripped,  one  song  together  aung^ 
Tlieir  hyinenean  all  the  palace  rung. 

On  the  day  after  the  marriage,  presents  were 
made  to  tlie  newly  married  couple  by  their 
friends. — ^A  relic  of  barbarism  in  the  Spartan 
customs  was  the  pretended  seizure  of  the  bride 
by  liie*  bridegroom,  after  the  preliminaries  of 
marriage  had  been  arranged  with  her  parents 
or  guardians.— Among  the  Romans  the  same 
custom  prevailed,  in  memory  of  the  rape  of  the 
Sabines.  The  wedding  day  was  fixed,  at  least 
in  early  times,  by  consulting  the  auspices,  and 
the  bride  was  attired  in  bright  yeUow  shoes, 
and  a  veil  of  the  same  color,  and  in  a  long 
white  robe,  adorned  with  a  purple  fringe  and 
wiUi  ribbons,  and  bound  about  the  waist  by  a 
girdle  or  zone^  to  be  unloosed  by  the  bride- 
groom. The  Roman  marriage  was  usually, 
though  not  always,  unattended  by  any  relig- 
ious ceremony.  The  bride  was  conducted  to 
the  house  of  the  bridegroom  by  a  procession 
resembling  that  in  the  Greek  ceremony,  and 
bore  in  her  own  hands  the  emblems  of  dili- 
gence, a  distil  and  a  spindle  with  wool.  6he 
wound  wool  around  the  door-posts  of  her  new 
residence,  which  were  also  adorned  with  gar- 
lands and  flowers,  and  was  lifted  across  the 
threshold  by  2  married  men,  since  for  her  to 
have  touched  it  with  her  foot  would  have  been 
an  evil  omen.  The  bridegroom  received  her 
within  with  fire  and  water,  a  svmbol,  perhans, 
of  purification.  She  received  the  keys  of  tne 
house  while  sitting  upon  a  sheepskin,  and  the 
ceremonies  of  the  day  were  concluded  by  a  re- 
past given  to  friends  and  relatives.  The  bridal 
apartment,  to  which  she  was  oonducted  by 
matrons  who  had  not  had  more  than  one  hus- 
band, was  magnificently  decked  with  flowers,  and 
minstrels  and  friends  sang  without  dtuing  the 
night.— Modern  fiishion  hais  cunningly  contrived 
to  lengthen  out  the  privileges  of  bride  and 
bridegroom  beyond  the  brief  da^  which  alone 
belongs  to  them  by  right  and  title.  In  olden 
time,  when  the  wedding  dav  and  its  attendant 
payeties  were  over,  all  bridal  honors  ceased.  It 
IS  true  that,  even  then,  overkind  friends  would 
extend  the  privilegesof  bride  and  bridegroom  un- 
til they  encroached  rather  inconveniently  upon 
those  of  husband  and  wife.  It  was  customary 
to  lengthen  out  the  occasion  by  various  ceremo- 
nies, often  **  more  honored  in  the  breach  than 
the  observance.'^  The  bride  was  undressed  and 
put  to  bed  by  the  bridemaids,  and  the  bride- 
groom submitted  to  the  same  operation,  at  the 
hands  of  the  groomsmen.  Then  the  posset  a 
kind  of  caudle*,  made  up  of  *^  milk|  wine,  yolks 


of  eggs,  sugar,  dnnamon,  and  nntmeg,**  had  to 
be  served.  The  natural  vexation  at  these  te- 
dious ceremonies  is  thus  humorously  expressed 
by  Sir  John  Sodding  in  his  charming  ballad: 

Bnt  Jnat  aa  hear'ns  wonld  have  to  eroas  It, 
In  came  the  bridemaida  with  the  poaiet : 

The  brldeffroom  eat  in  apight; 
For  had  he  left  the  women  to*t 
It  wonld  have  coat  two  hours  to  do% 

Which  were  too  much  that  night 

Then  there  was  sometimes   another  dilatory 
proceeding  in  the  sewing  of  the  bride  in  a  sheet. 
Herrick,  in  his  ^*  Hesperides,"  says,  alluding  to  ' 
this  custom,  prevalent  in  his  day : 

Bnt  ainoe  it  mnat  bo  done,  dispatch  and  aowe 
Up  in  a  thoot  7onr  brida. 

These  formalities  may  have  exhausted  a  good 
portion  of  the  night,  but  they  never  extended 
mto  the  next  daj;,  when  the  newly  married 
pair  lost  their  privileges  as  bride  and  bride- 
groom, and  were  left  to  console  themselves  ever 
after  with  the  sober  duties  of  domestic  life. — 
In  modern  times  the  bride  and  bridegroom,  im- 
mediately i^r  the  marriage  ceremony  and  re- 
ception, go  on  what  is  ciuled  the  bridal  tour, 
lliey  thus,  by  rapid  transitions  from  place  to 
place,  are  able  to  make,  like  a  pair  of  strolling 
players^  at  eaoh  stage  of  their  Journey,  a  first 
appearance,  in  the  characters  of  bride^  and 
bridegroom.  Tlie  privileges  of  this  happy  state 
are  often  thus  prolonged  by  the  cunning  of 
modem  fashion  to  a  fortnight  or  more,  the 
usual  duration  of  the  bridal  tour,  and  which 
prolongation  of  bridal  existence  is  technically 
known  as  the  honeymoon. — The  ordinary  acces- 
u>ries  of  tiie  weddings  of  our  days  may  mostiy 
Be  traced  to  ancient  times.  The  marriage  ring 
probably  encircled  the  finger  of  the  wife  of  the 
first  Pharaoh,  and  it  was  certainly  used  in  the 
Roman  ceremonies,  under  the  emperors.  Its 
heathen  origin  nearly  led  to  its  abolition  by  the 
Puritans'  of  Oromwell^s  time.    Hudibras  says  : 

Others  were  for  abolishing 
That  tool  of  matrimony,  a  rfng^ 
With  which  th'  nnaanctiiy'd  bridegroom 
la  marry^d  only  to  a  thumb. 

The  wedding  ring  is  always  put  and  worn  on 
the  fourth  finger  of  the  left  hand,  because  it  was 
supposed,  in  ancient  times,  that  an  artery  ran 
from  this  part  directly  to  the  heart,  and  there- 
fore that  it  was  tiie  place  whence  this  pledge  of 
love  might  send  its  mysterious  message  most 
readily  to  the  supposed  centre  of  the  affections. 
The  bride  cake  is  no  less  sanctified  by  antiquity 
than  tiie  ring.  It  is  a  symbol  of  plenty,  and  it 
is  intended  to  express  the  hope  that  the  newly 
married  pair  may  be  always  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  the  good  things  of  this  life.  In 
ancient  days  wheat  was  sprinkled  upon  the  head 
of  the  bride  with  the  same  intent,  but  in  latter 
times  the  wheat  has  tfiken  the  more  present- 
able shape  of  a  cake.  Passing  bits  of  tiie  cake 
through  the  wedding  ring  9  times,  and  putting 
th^m  under  the  pillow  to  dream  upon,  was  a 
practice  in  vogue  long  before  our  great-grand- 
mothers lived  and  loved,  and  is  not  yet  obso- 
lete.    Putting  up  the  slioea  in  white  paper 


684        BRIDE  AND  BRIDEGROOU 


BRIDGE 


boxes,  is  an  innoTation  of  the  presenc  age. 
'Wine,  too,  was  an  invariable  oooompaninient 
of  oil  morria^ea,  long  before  the  marriage  feast 
at  Gana.  In  our  age,  it  is  often  dispenscKl  with, 
although  in  times  past  it  was  customaiy  to  drink 
it  in  the  chnrch,  the  priest  having  first  blessed 
the  cup,  however,  to  snit  it  to  the  holiness  of 
the  plac3.  The  Jews  universally  hold  to  the 
custom  of  wine-drinking  on  the  occasion  of  a 
marriage.  The  bride  and  bridegroom  having 
quaffed  their  share,  the  gloss  which  contained  it 
is  broken,  to  remind  them  of  mortality*  This 
was  done  at  the  famous  wedding  in  the  family 
of  the  Rothschilds  at  London,  in  1857.--The 
bridal  kiss  is  of  unknown  antiquity.  The  old 
missals,  which  date  long  before  tlio  "  common 
prayer  book,"  enjoined  it  as  an  essential  part 
of  the  marria^  ceremony.  Moreover,  it  was 
always  done  in  church.  The  priest,  too,  at 
one  time,  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  a  kiss  upon 
the  cheek  of  the  blooming  bride  qb  one  of 
his  perquisites.  Groomsmen  claimed  and  took 
it,  too,  for  a  long  period,  but  of  late  brides 
have  become  more  fastidious,  and  reserve  the 
kissing  as  a  monopoly  for  the  bridegroom  and 
relatives.  It  is  recorded  by  on  old  historian 
that,  when  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  married  that 
handsome  rake  tiord  Darnley,  she  did  not  fail 
to  comply  with  the  ordinary  practice.  "  They 
kneel  together,"  says  the  ancient  annalist, 
'^  and  many  prayers  were  said  over  them ;  she 
tarrleth  at  the  mass,  and  he  taketh  a  kiss." — 
The  arraying  of  the  oride  in  the  richest  stuSs, 
and  all  of  white,  the  wedding  feast,  and  the 
giving  of  preseu^  ore  ancient  customs.  The 
love  of  expense,  which  is  thought  to  be  the 
characteristic  of  our  material  age^  has  led  the 
modems  to  make  a  great  advance  m  the  costli- 
ness of  the  bridal  appurtenances.  As  far  back, 
}iowever,  as  the  reign  of  James  I.,  the  presents 
given  to  the  bride  of  Sir  Philip  Herbert-amount- 
ed in  value  to  £2,500.  a  large  sum  for  those 
days.  Great  as  was  tnis  amount,  it  has  been 
much  surpassed  in  our  day.  One  of  the  Roth- 
schilds, not  long  since,  presented  his  niece  widi 
the  bridal  gift  of  a  check  for  $1,000,000,  and 
the  various  other  perquisites  of  the  bride,  in  the 
wav  of  diamonds  and  plate,  amounted,  it  was 
Baid,  to  OS  much  more.  The  display  of  the  con- 
tributions from  friends  and  relatives  now  gene- 
rally obtains,  and  is  a  practice  which  has  lately 
been  sanctioned  by  royalty.  On  the  marriage 
of  the  young  princess  of  England  with  the 
prince  of  Prussia,  in  Feb.  1868,  a  buffet  was 
prepared,  upon  which  the  tributes  to  the  bride 
of  gold,  silver,  rich  stufl^  and  precious  stones, 
amounting  to  hundreds  of  tliousands  of  pounds 
in  value,  were  displayed  not  only  before  the  un« 
surprised  eyes  of  the  court,  but  exhibited  for 
the  benefit  of  the  astonished  vulgar.  Reporters 
and  artists  of  the  newspapers  were  admitted 
expressly  that  they  might,  in  type  and  picture, 
reproduce  for  the  curious  public  the  wonders 
of  the  magnificent  profusion  with  which  the 
Toung  princess  had  been  endowed  by  crowned 
heads  and  wealthy  magnates. — ^The  ancients^  for 


some  reason  or  otliei:  esteemod  certain  days  in 
the  calendar  as  unlnoky  for  matrimony.  Lovers 
were  told  to  beware  of  the  whole  month  of 
May,  and  especially  warned  off  from  Feb.  IL 
June  2,  Nov.  2,  and  Dec  1.  In  the  Orkney 
islands,  in  8coUand,  *^no  couple,'*  says  Sir  John 
Bincloir,  *^  chooses  to  marry  except  with  a 
growing  moon,  and  some  even  wish  for  a  flowing 
tide."  It  is  particularly  desirable  that  the 
weather  should  be  clear,  and  that  the  ceremony 
should  take  place  in  the  daytime,  for 

Btort  is  the  brido  on  wluMn  th«  san  doth  ftbln*. 

BRIDEWELL,  a  house  of  correction.  The 
name  is  derived  from  a  hospital  founded  in  1553 
by  Edward  VI.,  on  the  site  of  St.  Bridewdl,  in 
Bhick  Friars,  in  the  city  of  London — a  plaee 
which  hod  been  much  resorted  to  by  supersti- 
tious pilgrims.  It  was  afterward  used  as  a 
receptacle  for  vagrants,  and  a  place  of  punish- 
ment for  criminal.  The  name  is  used  in  this 
country  for  a  prison  to  which  delinquents  are 
sent  for  punishment,  generally  having  in  view 
the  reformation  of  the  offender ;  but  it  is  not 
hmited  to  this.  Its  popular  signification  ii 
nearly  synonymous  with  penitentiary.  All  pun- 
ishment except  capital  is,  indeed,  now  under- 
stood to  be  intended,  in  part  at  least,  for  the 
reform  of  the  criminals  themselves,  and  hence 
various  periods  of  imprisonment  in  common 
prisons  are  prescribed  by  law,  as  well  as  in 
the  state  prisons  which  are  established  in  the 
diflSerent  states.  Practically,  however,  this  be- 
nevolent purpose  is  accomplished  to  a  very 
limited  extent  except  as  to  juvenile  offend- 
ers. In  the  city  of  New  York  there  are  a 
number  of  prisons  and  houses  for  detention  and 
oorrection.  which,  together  with  the  alma 
houses  ana  city  hoepitals,  are  under  the  control 
of  10  governors  elected  by  Uie  citizens.  There 
is,  beside,  a  society  for  the  reformation  of 
juvenile  delinquents,  and  another  for  reclaiming 
abandoned  females.  Similar  establishments  have 
been  provided,  in  all  the  large  cities  of  this 
country, 

BRIDGE,  a  structure,  with  one  or  more  trans- 
verse apertures,  raised  for  the  convenience  cf 
possing  a  river,  canal,  or  valley,  and  formed  of 
various  materials,  as  timber,  stone,  iron,  isc.  The 
construction  of  perfect  bridges  is  a  complex 
operation,  and  even  among  ancient  nations  of  the 
highest  civilization,  did  not  always  keep  pace 
with  the  progress  of  the  other  arts.  The  type 
of  the  primitive  bridges  of  earlier  ages  ia  to  be 
found  at  the  present  day  among  rude  and  un- 
cultivated nations,  and  consists  simplvof  Hntels 
of  wood  stretching  from  bank  to  bank,  or  when 
the  span  renders  this  impracticable,  resting  on 
piers  or  posts  fixed  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  The 
mevitable  frequency  of  these  in  a  rapid  stream, 
and  conseauent  contraction  of  the  waterway, 
would  resnlt  in  a  torrent  iigurious  to  navigadoo, 
and  destructive  to  the  piers  themselves ;  hence 
it  would  be  found  essential  to  the  stability  of 
such  structures,  that  the  openings  should  be 
sufficiently  wide  to  allow  every  facility  for  the 
passage  of  the  water,  and  as  this  ooold  only  be 


BRIDGE 


685 


eflbcted  by  arohes  or  tnmses,  it  is  eyident  that 
these  inventions  were  perfected  before  bridges 
of  any  magnitude  became  common.  One  of  the 
most  extraordinary  bridges  of  ancient  times  was 
that  which,  according  to  Herodotus,  Qoeen 
^  Nitocris  constructed  over  the  Euphrates  at 
^  Babylon,  and  the  length  of  which  is  given  by 
Diodorua  Siculus  as  five  furlongs;  the  con- 
struction of  this  bridge  is  supposed  by  the  most 
authentic  writers  to  have  been  of  the  kind 
just  alluded  to,  viz.,  with  lintels  or  architraves 
extended  from  pier  to  pier.  The  bridges  of 
Darius  upon  tlie  Bosporus,  Xerxes  upon  the 
Hellespont,  Pyrrhus  upon  the  Adriatic,  Ossar 
upon  the  Bhine,  and  Trigan  upon  the  Danube, 
are  all  celebrated  in  history,  but  were  all  con« 
structed  for  the  temporary  purposes  of  war.  In 
searching  the  records  of  antiquity  for  examples 
of  stone  bridges,  the  first  that  we  can  find  are 
those  constructed  by  the  Romans ;  an  exception 
may  perhaps  be  made  in  regard  to  the  Chinese, 
as  we  are  not  positively  acquainted  with  the 
date  of  many  of  their  structures;  but  in  Egypt 
and  India,  the  birthplaces  of  so  many  of  the 
arts  and  sciences,  the  construction  of  the  arch 
was  entirely  unknown ;  neither  do  we  meet  with 
it  in  the  ancient  works  of  Persia  or  Ph<Bnicia, 
a^  even  in  classic  Greece^  at  the  period  when 
her  architecture  was  the  finest  in  the  world,  and 
when  Pericles  had  adorned  Athens  with  splen* 
•  did  edifices,  her  people  were  unprovided  with 
a  bridge  over  'the  Uephiasus,  notwithstanding 
it  orosi^  the  roost  frequented  thoroughfare  to 
the  city.  Of  the  principal  bridges  of  Rome, 
Gautier  mentions,  viz. :  1.  The  Pons  8ub- 
Ucius,  the  first  ever  built  over  the  Tiber,  and 
memorable  from  its  defence  by  Horatius  Codes, 
against  Porsenna ;  it  was  twice  rebuilt,  and  the 
ruins  of  the  last  structure  are  still  visible ;  from 
this  the  body  of  Heliogabalus  was  cast,  with  a 
stone  about  its  neck,  into  the  Tiber,  2.  The 
Pons  Triumphalis,  sometimes  termed  Pons 
Yaticanua,  from  its  proximity  to  the  Vatican; 
it  derived  the  former  name  from  being  the  bridge 
over  whidi  those  to  whom  tiie  senate  decreed 
a  triumph  passed  on  their  way  to  the  capitoL 
8.  The  Pons  Fabriciua,  named  from  its  founder 
Fabricius,  who  erected  it  during  the  period  of 
Catiline*s  conspuracy.  4.  The  Pons  Cestius, 
built  in  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and  named  from 
Oestius  Gallus.  6.  The  Pons  Janiculi,  which 
led  from  the  Campus  Martins  to  the  Janiculum. 
6«  The  Pons  JEXiua^  erected  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  ^lius  Hadrianus ;  it  is  said  this  bridge 
had  originally  a  roof  of  bronze,  supported  by  40 
columns,  but  was  despoiled  during  an  Incursion 
of  the  barbarians.  Clement  IX.,  who  restored 
the  bridge,  placed  on  it  10  colossal  statues  of 
angers,  carved  in  white  marble,  whence  is  derived 
its  present  nam^  Ponte  San  Angelo.  7.  The 
Pons  Hilvius,  built  in  the  time  oi  Sylla,  on  the 
ancient  Via  flaminia  at  a  short  distance  from 
tike  city;  on  this  bridge  Cicero  arrested  the 
Allobrogian  ambassadors  who  were  the  bearers 
of  letters  to  Catiline,  and  here  also  occurred  the 
celebrated  victory  of  ConstanUne  over  Max- 


entins,  when  Constantine  had  the  miraculous 
vision  of  the  cross.  8.  The  Pons  Senatorius, 
or  Palatinus,  still  remaining,  though  in  ruins, 
near  the  Palatine  hill.  From  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  empire  to  the  establishment  of  modem 
Europe,  we  have  no  account  of  any  bridges 
worthy  of  note,  except  those  built  by  Uie  Moors 
in  Spain,  one  of  the  finest  of  which  was  the 
bridge  of  Cordova,  over  the  Guadalquivir, 
built  by  Issim,  the  son  and  successor  of  Abdul 
Akman,  the  first  of  the  Moorish  kings  of  Spain. 
One  of  the  mOst  ancient  bridges  of  mcKlem 
Europe,  is  that  over  the  Rhone  at  Avignon.  It 
was  built  by  a  religious  society  called  the 
"  Brethren  of  the  Bridge,"  which,  according  to 
Gautier,  ^^  was  established  upon  the  decline  of  the 
2d  and  commencement  of  the  dd  race  of  kings, 
when  the  state  fell  into  anarchy,  and  there  was 
little  security  for  travellers,  particularly  in  pass- 
ing rivers,  on  which  they  were  subject  to  the 
exactions  and  nmacities  of  banditti"  This 
society  was  foimded  with  a  view  to  remedy 
these  evils,  by  forming  fraternities  for  the  object 
of  buUding  bridges,  and  establishing  ferries  and 
caravansaries  on  Uie  banks  of  the  most  fre- 
quently crossed  rivers ;  their  first  establishment 
was  on  the  Durance  at  Maupas,  which  name  was 
afterward  changed  to  Bonpns,  in  acknowledg- 
ment of  their  services.  The  bridge  at  Avignon 
was  commenced  in  1176,  and  completed  in  1188. 
The  association  soon  after  built  the  bridge  of 
Lyons,  composed  of  20  arches,  and  that  of  St. 
Elsprit,  over  the  Rhone,  of  19  arches,  beside 
many  other  structures  of  less  note.  The  old- 
est bridge  in  England  is  that  of  Croyland  in 
Lincolnshire,  said  to  have  been  built  in  860 ;  it 
is  formed  by  8  semicircles  which  succeed  each 
other,  and  are  based  upon  a  central  arch; 
the  ascent  is  so  steep  that  only  foot  passengers 
can  accomplish  it  The  bridge  at  burton  in 
Staffordshire,  over  the  Trent,  is  the  longest  in 
England,  and  was  built  in  the  12th  century; 
it  has  84  arches  of  squared  freestone,  and  is 
1,645  feet  in  length.  The  first  stone  bridge  over 
the  Thames,  knovn  as  the  old  London  bridge, 
was  commenced  in  1176  by  Peter  of  Colechurch, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
"  Brethren  of  the  Brid«e ;"  Peter  died  before  the 
completion  of  his  work,  and  was  buried  in  the 
crypt  of  the  chapel  erected  on  the  centre  pier ; 
this  was  in  accordance  with  a  singular  custom  of 
the  society,  that  when  any  member  died  during 
the  superintendence  of  an  important  work,  his 
remains  idiould  be  entombed  within  the  struc- 
ture ;  the  work  was  completed  in  1209,  during 
the  reign  of  Xing  John,  and  was  chiefly  remark- 
able for  its  massiveness,  and  enormous  surplus 
of  material,  having,  in  a  span  of  940  feet>  no  less 
than  20  arches,  with  piers  varying  in  solidity 
firom  25  to  84  feet,  so  that }  of  the  stream  was 
occupied  by  the  piers,  and  at  low  water  a  still 
greater  proportion,  leaving  at  that  time  less  than 
I  of  the  whole  span  for  waterway,  and  causing 
thereby  a  most  dangerous  fall.  The  bridge  of 
the  Holy  Trinity  at  Florence,  over  the  Arno, 
was  built  in  15C9 ;  it  has  a  total  length  of  S2d 


686 


BRIDGE 


feet^  is  oompofled  of  i  ellipttoal  arobes,  oncl  stnnds 
unrivalled  as  a  work  of  art ;  the  material  used 
in  its  oonstruotion  was  white  marble.  The 
Rifllto  at  Venice,  designed  b^  Michel  Angelo, 
and  erected  in  1690,  has  a  single  span  of  98)-  feet, 
with  23  feet  rise.  The  U^tal  nnmber  of  bridges 
in  that  citj  was  estimated  by  Gantier  at  840. 
The  bridge  of  Pont  y  Pl-ydd,  over  the  Taaf  in 
Wales,  is  considered  one  of  the  most  extraordi- 
nary in  Britain;  it  was  bnilt  in  1755,  by  an 
uneducated  mason  named  Edwards,  nfter  the 
figdlure  of  2  structures,  which  he  had  previously 
erected  at  the  same  spot ;  the  first  was  carried 
away  by  a  freshet  after  standing  5^  yeara,  and 
the  second  failed  in  oonseanence  of  the  weight  on 
the  haunches  forcine  out  the  keystone,  before  the 
parapet  was  finished ;  the  present  structure  con* 
sists  of  a  single  circular  arol),  with  a  span  of  140 
feet,  and  a  rise  of  85  feet  The  bridge  of  Mantes, 
over  the  Seine,  was  erected  by  Perronet  and 
Husseau  in  1766,  and  consists  of  8  elliptical 
arches,  the  centre  one  havinff  a  chord  of  128 
feet  The  famous  bridge  of  JN'enilly  was  con- 
structed by  Porronet  in  1774;  its  total  length 
is  766  feet,  wiih  a  clear  waterway  of  689  feet; 
there  are  5  arches  of  equal  width,  the  curvea 
being  false  ellii>ses,  with  chords  of  128  feet,  and 
versed  sines  of  82  feet.  The  bridge  of  6t 
Maizence,  over  the  Oise,  was  also  bnilt  by  Per- 
ronet between  1774  and  1785 ;  it  is  chiefly  re- 
markable for  the  flatness  of  its  arches,  the 
chords  being  76  feet  8  inches,  while  the  vcr- 
sines  are  only  6  feet  8  inches,  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  voussoirs  at  the  vertex  of  the  arch 
4  feet  8  inches.  Blackfriars*  bridge,  over  the 
Thames,  in  London,  was  bnilt  in  1771  by  Mylne ; 
the  design  is  novel  and  beautiful,  but  unfortu- 
nately the  material  employed,  viz..  ForQand 
8t<me,  is  unfitted  for  the  purpose,  as  it  soon  be- 
comes disintegrated  under  atmo^herio  influ- 
ences ;  the  fitructore  has  9  arches,  and  a  total 
length  of  926  feet  Waterloo  bridge,  built 
by  Bennie,  in  1816,  is  1,240  feet  in  length, 
and  composed  of  9  elliptical  granite  arches, 
each  of  120  feet  span,  and  a  versed  sine  of  82 
feet ;  the  piers  are  fronted  with  coupled  Doric 
columns,  producing  an  elaborate  effect;  an- 
other peculiarity  is  that  the  roadway  is  level, 
differing  in  this  respect  from  the  other  bridges 
across  the  Thames.  Westminster  bridge,  complet- 
ed in  1760,  by  Labalye,  is  remarkable  as  inaugu- 
rating a  new  era  in  bridge  architecture ;  the 
novelty  consisted  in  the  manner  of  laying  the 
foundations,  which  was  effected  by  means  of 
caissons,  the  depth  of  water  and  rapidity  of  the 
current  rendering  the  expense  of  coff^>dam- 
ming  undesirably  great;  the  bridge  is  1,220 
feet  in  length,  and  has  In  all  15  semicircular 
arches,  2  of  which,  however,  are  quite  small. 
Tiie  new  London  bridge  is  an  imposing  struo- 
tnre  of  granite,  and  was  erected  by  Bennie  in 
1831  j  it  has  a  total  length  of  784  feet,  with  6 
elliptical  arches,  tlie  span  of  the  centre  arch  be- 
ing 152  feet,  and  its  versed  sine  29  feet  6  inches. 
In  the  United  States  there  are,  as  yet,  compar- 
atively few  stone  bridges  of  great  size;   the 


heavy  expeose,  88  wdl  as  theamoiiDt  of  timere- 

3 aired  for  the  erection  of  such  structorea,  being. 
1  adapted  to  the  pressing  wants  of  s  yoong 
nation.  Perhaps  the  finest  example  we  have 
is  the  High  bridge  of  the  Groton  aquednot, 
over  the  Hariem  river  at  New  York ;  its  total  ^ 
length  is  1,450  feet,  and  the  top  of  the  parapet  ^ 
is  114  feet  above  high  water;  there  are  in  all 
14  semicircular  arches,  8  of  which  are  of  80 
feet  span,  and  6  of  50  feet  (See  Aqitiduct.}^ 
In  projecting  the  phin  of  a  bridge,  there  aie 
certain  principal  points,  the  coosideratioa  of 
which  is  indispensable  to  the  safety  and  solidily 
of  the  structure.  These  may  be  indaded  under 
5  lieads.--I.  I%e  choice  of  wmitiotu  This  is 
not  always,  nor  even  generally,  at  the  diaposal 
of  the  constructor,  but  is  usually  detemuned,  in 
the  country,  by  the  direction  <rf  roads,  and  in 
cities,  by  the  position  of  streets;  when  the 
choice  is  open,  search  should  be  made  for 
the  most  solid  ground.  Local  cironmstuiceB 
influence  this  point  in  so  many  different  ways, 
that  it  would  be  impossible  to  lay  down 
a  i^ifio  rule;  all  that  can  be  done  is  to 
indicate  the  general  prindples  by  which  the 
position  of  the  bridge  should  be  determined. 
One  condition,  however,  is  essential,  via. :  that 
the  lateral  &oes  of  the  piers  shall  be  paralld 
with  the  direction  of  the  current  This  may  in 
some  situations  require  that  the  axis  of  the 
bridge  shall  be  inclined  relatively  to  the  fiones 
of  the  piers,  and  we  then  have  what  ia  termed 
an  oblique  or  skew  bridge.  This  constraetioii 
will  be  necessary  when  the  line  of  road  ccmnect- 
ing  with  Ihe  termini  of  the  bridge  forms  an  an- 
gle other  than  a  right  one  with  the  eoune  of 
the  river.  When  there  are  many  arches,  this 
form  of  construction  is  undesirable,  on  aoooimt 
of  tiie  mechanical  difficulties  attending  it — ^IL 
The  9ent  or  egreee  that  must  he  allowed  to  the 
river.  This  is  a  subject  of  very  great  irapoi^ 
tance,  and  vital  to  the  durability  of  bridgeB. 
Its  consideration  involves  2  other  points  of  in- 
quiry r  1,  having  a  knowledge  of  the  bed  of 
tiie  river,  to  determine  what  quantity  of  wator 
the  bridge  should  allow  to  pass;  and  8,  this 
quantity  being  ascertained,  to  fix  tiie  sniftce  or 
extent  of  the  necessary  aisoharge.  In  deter- 
mining the  1st  point,  we  must  remember  that 
the  volume  of  water  discharged  by  a  rivw 
varies  daring  different  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
also  firom  the  effects  of  rains,  and  the  melting 
of  snow  and  ice ;  hence  we  must  proportion  the 
arches  with  regard  to  the  effects  of  floods  or 
inundations,  ami  not  solely  with  reference  to 
the  mean  quantity  of  water  in  the  bed  of  the 
river.  In  this  connection,  the  bed  of  the  river 
must  be  examined  with  care,  as  the  nature  and 
inclination  of  the  ground  which  receiveB  the 
water  have  much  influence  on  the  manner  in 
which  it  discharges  itself  with  more  or  less  ve- 
locity, or  penetrates  the  earth  to  a  greater  or 
lesser  depth.  Another  circumstance  to  be  oon- 
sidered  is  the  time  which  the  surplus  water 
arising  from  a  flood  takes  to  discharge  itself  or 
the  velocity  with  which  the  disdiaige  is  made^ 


BRTOGE 


687 


Since  this  volooity  depends  mainly  on  tlie  slope 
of  the  river,  "which  always  diminishes  as  it  re- 

.  cedes  from  its  source,  it  is  evident  that  if  3 
bridges  bo  built  uoon  the  sfime  stream,  the  one 
that  is  nearer  to  the  source  will  require  a  wider 

.  extent  of  discharge  than  the  other.  The  gene- 
ral rale  fur  calculating  the  quantity  of  water 
that  flows  in  a  river,  is  to  multiply  the  surface 
of  the  section  by  the  mean  velocity  of  the  cur- 
rent; but  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  the  mean 
velocity  leads  in  practice  to  modiflcations  of 
this  rule,  which  are  expressed  by  appropriate 
formulffi,  of  which  those  developed  by  M.  de 
Prony  are  most  usually  employed.  2.  In  re* 
gard  to  the  outlet  or  discharge,  the  most  essen- 
Sal  point  is  the  velocity  whidi  the  water 
will  assume  under  the  arches  of  the  bridge.  If 
the  breadth  of  the  river  were  too  much  nar- 
rowed by  the  works  erected  on  its  bed,  its 
velocity  would  increase,  and  it  would  form  on 
one  side  a  slack  water,  and  on  the  other  adecliv- 
ify  or  shoot;  thus  the  current  would  react 
agidnst  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  undermine 
the  foundations  of  the  piles  and  buttre&ses.  If, 
on  the  contrary,  the  breadth  of  the  bed  should  be 
increased  to  too  great  an  extent,  by  lengthening 
Uie  ridge,  the  velocity  would  be  checked,  and  its 
dhninution  would  occasion  deposits  that  would 
prove  dangerous,  by  choking  up  the  bed  of  the 
river.  The  nature  of  the  soil  has,  of  course, 
much  influence,  as  if  it  be  very  tenacious  and 
compact,  approaching  the  nature  of  rock,  it  wiU 
not  yield  sensibly  to  any  amount  of  action,  while 
a  loose  and  sandy  soil  would  vield  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  destroy  the  bridge.  The  mean 
velocity  which  a  current  will  acquire  when  its 
bed  is  narrowed  by  piers,  can  be  obtained,  with 
sufficient  accuracy,  by  approximate  formulie, 
though  the  problem  i»  not  susceptible  of  a  rig- 
orous solution.  It  has  been  observed  above 
that  it  is  dangerous  to  give  a  river  too  wide  an 
outlet,  since  it  might  cause  deposits;  this,  how- 
ever, is  not  the  only  danger  to  be  apprehended, 
as  these  would  in  time  acquire  sufiicient  con- 
sistency to  resist  the  action  of  the  current,  and 
thus,  in  time  of  floods,  force  the  water  to  pass 
^ith  increased  velocity  under  those  arches  that 
^ere  less  clogged  by  these  deposits,  and  so  un- 
dermine them.  Consequently  a  bridge  ought 
not  to  be  composed  of  2  parts,  separated  by  an 
island,  since,  if  one  of  the  parts  should  be  choked 
up,  the  whole  current  would  flow  to  the  other, 
and  thus  might  destroy  the  bridge.  It  was  by 
an  accident  of  this  nature  that  the  bridges  of 
Ohazy  and  Roanne  were  swept  away.  It  may 
be  remarked  in  general,  that  bridges  are  never 
destroyed  except  by  some  error  in  the  outlet, 
and  that  the  cause  of  their  ruin  is  ultimately 
too  great  a  diminution  of  the  section,  arising 
either  from  expanding  or  contracting  the  di- 
mensions of  the  structure  in  too  great  a  degree. 
—III.  TTie/orm  of  the  arches.  These  are  of  8 
principal  kinds :  1.  The  semicircular ;  these  were 
anciently  most  in  use,  and  have  the  advantage  of 
being  easy  to  construct,  and  forming  a  solid 
Btrnotore ;  their  span  is,  however,  restricted,  on 


account  of  the  great  relative  height  of  this  form 
of  arch,  and  as  they  are  usually  mode  of  moderate 
size,  they  have  the  inconvenience  of  considerably 
obstructing  the  passage  of  the  water.  2.  Arches 
of  a  flat  vault,  either  forming  portions  of  an  el- 
lipse, or  else  described  by  several  arcs  of  circles 
of  different  radii.  Elliptical  arches  are  pleasing 
to  the  eye,  but  troublesome  to  construct,  on  ac- 
count of  the  continual  change  in  tlie  form  of 
the  successive  voussolrs;  hence  it  is  usual  to 
employ  curves,  composed  of  a  certain  number 
of  arcs  of  cirdes,  varying  generally  from  8  to 
11.  The  use  of  flat- vaulted  arches  was  intro- 
duced into  France  about  the  close  of  the  17th 
century,  and  their  adoption  was  due  to  the  ne- 
cessity of  aflbrdmg  a  wider  discharge  without 
considerably  augmenting  the  height  of  the 
arches.  This  form  not  only  answers  this  otgeot 
effectually,  but  when  the  2  diameters  are  not 
very  unequal,  presents  as  much  solidity  and 
facility  in  construction  as  the  semicircular  arch. 
8.  Arches  formed  from  an  ore  of  a  circle,  and 
these  are  of  2  principal  kinds:  1st,  those  in 
which  the  springing  planes  are  underwater, 
examples  of  which  are  seen  in  the  bridge  of  6t 
Esprit  and  tlie  ancient  bridge  of  Avignon;  this 
form  has  the  disadvantage  of  greatly  reducing 
the  discharge.  In  the  2d  kind  the  springing 
planes  are  on  a  level  with  the  highest  water  of 
the  river,  as  in  the  bridge  of  Louis  XVI.  at 
Paris.  In  this  case  the  arc  is  necessarily  very 
low,  and  the  lateral  pressure  of  the  voussoirs  so 
considerable  as  to  require  great  care  in  the  con- 
struction. Beside  the  8  of  which  we  have 
spoken,  there  is  the  (jrothic  arch,  composed  of  2 
arcs  of  a  circle,  sometimes  though  rarely  em- 
ployed; it  has  the  fault  of  greatly  reducing 
the  outlet. — IV.  Size  of  arckee.  Thongh  this 
is  usually  determined  by  local  circumstances, 
yet  there  are  a  few  general  principles  to  be 
considered.  Small  arches  are  best  adapted  to 
quiet  rivers,  whose  waters  do  not  rise  to  any 
considerable  height,  while  large  arches  are  best 
snited  to  torrents,  where  it  is  difficult  to  lay 
the  foundations,  and  where  the  piers  are  ex- 
posed to  damage  by  obstacles  brought  down 
against  them  by  the  current.  As  a  general 
rule,  wide  arches  should  be  adopted  in  large 
rivers,  especially  when  they  are  subject  to  in- 
nndations;  this  is,  however,  influenced  by  the 
expense  of  the  foundations,  as  well  as  the  mato- 
rials  employed  in  oonstrnction«  large  arches  r^ 
quiring  more  soli<fity  than  small  ones.  The  nar 
ture  and  size  of  vessels  which  navigate  the  river 
have  also  an  important  bearing  on  this  subject. 
In  relation  to  the  width  allowed  to  arches,  2  plans 
are  pursued :  in  one,  the  apertures  are  all  equal, 
giving  the  tops  of  the  vaults  tlie  same  eleva- 
tion above  the  water,  and  enabling  the  con* 
structor  to  use  the  same  centering  for  all  the 
arches.  .  The  economy  of  this  arrangement  may, 
however,  be  counterbalanced  by  the  neces- 
sity of  forming  considerable  embankments 
at  the  termini  of  the  structure.  In  the 
other  plan,  the  diameters  of  the  arches  are  un- 
equal, allowing  a  redaction  of  the  embank* 


.^S. 


088 


BRIDGE 


ments,  tlins  diminishing  the  obetaeles  to  the 
approaches.  The  advantages  of  both  systems 
are  sometimes  combined  by  forming  the  arches 
of  the  same  width,  and  placing  the  spring* 
ing  planes  at  heights  decreasing  from  the 
centre  to  cither  extremity  of  the  bridge. — ^V, 
The  hreadth  qf  the  Mdge, .  This  depends 
-wholly  on  the  locality,  and  should  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  importance  of  the  road  on  -which 
it  is  built.  For  country  roads  a  width  of  14  to 
16  feet  will  be  sufficient,  particularly  if  the 
bridge  be  a  short  one.  On  what  are  termed 
roads  of  the  2d  chiss,  20  to  25  feet  should 
be  allowed,  which  wiU  afford  sufficient  room 
for  2  carriages  to  pass  at  once,  beside  a  space 
for  foot  passengers.  On  roads  of  the  1st  class^ 
80  to  85  feet  is  considered  a  fair  allowance, 
while  in  the  interior  of  cities  from  80  to  60  feet 
will  be  required.  The  Pont  Neuf  at  Paris, 
which  is  perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  liiorough- 
fares  in  the  world,  has  a  width  of  about  70 
feet  between  the  parapets. — ^Timber,  as  a  mate- 
rial for  bridges^  is  much  less  costly  and  more 
easily  worked  than  stone ;  but  all  such  struc- 
tures lack  the  advantage  of  durability,  and  are 
more  troublesome  to  keep  in  repair.  The  old- 
est  wooden  bridge  of  which  we  have  any  ac- 
count is  the  Pons  Sublicius  already  mentioned, 
as  it  existed  at  the  time  of  Horatius  Gocles;  it 
is  supposed  that  no  iron  whatever  was  used  in 
its  construction.  CsBsar's  bridge  was  aiso  of 
wood,  and  so  was  Trijan's  across  the  Danube, 
though  it  is  probable  that  the  piers  of  the  latter 
were  of  stone.  One  of  the  most  famous  wooden 
bridges  on  record  is  that  of  John  Ulrich  Gru- 
benraann,  an  uneducated  carpenter  of  Switzer- 
land; it  was  built  at  Schaffhausen  in  1757,  and 
was  composed  of  2  wooden  arches  with  the 
respective  spans  of  198  and  172  feet,  supported 
at  either  terminus  by  abutments,  and  at  their 
junction  by  a  stone  pier.  After  Grubenmann's 
death  the  bridge  began  to  settle,  as  the  oak 
beums,  which  had  been  placed  too  low,  and  not 
sufficiently  exposed  to  the  air,  rotted  at  their 
points  of  contact  with  the  stone  abutments. 
Owing  to  the  peculiar  arrangement  of  the  struc- 
ture, by  which  the  principal  supports  were  so 
intimately  connected  together,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  support  the  whole  bridge  before  a  single 
part  could  be  removed ;  this  was  performed  by 
means  of  screw-lacks,  and  the  decayed  timbers 
replaced.  No  other  repairs  were  ever  required, 
and  the  bridge  excited  much  attention  as  a  re- 
markable specimen  of  carpentry.  It  was  burnt 
by  the  French  in  1799,  having  lasted  42  years. 
In  modem  times,  the  wooden  bridges  of  Ger- 
many and  France  have  taken  high  rank  from 
their  scientific  combination  in  arrangement; 
but  during  the  last  few  years  the  UnitcMi  States 
have  justly  claimed  the  precedence  for  simpli- 
city, mechanical  perfection,  and  boldness  of 
design.  The  upper  Schuylkill  bridge  at  Phila- 
•delphia  has  the  remarkable  man.  of  840  feet. 
It  was  designed  and  built  by  L.  Wemwag,  and 
consists  of  5  ribs,  each  formed  of  a  curved, 
solid  built  beam,  connected  with  an  upper  single 


beam  by  radial  pieces,  diagonal  braces,  and 
inclined  iron  stays.  In  the  Trenton  bridge,  the 
roadway  bearers  are  suspended  from  carved, 
solid  built  beams,  by  iron  bar  chmns  and  sus- 
pension rods ;  it  consists  of  5  spans,  the  cen- 
tre and  widest  being  200  feet  Burr's  plan, 
which  has  received  considerable  favor  on  rail- 
roads and  aqueducts,  particularly  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, consists  essentially  of  open  built  beams 
of  straight  timber,  connected  with  curved,  solid 
built  beams,  termed  arch  timbers,  and  wludi 
are  formed  of  several  thicknesses  of  scant- 
ling, between  whidi  the  framework  of  the 
open  built  beam  is  clamped.  Town's  plan, 
commonly  known  as  the  lattice  truss,  oonasts 
of  two  main  strings,  each  formed  by  two  or 
three  parallel  beams  of  2  thicknesses,  break- 
ing joints  with  a  series  of  diagonal  pieces,  cross- 
ing each  other  and  inserted  between  the  par- 
allel beams,  being  connected  with  the  strings 
and  with  each  other  by  tree-nails.  As  the  tim- 
bers are  of  a  uniform  cross  section  and  length, 
the  oonstruction  is  simple  and  economical, 
though  the  plan  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  xt>- 
sistonce  of  variable  strains  ana  jars.  Long's 
-truss  consists  in  forming  the  upper  and  lower 
strings  of  8  parallel  beams,  between  which 
are  inserted  the  cross  pieces,  or  posts,  which 
are  formed  of  beams  in  pairs,  placed  at  regular 
intervals  along  the  strings,  and  connected  with 
them  by  wedge  blocks;  between  each  series  of 
posts  are  placed  braces  and  counterbraces,  suit- 
ably connected  by  tree-noils,  and  in  long  spans 
arch  braces  are  also  introduced.  In  Howe's 
truss,  the  upper  and  lower  strings  are  each 
formed  of  several  thicknesses,  breaking  joints, 
while  on  the  upper  side  of  the  lower  string,  and 
the  lower  side  of  the  upper,  are  placed  blocks  oi 
hard  wood  inserted  in  notches,  and  bevelled  on 
each  side  to  form  a  support  for  the  braces  and 
counterbraces;  through  the  blocks  are  parsed 
bolts  of  iron  to  connect  the  2  strings,  and  by 
means  of  a  nut  and  screw  anj  desired  amount 
of  tension  can  be  given  to  the  truss.  The  pre- 
ceding combinations  are  those  which  are  in 
ffeneiil  use  in  the  United  States. — Suspension 
bridges  are  of  very  remote  origin.  Kiruien,  in 
his  *^  Ohina  Illustrated,''  mentions  one  which  i# 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  province  of  Inman,  and 
according  to  tradition  was  buUt  by  the  emperor 
JiOngus,  A.  D.  65 ;  it  is  formed  of  chains,  sup- 
porting a  roadway  of  plank  resting  directly 
upon  them,  and  is  880  feet  in  length.  The 
ancient  Peruvians  also  constructed  numerous 
bridges  over  the  Andes,  the  principal  material 
being  ropes  formed  of  the  banc  of  trees ;  some- 
times a  roadway  was  constructed,  and  at  others 
the  transit  was  efifected  by  means  of  a  basket 
supported  by  the  rope,  and  drawn  over  alter- 
na^jT  from  one  side  to  the  other.  The  same 
plan  IS  used  at  the  present  day.  Rope  suspen- 
sion bridges  have  also  been  tised  in  Europe; 
they  were  employed  in  France,  at  the  siege  of 
Poitiers,  to  cross  the  river  Clain,  and  Douglass 
mentions  their  use  in  Italy  in  1742.  Iron  sus- 
pensiim  bridges  of  large  span,  however,  are  of 


BRIDGE 


modem  date.    The  first  of  thid  kind  ereoted  in 
England  was  in  1819,  and  was  bnilt  aoroas  the 
Tweed  at  Berwick,  by  Captain  Sir  Samuel 
Brown ;  it  was  constructed  with  chain  cables, 
12  of  which  were  used  in  all,  6  being  placed  on 
either  side  of  the  roadway ;  its  span  was  449 
feet  and  versed  sine  80  feet    The  same  en- 
gineer constructed  the  Brighton  chain  pier,  and 
the  bridge  at  Montrose ;  the  former  was  built 
in  1828,  and  destroyed  by  a  gale  of  wind  in 
No7. 1886 ;  its  entire  length  was  1,186  feet^  in 
four  openings,  each  of  256  feet  span,  and  18 
feet  deflection.    The  latter  was  erected  in  1829, 
and  in  Oct.  1888,  the  roadway  was  totally  de- 
stroyed by  a  hurricane;  Mr.  Rendell  recon- 
structed it,  and  materially  stiffened  the  struc- 
ture by  the  system  of  trussing  he  adopted.    The 
bridge  oyer  the  Menai  Straits,  by  Telford,  was 
built  in  1826 ;  its  span  was  580  feet,  and  the 
clear  height  of  the  roadway  above  ihe  water  102 
feet;  it  was  seriously  injured  by  a  violent  gale, 
which  produced  so  great  an  oscillation  of  the 
main  chains,  as  to  dash  them  against  each  other 
and  break  off  the  rivet  heads  of  the  bolts ;  a  re- 
currence of  the  accident  was  provided  against 
by  suitable   bracing,  and  the   iron   roadway 
beams  strengthened  by  an  additional  number 
'  oonstruoted  of  timber,  as  it  was  found  that  the 
former  were  frequently  bent  and  even  broken 
by  the  undulations  of  the  bridge  in  a  gale. 
The  Oonway  bridge  was  also  built  by  Telford^ 
in  1826 ;  it  crosses  an  estuary  that  divides  the 
towns  of  Bangor  and  Chester;  its  span  is  827 
feet,  witli  a  deflection  of  22^  feet    The  Ham- 
mersmith bridge  over  the  Thames  was  built  by 
Tierney  Clark,  in  1824,  and  has  a  span  of  422 
feet     One  of  the  most  remarkable  suspen- 
sion bridges  in  Europe  is  that  of  Freyburg  in 
Switzerland;  the  cables  are  of  wire,  and  the 

rn  is  870  feet;  it  was  erected  in  1884  by 
Ghaley;  the  roadway  is  167  feet  above  the 
Burface  of  the  river,  and  although  the  whole  is 
remarkably  light  and  fragile  in  appearance,  it 
has  withstood  several  severe  tests  umivjured, 
and  is  still  considered  a  safe  bridge.  The  Pesth 
suspension  bridge  over  the  Danube  was  com- 
menced in  1840  by  Tierney  Clark,  and  finished 
in  1849,  when  it  was  crossed  by  a  part  of  the 
Hnngarian  army  retreating  before  the  Austri- 
ans,  and  followed  immediately  by  the  latter; 
both  armies  with  their  heavy  trains  of  artillery, 
ammunition,  and  baggage  wagons;  it  is  es- 
timated that  of  the  Austrian  troops  alone 
80y000  crossed  the  bridge  in  2  days:  no  se- 
verer test  could  have  been  applied  to  tne  struc- 
ture, and  the  admirable  manner  in  which  it 
sustained  itself  reflects  the  highest  credit  upon 
its  constructor;  the  clear  waterway  is  1,250 
feet,  and  the  centre  span  670  feet,  while  the 
towers  are  200  feet  in  height  from  the  founder 
tions.  In  the  United  StatM,  the  first  suspension 
bridges  were  built  by  Mr.  Finley  between  1796 
and  1810,  and  were  all  of  small  dimensions,  and 
constructed  with  chain  cables.  During  the  last 
few  years,  however,  a  large  number  of  struo- 
tores  have  been  erected,  and  some  of  great  size ; 
VOL.  in.— 44 


the  plan  of  wire  cables  has  been  universsifl/ 
adopted  in  their  construction.  The  Wheeling 
bridge  over  the  Ohio  was  built  in  1848,  by  (k 
£liet,  and  blown  down  in  May,  1854;  its  span 
was  1,010  feet ;  this  bridge  attained  oonsiaer- 
able  notoriety  from  the  litigation  it  caused, 
strenuous  and  lozig-continued  efbrts  having 
been  made  during  its  continuance  to  obtain  its 
removal  on  account  of  the  alleged  iiijury  to 
navigation.  The  Belview  bridge  at  Niagara,  a 
slight  structure,  was  built  by  the  same  engineer 
in  1848.  and  had  a  span  of  759  feet;  it  was 
removed  in  1854,  and  its  cables  incorporated  in 
the  bridge  constructed  by  Mr.  Boebling.  At 
Lewiston,  7  miles  below  the  falls  of  Niagara,  a 
bridge  was  built  in  1850  by  £.  W.  Barrel^  with 
a  span  of  1,040  feet.  The  finest  structure  of 
this  kind  in  the  ciountry,  however,  and  perhaps 
in  the  world,  isRoebling's  railway  bridge  at  Ni- 
agara; its  span  is  821  feet,  and  deflection  59 
feet;  14^560  wires  are  employed  in  the  cables, 
and  their  ultimate  strength  is  estimated  at 
12,000  tons;  the  elevation  of  the  railway 
track  above  the  water  is  245  feet»  and  so  great 
is  the  stiffness  of  the  roadwav  that  the  passage 
of  ordinary  trains  causes  a  depression  of  only 
8  to  4  inches;  the  bridge  was  completed  in 
1855,  and  though  continually  subjected  to  the 
passage  of  heavy  trains,  has  thus  far  proved  a 
complete  success ;  though  at  the  time  of  its 
erection  predictions  of  failure  were  made  by 
the  first  European  engineers,  its  performance 
up  to  the  present  time. seems  to  justify  Mr. 
Koebling's  confidence  in  its  permanence.  The 
distrust  in  suspension  bridges  for  ordinary 
transit)  which  has  become  so  general  through 
the  frequent  ftilure  of  such  structures,  is  mainly 
due  to  the  slight  and  imperfect  way  in  which 
most  of  them  have  been  put  up,  and  to  a 
misapprehension  of  the  true  principles  of  con- 
struction by  the  engineers,  many  of  whom  were 
entirely  unfitted  for  their  place.  Many  instances 
of  £ulure  might  be  enumerated,  but  perhaps 
the  most  glaring  as  well  as  recent  is  that  of 
the  Rochester  bridge,  erected  a  year  or  two 
since  over  the  Genesee  river,  but  which, 
although  of  considerable  span,  was  hardly  able 
to  sustain  its  own  weight,  and  fell  shortly 
after  its  completion  from  the  weight  of  a 
few  inches  of  snow. — Oast-iron  bridges  are 
of  recent  origin.  The  first  that  was  erected 
in  England  was  at  Colebrook  Dale  in  1779, 
and  consists  of  5  curved  ribs,  nearly  semi- 
circular in  shape,  and  each  formed  of  8 
concentric  arcs,  connected  by  radial  pieces;  its 
span  is  100  feet^  and  rise  40  feet  The  Wear- 
mouth  bridge  was  bnilt  in  1790,  and  has  a 
striking  appearance  from  its  great  span  as  well 
as  height  above  the  water ;  it  is  100  feet  above 
high-water  level,  and  has  a  span  of  240  feet, 
with  a  rise  of  80.  The  Pont  d'Austerlitz,  nt 
Paris,  has  6  arches,  each  with  a  span  of  107 
feet,  and  a  rise  of  X  the  span ;  it  was  ereoted 
in  1805  by  Lamanae.  The  Pont  du  Carrousel, 
in  the  same  city,  was  built  by  Polonceau  in 
1888,  and  consisU  of  8  arches,  with  a  span  of 


mhjtabt  bridgi 


100  fteti  and  *  rbe  of  1«.  The  krgMi  iron 
arch  bridge  is  the  6oBthwark  bridge  orer  the 
Tbamee,  built  hj  Renoie  in  1818 ;  it  oonaifltB 
of  8  arobesi  340  feet  in  span,  and  with  a  riie 
of  24  feet— Of  wrongfat-iron  bridges,  the  most 
remarkable  are  the  Britannia  and  Conway  tuba* 
lar  bridgesi  erected  by  Stephenson.  The  Bri- 
tannia bridge  crosses  the  Menai  strait  at  10$ 
feet  aboye  high  water,  and  oonnsts  of  4  sptaoy 
Sof280feeteaob,  and  2  of  459  feet^  forminjf  a 
hnge  tube  of  wrought  iron,  through  which 
passes  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  railway. 
Ilie  Conway  bridge  has  a  sioffle  span  of  400 
feet^  and  is  only  IS  feet  abore  the  lerel  of  high 
water;  it  was  finished  in  1848,  and  the  Britan- 
nia bridge  in  1860.  The  tubes  were  constroot- 
ed,  in  each  instance,  at  a  distance  from  their 
respective  destinations,  and  afterward  floated 
to  tlieir  places  by  pontoons,  and  raised  by  hy- 
dranlic  presses,  forming  tlie  most  gigantic  ap- 
plication ever  made  of  these  powerful  machines. 
A  large  bridge  on  the  tubnlar  principle  is  now 
nnder  process  of  construction  at  Montreal 
across  the  8t.  Lawrence;  it  is  designed  for  a 
railway  structure,  and  will  be  called  the  Vic- 
toria bridge;  it  is  to  be  2  miles  in  length; 
the  total  amount  of  masonry  in  the  bridge  will 
be  8,000,000  cubic  feet,  which,  at  ISi  feet  to 
the  ton,  gives  a  total  weight  of  about  22,000 
tons;  the  total  weight  of  iron  in  the  tubes 
will  be  10,400  tons;  the  bridge,  when  com- 
pleted, is  estimated  to  cost  the  sum  of  $5,000,- 
000. — ^Movable  bridges  are  of  several  kinds, 
and  receive  different  names  from  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  constructed  and  operated.  The 
term  is  usually  applied  to  a  platform  properly 
supported  between  2  points  of  a  fixed  bridge, 
and  so  constructed  as  to  be  readily  removed 
and  replaced.  Drawbridges  are  those  which 
are  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  horizon- 
tal axis  and  counterpoise  connected  with 
the  platform.  Turning  or  swinmng  bridges 
are  those  which  turn  horusontally  about  a  verti- 
cal axis,  while  rolling  bridges  are  those  which 
rest  upon  rollers,  and  can  be  propelled  horizon- 
tally on  them,  so  as  to  dose  or  open  the  passage. 
We  sometimes  meet  with  a  Ftiu  different  doss 
of  movable  bridges,  where  the  pliOform  is  sup- 
ported by  boats,  or  any  other  buoyant  body, 
and  which  can  be  introduced  in  the  waterway, 
or  withdrawn  from  it,  at  convenience. 

BRIDGE,  lliuTAitT.  The  art  of  construct- 
ing temporary  bridges  for  the  passage,  by 
troops,  of  larse  rivers  and  narrow  arms  of  the 
aea,  was  welT  known  to  the  ancients,  whose 
works  in  this  respect  are  sometimes  of  surpris- 
ing magnitude.  Darius  passed  the  Bosporus 
And  Danube,  and  Xerxes  the  Hellespont,  by 
bridges  of  boats,  the  description  of  which  we 
find  in  Herodotus.  The  army  of  Xerxes  con- 
atructed  2  bridges  across  the  Dardanelles,  the 
first  of  860  vessels,  anchored  head  and  stem 
alongside  each  other,  thdr  keels  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  current,  the  vessels  connected  with 
each  other  by  strong  cables,  over  which  planks 
were  laid,  &stened  by  a  rail  on  either  side,  and 


eovered  in  by  a  bed  of  eirtfa.  The  Id  bridge 
had  814  vcsmIs,  and  wss  similirij  eooanari. 
According  to  Arrian,  Akxiader  iiad  zn^ 
pontoon-train  of  light  bests  stUcbed  to  la 
army.    The  B<«ians  hsd  widcer-work  ym^ 
covmd  with  the  akins  d  sounah)  destjocdto 
support  the  timber  platform  of  abridge;  th« 
formed  a  part  of  the  train  of  thdr  smiesad 
the  end  of  the  empire.    'Diey,  howefer,iki 
knew  how  to  construct  a  mors  solid  kiad  of 
military  bridge,  whenever  a  rapid  mer  hidto 
be  crossed ;    witness  the  hmam  bridgn  on 
piles,  on  which  Csoear  passed  ths  BhiQe.-Dv- 
ing  the  middle  ages  we  find  no  notioe  of  Mp 
equipages,  but  during  the  80  yesn*  wir  tie 
▼arioBs  armies  engaged  csrried  matmab  litk 
them  to  form  bridges  across  the  large  nrnd 
Germany.    The  boats  used  woe  veirhestr, 
and  generally  made  of  oak.   Ths  {dstforiB  of 
the  bridge  was  hiid  on  trestlss  stBodiogia  tbe 
bottoms  of  these  boats.    The  Dutch  firaidopt- 
ed  a  smaller  kind  of  vessd,  flat*hottoiiNd,iit^ 
nearly  vertical  sides,  pointed  hesd  ud  iten, 
and  both  ends  prqjecting,  in  an  inefiDedpbat 
above  the  surface  of  the  water.  Tbeycooastti 
of  a  framework  of  wood,  covered  with  Am 
of  tin,  and  were  called  pontoons.  Tbe  Fns^ 
too,  according  to  Folard,  cUum  theioT«BtMtf 
pontoons  made  of  copper,  and  are  said  to  kn 
had,  about  1672,  a  complete  pontoon  tnin.  6j 
the  beginning  of  the  18th  oentniy  sll  Eimipen 
armies  had  provided  themselves  with  tbh  M 
of  vessels,  mostly  wooden  frames,  cov%nd  a 
with  tin,  copper,  leather,  or  tarred  cum  lie 
latter  material  was  used  by  the  BmuoL  X^ 
boats  were  small,  and  had  to  beplseeddoK 
together,  with  not  more  than  4  or  5  feet  dec 
space  between  them,  if  the  bridge  iw  to  bin 
any  buoyancy ;  the  current  of  the  wster  n 
thereby  greatly  obstnicted,  the  ssfttf  of  tb 
bridge  endangered,  and  a  chance  ^.tcb  to  tk 
enemy  to  dee^y  it  by  sending  floating  bo^ 
against  iL— The  pontoons  now  eopk^edbf  tM 
continental  armies  of  Eorope  aie  a  a  bf^ 
kind,  but  similar  in  principle  to  those  100  rss 
ago.    Tbe  French  have  used,  since  1829,a» 
bottomed  vessel  with  nearlv  venaeal  ad^  «- 
minishinff  in  breadth  toward  the  8teDi,aB^<^ 
but  a litUe  less,  toward  the  stem;  tbei ^ 
rise  above  tbe  gunwales  and  are  csrm  &e 
those  of  a  canoe.    The  dimensioDs  an:  I^ 
81  ft;  breadth,  at  top,  5  ft. 7 in.;  "t^ 
4ft.4in.    The  franiework  is  cf  oak,co«K 


with  fir  planking,    ^^^j  ^^ ^    ^ 

lbs.  and  has  a  buoyancy  (weight  of  caifBvwt 
would  sink  the  yessel  to  the  top  of  tbe  g<» 
wales)  of  18,676  Ibe.  When  forwd  »lo » 
bridge,  they  are  placed  at  intervak  of  M  » 
clear  space  from  gunwale  to  gunwale,  m  » 
road  of  the  bridge  is  11  ft  wide.  Fortoe* 
vanced  guard  of  an  army  a  smaller  kind  ffrf||^ 
toon  is  used,  for  bridging  over  riTenof  ** 
impfMrtancCi  The  Austrian  pontooss  m  ff. 
lar  to  the  larger  Freooh  pontoon,  bot  dinJK 
transversely  in  the  middle,  for  ©ore  w^ 
nient  carriage^  and  pat  together  in  tits  ^^ 


imiTABT  BRIDGE 


691 


Two  Teasels  placed  close  alongside  each  other, 
and  connected  by  short  timbers,  a  longitudinal 
timber  supporting  the  balks  of  the  platform, 
constitnte  a  floating  pier  of  a  bridge.    These 
pontoons,  invented  by  Birago,  were  introduced 
in  1823.    The  Rnssiana  have  a  framework  of 
wood  for  their  pontoons,  so  constructed  that 
the  centre  pieces,  or  thwarts,  may  be  unship- 
ped ;  over  this  frame  is  stretched  siul-doth, 
covered  with  tar  or  a  solution  of  India  rubber. 
They  are  in  length,  21  ft.  9  in. ;  breadth,  4  ft. 
11  in. ;  depth,  2  ft  4  in.,  and  weigh  718  lbs. 
each.    Breadth  of  road  of  bridge,  10  ft ;  dis- 
tance from  pontoon  to  pontoon,  8  ft.    The  Rns^ 
aians  also  have  pontoons  with  a  similar  frame- 
work, covered  over  with  leather.    The  Prus- 
sians are  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  divide 
thdr  pontoons  transversely  into  compartments, 
80  as  to  prevent  one  ledc  from  sinking  them. 
Their  pontoons  are  of  wood  and  flat*bottomed. 
The  span  or  dear  distance  between  the  pon- 
toons, in  their  bridges,  varies  from  8  to  16  ft., 
according  to  circumstances.    The  Dutch,  since 
1832,  and  the  Piedmontese,  have  pontoon  trains 
similar  to  those  in  the  Austrian  service.    The 
Belgian  pontoon  has  a  pointed  head,  but  is  not 
contracted  at  the  stem.    In  a!l  continental  ar- 
mies small  boats  to  carry  out  the  anchors  ac- 
company the  ^ontooq  train. — ^The  British  and 
the  U.  8.  anmes  have  entirely  abandoned  the 
use  of  boats  for  the  formation  of  their  pontoon 
trains,  and  adopted  hollow  cylinders  of  light 
material,  dosed  on  all  sides,  to  support  their 
bridges.    In  England  the  cylindrical  pontoons, 
with    conical,  hemispherical   or   paraboloidal 
enda,  as  constructed  in  1828  by  Ool.  Blanchard, 
were  adopted  in  1886  to  the  exdusion  of  all 
other  kinds.    The  larger  British  pontoon  is  2H 
ft.  long  and  2  ft.  8  in.  in  diameter.    It  is  form- 
ed of  &eet  tin,  framed  round  a  series  of  wheels 
constructed  of  tin,  having  hollow  cylindem  of 
tin  for  tlieir  spokes ;  a  larger  tin  cylinder.  If 
in.  in  diameter,  forms  their  common  axis,  and 
mns  through  the  entire  length  of  the  |5ontoon. 
— Experiments  have  been  made  in  the  United 
States  with  India  rubber  cylindrical  pontoons. 
In  1886  Capt  (afterward  Gol.)  Lane  construct- 
ed bridges  over  a  deep  and  rapid  river  in  Ala- 
bama with  such  pontoons,  and  in   1889  Mr. 
Armstrong  submitted  similar  floats,  18  ft.  long, 
18  in.  in  diameter  when  inflated,  and  weighing 
89  lbs.  each,  8  to  form  1  link  of  the  bridge. 
Pontoons  of  inflated  India  rubber   were,  in 
1846,  introduced  in  the  U.  S.  army,  and  used 
in   the  war  against  Mexico.    They  are  very 
easily  carried,  from  their  lightness  and  the 
fimall  space  they  take  up  when  folded;  but,  be- 
side being  liable  to  be  damaged  and  rendered 
useless  by  friction  on  gravd,  &c,  they  partake 
the  common  faults  of  all  cylindrical  pontoons. 
These  are,  that  when  once  sunk  in  the  water 
to  -1^  of  their  depth,  their  immersion  becomes 
greater  and  greater  with  every  equal  addition 
of  load,  tJbe  reverse  of  what  should  be;  their 
ends,  moreover,  easily  catch  and  lodge  floating 
matter ;  and  finally,  2  of  them  must  be  Joined 


to  a  raft  by  a  platform  before  they  can  be  mov- 
ed in  the  water,  whereas  boat  pontoons  are  as 
capable  of  independent  motion  in  the  water  as 
common  boats,  and  may  serve  for  rowing  rap- 
idly across  the  river  a  detachment  of  troops. 
To  compare  the  buoyant  power  of  the  cylindri- 
cal pontoon  with  that  of  the  boat  pontoon,  the 
following  may  suffice:  The  French  pontoon 
supports  about  20  ft  of  bridge,  and  has  a  buoy- 
ancy (the  weight  of  the  superstructure  deduct- 
ed)  of  more  than  150  cwt.  A  British  raft  of  2 
pontoons,  supporting  about  the  same  length  of 
bridge,  has  a  buoyancy,  superstructure  deduct- 
ed, of  only  77  cwt,  i  of  which  is  a  safe  load. 
A  pontoon  train  contains,  beside  the  pontoons, 
the  oars,  boat-hooks,  anchors,  cables,  &c^ 
necessary  to  move  them  about  in  the  water, 
and  to  fix  them  in  their  position,  and  the 
balks  and  planks  (chesses)  to  form  the  plat- 
form of  the  bridge.  With  boat  pontoons,  every 
pontoon  is  generally  secured  in  its  place,  and 
then  the  balks  and  chesses  stretched  across, 
with  cylindrical  pontoons,  2  are  connected  to  a 
raft,  which  is  anchored  at  the  proper  distance 
from  the  end  of  the  bridge,  and  connected  with 
it  by  balks  and  chesses.  Where  circumstances 
admit  of  it,  whole  links,  consisting  of  3,  4,  or  5 
pontoons  bridged  over,  are  constructed  in  shd- 
tered  situations  above  the  site  fixed  on  for 
ihe  bridge,  and  fioated  down  successively  into 
their  positions.  In  some  cases,  with  very  ex- 
perienced pontoniers,  the  whole  bridge  has 
been  constructed  on  one  bank  of  the  river  and 
swung  round  by  the  current  when  the  passage 
was  attempted.  This  was  done  by  Napoleon 
when  crossmg  the  Danube,  the  day  before  the 
battle  of  Wagram.  The  wnole  of  thb  campaign 
is  highly  instructive  with  regard  to  the  passing 
of  large  rivers  in  the  face  of  the  enemy  by 
milita^  bridges. — ^Pontoon  trains  are,  how- 
ever, not  always  at  hand,  and  the  military  en- 
gineer must  be  prepared  to  bridge  over  a  river^ 
m  case  of  need,  without  them.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  variety  of  materials  and  modes  of  con- 
struction are  employed.  •  The  larger  kind  of 
boats  generally  found  on  navigable  rivers  are 
made  use  of  for  bridges  of  boats.  If  no  boats 
are  to  be  found,  and  the  depth  or  configuration 
of  bottc»n  of  the  river  renders  the  use  of  fioating 
supports  necessary,  rafts  of  timber,  fioats  of 
casks,  and  other  buoyant  bodies  may  be  used. 
If  tho  river  is  shallow,  and  has  a  hard  and  tol- 
erably level  bottom,  standing  supports  are  con- 
structed, connsting  either  of  piles,  which  form 
the  most  durable  and  the  safest  kind  of  bridge, 
but  require  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor,  or  of 
trestles,  which  may  be  easily  and  quickly  con- 
structeo.  Sometimes  wagons  loaded  with 
fEiscines,  &c.,  and  sunk  in  the  deeper  places  of 
the  river,  will  form  convenient  supports  for  the 
platform  of  a  bridge.  Inundations,  marshes, 
&a,  are  bridged  over  by  means  of  gabions. 
For  narrow  rivers  and  ravines,  where  infantry 
only  have  to  pass,  various  kinds  of  suspension 
bridges  are  adopted;  they  are  generally  sus- 
pended by  strong  cables. — ^The  construction  of 


692 


KATURAL  BRIDGE 


a  mflitarj  bridge  tinder  the  aotnol  fire  of  the 
enemy  is  now  a  matter  of  but  rare  occnrrenoe ; 
yet  the  posribilitj  of  resistance  mnst  always  be 
providea  for.  On  this  acooant  the  bridge  is 
generally  oonstnicted  in  a  redotering  bend  of 
the  river,  so  that  the  artillery  placed  right  and 
left  sweeps  the  ground  on  the  opposite  bank 
dose  to  where  the  bridge  is  to  land,  and  thus 
protects  its  conslmction.  The  concave  bank, 
moreover,  is  generally  higher  than  the  convex 
one,  and  thus,  in  most  cases,  the  advantage  of 
command  is  added  to  that  of  a  cross  fire.  In- 
fantry are  rowed  across  in  boats  or  pontoons, 
and  established  immediately  in  front  of  the 
bridge.  A  floating  bridge  may  be  constmcted 
to  carry  some  cavalry  and  a  few  light  guns 
across.  The  division  of  the  river  into  several 
branches  by  islands,  or  a  spot  immediately  be- 
low the  junction  of  some  smaller  river,  also  of- 
fers advantages.  In  the  latter,  and  sometimes 
in  the  former  case,  the  several  links  of  the 
bridge  may  be  composed  in  sheltered  water, 
and  then  floated  down.  The  attacking  paity, 
having  commonly  to  choose  between  many  fa- 
vorable points  on  a  long  line  of  river,  may  easi- 
ly mislead  his  opponent  by  false  attacks,  and 
dien  effect  the  real  passage  at  a  distant  point; 
and  the  danger  of  scattering  the  defending 
forces  over  that  long  line  is  so  great,  that  it  U 
nowadays  preferred  to  keep  them  concen- 
trated at  some  distance  from  the  river,  and 
march  them  in  a  body  against  the  real  point  of 
passage  as  soon  as  it  has  once  been  ascertained, 
and  before  the  enemy  con  have  brought  over  all 
his  army.  It  is  from  these  causes  that  in  none 
of  the  wars  since  the  French  revolution  has  the 
oonstrnction  of  a  bridge  on  any  of  the  large 
rivers  of  Europe  been  seriously  contested. 

BRIDGE,  Natukal.  I.  In  Virginia.  This 
celebrated  natural  curioMty  is  in  the  south- 
eastern comer  of  Rockbridge  co.,  Virginia,  in 
Ae  midst  of  the  wild  scenery  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
region,  and  almost  under  its  shadows  upon  its 
western  side.  The  James  river,  after  winding 
its  way  around  the  points  of  the  smaller  ridges 
of  the  Appalachian  chain,  is  seen  in  view  of  this 
locality  to  penetrate  this  greatest  barrier  of  the 
eastern  and  western  waters,  by  one  of  its  few 
ffreat  gaps.  The  stage  road  from  Buchanan  to 
Lexington  follows  the  general  course  of  the  long 
ridgea^  continuing  up  the  valleys  of  the  smaller 
water  courses,  and  crossing  these  as  they  di- 
verge to  the  right  in  their  rapid  descent  toward 
the  James  river.  At  a  point  12  miles  from 
Buchanan,  passing  around  the  foot  of  a  hill 
upon  a  rapidly  descending  road,  the  traveller 
suddenly  finds  himself  upon  a  narrow  track  like 
alone  between  two  high  wooden  fences.  From 
his  horse  he  may  look  over  these  fences  into  open 
space;  but  nothing  would  suggest  to  him  that 
he  is  upon  the  great  natural  bridge  so  celebrated 
in  the  history  of  our  country,  and  associated 
with  the  names  of  our  most  revered  statesmen, 
who  have  visited  and  described  it.  A  view 
from  the  outside  of  these  barriers,  down  the 
deep  gorge,  is  necessary  to  open  to  him  the  sub- 


limity of  this  grand  natural  structure.  He  finds* 
himself  suspended  over  the  centre  of  a  narrow 
chasm,  not  quite  100  feet  wide,  but  218  feet 
deep,  its  2  smooth  parallel  walls  of  stratified 
limestone  inclining  at  the  same  angle,  which 
varies  but  a  few  degrees  from  the  vertic^. 
The  arch  which  supports  him  is  of  such  irreg- 
ular form  upon  the  surface,  that  a  view  of  its 
solid  dimensions  is  easily  obtained  from  various 
points  upon  its  edge.  A  plumb-line  dropped 
fh>m  its  centre  down  the  vertical  face  of  the 
rock  swings  dear  at  the  depth  of  40  feet 
Such  is  the  thickness  of  the  crown  of  tlie  arch. 
Toward  its  sides  this  regularly  increases  with 
a  graceful  curve,  as  in  an  artificial  structure, 
conveying  an  impression  of  strength  and  solid- 
ity, such  as  one  derives  from  no  work  of  man. 
And  when  its  breadth  is  found  to  be  full  60  feet, 
and  the  stone  is  proved  to  be  of  most  substan- 
tial character — a  nighly  silicious  limestone,  ex- 
tremely hard  to  break,  formed  in  massive 
blocks  and  strata,  with  no  evidence  upon  its 
weathered  surface  of  a  tendency  to  decompose 
and  crumble  away,  but  on  the  contrary,  retain- 
ing upon  its  exterior  the  ftiUhiu^ness  and  dose 
texture  of  its  internal  portion,  and  having  be- 
mde  no  interstratified  layers  of  softer  rock,  by  the 
removal  of  which  it  might  be  undermined,  and 
the  chasm  be  thus  produced — then  it  becomes 
apparent  that  the  insignificant  little  stream, 
which  now  runs  in  this  deep  gorge,  has  had  no 
agency  in  shaping  and  producing  this  wonder- 
ful channel.  Mightier  forces  have  worn  away 
the  hard  strata,  more  powerfhl  torrents  than  any 
that  now  flow  over  the  surface — set  in  motion 
probably  when  this  portion  of  Virginia  was 
shaken  by  those  great  convulsions  which  dis- 
placed its  piles  of  strata  to  the  depth  of  thou- 
sands of  feet,  bringing  into  juxtaposition  along 
the  line  of  fissures,  which  are  still  to  be  traced, 
groups  of  rock  everywhere  else  found  separated 
by  other  formations,  the  aggregate  thickness  of 
which  might  be  measured  by  miles.  The  min- 
eral springs,  so  common  in  this  region,  and 
particularly  along  the  lines  of  these  disturbances, 
flow  up  from  great  depths,  as  is  made  evident 
by  the  high  temperature  of  many  of  them. 
Together  with  the  "  faults  "  of  the  rock  forma- 
tions, they  testify  to  the  extraordinary  convul- 
sions of  the  Burflace,  of  the  effect  of  which  the 
bridge  and  its  chasm  are  an  enduring  monument, 
or  at  least  until  other  similar  catastrophes  shall 
again  change  the  form  of  the  surface.  From 
below,  the  bridge  is  seen  to  great  advantage 
along  the  course  of  the  little  stream,  called 
Cedar  creek,  which  flows  under  it.  But  away 
from  this  gorge  it  is  not  a  conspicuous  object  in 
the  scenery,  as  it  does  not  rise  above  tlie  gen- 
eral level  around  it.  The  limestone  rock  of 
which  it  is  composed  is  that  of  the  great  val- 
ley of  Virginia,  a  part  of  the  great  calcareous 
formation  near  the  base  qf  the  group  of  the 
Appalachian  system,  and  one  of  the  lowest  of 
the  stratified  rock  formations.  In  this  vicinity 
it  does  not  appear,  on  a  slight  examination,  to 
contain  fos^  remains  of  shells. — ^At  the  base  of 


BRmGE-HEAD 


BRIDGEPORT 


the  bridge  manv  names  are  conred  upon  its 
steep  wflSs ;  and  every  American  has  learDed 
from  his  scnool-books  to  look  among  them  for 
the  initials  of  George  WashiDgton,  who  is  said 
to  have  climbed  to  a  good  height^  and  cut  tliem 
conspicnonsly  upon  the  rock.  Inqniry  at  the  spot, 
however,  does  not  confirm  these  early  lesstms, 
tiie  residents  near  the  bridge  having  no  tradition 
or  other  knowledge  of  this  interesting  event  in 
thelife  of  Washington.  II.  In  Alabama.  This  is 
described  by  the  kte  Prof.  Tuomey  as  rivalling 
that  of  Virginia.  It  is  in  Walker  county,  and  in 
the  sandstone  called  the  millstone  grit,  which 
underlies  the  coal  formation.  It  spans  about  120 
feet,  and  its  height  is  about  70  feet  A  smaller 
bridge  connects  it  with  the  bluff  beyond.  The 
lines  of  stratification  of  the  sandstone  give  the 
structare  the  appearance  of  having  been  artifi- 
cially built  up  with  massive  blocks.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  region  of  wild  and  romantic  beauty, 
high  escarpments  of  the  same  sandstone  being 
seen  standing  out  in  the  face  of  the  hills  around. 
III.  In  Calitbrnia.  There  are  2  remarkable  nat- 
ural bridges  across  the  Chyote  Creek,  near  Yalle- 
cita,  in  Oalaveras  county,  having  immense  arch- 
es, whose  surfaces  appear  as  if  carved  into  clusters 
of  beaatiful  fruits  and  flowers,  doubtless  the  re- 
sult of  volcanic  action  at  some  remote  period. 

BRIDGE-HEAD,  or  TAte-de-pont,  in  forti- 
fication, a  permanent  or  field  work,  thrown  up 
at  the  ^rther  end  of  a  bridge  in  order  to  pro- 
tect the  bridge,  and  to  enable  the  party  holding 
it  to  manoBuvre  on  both  banks  of  the  river. 
The  existence  of  bridge-heads  is  indispensable 
to  those  extensive  modern  fortresses  situated  on 
large  rivers  or  at  the  Junction  of  2  rivers.  In 
such  a  case  the  bridge-head  is  generally  formed 
by  a  suburb  on  the  opposite  eide  and  regularly 
fortified  ;  thus,  Castel  is  the  bridge-head  of 
Mentz,  Ehrenbreitstein  that  of  Coblentas,  and 
Deutz  that  of  Cologne.  No  sooner  had  the 
French  got  possession,  during  the  revolutionary 
war,  of  Kehl,  than  they  turned  it  into  a  bridge- 
head for  Strasbonrff .  In  England,  Gosport  may 
be  considered  the  bridge-head  of  Portsmouth, 
although  there  is  no  bridge,  and  though  it  has 
other  and  very  important  Amotions  to  fulfil. 
As  in  this  latter  case,  a  fortification  on  the  fur- 
ther side  of  a  river  or  arm  of  the  sea  is  often 
called  a  bridge-head,  though  there  be  no  bridge ; 
since  the  fortification,  imparting  the  power  of 
landing  troops  under  its  protection  and  prepar- 
ing for  offensive  operations,  fhlfils  the  same 
functions,  and  comes,  strategetically  speaking, 
under  the  same  denomination.  In  speaking  of 
the  position  of  an  army  behind  a  laree  river,  idl 
the  posts  it  holds  on  its  opposite  bank  are  called 
its  bridge-heads,  whether  they  be  fortresses,  in- 
trenched viUages,  or  regular  field-works,  inas- 
much as  every  one  of  them  admits  of  the  army 
debouching  in  safety  on  the  other  side.  Thus, 
when  Napoleon's  retreat  from  Russia,  in  1818, 
ceased  behind  the  Elbe,  Hamburg,  Magdeburg, 
Wittenberg,  and  Torgau  were  his  bridge-hea& 
on  the  right  bank  of  that  river.  lu  field  fortifi- 
cation,  bridge-heads  are  moi^y  very  umple 


works,  consisting  of  a  hannst  dpretre^  or  some- 
times a  horn-w6rk  or  crown- work,  open  toward 
the  river,  and  with  a  redoubt  dose  in  frokit  of  the 
bridge.  Sometimes  a  hamlet,  a  group  of  farm- 
houses, or  other  buildings  close  to  a  bridge,  may 
be  formed  into  a  sufiieient  bridge-head  by  being 
properly  adapted  for  defence ;  for,  with  the 
present  light-infantry  tactics,  such  objects,  when 
at  all  capable  of  defence,  may  be  msde  to  offer 
a  resistance  as  great,  or  greater,  than  any  field- 
works  tiiro  wn  up  according  to  the  rules  of  the  art. 

BKIDGENORTII,  a  parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal borough  and  town  of  Shropshire,  Eng- 
land, on  the  Severn.  It  is  said  to  be  of  Saxon 
origin,  and  was  anciently  called  BrugiOy  Brug^ 
or  Bruges.  The  town  consists  of  an  upper  and 
a  lower  part,  connected  by  a  handsome  bridge 
of  6  arches.  The  upper  town  is  built  on  a  roclc 
on  the  summit  of  which  stand  an  old  castle  and 
2  churches.  A  free  grammar  school,  founded 
in  1503,  with  an  income  fi'om  endowments  of 
$250  a  year,  and  with  86  scholars  in  1852,  and, 
among  various  other  schools,  a  national  school, 
founded  in  1847,  a  town  hall  of  considerable  an- 
tiquity, a  public  library,  and  a  theatre,  are 
among  the  most  notable  buildings  in  the  place. 
An  extensive  carrying  trade  is  maintained  on  the 
Severn,  and  there  are  8  carpet  manufactories,  2 
large  mills  for  spinning  of  worsted,  and  5  annual 
fairs.  Bridgenorth  sends  2  members  to  the 
house  of  commons.  Pop.  of  the  fnuniclpal 
borough,  in  1851,  6,172,  of  the  parliamentary 
borough,  7,610,  and  of  Bridgenorth  poor  law 
union,  15,608.  The  London,  Aylesbury,  and 
Shrewsbury  railway  passes  Bridgenorth. 

BRIDGEPORT,  a  city  and  half  shire  town  in 
Fiurfield  co.,  Conn.,  situated  on  Long  Island 
sound,  59  miles  from  New  York,  by  the  New 
York  and  New  Haven  rmlroad.  It  is  the  most 
important  station  on  the  road,  and  the  ter^ 
minus  of  the  Housatonio  and  Naugatuck  rail- 
roads—the town,  in  point  of  wealth,  rang- 
ing as  8d  in  the  state.  The  mouth  of  Pe- 
quonnock  creek  furnishes  a  harbor,  safe  and 
capacious,  but  somewhat  injured  by  a  sand- 
bar. A  good  deal  of  coasting  business  is  done 
here,  and  2  steamboats  make  daily  passages  to 
and  from  New  York.  Near  the  shore  the  land  is 
level,  but  soon  rises  to  an  elevation  of  100  feet, 
commanding  a  beautiful  view  of  the  sound.  The 
elevation,  called  Golden  hill,  is  crowned  with 
residences,  remarkable  for  taste  and  elegance. 
The  city  is  well  built,  has  a  gas  and  a  water 
company,  and  many  of  its  streets  are  shaded 
with  noble  elms.  The  immediate  vicinity  was 
settied  in  1689,  but  the  city  (formerly  called 
Newfield)  is  almost  wholly  tiie  growth  of  the 
present  century.  The  town,  formerly  a  part  of 
Stratford,  was  incorporated  in  1821,  and  the 
city  charter  was  obtained  in  1886.  In  1850  the 

?opulation  of  the  city  was  6,080,  of  the  town 
,560,  showing  an  increase  of  more  than  75  per 
cent,  during  the  previous  10  years.  In  1858 
the  population  of  the  city  is  estimated  at  7,50(^ 
that  of  the  town  at  11,000.  The  prosperity  of 
the  place  is  mainly  owing  to  its  manufactures. 


6M 


BRIDGET 


BRID6EWATEB 


There  are  7  large  carriage  factories,  wiUi  smaller 
efltablishments  for  springs,  coach  lace,  Ac.  Sad- 
dles for  the  southern  market,  with  harnesses^ 
&a,  are  also  largely  manafactured  here,  and 
there  are  several  iron  foonderies.  Two  daily 
and  2  weekly  papers  are  published,  and  there  is 
a  valuable  public  library  of  8,000  volumes. 
There  are  17  religious  societies,  indndingS  Afri- 
can, with  14  churches. — ^East  Bbidobfort  is  a 
suburb  comprisinff  250  buildings,  mainly  upon 
the  property  of  Messrs.  P.  T..Bamum  and  N.  H. 
Noble,  having  sprung  up  within  the  last  5  years. 
It  contains  the  large  establishment  of  the 
Wheeler  and  Wilson  sewing-machine  company. 
The  buildings,  calculated  for  the  aooommodation 
of  500  operatives,  occupy  the  four  sides  of  a 
square,  288  feet  on  a  sidot  Three  hundred  of  the 
well-known  machines  are  now  manufactured 
per  week.  Bridgeport  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
dwarf  Charles  Stratton,  more  generally  known 
as  Gen«  Tom  Thumb.  Iranistan,  the  celebrated 
oriental  villa  of  Mr.  P.  T.  Bamum,  was  situated 
about  a  mile  from  Uie  city,  on  the  Fairfield  road. 
It  was  burnt  in  185?,  but  the  beautiM  shrub- 
bery and  grounds  remain  uninjured. 

BRIDGET,  BBiDorr,  or  Bbioida,  Saist,  pa- 
troness of  Ireland,  bom  at  Pochard,  county  of 
Armagh,  about  the  end  of  the  5th,  or  the  be- 

Cinff  of  the  6th  century.  She  withdrew 
L  the  world  in  early  youth,  received  the 
habit  of  a  nun  at  the  hands  of  St.  MeL  nephew 
and  disciple  of  St.  Patrick,  and  built  herself  a 
cell  under  a  large  oak,  callii^  it  Eill-dara,  or 
Kildare,  the  cell  of  the  oak.  She  was  soon  fol- 
lowed by  other  virgins  from  the  surrounding 
country,  and  in  a  short  time  found  herself  at  the 
head  of  a  flourishing  order,  which  branched 
forth  into  different  parts  of  Ireland,  and  even 
passed  over  the  seas  into  England,  Scotland,  Ger- 
many, and  France.  It  subsisted  for  many  cen- 
turies, but  is  now  extinct  Several  biographies 
of  this  saint  have  been  written,  but  they  contain 
little  more  than  a  recital  of  her  miracles.  It  is 
related  that  her  body  was  discovered  hi  1185, 
at  Down-Patrick,  and  was  there  kept  until  the 
destruction  of  iu  shrine  by  Henry  VlU.  The 
bead  is  s«d  to  be  still  preserved  in  the  Jesuits* 
church  at  Lisbon.    Her  feast  falls  on  Feb.  1. 

BRIDGET,  SiSTBBS  ov  Saint,  a  religious  order 
founded  in  1806,  by  Dr.  Delany,  bishop  of  Kil- 
dare and  Leighlin,  Ireland,  and  approved  by 
Pope  Gregory  XYI.  The  rule  embraces  the  8 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience,  and 
has  special  reference  to  the  direction  of  parish 
echools.  The  habit  is  black,  similar  to  that  of 
the  Presentation  nuns  and  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 
The  first  convent  of  the  order  was  opened  at 
Tullow,  county  Oarlow,  and  the  second  at 
Mount  Rath,  in  1808.  One  was  established  at 
Bnffido,  N.  Y.,  about  1858. 

BRIDGETON,  the  capital  of  Cumberland 
CO.,  N.  J.,  pop.  8,000,  situated  on  both  sides 
of  Cohansey  creek,  20  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  Delaware  bay.  The  town  is  neatly 
built,  and  its  opposite  parts  are  connected  by*  a 
drawbridge  across  the  creek.    Beside  several 


churches,  academies,  banks,  and  various  fseto- 
ries,  it  contains  a  public  library,  a  oourt  house, 
and  an  extenmve  iron  foundery. 

BRIDGETOWN,  the  capital  of  the  iaiand 
of  Barbadoes ;  pop.  in  1851,  20,026.  It  u  well 
built  along  the  N.  shore  of  Carlisle  bay,  and  is 
surrounded  by  plantations.  In  the  neighbor- 
hood are  the  residence  of  the  bishop,  the  gov- 
ernor's house,  and  St.  Peter's  barracks,  afford- 
ing quarters  for  1,200  men,  and  possesdng  a 
complete  arsenal  and  a  fine  parade  ground. 
Bridgetown  was  made  a  city  in  1842.  It  eon- 
tains  the  cathedral  of  St  Michael,  the  council- 
house,  a  jail,  and  a  well-supplied  market. 

BRIDGEWATER  (Indian  name^  Ifunketmi), 
a  township  of  Plymouth  co.,  Maas.,  on  the 
Fall  river  and  Bridgewater  branch  nulroads,  27 
miles  S.  E.  of  Boston,  and  20  miles  N.  W.  of 
Plymouth.  It  was  very  extensive  prior  to  1790, 
at  which  time  it  had  4,975  inhabitants.  Three 
new  townships  were  afterward  separated  from 
it  and  incorporated  under  the  names  of  East, 
iMorth,  and  West  Bridgewater.  It  once  formed 
]>art  of  Duxbury,  and  was  pmrohased  of  the  Li- 
dians  in  1645,  by  Cq>t.  Miles  Standish,  who  gave 
in  exchange  for  the  whole  territory  7  coats,  4 
moose  skins,  10  yards  of  cotton,  20  knives,  8 
hoes,  and  9  hatchets.  It  was  incorporated  as  a 
separate  precinct  in  1716,  and  the  first  church 
was  built  the  following  year.  Old  Bridgewater 
is  pleasantly  situated  on  Taunton  river,  embraoes 
aome  of  the  best  land  in  the  county,  and  poe- 
sesses  considerable  commerdal  importance.  It 
is  the  seat  of  a  state  normal  school  for  both 
sexes,  of  an  academy,  incorporated  in  1799,  and 
of  a  state  almshouse.  It  has  16  other  sdiocls,  1 
Episcopal,  1  Swedenbozgian,  and  8  Congrega- 
tional churches,  2  rolling  mUls,  8  furnaces^  1  brass 
foundery,  2  laige  machine  shops,  2  saw  mills,  4 
factories  of  boots  and  shoots,  1  of  nails,  1  of  pa- 
per, and  1  of  augers.  Vessels  of  150  tons  are 
sometimes  built  here,  and  fioated  down  the 
river  when  the  current  is  swollen  by  freshets. 
Pop.  in  1855,  8,868.^East  Budqewatebis  about 
25  miles  S.  S.  £.  o£  Boston,  on  Beaver  and  San- 
tucket  rivers,  branches  of  the  Taunton.  It  has 
important  manufactures,  some  of  which  have 
been  carried  on  since  its  first  settlement,  about 
1688.  Cannon  were  cast  here  during  the  revo- 
lution, and  small  arms  ar^  still  made  to  some 
extent.  There  are  2  forges,  1  furnace,  8  grist 
mills,  7  saw  mUls,  6  factories  of  boots  and  shoes, 
1  of  cotton  goods,  1  of  nails,  1  of  edge  tools,  1  of 
cotton-gins,  9  schools,  an  academy,  founded  in 
1817,  and  incorporated  in  1837,  and  6  churches, 
8  Congregational,  1  Methodist,  1  Swedenborgian, 
and  1  Cniversalist  The  township  contains  2 
villages,  one  of  which  bears  the  same  name,  and 
is  situated  on  the  Bridgewater  branch  of  the 
Old  Colony  and  Fall  river  railroad.  Pop.  of 
township  in  1855,  2,980. — ^Nobth  Budgb- 
WATEB  IS  the  most  populous  of  the  4  town- 
ships, and  the  first  of  the  8  which  sprang  from 
old  Bridgewater.  It  is  about  20  miles  S.  K  of 
Boston,  is  watered  by  Salisbury  river,  has  a 
good  soil,  adapted  to  graadng,  and  oontaina  8 


BRIDGEWATEB 


695 


1  SwedeDborgian,  1  Baptist| 
and  2  Ueiliodist  chnrohes,  1  aoademy,  2  gram* 
mar  and  17  other  achoolay  1  bank,  1  Barings 
bank,  1  newspaper  office,  8  grist  mills,  2  saw- 
mills, and  manofaotories  of  boots,  shoes,  hats, 
brushes,  cabinet  and  wooden  wares,  forks,  hoes, 
and  shoemakers*  tools.  Pop.  in  1865, 6,205. — 
West  Bbid«bwatxb,  is  about  25  miles  S.  £.  of 
Boston,  and  like  the  preceding  township,  is  on 
the  Fall  rirer  railroad.  A  branch  of  Taunton 
riyer  flows  through  it,  affording  motlTo  power 
to  several  mills  and  factories.  Boots  and  shoes, 
ploughs,  shovels,  hoes,  forks,  and  iron  castings, 
are  the  principal  articles  made.  There  are  10 
schools,  1  Congregational  church,  1  Sweden- 
borgian,  1  Baptist,  1  Methodist,  and  1  Univer- 
salist    Pop.  in  1855, 1,784. 

BRIDG£WAT£R,  a  seaport  and  parliament- 
ary borough  of  £ngland,  county  of  Somerset, 
151  miles  from  London  by  railway.    It  is  a 

Slace  of  much  antiquity,  mentioned  in  "Domes- 
ay  Book,"  by  the  name  of  Brugie.  The  river 
Parret  admits  vessels  of  200  tons,  and  opens  on 
the  Bristol  channel.  The  foreign  trade  is  princi- 
pally with  the  United  6tat^  the  Canadas,  the 
W  est  Indies,  and  Russia.  In  1858,  the  portowned 
2  steamboats  of  81  tons,  and  122  vessels  of  an 
aggregate  tonnage  of  12,169.  Entries  of  coasting 
vessels  in  1852, 2,682;  dearances^  1,170.  Entries 
of  vessels  in  the  colonial  and  foreign  trade,  58 ; 
clearances,  15.  Brick  and  tile  making  is  carried 
on  in  the  neighborhood — the  making  of  white 
brick,  known  as  Bath  brick,  constituting  a  staple 
trade  of  the  town.  The  parish  church,  which 
haa  recently  been  restored,  is  a  fine  structure. 
There  are  places  of  worship  for  Unitarians, 
Quakers,  Isdependents,  Methodists,  and  Bap- 
tists; also  various  schools  and  charitable  institu- 
tions. The  place  has  much  historical  interest, 
both  in  its  remote  antiquity  and  in  modem  times. 
In  its  neighborhood  is  the  isle  of  Athelney,  a 
marsh  or  swamp,  in  which  Alfred  took  refuge 
from  the  Danes.  At  the  conquest,  many  Saxons 
were  settled  here.  It  was  a  place  of  importance  in 
the  various  civil  wars  of  England,  and  attained 
an  unfortunate  celebri^  from  the  part  taken  by 
its  inhabitants  in  the  ^nmouth  rising,  and  the 
terrible  retaliation  taken  upon  them  by  James  II. 
and  his  adherents.  The  borough  is  governed  by 
6  aldermen  and  18  councillors,  one  of  whom  is 
mayor,  and  returns  2  members  to  parliament. 
Bobert  Blake,  the  famous  admiral,  was  a  native 
of  Bridgewater.  Pop.  in  1851, 10,817.  Pop. 
of  Bridgewater  poor-law  unions,  which  con-> 
tain  40  parishes  and  townships,  and  an  area  of 
85,639  acres.  832477. 

BBIDGEWATER,  Frakois  Eoebtok,  duke 
of,  one  of  the  English  worthies,  born  in  1786, 
died  March  8,  1808.  Sir  Efferton  Brydges, 
who  claimed  to  be  the  head  of  the  senior 
branch,  traced  the  descent  of  tiiis  great  family 
from  Charlemagne.  The  subject  of  this  article 
was  son  of  Scroop,  4th  earl,  and  1st  duke  of 
Bridgewater.  In  youth  he  was  so  delicate  of 
constitution,  that  all  care  of  his  education  was 
abandoned,  but   he   outlived  the  tendency  to 


consumption,  and  his  natural  rigor  of  mind  en* 
abled  hun  to  make  up  for  his  educational  defi- 
ciencies. He  was  the  owner  of  immense  ea- 
tates,  among  which  were  the  coal  mines  of 
Worsley ;  and  the  difficulty  of  conveying  his 
coals  to  Manchester  incessantly  occupying  his 
mind,  the  duke  hit  on  a  plan  of  a  navigable 
canal.  The  great  canal  of  Languedoc,  in 
FranccL  and  the  numerous  canals  of  the  Nether- 
lands, deprived  this  idea  of  the  merit  of  novelty ; 
but  in  Great  Britain  it  was  the  first  great  work 
of  the  kind.  The  duke  having  accidentally  met 
with  Brindley,  the  engineer,  the  work  was 
begun,  and  in  spite  of  opposition,  both  in  and 
out  of  the  legishiture,  was  carried  to  a  success- 
tal  termination.  The  consequences  were  imme- 
diate benefit  both  to  the  duke,  as  owner  of  this 
magnificent  nroperty,  and  to  the  consumers,  for 
it  at  once  reanced  the  price  of  coals  in  Manches- 
ter 50  per  cent.  By  various  eztenaona,  the 
duke  opened  a  canal  navigation  between  the 
Trent  and  the  Mersey.  These  undertakings, 
executed  by  a  angle  individual,  and  of  perfect 
novelty,  were  stupendous  at  the  time. 

BRIDGEWATER,  Fbakois  Hsnkt  Eosb- 
TOK,  earlo^  born  Kov.  11, 1756,  died  in  Paris, 
April  11, 1826.  HewastheyoungestsonofHenry 
Egerton,  bishop  of  Durham,  son  of  John,  8d 
earl  of  Bridgewater,  whose  direct  ancestor  was 
Sir  Thomas  Egerton,  lord  chancellor  of  Eng- 
land, created  viscount  Braokley  and  baron  of 
EUesmere,  by  James  I.  He  graduated  at  Ox- 
ford in  1780,  in  which  year  his  father  appointed 
him  a  prebendary  of  Durham.  His  relative, 
the  last  duke  of  Bridgewater,  presented  him  to 
valnable  rectories  in  Shropshire  in  1781  and 
1797.  His  brother  John  succeeded  to  the  earl- 
dom on  the  extinction  of  the  dukedom  of 
Bridgewater  in  1808.  Twenty  years  later,  Mr. 
Egerton  himself  became  8th  and  last  earl,  dying 
a  bachelor.  He  resided  during  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  in  Paris,  where  he  was  distinguished 
for  his  eccentricities.  His  house  was  neariy 
filled  with  cats  and  dogs ;  out  of  15  dogs,  8  were 
admitted  to  his  table,  and  6,  dressed  up  like  him- 
self were  frequentiy  seen  alone  in  his  carriage, 
drawn  by  4  horses,  and  attended  by  2  footmen. 
He  had  no  ordinary  share  of  learning  and  ability. 
His  own  publications  are  a  splendid  edition  of 
the  '^Hippolytus''  of  Euripides,  with  scholia, 
notes,  various  readings,  and  a  Latin  version; 
a  "  life  of  Lord  Chancellor  Egerton ;"  a  «  Let- 
ter to  the  Parisians  on  Inland  Navigation;" 
and  **  Anecdotes"  of  his  own  family.  He  Be- 
queathed his  manuscripts  and  autograph  letters 
to  the  British  museum,  with  £12,000,  the  inter- 
est of  which  was  to  be  expended  in  taking  care 
of  and  increasing  them.  Further,  by  his  will, 
dated  Feb.  25, 1825,  he  left  £8,000  to  the  pres- 
ident of  the  royal  society,  with  a  request  that 
it  should  be  given  to  some  person  or  persons 
named  by  him,  who  should  write,  print,  and 
publish  1,000  copies  of  a  work  "On  the  Power, 
wisdom,  and  Goodness  of  God,  as  manifested 
in  tlie  Creation."  Mr.  Davies  Gilbert,  who  oc- 
cupied the  chair  of  the  royal  societjr  when  the 


BRIDQKAN 


earl  died,  oonsolted  with  Dr.  Howley,  aroh- 
biahop  or  Gantorburj,  and  Dr.  Blomfield, 
bishop  of  London,  and  it  was  agreed  that  8 
treatises,  devoted  to  the  illustration  of  separate 
branches  of  the  sabiect,  shonld  be  written. 
Thos  originated  the  ^^  Bridge  water  Treatises," 
whose  appointed  authors  were  Thomas  Chal- 
mers, D.  D.;  John  Kidd,  M.  D.;  William 
Whewell,  D.  D. ;  6ir  Oharles  Bell ;  Peter  Mark 
Boget,  M.  D.;  William  BucklandlD.  D.;  the 
Rev.  William  Kirby,  and  William  Prout,  M.  D. 
These  works  have  had  a  large  and  continuous 
sale ;  and,  by  the  term^  of  the  bequest,  the  prof* 
its  of  the  treatises  are  appropriated  to  their 
respecdve  authors.  The  earPs  immense  prop- 
erty, about  £100,000  a  year,  in  the  first  instanoe, 
oame  into  possession  of  his  kinsman,  the  late 
duke  of  Sutherland.  On  his  death  in  1883, 
it  devolved  upon  the  duke*s  2d  son.  Lord 
Francis  Leveson  Gower,  who  then  took  the 
name  and  arms  of  £gerton  only,  and  was  created 
Viscount  Brackley  and  earl  of  Eilesmere,  in  1846. 
BRIDGMAN,  Lattka,  a  blind  deaf  mute, 
born  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  Dec.  21,  1829.  Up  to 
the  age  of  2  years  she  possessed  all  her  faculties, 
but  a  severe  illness  at  that  time  occasioned  the 
loss  of  sight  and  hearing,  and  consequently  of 
speech,  while  the  sense  of  smell  was  also  de- 
stroyeo,  and  that  of  taste  greatly  impured.  She 
recovered  her  health  gradually,  but  none  of  her 
lost  senses  were  restored.  At  the  age  of  8  she 
became  an  inmate  of  the  Perkins  institution  for 
the  blind  in  Boston,  then  as  now  under  the  care 
of  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  and  soon  acquired  such  a 
familiaiity  with  the  building  and  its  various 
apartments  that  she  could  wander  at  will 
through  it  unattended.  Dr.  Howe  resolved  to 
undertake  at  once  the  task  of  instructing  her,  a 
work  of  great  difficulty,  and  one  which,  until 
that  time,  had  never  been  attempted  with  suc^ 
oes&  The  first  step  was  to  teach  her  the  names 
of  objects;  for  this  purpose^  an  object  with 
which  she  was  familiar,  such  as  a  fork  or  spoon, 
was  put  in  her  hands,  and  with  it  its  name  in 
raised  letters.  This  was  repeated  monv  times 
and  with  different  objects,  till  she  had  learned 
that  the  word  bore  some  relation  to  the  object. 
As  yet,  however,  her  idea  of  this  relation  was 
very  vague.  The  next  step  was  to  present  her 
the  separate  letters  in  relief,  at  first  so  arranged 
as  to  form  the  name  of  an  object  which  she 
knew.  Finding  that  she  recognized  the  word, 
her  teacher  disarranged  the  letters,  and  taking 
hA  hands  in  his  own  proceeded  to  reconstruct 
the  word,  causing  her  to  observe  each  letter 
which  composed  it;  having  done  this  several 
times,  she  eonstmcted  the  word  herself  without 
assistance.  The  same  process  was  then  repeat- 
ed with  other  words,  and  before  the  close  of  her 
lesson,  the  idea  had  evidently  dawned  upon  her 
mind  that  this  was  a  means  by  which  she  could 
communicate  her  own  thoughts  to  others.  This 
process  was  continued  until  she  had  become 
familiar  with  a  considerable  number  of  wordsu 
She  was  then  famished  with  type  having  the 
letters  in  nalie^  and  a  board  which  had  been 


pierced  with  holes  for  the  reception  of  l^e  type^ 
Objects  known  to  her  were  then  presented,  sind 
she  would  compose  the  names  with  the  type. 
This  afforded  her  great  delight.  She  was  next 
taught  the  manual  alphabet^  which  she  acquired 
very  readily.  This  having  been  attained,  her 
teacher  presented  her  with  an  olject  with  which 
she  was  not  familiar,  and  left  her  for  a  time  to 
inform  herself  concerning  its  form  and  use. 
The  teacher  then  spelled  its  name  with  the 
manual  alphabet^  the  child  foliowing'eadi  letter 
till  she  had  comprehended  that  it  was  the  name 
of  the  object,  when  she  herself  spelled  it  with 
the  manual  alphabet,  then  composed  it  with 
her  types,  and  finally,  as  if  to  nuike  assoranoe 
doubly  sure,  placed  the  word  thus  eompoeed  by 
the  side  of  the  object  All  this  was  accoBH 
plished  in  the  first  8  mon^s.  The  same  course, 
together  with  some  lessons  on  the  physical  re- 
lations of  objects,  was  continned  through  the 
year.  Laura  never  wearied  of  this  instraotion, 
but  when  left  to  herself  was  constantly  spelling 
words  either  with  her  type  or  the  manual  al- 
phabet.— After  she  had  been  a  year  and  a  half 
at  the  asylum,  her  mother  came  to  viat  her. 
Laura  encountered  her  when  running,  and  en- 
deavored to  ascertain  by  touching  her  &oe  and 
clothing  whether  it  was  any  one  with  whom 
she  was  familiar,  but  failing  to  recognise  her 
returned  to  her  play.  Her  mother  attempted 
to  gain  her  attenti<m,  but  she  repulsed  her, 
and  returned  to  her  young  companions^  Her 
mother  next  put  a  string  of  beads  upon  her 
neck,  which  she  had  been  accustomed  to  wear 
when  at  home.  6he  was  pleased  with  them, 
but  took  no  interest  in  the  giver.  Another  ob- 
ject connected  with  her  early  home  was  put 
into  her  hands,  and  evidently  excited  her  at- 
tention. She  examined  anew  the  person  who 
had  given  her  the  articles,  and  intimated  to  Dr. 
Howe  that  this  person  had  come  from  Hanoveri 
but  she  still  failed  to  recognixe  her  mother. 
The  anguish  of  the  poor  woman  was  extreme; 
she  felt  that  her  daughter  was  lost  to  her.  At 
this  juncture  a  vague  idea  seemed  to  psss 
through  the  mind  of  the  child;  she  seized  once 
more  her  mother's  hands  and  examined  them 
carefully,  her  countenance  bearing  marks  of  agi- 
tation. Unable  longer  to  bear  this  trying  sus- 
pense, the  mother  seized  her  and  clasped  her  to 
her  bosom ;  the  child  no  longer  doubted ;  she 
recognized  her  parent,  and  could  not  be  with- 
drawn from  her  arms.  Her  youthful  playmates 
endeavored  in  vain  to  entice  her  away ;  she  had 
found  her  mother. — ^Her  instruction  was  con- 
fined for  the  first  2  years  to  the  names  of  ob» 
i'ects;  the  attempt  was  then  made  to  instruct 
ler  in  their  qualities,  and  subsequently  in  thdr 
relations  to  eadi  other.  There  were  many  dif- 
ficulties connected  with  each  step,  but  patience 
and  perseverance  overcame  them  all.  She  was 
next  taught  to  write,  and  her  first  effort  was'ti> 
write  a  letter  unassisted  to  her  mother.  She 
subsequently  acquired  the  rudiments  of  arith- 
metic ;  took  lessons  on  the  piano,  on  which  she 
became  quite  a  skilful  performer;  acquired  a 


BBIDLE 


BRIEF 


697 


practical  knowledge  of  needlework,  and  of  some 
nousehold  duties.  Nor  were  her  ftttainments 
like  those  of  a  parrot;  the  ideas  she  acquired 
were  constantly  the  snhjeota  of  thought  and  in* 
qniry.  She  one  day  addressed  to  Dr.  Howe 
this  question :  ^  Man  has  made  houses  and  yes- 
sels,  but  who  made  the  land  and  the  sea?*^ 
The  answer  that  it  was  God  who  made  all 
things,  and  the  explanation  of  his  character,  af- 
fected her  deeply.  She  sought  to  know  more 
of  this  wonderM  being,  and  did  not  rest  satis- 
fied till  her  teachers  had  explained  to  her  the 
greath  truths  of  revelation.  The  fear  of  death, 
which  had  formerly  distressed  her,  passed  away 
with  the  entrance  of  the  hope  of  a  resurrec* 
tion;  and  she  looks  forward  with  joy  to  that 
change  of  existence  when  her  physical  infirmi- 
ties ^oall  be  removed,  and  her  faculties,  oil  per- 
fect, shall  be  occupied  in  praising  her  Creator. — 
In  deportment  Laura  is  modest  almost  to  diffi- 
dence, and  manilests  in  a  remarkable  degree 
that  maidenly  coyness  and  reserve  which  have 
been  so  often  regarded  as  the  result  of  educa> 
tion.  She  possesses  a  decided  love  of  sys- 
tem and  neatness,  never  leaving  her  room  or 
drawers  in  disorder,  and  exhibiting  great  solici- 
tade  for  propriety  and  taste  in  the  arrangement 
of  her  dress.  She  exhibits  a  marked  re^rd  for 
the  riffhts  of  others,  and  is  at  the  same  time 
jealonuy  mindful  of  her  own.  Laura  is  now 
(186S)  in  her  29th  year,  and  is  still  a  resident 
at  the  Perkins  asylum.  She  has  named  her 
room  "  the  sunny  home." 

BRIDLE,  the  instrument  by  which  a  horse  is 
governed  and  guided,  consisting  of  a  metallic 
bit  which  enters  the  month,  a  head-stall  or 
strap  of  leather  passing  over  the  head  and 
finnly  holding  the  bit  in  position,  and  reins  ex- 
tending from  the  bit  to  the  hand  of  the  rider. 
The  ancients  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  bridle 
to  Neptune,  the  creator  also  of  the  horse.  Some 
of  the  ancient  nations,  as  the  Numidians,  and  a 
part  of  the  Romans,  trained  themselves  to  ride 
at  fall  speed  without  bridles.  The  soldiers  on 
Trajan's  column  are  thus  represented. 

BRIDLINGTON,  formerly  written  Breluko* 
TOK,  nsnaUy  called  Bublinotozt,  a  parish  of  the 
east  riding  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on  the  railway 
from  Hall  to  Scarborough.  It  includes  the  mar- 
ket towns  of  Bridlington  and  Bridlington  Quay, 
and  in  1851  had  a  population  of  2,482.  The  town 
of  Bridlington  is  bout  ehiefly  along  one  narrow 
street)  and  contains  the  remains  of  a  priory 
boUt  in  the  ISth  or  14th  oentnry,  and  now  used 
for  the  parochial  church.  It  gives  the  title  of 
earl  to  the  Cavendish  family. — ^Bbidlinoton 
QluAT  is  situated  on  a  fine  bay  about  1  mile 
from  the  former  town,  and  is  much  resorted  to 
in  sninmer  for  bathing.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
formed  of  2  handsome  piers,  and  an  active  ex- 
port trade  in  corn.  Paul  Jones  captured  here 
the  convoy  of  the  Baltic  fleet,  Sept.  21,  1779. 

BBIE  (anc.  Brigenns  pagtu^  or  iraetu9\  a 
former  province  of  France,  lying  between  the 
E^ine  and  the  Mame,  and  now  contained  in  the 
departments  of  Aisne^  Anbe,  Kame,  Seine-et* 


Marne,  and  Seine^t-Oise.  It  was  divided  into 
Brie  Fran^ aise,  which  belonged  to  the  govern- 
ment of  lie  de  France,  and  Brie  Ohampenoise, 
which  was  divided  into  upper  and  lower  Brie, 
and  comprised  in  the  government  of  Ghampagno. 
A  third  division  once  existed,  called  Brie  Poil- 
leuse;  this  was  afterward  incorporated  with 
Brie  Ohampenoise.  The  latter  was  the  largest 
of  the  divisions,  and  had  for  its  capital  Meaux, 
the  most  important  town  in  the  whole  province. 
Its  chief  wealth  was  in  vineyards  and  pastures; 
and  its  butter  and  cheese  acquired  and  still  re- 
tain a  wide  celebrity.  Brie  Fran^aise  produced 
grain  in  great  abundance,  and  was  likewise  a 
good  grazing  country.  Its  capital  was  Brie- 
Comte-Robert.  Oorbeil,  one  of  its  principal 
towns,  was  on  independent  earldom  from  946 
to  1122,  when  it  was  taken  from  the  famous 
Oount  Hugh  du  Puiset  by  Louis  the  Fat,  and 
confiscated.  In  ancient  times  this  province  was 
partly  covered  by  a  vast  forest,  portions  of 
which  are  still  to  be  seen.  It  is  believed  by 
some  to  be  the  much  disputed  country  of  the 
Meldi,  of  whom  Gnesar  makes  passing  mention. 
It  was  subjugated  by  the  Franks,  who  annexed 
it  to  the  kingdom  of  Nenstria.  In  the  9th  cen- 
tury it  was  ruled  by  its  own  counts,  who  took 
their  title  from  Meaux,  but  are  idso  styled  counts 
of  Brie.  Herbert  of  Vermandois,  one  of  these 
feudal  lords,  having  obtaine<l  the  earldom  of 
Troyes  or  Champagne,  in  968  united  the  2 
provinces,  which  thenceforth  shared  the  same 
fortunes.  Both  passed  into  the  possession  of 
the  crown  in  1S61. 

BRIEF  (Lat.  breow,  short).  Tliis  term  has  had 
a  threefold  signification :  1.  Breve  in  Latin,  and 
href  in  French,  was  a  writ  issuing  out  of  any 
court  in  the  name  of  the  king ;  and  though  more 
strictly  the  name  of  the  original  writ  by  which 
a  suit  was  commenced,  it  was  afterward  ap- 
plied to  all  judicial  writs.  The  reason  of  the 
name,  as  explained  by  Bracton  (which,  how- 
ever, was  onlv  in  reference  to  the  original  writ)^ 
was  that  it  orMy  set  forth  the  subiect  matter 
of  the  action  and  the  claim  of  the  plaintiff.  2. 
In  ecclesiastical  law,  a  pontifical  letter  address- 
ed to  inferior  ecclesiastics  or  to  temporal 
princes  upon  some  matter  of  discipline  or 
claim  of  the  church,  was  called  an  apostolical 
brief.  This  designation  may  have  been  used  as 
expressing  the  concise  form  of  the  brief  as  com- 
pared with  the  more  ample  phraseology  of  the 
pope's  bull.  A  similar  use  of  the  term  was 
made  in  respect  to  a  letter  from  the  king  in 
reference  to  ecclesiastical  matters.  Indeed,  from 
the  style  of  th^  brief,  which  usually  commenced 
with  the  form  of  the  Roman  epi^le,  it  was  call- 
ed a  letter,  and  this  is  the  source  of  the  mod- 
em Gherman  word  .^ri^  8.  The  more  common 
signification  of  the  term  at  the  present  day  is 
a  summary  of  a  case  made  out  for  the  use  of 
oounsel,  containing  an  abstract  of  the  pleadings, 
a  statement  of  the  facts  that  can  be  proved, 
and  a  list  of  witnesses  with  a  specification  of 
what  each  can  testify  to.  In  England  this  is 
prepared  by  the  attorney.    In  this  country 


<M 


BRISG 


BRIER  CREEK 


qouimI  ofUner  make  op  their  own  Mei;  and 
the  word  Is  used  as  well  for  the  heads  of  a  law 
MTgament  as  for  each  an  abstnu^  as  before  men* 
iioned_preparator7  to  the  trial  of  a  oaose. 

BRIEG,  a  town  of  Pmseian  SUesia,  the  cajyital 
of  a  circle  of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the 
left  hank  ofthe  Oder,  28  miles  &K  of  fireslau.  It 
contains  a  castle,  the  residence  of  the  old  counts 
of  Briegf  6  chnrohes,  a  synagogne,  alnnatio  asjr- 
him,  a  gymnasiam,  and  an  arsenal  Its  fortifica- 
tions were  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1807.  A 
great  fire  desolated  the  town  May  26, 18o2.«- 
Its  principal  trade  is  in  doths,  tobacco,  and 
stardi,  and  its  cattlo>fairs  are  the  most  important 
in  the  province.  The  upper  Silesian  railway  from 
Breslan  to  Oraoow  passes  here.    Pop.  18,000. 

BRIEL,  OR  BsiKLLi,  a  small  but  strongly  for- 
tified town  of  Holland,  proTince  of  Sonu  Hoi* 
land,  on  the  island  of  Voorne,  and  commanding 
the  entrance  to  the  Mease.  It  is  fkmons  in 
history  as  the  first  town  which  the  Datch 
wrested  firom  the  Spaniards  (1572),  and  as  the 
birthplace  of  Van  Tromp. 

BRIENNE,  the  name  o^  an  ancient  French 
family  which  traces  its  origin  to  a  count  of 
Brienne,  a  contemporary  of  Hugh  Gapet^  and 
which  counted  among  its  members  an  emperor  of 
Constantinople,  a  king  of  Jerusalem  ana  Sicily, 
seTeral  dukes  of  Athena,  8  constables  of  France, 
and  many  valiant  kni^ts  and  stately  dignita- 
ries. The  title  of  Bnenne  became  extinct  in 
1856,  reverting  to  the  fiamilies  of  the  Conflana 
and  the  De  Lom^nies. 

BRIENNE,  £tikmxb  Loms  m  Loxfon  dx, 
a  F^nch  cardinal  and  statesman,  bom  in  Paris 
in  1727,  died  Feb.  14, 1784.  He  was  promoted 
to  the  bishopric  of  Condom  in  1760,  and  8 
years  later  to  the  archbishopric  of  Toulouse. 
Although  not  a  writer,  he  had  such  reputation 
as  a  wit  that  he  was  elected  in  1770  a  member 
of  the  French  academy.  To  please  his  friends, 
the  philosophers,  he  actively  participated  in  the 
anppresnon  of  convents,  but  managed  at  the 
same  time  to  be  invested  with  the  wealthiest 
abbeys.  In  1787  he  was  made  comptroller 
of  finances,  and  in  1788  he  was  premier.  In 
a  few  months  his  reputation  had  vanished,  and 
he  was  dismissed  ;  the  Ifing,  however,  caused 
the  pope  to  make  him  a  carainal.  In  1794  ho 
was  arrested  by  the  revolutionists,  who  treated 
liim  with  snch  brutality  that  the  same  night 
he  died  of  apoplexy. 

BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU,  a  small  French 
town,  in  the  deoartment  of  Aube;  pop.  1,950. 
The  military  college  of  Brienne,  which  was  sup- 
pressed in  1790,  was  attended  by  Ni^mleon 
from  April28,l»79,to  Oct  17,1784.  Thirty  years 
later,  Jan.  29,  1814^  Napoleon  attempted  here 
the  manosnvre  of  cutting  the  Silesian  army  in 
two,  by  marching  suddenly  from  Chalons,  and 
interposing  his  forces  between  Schwartsenberg 
and  Blttoher,  so  as  to  prevent  their  junction.  The 
town  is  named  after  the  chateau  built  by  the  min- 
i5terLouisdeLom6nie,last  count  of  Brienne.  This 
chateau  was  the  headquarters  of  BlUcher,  wh<i 
escaped  by  leading  the  horse  down  the  stairs. 


Ahnoat  aft  the  same  spot  and  at  thA  some  tine 
Napoleon  had  a  hmr-breadth  escape  from  the 
attack  of  a  Cosiaok  by  the  prompt  aaaisssooeof 
Gourgaud.  Napoleon  took  up  hisroodenceii 
the  same  chateiui,  and  by  hia  will  ho  left  fSOO,- 
000  to  the  town. 

BRIENZ,  Lakb  of,  a  hike  in  tho  sonth-esst^ 
em  part  of  the  canton  of  Bern,  SwitRritsd, 
formed  by  the  expansion  of  the  river  Aar.  h 
is  connected  bv  steamboat  with  the  Like  of  Thos, 
is  about  8  miles  long  and  2  miles  brood,  sad  ii 
embosomed  in  mountains,  some  of  which,  <a 
the  south,  prqject  in  high  promontones  iatv 
the  lake.  Cascades  from  these  moontaias  ire 
abundant,  the  principal  of  which  is  the  Gies- 
back,  and  form  an  interesting  featoro  in  tbe 
natural  scenery  of  the  lake.  Its  mr&ce  b  sbosi 
1,700  feet  above  the  searlefveL  In  the  rirer 
Aar,  near  this  lake  and  to  the  eaat  of  it,  are  tht 
falls  of  Reichenbaoh  and  Alpbach — the  taner 
celebrated  for  itaeascadeof  2,000foeiiahci^tt 
and  the  latter  for  its  triple  iris  in  the  Boniaf 
sun.  Tiie  lake  produces  a  small  species  of  fiik 
(jfodvM  fnfuUla%  which  enjoy  a  high  repatatieo. 
The  village  of  Briens  is  at  the  east  end  of  thi 
lalce,  near  the  entnmoe  of  the  Aar.  A  sanJi 
steamer  runs  daily  in  one  boor  i>elween  Brissi 
and  Interlaohen,  touching  at  Giessbach. 

BRIER  CREEK,  a  small  stream  nab?  ia 
Warren  co.,  Ga^  flowing  8.  R  for  ahoat  1€0 
miles,  and  entering  the  &sTannah  river,  afev 
miles  £.  of  Jackaonboroogh.    It  is  noted  fers 
battle  during  the  revolutionary  war.    After  ihe 
American  victoiy  on  Kettle  credE,  in  Feb.  ITiIl 
Gen.  Ashe  was  sent  by  linooln  at  the  bead  d 
about  1,200  continental  troops  to  drive  the  Brit- 
ish from  Augusta.  The  latter,  under  the  tarn- 
mand  of  Gen.  Campbell,  evaciuoed  the  ciu,  r- 
treated  to  Brier  creek,  and  after  crossing  dcsin?- 
ed  Uie  bridge.    Ashe  pursued  than,  arrived  it 
the  creek  Feb.  27,  and  while  faaltiiig  to  ferai  t 
camp  was  surprised  by  the  intdligenee  ^at 
1,800  British  under  Gen.  Provost  bad  croased 
the  stream  15  nules  above,  made  a  wide  csreaiL 
and  were  now  (March  8)    rapidly  advanei^ 
upon  his  rear.    The  Americana  wen  txHaSj 
nnprepared  for  battle,  hot  relxeat  waa  iiBpoM- 
ble.    The  bridge  had  not  yet  been  repsiied, 
and  skirting  the  banks  waa  a  deep  smmap  t 
miles  wide.    The  troops  were   baacily  dfied 
to  arms,  and  as  the  mtiah  advanced  opensd 
upon   them  a  heavy  fire,  hot  an  nnlbiunaae 
movement  in  th^r  line  gave  the  enemy  aa 
advantage  which  decided  the  Ibrtaneof  the 
day.    The  continoitals  were  pal  to  fa^bi^^ 
some  before  firing  a  shot,  othen  after  a  gailsBit 
resistance.     Many  were  drowned  in  trpa%  to 
swim  across  the  Savannah,  or  were  loat  in  the 
swamps.    Their  total  loss  was  abwA  ISO  ISM^ 
and  189  made  priscmers,  bemde  all  their  baggage, 
7  pieoes  of  cannon,  abontSOO  aland  of  annam 
much  ammunition.  The  Britnh  bad  only  5  killed 
and   11  wounded,  and  were  ouMed  by  tias 
victory  to  reoccnpy  Augusta  and  open  a  fret 
communication  with  the  Indians  and  tsnes  ia 
Florida,  weatem  Geofgia,  and  the  i 


BBia 


BRIGHAM 


BBIG  (from  Brigantine^  a  kind  of  nndedked 
T68961X  a  decked  vessel  with  2  masts,  sqnare- 
riffgea,  nearly  like  the  mammast  and  foremast 
of  a  slnp. 

BRIGADE,  in  the  English  and  continental 
armiea,  an  indeterminate  namber  of  troops, 
either  of  cavalry  or  militia,  commanded  bj  a 
brigadier.  A  brigade  of  horse  is  generally 
composed  of  from  8  to  12  squadrons,  and  a 
brigade  of  infantry  of  8  regiments.  In  the 
U.  B.  army,  2  regiments  of  infantry  or  cavalry 
oonstitate  a  brigade,  which  is  commanded  by  a 
brigadicr-^enerd. 

BEIGAKDINE,  in  the  defensive  armor  of 
the  middle  ages,  a  coat  of  mail  consisting  of 
thin  scales  of  plate,  pliant  and  easy  to  the 
body  of  the  knight  or  sergeant  who  wore  it. 

BRIGANTIKE  (usually  derived  from  hrig- 
and\  a  flat  open  vessel  with  10  or  15  oars  in 
a  side,  built  to  carry  sail  also,  and  upward  of 
100  men.  They  were  formerly  much  used  in 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  waters  of  the  south 
of  Europe  for  purposes  of  brigandage  or  pira- 
cy; hence  their  name.  Speed  was  a  main 
oineot  in  their  build. 

BBIGGS,  OnABLva  Frkdebiok,  an  American 
author  and  journalist,  bom  on  the  island  of 
Nantucket.  Early  in  life  he  removed  to  the 
city  of  New  York,  where  he  has  resided  since, 
with  the  exception  of  about  6  years  passed  in 
foreign  travel.  Adopting  journalism  as  the 
business  of  his  life,  Mr.  Briggs  has  been  the 
editor  of  several  periodicals,  and  a  constant 
contributor  to  othera  In  1880  he  published 
a  novel,  entitled.  ^^  The  Adventures  of  Harry 
Franco,  a  Tale  of  the  great  Panic,"  which 
evinced  a  fine  descriptive  and  satiriool  talent. 
Four  years  later,  his  ^^ Haunted  Merchant" 
appeared,  and  in  1847,  ^^  The  Trippings  of  Tom 
Pepp^,  or  the  Results  of  Romancing,"  a  most 
diverting  work,  but  in  which  the  author  is 
soppoeed,  under  various  disguises  of  name,  to 
have  made  free  use  of  the  characters  of  his 
friends.  None  of  these  works,  however,  have 
been  published  under  Mr.  Briggs's  name.  In 
1845  he  was  associated  with  the  late  Edgar 
A.  Poe  in  the  conduct  of  the  ^^  Broadway 
Journal,"  a  weekly  paper  of  great  spirit  I]!e 
was  also  an  editor  of  ^Putnam's  Magazine," 
from  1858  to  1858,  in  connection  with  Georce 
William  Gurtis  and  Parke  Godwin;  but  aslur. 
Briggs  had  the  principal  share  of  the  man- 
agement it  is  but  just  to  ascribe  to  his  taot  and 
energy  the  high  reputation  which  that  periodi* 
cal  soon  attidned.  He  is  now  one  of  the  editors 
of  the  *'  New  York  Times,"  a  daiW  paper  of 
hig^  standing  and  influence,  Mr.  Briggs  is  a 
writer  of  great  aoutenesa  and  vigor,  the  master 
of  a  canstio  wit,  and  having  a  nice  pero^tion  of 
the  peoulioritios  of  human  character. 

BRIGGS,  HxNBT,  an  English  mathematician, 
bom  in  1556,  died  Jan.  28, 1680.  In  1506  he  was 
appointed  professor  of  geometry  in  Gresiuun  col- 
lege, and  in  1619  SavUian  professor  at  Oxford. 
In  1616  and  1617  he  visited  Kapier  at  Edinburgh, 
and  induced  hun  to  make  that  change  in  his 


recently  invented  i^tem  of  logarithms  which 
has  made  logarithms  the  most  practically  useful 
invention  of  that  age.  The  remainder  of  his 
life  was  principally  ^ven  to  the  preparation  of 
logarithmic  and  trigonometric  tables,  the  foun- 
dation of  all  the  tables  which  have  been  pub- 
lished since. 

BRIGGS,  HxNBT  PsBBONsr,  an  English 
painter,  bom  in  1798,  died  in  London,  Jan. 
1844.  Ho  first  exhibited  portraits  in  the  royal 
academy  in  1814,  and  in  1818  appeared  as  a 
historical  painter.  Uis  best  known  works  are 
'^  Othello  relating  his  Adventures  to  Desdemo- 
na,"  and  the  ^^  First  Interview  between  the 
Spaniards  and  Peruvians." 

BRIGGS,  WiLUAV,  English  physician,  bom 
at  Norwich  about  1650,  died  at  Town  Mailing, 
in  Kent,  Sept  4,  1704.  In  1676  he  published 
his  ^^  Ophthalmographia,"  and  soon  after  was 
created  M  D.  at  Gambridge.  In  1682  his 
*^  Theory  of  Vision"  was  published,  aud  in  1685, 
by  the  desire  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  with  whom 
he  was  intimate,  he  inroduced  a  Latin  version  of 
this  treatise,  with  a  prefhce  by  Newton. 

BRIGHAM,  Amabias,  M.  D.,  phyncian  and 
superintendent  of  asylums  for  the  insane,  bom 
at  New  Marlborough,  Berkshire  co.,  Mass.,  Dec^ 
26,  1798,  died  Sept  8, 1849.  Left  an  orphan  at 
the  age  of  11,  with  but  limited  means^  the  boy- 
was  token  into  the  family  of  his  uncle,  a  physi- 
cian at  Schoharie,  N.  Y.,  who  died  some  8  years 
later.  He  was  now  14  years  old,  and  starting 
for  Albany,  he  found  a  situation  as  derk  in  a 
bookstore.  He  availed  himself  of  every  op- 
portunity of  acquiring  knowledge.  At  the  age 
of  17  he  repaired  to  New  Marlborough,  and 
commenoed  the  study  of  medicine,  supportmg 
himself  by  teaching  school  during  the  winters. 
He  devoted  from  13  to  16  hours  a  day  to  study. 
Commencing  practice  in  1821,  he  resided  suc- 
cessively in  Enneld  and  Greenfield,  Mass.,  and  in 
Hartfora,  Oonn.,  and  spent  a  year  in  Europesfi 
travd  and  study.  In  1887  he  delivered  a  course 
of  lectures  before  the  college  of  physicians  and 
surgeons  at  New  York.  In  1840  he  was  ap- 
pointed superintendent  of  the  retreat  for  the 
msane  at  Hartford.  In  1842  he  was  appointed 
to  the  same  office  in  the  N.  Y.  state  lunatic 
asylum,  at  Utica.  N.  Y.,  the  largest  and  most 
complete  institution  of  the  kind  yet  established 
in  tbis  country,  and  he  entered  upon  his  duties 
in  the  winter  of  1848.  Here  he  had  the  per- 
sonal care  and  supervision  of  450  or  600  patients, 
beside  which  he  delivered  popular  lectures  on 
the  treatment  of  the  insane,  prepared  his  reports 
with  great  carl^  and  established  a  ^^  Journal  of 
Insanity."  His  health  began  to  fail,  and  the 
loss  of  his  only  son,  a  promising  youth  of  12 
years,  in  August,  1848,  aided  the  inroads  of 
disease,  from'  which  he  died.  He  published 
in  1832  a  small  work  on  ''Asiatic  Cholera,*' 
And  soon  after,  a  treatiM  on  ''Mental  Cultiva- 
tion and  Ezdtement;"  in  1836  appeared  "The 
Influence  of  Religion  upon  the  Health  and 
Physical  Welfare  of  Mankind;",  in  1840  he 
produced  the  "Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  Psr 


700 


BRIGHT 


BRIGBTOir 


thology  of  thd  Brain  f  in  1840,  he  published  a 
small  volume  of  aphoriaina  and  maxims  fot  the 
use  of  those  who  had  been  nnder  his  oare,  under 
the  title  of  tl)e  ^^  Asylum  Souvenir." 

BRIGHT,  JoHK,  an  English  politician,  bom  in 
1811,  son  of  Mr.  John  Bright,  of  Gi-eenbank, 
near  Rochdale,  Lancashire,  and  a  partner  in  the 
firm  of  John  Bright  and  Brothers,  cotton-spin- 
ners and  manofaotnrers  in  that  town.  When  the 
anti-oom-law  leagae  was  established  in  1888, 
Mr.  Briglit  took  an  active  part  in  its  proceeding 
and,  both  as  a  speaker  and  writer,  assisted  in 
vindicating  the  principles  on  which  it  was  based. 
He  soon  occupied  a  leading  position  in  this  body, 
second  only,  to  Mr.  Gobden.  He  was  active 
in  organizing  the  bazaars  held  in  aid  of  the 
league  in  Manchester  and  in  London.  In  April, 
18&,  he  unsnccessfully  contested  the  parlia- 
mentary representation  of  the  city  of  Durham. 
In  the  July  following  another  vacancy  occurred, 
and  he  was  elected.  He  took  part  with  energy 
and  eloquence  in  the  exciting  discussions,  from 
1848  to  184^,  on  free  trade,  and  divides  with  O. 
P.  Villien>,  Richard  Gobden,  and  Gen.  Thompson 
(author  of  the  '^  Gatechism  of  the  Gorn  Laws*'), 
the  honor  of  having  induced  Sir  Robert  Peel  to 
favor  free  trade  in  com.  The  heavy  expenses 
of  his  election  contests  at  Durham  were  undeiv 
stood  to  have  been  defi*ayed  by  the  league^ 
through  whose  influence  he  was  retnmed  for 
Mahchester  in  1847,  and  again  in  1852.  A 
member  of  the  society  of  Friends,  whose  prin- 
ciple is  peace,  he  strenuously  condemned  the 
policv  of  the  war  with  Russia,  and,  as  a  leading 
member  of  the  peace  society,  sanctioned  the 
sending  of  a  deputation,  which,  in  Febraary, 
1854,  waited  on  the  emperor  Nicholas,  at  St 
Petersburg,  with  the  design  of  dissuading  him 
from  war.  Mr.  Bright*s  opinions  on  this  subject 
were  much  at  variance  with  those  of  many  of 
his  constituents  at  Manchester.  Ill  lieaKh  com* 
pelled  him  to  be  absent  f^om  parliament  in  the 
early  session  of  1857,  and  when,  on  the  defeat 
of  the  Palmerston  administration  in  March,  by 
the  adoption  of  Mr.  Gobden's  motion  condemn- 
ing the  war  with  Ghina,  a  general  election  was 
determined  upon,  Mr.  Bright's  Manchester 
ft*iends  resolved  to  adopt  him  again  as  a  candi- 
date, in  his  absence.  In  July,  1852,  Mr.  Bright 
had  been  elected  by  a  minority  of  more  than 
1,100  over  his  next  competitor ;  in  March,  1857, 
he  stood  lowest  on  the  poll,  and  received  nearly 
8,000  fewer  votes  than  one,  and  nearly  2,800  less 
than  the  other  of  his  successful  opponents 
—gentlemen  holding  much  the  same  general 
political  opinions  as  himself^  but  differing  from 
his  views  of  the  Ghina  question.  He  was  sub- 
sequently, however,  returned  for  a  vacancy  at 
Birmingham,  and  though  not  fully  restored  to 
health,  was  in  his  place  during  the  memorable 
proceedings  of  parliament  in  the  spring  of 
1858,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  over- 
throw of  the  Palmerston  cabinet.  In  April, 
1858,  he  delivered  a  speech  on  the  budget,  ad- 
vocating a  reduction  of  the  military  establish- 
ment, and  oondenming  the  policy  of  Asiatic 


eonquest    Mr.  Bright  has  been  twioenumed, 
and  his  second  wife  is  living. 

BRIGHTON,  a  town  in  Middlesex  oo^  Ki&, 
4  miles  W.  of  Boston,  pop.  2,895.  It  contaos 
the  principal  cattie  market  of  NewEoj^ 

BRIGHTON,  (formerly  BBiQiiTiiKU[STO!!i),t 
seaside  watering  place  in  England,  in  the  ooontr 
of  Sussex,  on  the  FIngltsh  channel,  61  miles&of 
London,  by  the  London,  Brighton,  and  Sooth 
Goastrailway.  SteamboatB ply regnkriy between 
Brighton  and  Dieppe,  on  the  French  coast,  audit 
has  hourly  communication  by  steamboat  vitk 
Liverpool.  It  extends  for  more  than  80^^ 
the  coast  from  Kemptown  on  tiie  east  toEoreoQ 
the  west    The  eastern  hslf  of  thetownstsads 
on  the  rtdge  of  high  chalk  clifi^  irhidi  stntdi 
away  to  Brachy  Head ;  the  western  half  is  seated 
on  a  low  pebbly  beach,  and  is  sheltered  bj  Sd- 
sea  Bin.    The  whole  of  this  frontage  igoonpied 
by  a  range  of  firat-dass  honses  and  hotek  It 
was  created  a  parliamentary  horoogh  by  tbe 
reform  bill  of  1882,  and  returns  8  menbes  to 
the  boose  of  commons.    It  has  Utelj  becooe 
an  inoorporated  city.    Its  resident  ^pa^MA 
in  1851  was  69,569,  dwelUng  in  lQ,84Slioiaa 
The  population  has  increased  with  rapid  M& 
In  1801,  it  was  7,389 ;  in  1811, 1^012;  inl8Sl, 
8^429;    in  1881,   40,684;   in  1841,  mi 
During   the   season   the  city  aeconunodits 
Dearly  80,000  persons.     The  foondato  «< 
its  prosperity  was  chiefly  laid  in  di«  wBt 
of  the  18th  century,  by  Richard  Eihb4  » 
distinguished  physiciaii,  whose  work  od  tbea» 
'  of  sea  water  attracted  much  public  atteotkn.  Its 
celebrity  as  a  fiashionable  watering  place  wedae 
totheprinceof  Wales,  afterward  G«xgeIV,wi» 
made  it  his  place  of  residence,  and  eomnm 
in  1784  the  erection  of  the  pavilion,  winch « 
completed  8  years  afterward.    The  Umlt 
lately  purchased  it  from  the  crown  for  tlie  ® 
of  £58,000,  and  thrown  it  and  tk  pleasDie 
grounds  attached  to  it  open  to  the  pablia  Tk 
chain  pier  was  erected  by  a  joint  stock  eoiops? 
in  1822-'38,  at  an  en>ense  of  £30,000.  A  sal 
charge  is  made  for  admittance  to  thepio,  vfaifi 
is  1,184  feet  in  length,  and  extends  into  tba  a 
1,084  feet    The  east  side  of  Brighton  »  p 
tected  by  a  sea  wall.    It  is  60  feet  higiiaadit 
feet  thick  at  the  base,  and  cost  the  tovnUOQ,* 
000.    In  the  western  quarter  of  tiie  ton  is  1 
battery,  consisting  of  6  42-pounders,  ewtti  it 
1793.    On  the  eastern  side  b  the  queen's  psii; 
and  on  the  western  a  chalybeate  spring.  Tben 
are    15  churches  and    chapels  belonpog  t» 
the  established  church,  and  21  oUier  ji»t»  « 
religious  worship,  including  a  ^ynagogo^  ^ 
air  of  Brighton  is  so  bracing,  and  ito  aeaAia^ 
so  £unou8,  that  it  is  a  pecxdiarly  eligible  l^ 
for  schools,  of  which  there  are  aboot^  ^ 
Brighton  college,  a  proprietary  sdiod  furaoos  s 
the  middle  classes,  was  founded  in  1847,  aw 
aims  to  give  a  more  modem  evrriefdta^ 
studies  than  is  followed  at  Eton  or  Hanov 
or  Winchester.     The  benevolent  m^a^ 
of  Brighton  are  almost  as  numearoos  as  \^ 
echoohk     Foremost  stands  the  Sosex  ocnb? 


BRIGIDA 


BBIQITTINS 


701 


hospital,  established  in  18SS,  and  since  thrice 
enlarged.  It  is  open  to  the  ^sick  and  lame 
poor  of  every  connty  and  nation."  The  town 
haU  is  a  large  bailding.  Fairs  are  held  north 
of  the  town  on  Holy  Thursday  ond^Bept. 
4.  There  are  2  theatres,  an  assembly  room,  and 
2  dnb-hoQses.  The  literary  societies  are  the 
royal  Briehton  scientific  and  literary  institu- 
tion, the  Brighton  Atheneenm,  and  the  Brighton 
workingmen^s  institate.  It  has  a  race  course, 
where  annual  races  are  held.  Regattas  are  occa- 
rionally  given.  There  b  every  species  of  bath- 
ing establishments,  and  a  good  supply  of  fresh 
water  and  gas.  The  hotels  are  probably  the 
most  extensive  in  the  British  islsndii.  The  only 
manufacture  is  that  of  wooden  wares.  The 
coast  of  Brighton  is  too  inhospitable  to  allow  of 
much  direct  trade  to  this  port,  and  the  coasting 
and  foreign  trade  is  transacted  at  Shoreh&m,  7 
miles  to  the  W.  There  are  about  100  fishing 
boats,  manned  by  600  men.  Mackerel,  herrings, 
soles,  brill,  and  turbot  most  abound ;  mullet  and 
whiting  ore  also  met  with.  Beside  the  direct 
line  of  railway  to  Loudon,  there  is  a  line  running 
£.  to  Hastings.  Before  the  rail  way  was  opened, 
tlie  London  and  Brighton  coaches  were  famous 
for  their  q>eed  and  number ;  82  passed  to  and  fro 
duly.  After  the  erection  of  the  chain  pier, 
Brighton  became  a  steam-packet  station  for 
passengers  who  preferred  to  reach  Paris  vid 
Dieppe  and  Bouen  instead  of  wd  Dover  and 
Oalois.  Since  the  South-Eastern  railway  Folke- 
stone and  Boulogne  line  has  come  into  operation, 
the  Brighton  and  Dieppe  line  has  languished. 
There  are  fine  drives  in  the  vicinity. — We  hear 
first  pf  Brighthelmstone  in  Domeeoay  Book.  It 
has  frequently  6u£fored  from  hostile  invasion. 
The  French  plundered  and  burnt  it  in  161 8.  Dur- 
inff  the  reigns  of  Henry  YIII.  and  £li2abeth 
foftifications  were  erected  to  protect  it.  In  the 
17th  century  it  contained  600  families,  mostly 
enmed  in  fishing.  Ohorles  II.  escaped  from 
Brighton  in  a  cool-brig  for  France,  after  the 
l>attle  of  Worcester,  1661. 

BRIGIDA,  Bbid«bt,  or  Biboit,  Saibt,  a 
Swedish  lady,  born  1802.  died  m  Rome,  July 
23,  1878.  She  is  thought  to  have  been  the 
daughter  of  Birgir,  prince  of  the  royal  blood  of 
Sweden,  and  of  Ingeburgis,  a  descendant  of  the 
Gothic  kings.  She  lost  her  mother  at  a  tender 
age,  and  was  left  to  the  care  of  an  aunt,  who 
Imnght  her  up  religiously,  and  laid  the  fonnda- 
tion  of  the  virtues  lor  which  she  was  afterward 
80  distinguished.  At  the  age  of  16  she  was 
given  in  marriage  to  IJlpho,  or  Ulf  Gudmarson, 
prince  of  Nericia,  with  whom  she  passed  many 
years  of  uninterrupted  happiness,  giving  birth  to 
4  sons  and  4  daughters,  the  youngest  of  whom  is 
honored  in  the  Roman  calendar  by  the  name  of  St 
Oatharine  of  Sweden.  Before  the  birth  of  these 
children  the  parents  had  enrolled  themselves  in 
the  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  the  rules  of  which 
are  adapted  to  the  state  of  matrimony.  They 
now  added  to  their  previousobligations  a  vow  of 
continence,  and  resolved  to  devote  themselves 
to  works  of  benevolence.    They  built  a  charity 


hospital  which  they  served  in  person,  and  Ulpho 
abandoned  the  court,  and  resigned  his  seat  at  the 
king's  councils.  They  next  mode  a  pilgrimage 
to  Santiago  de  Oompostello,  on  returning  from 
which  Ulpho  resolved  to  enter  the  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Alvastre.  He  died  in  1344,  either 
during  his  noviceshipor  soon  after  his  profession. 
Brigida  now  divided  the  estate  among  her 
children  and  built  a  large  monastery  at  Wostein, 
in  which  she  placed  26  monks  and  60  nuns,  pre* 
scribing  for  them  the  rule  of  St.  Augustine. 
Here  she  spent  2  years  in  close  seclusion,  and 
then  set  out  for  Rome.  After  founding  in  that 
city  an  asylum  for  pilgrims  and  Swedish  students, 
she  went  to  Jerusalem,  visited  the  holy  places, 
and  then  returned  to  Rome,  where  she  died  in 
Uie  course  of  the  following  year.  She  was  dis-. 
tinguished  for  love  of  retirement,  modesty  of 
demeanor,  fervor  of  devotion,  compassion  for  the 
]>oor,  austerity  toward  herself,  and  gentleness 
toward  others.  She  was  canonized  by  Boniface 
IX.  in  1891,  and  Oct.  8  was  appointed  as 
her  festival.  At  the  request  of  the  clergy  and 
nobility  of  Sweden,  the  facts  relating  to  her 
enrollment  among  the  saints  were  reexamined 
by  the  council  of  Constance,  and  the  bull  of  her 
canonization  confirmed,  in  1416.  A  bull  to  the 
same  effect  was  issued  by  Martin  V.  in  1419.  In 
the  church  of  Rome  St.  Brigida  is  best  known 
by  her  revelations,  chiefly  concerning  the  passion 
of  Jesus  Christ,  and  events  which  were  to  hap- 
pen in  certain  kingdoms.  They  are  believed  by 
Catholics  to  have  been  com  mun  icated  to  her  from 
on  high,  and  were  written  after  her  narration 
partly  by  her  confessor  Peter,  a  Swedish  Cister- 
cian monk,  partly  by  a  Spaniard,  called  Alfonso 
the  hermit.  The  learned  Gerson  attacked 
them  with  great  severity ;  but  the  council  of 
Basel  gave  Siem  its  approbation  after  they  had 
been  Uioroughly  examined  by  John  of  Turi-o- 
cremata.  Among  her  other  works  are  a  dis- 
course in  praise  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  and  a 
series  of  prayers  on  the  sufferings  and  love  of 
Christ,  part  of  which  may  be  found  in  modem 
books  of  devotion. 

BRIGITTINS,  or  Ordkb  of  oxjb  Savtoub,  a 
branch  of  the  Augustinians,  founded  about  the 
year  1844  by  St.  Brigida  of  Sweden,  and  ap- 
proved by  Urban  V.  in  1870.  It  owes  its  origin 
to  the  monastery  built  by  Brigida  at  Wastein, 
near  Link6ping,  in  Sweden.  It  embraces  both 
monks  and  nuns,  who  occupy  contiguous  build- 
ings, and  celebrate  the  divine  office  in  the  same 
chnrdi,  but  an  inviolable  enclosure  separates 
their  respective  apartments,  and  their  places  in 
the  church  are  so  arranged,  the  men  being  below 
and  the  women  above,  that  one  sex  con  never 
see  the  other.  The  prioress  is  superior  in  tem- 
poral concerns,  but  spiritual  matters  are  man- 
aged by  the  monks.  All  the  houses  of  the  order 
are  subject  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  no 
new  one  can  be  founded  without  express  per- 
mission of  the  pope.  The  number  of  male 
religious  in  each  monastery  was  fixed  by  the 
rule  at  26,  and  that  of  females  at  60 ;  but  this 
regulation  has  cea^  to  be  strictly  enforced,  and, 


702 


BRIGNOLE 


BRINDIBI 


Indeed,  tbere  are  fov  eetablishmente  for  both 
sexes  now  existing,  though  some  are  jet  main- 
tained in  Germany,  Flanders,  and  other  oonn- 
tries;  most  of  them,  including  the  parent  honse 
at  Wastein,  were  destroyed  at  the  reformation. 
There  are  2  rich  convents  of  Brigittins  at  Genoa, 
into  one  of  which  only  ladies  of  high  fiimily 
are  admitted.  The  only  house  of  the  order 
in  England  was  the  rich  institution  known  as 
8ion  house,  founded  by  Henry  V.  on  the  Thames, 
10  miles  from  London.  It  was  one  of  the  first 
suppressed  by  Henry  VIH.  After  passing 
through  the  hands  of  the  dukes  of  Bomersetand 
Northumberland,  it  was  restored  to  the  religious 
by  Queen  Mary,  and  again  dissolved  under 
Elizabeth.  The  nuns  then  left  England,  and 
after  various  troubles  established  themselves  in 
Portugal. 

BRIGNOLE,  a  noble  family  of  Genoa.  Three 
of  its  members  were  doges  of  tlie  republic  in  the 
17th  and  18th  centuries,  and  gave  the  name  to 
the  Palatgo  BrignoU  SaU^  in  the  Strada  Nuowb^ 
which  oontidns  the  best  private  coUeetion  of 
pictures  in  Genoa,  and  which  is  commonly 
ealled  Palauo  Rono^  from  the  red  color  of  the 
marble. 

BRIGNOLES,  a  French  town,  department 
of  Var  (Provence),  on  the  Calami.  It  is  well 
built,  ana  contains  several  squares  planted  and 
adorned  with  fountains,  a  public  library,  a 
normal  school,  and  manufactories  of  silk,  cloth, 
hardware,  soaps,  and  of  other  articles.  A  good 
trade  is  carried  on  in  wines,  olive  oil,  liquors, 
and  dried  fruits;  the  prunes  of  Brignoles,  which 
are  produced  in  the  country  around  Dignes, 
enjoy  a  high  reputation.    Pop.  6,872. 

BKlHUEGA,  an  old  and  once  woJled  town  of 
Spain  in  the  province  of  Guadalsjara,  on  the  Ta- 
Juna.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  decisive  victory  gain* 
ed  by  the  French,  under  the  duke  de  Yettd6me, 
over  the  allied  forces  under  Lord  Btanhope,  1710. 
The  French,  under  Gen.  Hugo,  fortified  the 
town,  and  took  up  their  quarters  nere.  Sept  14, 
1810.  A  branch  establishment  of  the  royal  cloth 
manufactory  of  Guadaliyara  occupies  a  splendid 
edifice  built  under  the  reisns  of  Ferdinand  YI. 
and  Oharles  III.  A  considerable  trade  in  cloth 
and  woollen  goods  is  carried  on  here.  Pop. 
6,147. 

BRIL,  Paul,  a  Flemish  painter,  bom  at  Ant- 
werp in  155G,  died  in  Rome  in  1626.  He  aided 
his  brother  Matthew  in  decorating  tiie  Vatican, 
and  by  a  careful  study  of  Titian  and  t^e  Caraoci, 
acquired  an  admirable  style,  particularly  in  land- 
acape  painting.  He  executed  some  important 
works  for  the  Sistine  chapel,  and  other  public 
buildings.  Some  of  his  landscapes  contain 
figures  by  Annibale  Oaracd.  His  finest  corapo^ 
sition  is  a  landscape  in  the  Sala  Olementina  of 
the  Vatican. 

BRILLAT-SAVARIN,  Anthkuo,  a  French 
author  and  magistrate,  bom  at  Bellay,  April  1, 
1755,  died  nt  Paris,  Feb.  2,  1826.  He  was  a 
deputy  in  the  states  general  in  1789 ;  fied  to 
Switzerland  and  the  United  States  ,to  escape 
from  the  revolutionary  tribunal;  and  on  bia 


return  to  Franoe  in  1796,  became  a  jadge  of 
the  court  of  cassation.  He  is  known  to  litera- 
ture by  his  anonymous  writings  on  political 
economy,  and  on  the  archsBology  iji  the  depart- 
mentof  Ain,  also  by  a  work  on  duels ;  bat  chiefly 
by  his  famous  book  on  gastronomy,  entitled 
PhytiologU  du  go^  published  after  his  death 
by  Richerand  in  1825. 

BRILLIANT,  a  fine  diamond  with  a  sor&ce 
cut  fiat;  below,  it  is  angular,  so  as  to  refrsot  the 
light,  and  have  a  glistening  appearance. 

BRILON,  a  town  and  cirde  of  the  Ptufisian 
province  of  Amsberg,  formeriy  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Westphalia.  The  drde  has  a  loogfa, 
hilly  surface  of  some  280  square  miles  in  extent^ 
and  is  mostly  uncultivated,  the  chief  prodoetiaDB 
being  nl  ver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  gypsom,  ealAoaata, 
and  live  stock.  Pop.  87,600.— The  town,  on 
the  road  from  Amsberg  to  Oassel,  is  one  of  the 
oldest  in  Prussia,  was  in  former  times  a  Hanae 
town,  stands  on  high  |;round  near  Mdnne,  md 
has  manufactures  of  hnen,  tinware,  and  naUs. 
It  also  contains  a  college,  hospital,  and  a  great 
parish  church  said  to  have  been  built  by  Charie- 
magne.    Pop.  8,900. 

BRIMSTONE.  Sulphur,  when  melted  and 
cast  in  moulds  into  the  form  of  rolls,  k  aold 
under  the  name  of  roll-brimstone.  &e  Snir 
pnuB. 

BRINDISI  (andently  Brundtuifim\  a  fiorti- 
fied  city  and  seaport  of  Naples,  in  the  province 
of  Otranto.  It  is  in  what  was  the  ancient  Gb- 
labria,  in  the  Messapian  peninsula,  and  stands 
on  one  of  the  bays  of  the  Adriatic  It  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  and  was  the  seat  of  an  esten- 
sive  commerce  and  communication  with  Greece. 
The  Appia  Via  terminated  at  BrindisL  By 
some  writers  its  foundation  is  ascribed  to  the 
Cretans,  by  others  to  Diomedes.  It  still  has  the 
ancient  enclosure  and  fortifications,  but  its  pAt 
was  almost  destroyed  in  the  16th  century  by  an 
eartbauake.  Tlie  dramatic  poet,  Pacnvins,  -was 
born  here,  and  here  Virgil  died.  Here  Sylla 
landed  on  his  return  from  the  Mithridatic  war, 
and  Oicero  coming  firom  exile ;  and  here  Cesar 
besieged  Pompey,  and  Antcmy  threatened  Oo^ 
taviuR.  Its  south  harbor  is  minutdy  described 
by  Cnsar.  In  the  convention  held  Yk&e%  to 
acynst  the  disputes  between  Antony  and  An- 
gnstus,  M»cenas  was  accompanied  by  Horace: 
^ru7idu»vam  longm  fini»  charteBque  et07ti& 
Recent  internal  improvements,  such  as  cutting 
away  the  isthmus  or  sandbar,  which  has  for 
centuries  been  slowly  forming  across  the  inner 
harbor,  have  brought  to  light  man^  of  the 
works  by  which  Csssar  fortified  the  dty  and 
protected  the  harbor.  There  still  stands  in  the 
city  an  ancient  pillar  about  60  feet  high,  proba- 
bly intended  for  a  fire-beacon.  Brlndisl  was  a 
port  of  embarkation  for  the  crusaders.  It  is 
now  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  has  a  public 
library,  2  hospitals,  and  divinity  schools.  The 
cathedral  of  the  place  is  a  building  of  some 
note,  a  Norman  structure.  A  lighthouse  was 
erected  in  1843,  and  the  Imrbor  otherwise  con- 
siderably improved,    hi  May,  18i5,   it  was 


BEINDLKY 


BBINVILLIERS 


708 


m$Ae  an  entrepot  for  foreign  goods,  with 
bonded  warehouses.  The  population,  which 
in  ancient  times  was  60,000,  naa  diminished  to 
6,600. 

BRINDLET,  Jambi,  an  English  mechanic, 
bom  in  Derbyshire  in  1716,  died  at  Toro- 
hnrst,  Sept.  27,  1772.  He  was  apprenticed 
to  a  millwright  at  the  age  of  17,  and  quickly 
displayed  bis  inventive  genius  in  the  improve- 
ments which  be  suggested  in  the  manner  of 
performing  the  work.  After  entering  upon 
bwdness  on  his  own  account,  he  devised  in 
1752  an  improved  water-engine  for  draining 
the  ooal  mines  at  Clifton.  The  wheel  of  this 
engine  was  80  feet  below  the  surface,  and  was 
moved  by  water  brought  from  a  distance  of  600 
ymrds  through  a  subterranean  ohanneL  He  was 
engaged  in  1755  to  execute  the  krger  wheels  for 
a  lolk-mill  at  Oong^eton,  and  afterward  finished 
the  whole  machinery  in  his  own  way.  His 
reputation  recommended  him  to  the  auke  of 
Bridgewater,  who  had  an  estate  at  Woraley,  7 
miles  from  Manchester,  abounding  in  coal, 
which  was  rendered  useless  by  the  expense  of 
land  carriage.  Brindley,  being  consulted,  de- 
clared a  canal  from  the  estate  across  the  river 
Irwell  to  Manchester  pracdcable,  and  he  con* 
Btmoted  in  the  years  1760  and  1761  tliis  im- 
mense water-course,  the  first  of  the  kind  in 
England,  which  had  no  locks,  and  was  in  some 
parts  a  subterraneous  tunnel  and  in  others  an 
elevated  ifqueduot.  It  was  carried  over  the 
Irwell  in  a  lofty  aqueduct  89  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  water.  The  success  of  this  un- 
dertaking was  such  that  within  50  years  more 
than  $65,000,000  had  been  invested  in  Great 
Britain  in  similar  canals,  and  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  were  designed  and  superintended 
by  Brindley.  He  revived  the  idea  of  canal 
communication  across  the  country  by  uniting 
the  Mersey  and  Trent  rivers,  and  after  a  sur- 
vey undeitook  to  tunnel  the  Harecostle  hill, 
-which  had  before  been  deemed  an  insurmount- 
able obstacle.  This  tunnel  is  2,280  yards  in 
length,  and  70  yards  below  the  surface.  It  was 
1}egun  in  1766,  and  finished  after  Brindley's 
death  by  his  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Henshall,  in 
1777.  lie  superintended  the  construction  of 
the  Ooventry  and  Oxford  canals,  by  means  of 
which,  together  with  the  Mersey  and  Trent 
oanal,  he  connected  the  Thames,  Humber, 
Severn,  and  Mersey  rivers,  and  united  not  only 
the  most  industrious  districts  of  the  country, 
but  the  great  cities  of  London,  Liverpool,  Bris- 
tol and  Hull.  It  was  his  custom  when  per- 
plexed with  anv  extraordinary  difficulty  to  re- 
tbe  to  bed,  and  lie  there  sometimes  for  2  or  8 
days  tiU  his  plan  was  clear. 

BRINE,  the  salt  water  naturally  produced  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  eartii,  which  is  more  or  less  saturated  with 
chloride  of  sodium  or  common  salt,  and  which 
flows  out  in  springs  or  is  pumped  up  for  the  use 
of  the  salt  manufiictories.  It  will  be  treated  in 
detail  in  describing  the  preparation  of  salt  under 
its  proper  head. — ^Brine  is  also  the  artificial 


saline  solution  used  for  preserving  meats.  By 
a  paper  recently  communicated  to  the  imperiiu 
academy  of  medicine  of  France,  it  appears  tiiat 
brine  thus  used  acquires  poisonous  properties  in 
a  few  months,  so  that  its  use  with  food  con- 
tinued for  some  time  may  produce  fatal  effects. 
The  symptoms  are  first  noticed  in  the  effect  of 
the  poison  upon  the  nervous  system.  Tremblings, 
convulsions,  and  loss  of  sensation  are  caused. 
The  secretions  of  the  skin  and  kidneys  are  also 
increased,  and  violent  congestion  and  infiamma- 
tion  of  the  intestines  ensue.  The  council  of 
health  in  Paris,  after  examining  into  this  subject, 
recommend,  that  "  in  all  cases  brine  preserved 
too  long,  or  in  contact  with  rancid  meat,  should 
not  be  employed,  except  with  the  greatest  care, 
and  after  it  has  been  purified  by  skimming  all 
tiie  scum  which  forms  on  the  surface." 

BRINELET,  John,  an  English  astronomer, 
born  at  Woodbridge,  in  1763,  died  at  Oloyne^ 
Ireland,  1885.  He  was  selected  in  1792  to  be 
astronomer  royal  of  Ireland,  and  Andrews  t>ro- 
fessor  of  astronomy  in  Trinity  college,  Dublin ; 
and  in  1814  he  discovered  the  parallax  of  the 
fixed  stars.  In  1827  he  was  made  bishop  of 
Oloyne. 

BRINEMANN,  Qaxl  Gttstap,  baron,  a 
Swedish  diplomatist  and  poet^  born  near  Stock- 
hohn,  Feb.  24, 1764,  died  Jan.  10,  1848.  After 
studying  at  Upsal  he  visited  the  universities  of 
Halle,  Leipsic,  and  Jena.  He  was  ambassador 
to  Paris  in  1798,  to  the  Prussian  court  in  1801, 
and  to  London  in  1807.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  royal  academy  at  Stockholm  in  1829, 
was  afterward  ennobled,  and  at  his  death  be- 
queathed his  valuable  library  of  10,000  volumes 
to  the  university  of  Upsal.  He  was  long  in 
correspondence  with  Madame  de  StaSl.  His 
principal  works  are  in  2  volumes,  entitled 
"Poems,"  and  "Philosophical  Thoughts  and 
Poems.'' 

BRINYILLIERS,  Mabib  Maboubbitb  d'Axt- 
BBAT,  marchioness  of^  a  notorious  French  wo- 
man, convicted  of  poisoning  her  father  her 
brothers,  and  a  host  of  other  persons,  and  exe- 
cuted at  Paris,  July  16,  1676.  She  was  highly 
educated,  and  moved  in  the  best  French  so- 
ciety, concealing  under  a  gentle  appearance  the 
most  atrocious  propensities.  Her  father  was 
Dreux  d^Aubray,  a  prominent  public  officer  of 
Paris.  In  1651  she  married  the  marquis  of 
BrinviUiers.  Shortly  after  the  marriage,  she 
fell  desperately  in  love  with  one  of  his  friends, 
Gaudin  de  Sainte  Croix,  an  adventurer,  said  to  be 
the  illegitunate  offipring  of  an  illustrious  family^ 
a  dashing  and  handsome  young  fellow.  Her 
husband  did  not  interfere,  but  her  father  caused 
the  arrest  of  Gaudin.  who  was  incarcerated  in 
the  hostile.  There  he  met  an  lulian  of  the 
name  of  Exili,  who  taught  him  the  preparation 
and  application  of  a  peculiar  kind  of  poison. 
As  soon  as  he  recovered  his  liberty,  he  became 
the  instructor  of  the  marchioness,  who  initiated 
her  husband  into  the  secret.  The  latter  had  ruin- 
ed himself  by  his  extravagance,  and  the  only  way 
of  replenishmg  his  exchequer  was  through  the 


704 


BRINVILLIEBS 


BB18BANE 


property  of  hia  wife's  fatnily.  Thia,  however, 
was  not  within  his  reach  during  their  lifetime. 
Their  death  was  resolved  upon.  He  prepared 
the  poison,  and  his  wife  experimented  with 
it  npon  the  sick  in  the  Paris  hospital,  to 
whom  she  presented  it  in  biscuits,  npon  her 
guests,  to  whom  she  offered  it  in  pigeon-pies, 
and  npon  her  chambermaid,  to  whom  she  ad- 
ministered it  in  a  slice  of  ham.  Of  the  persons 
who  tasted  it  all  did  not  die  at  once ;  the  drug 
was  not  yet  strong  enongh.  Upon  her  father 
she  made  8  nnsnocessful  experiments,  and  when 
she  eventually  succeeded,  ne  was  the  last  to 
suspect  his  loving  daughter,  who  had  over- 
whelmed him  with  marks  of  respect  and  affec^ 
tion.  She  next  experimented  sucoessfUly  on 
her  2  brothers  through  the  agency  of  Lor 
chauss^e,  an  old  domestic  of  her  lover,  who  for 
that  particular  purpose  was  attached  to  the 
brothers'  honsehold.  Her  husband  was  next 
doomed  to  perish,  but  he  saved  himself  by  tak- 
ing an  antidote.  Her  paramour  died  of  the 
effects  of  the  poison,  while  he  was  prepar- 
ing it;  a  box  was  found  in  his  house  con- 
taining the  poison,  and  her  love  letters,  and 
other  conclusive  evidences  of  her  crime,  and 
she  left  Paris.  Lachauss6e,  the  man-servant 
whom  she  had  hired  to  poison  her  brothers,  put 
in  a  claim  upon  the  effects  of  his  former  master, 
Sainte  Croix,  for  wages  due  him.  Madame  do 
Yillaroeaux,  the  widow  of  one  of  the  poisoned 
brothers,  had  fixed  her  suspicions  upon  La- 
chauss^.  He  was  arrested  and  sentenced  to 
death.  Before  his  death  he  made  a  full  con- 
fession. This  afforded  the  requisite  legal  evi- 
dence for  the  conviction  of  Madame  BrinviUiers. 
She  was  condemned  in  eantumaeia^  while  at 
the  same  time  a  policeman  was  despatched  to 
Li6ge,  where  she  was  concealed  in  &  convent 
He  gained  access  to  her  cell  under  the  garb  of 
a  priest  and  to  her  confidence  under  the  char- 
atiter  of  a  lover.  One  evening  he  enticed  her 
out  of  the  town,  where  soldiers  lay  in  ambush 
to  seize  her,  while  he  took  her  napers,  among 
which  one  was  found  intendea  to  be  read 
after  her  death,  in  which  she  confessed  that  she 
had  set  fire  to  a  house,  poisoned  her  father,  her 
brothers,  one  of  her  children,  and  herself.  This 
paper  was  put  in  as  evidence  at  the  trial.  On 
her  refusing  to  admit  its  truth,  she  was  taken  to 
the  torture-room.  This  brought  her  to  confess 
not  only  the  crimes  enumerated  in  the  paper,  but 
others,  which  the  government  withheld  from 
public  knowledge.  Madmne  de  S^vign^  in  her 
letters  gives  a  graphic  account  of  her  execution. 
All  Paris  was  on  the  spot;  artbts,  like  Le 
Brun,  to  take  her  portrait;  her  wretched  hus- 
band to  plead  to  the  end  in  her  favor;  the 
policeman  who  had  entrapped  her  at  Li^; 
thousands  of  spectators  of  aU  classes,  includ- 
ing the  usual  namber  of  ikshionable  ladies 
eagerly  looking  on,  who  were  rebuked  by  the 
criminal  addressing  them  with  '^  Voild  un  beau 
$peciacU  d  voir."  After  her  death  the  sneer 
with  which  she  uttered  these  lost  words  was 
still  lingeriog  upon  her  countenance.    The  ex- 


oitement  did  not  altogether  die  out  with  her 
death.  The  noison  she  used  was  examined 
and  proved  to  have  been  aqva  tofana, 

BBION,  Luis,  admiral  of  Colombia,  bom  at 
Cura^oa,  July  6,  1782,  died  Sept  20,  1821. 
He  was  sent  at  an  early  age  to  Holland  to  re- 
ceive his  education,  his  father  being  a  native  of 
that  country ;  there  he  entered  the  Dutch  army, 
and  was  offered  a  commission  in  1799,  but 
being  recalled  by  his  parents,  he  returned  to 
Ouraffoa.  He  however  remained  there  but  a 
short  time ;  receiving  permission  from  his  par- 
ents, he  visited  the  United  States,  where  he 
studied  navigation.  Upon  the  death  of  his  fa- 
ther, who  bequeathed  him  a  large  fortune,  he 
bought  a  vessel  and  made  several  voyages ;  en- 
tering into  speculation  on  his  own  account,  he 
was  very  successful,  and  returned  to  Curagoa 
in  1804,  where  he  established  a  mercantile 
house.  The  political  events  in  Venezuela  of 
1808~'10  brought  Brion  rapidly  into  notice ;  he 
volunteered  his  services  to  the  republic  of  Ca- 
racas, and  in  1811  was  appointed  captain  of  a 
frigate.  He  now  devoted  all  his  resources  and 
his  energies  to  the  patriotic  cause.  At  his  own 
expense  he  fitted  out  a  fieet  of  vessels,  and  at- 
tacked the  Spanish  forces  at  the  island  of  Mar- 
guerite, where  he  gained  a  signal  victory., 
Brion  distinguished  himself  at  the  conquest  of 
Guiana,  and  also  at  Santa  Marta  and  Cartagena. 
The  latter  part  of  his  life  was  rendered  unhappy 
by  an  unfortunate  ctrcumstapce:  during  a  resi- 
dence at  Savanilla  he  reduced  the  custom  house 
duties ;  this  coming  to  the  ear  of  BoUvar,  he 
directly  countermanded  the  order,  which  so 
preyed  upon  the  mind  of  Brion,  that  he  became 
ill,  and  leaving  the  squadron  returned  to  Cu- 
rai^oa,  and  soon  died  in  poverty. 

BBIOUDE,  a  French  town  in  the  department 
of  Haute  Loire,  capital  of  the  arrondissement  of 
the  same  name,  situated  near  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Allier,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town 
of  Brivas.  The  old  bridge  at  La  VieUUBriaudSy 
long  celebrated  as  being  the  widest  in  span  of 
any  known,  feU  down  in  1822.  In  the  l£th 
century,  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Brioude  rose 
in  &vor  of  Lutheranism,  but  were  afterward 
subdued  by  the  Boman  Catholic  partjr. 
Lafiiyette  was  born  here.  A  considerable  trafiic 
in  grain,  hemp,  and  wine  is  carried  on  here. 
Pop.  of  the  arrondissement,  in  1856,  81,448, 
and  of  the  town  4,737. 

BRISACH,  or  Bseisach,  a  circle  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Baden,  province  of  the  Upper  Bhine, 
pop.  28,000,  with  a  ci^ital  called  Old  Brisach, 
to  distinguish  it  from  the  .village  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  Rhine,  which  b^ongs  to  France, 
and  which  is  called  New  Brisach.  Old  Brisaoh 
has  a  population  of  8,400,  is  weU  fortified,  and 
was  formerly  the  bulwark  of  Grennanv  on  the 
upper  Rhine.  It  has  a  fine  old  cathedral,  and 
the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  shipping  and  in 
the  cultivation  of  tobacco. 

BRISBANE,  a  north-eastern  connty  of  New 
South  Wales,  bordered  on  the  S.  by  Hunter  and 
Goulboum  rivers;  area,  2,344  sq.  m.    lb  con- 


BRI8S0H 


BRISTOL 


705 


chiefly  of  tablo-Iand,  diversified  hj  a 
few  plains  and  some  high  peaks,  one  of  which, 
called  the  Barning  moantaiii,  or  Moant  Wing- 
en,  is  in  a  state  of  combustion.  The  burn- 
ing portion  is  from  1,400  to  1,500  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea. — ^The  capital  of  this 
ooanty,  also  named  Brisbane,  is  situated  on  the 
river  Brisbane,  10  miles  above  its  mouth  in 
Moreton  bay;  pop.  in  1856,  5,800.  It  was 
formerly  a  penal  settlement,  but  ceased  to  be 
such  in  1842,  since  which  period  it  has  increas- 
ed largely  in  size,  and  improved  in  appearance. 
Its  trade,  which  is  rapidly  augmentij]^,  is  prin- 
cipally in  wool. 

BRISSON,  BARNABi,  a  French  jurist,  bom  in 
1581,  occupied  the  highest  judicial,  diplomatic, 
and  parliamentary  functions  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.,  and  compiled  the  Code  de  Henri  IIL; 
but  having  been  appointed  first  president  of  the 
parliament  by  the  members  of  the  league  dur- 
ing the  siege  of  Paris  by  Henry  lY.,  his  conduct 
filled  them  with  distrust,  and  they  had  him  exe- 
cuted Nov.  16,  1591. — Mathusik  JaoqubS)  a 
French  savant,  bom  at  Fontenay-le-Comt^ 
April  80, 1723,  died  at  Versailles^  June  28, 1806. 
He  was  instructor  to  the  children  of  the  royal 
family  of  France  in  physics  and  natural  history. 
He  was  also  censor  royal,  member  of  the 
academy  of  sciences,  and  of  the  institute,  and 
succeeded  NoUet  in  the  chair  of  natural  philos- 
ophy at  the  college  of  Navarre.  He  translated 
Friestley*s  work  on  electricity,  although  he 
opposed  his  theories,  and  still  more  those  of 
Franklin.  The  most  able  ot  his  writings  are  oa 
specific  gravity  and  on  ornithology.  Buffon 
quotes  f^quently  froip  the  latter  work. 

BRISSOT,  Jban  Pisrbb,  a  Girondist  leader, 
snraamed  Db  Wabtillb,  after  the  village  of 
Ouarville,  near  Chartres,  where  he  was  bom 
Jan.  14,  1754,  died  by  the  guillotine  Oct  80^ 
1793.  He  had  abandoned  the  profession  of  the 
law  for  the  pursuit  of  literature,  when  some 
seditious  pubbcations  caused  him  first  to  be  im- 
prisoned, and  afterward  to  repair  to  London, 
where  he  conducted  a  French  journal;  he  then 
went  to  the  United  States,  where  he  wrote 
against  slavery,  having  nreviously  been  one  of 
the  original  founders  of  Xa  eoeieU  dee  amie  dee 
neire.  Returning  to  France  on  the  outbreak  of 
the  revolution  of  1789,  he  became  the  editor  of 
Ze  patriate  Franpais,  a  member  of  the  com- 
mune of  Paris,  and  having  labored  assiduously 
in  the  interest  of  the  revolution,  he  was  chosen 
member  of  the  legidative  assembly,  where  he 
soon  took  a  conspicuous  position  as  a  leader 
of  the  Girondists,  and  as  an  opponent  of 
the  royal  family  and  of  the  exil^  nobles. 
After  the  king's  fiight  he  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  those  who  demanded  his  depoeition, 
and  eventually  taking  his  seat  in  the  convention 
as  a  representative  of  the  department  of  £nre-et- 
Loire,  he  was  instramental  in  bringing  about 
the  declaration  of  war  against  Austria,  England, 
and  Holland.  He  made  himself,  however,  ob- 
noxious to  Robespierre  and  his  party  by  refhs- 
ing  to  vote  for  the  execution  of  the  king,  and 
VOL.  ni. — 45 


was  finally  doomed  to'Hiare  the  fate  of  so  many 
of  his  political  associates.  The  surviving  Giron- 
dists were  called  Brissotins  by  the  terrorists. 
Hi9  love  of  liberty  was  kindled  by  the  ideas  ot 
Jean  Jacques  Rousseau,  and  by  his  residence  in 
the  United  States,  and  he  contributed  not  a  little 
to  the  success  of  the  revolution  by  the  eloquence 
^  his  speeches  and  the  ability  of  his  publications. 
The  4tn  and  last  volume  of  his  memoirs  and 
political  testament  appeared  in  Paris  in  1882. 

BRISTED,  John,  an  Episcopal  cleroyman, 
born  in  Dorsetshire,  England,  1779,  med  at 
Bristol,  R.  L,  Feb.  28, 1855.  He  was  educated 
at  Winchester,  studied  law,  came  to  America  in 
1806,  and  practised  in  New  York.  In  1820  he 
married  a  daughter  of.  John  Jacob  Astor. 
Having  oommenced  the  study  of  divinity  in 
1824  under  Bishop  Griswdd,  he  succeeded  the 
bishop  in  1829  in  the  rectorship  of  the  church 
of  Bt  Michael  at  Bristol,  whicn  office  he  dis- 
charged until  1848.  He  was  the  author  of  **  Re- 
sources of  the  United  States,'*  and  '*  Thoughts 
oU  the  English  and  American  churches." — His 
son,  Ohablks  Astob  Bmsran,  bom  in  New  York 
in  1820,  graduated  at  Yale  college  in  1889,  after- 
ward went  to  Oxford,  Enj^d,  where  he  spent 
5  years,  and  took  his  degree  at  Trinity  college  in 
1845.  At  both  universities  he  nined  fluent 
prizes  fbr  classical  attainments.  He  is  the  author 
of  many  livelv  papers  in  ^^Fraser's"  and  other 
magazines,  of  eaitions  of  some  of  the  classics, 
and  of  ^*  Five  Years  in  an  English  University,'' 
published  in  1852.  He  was  naiped  one  of  the 
original  trustees  of  the  Astor  library. 

BRISTLES,  the  stiff  hairs  which  grow  upon 
the  back  of  the  hog,  and  which  are  nsed  to  a 
great  extent  in  the  manufiiotnre  of  brushes,  and 
b/  shoemakers  and  saddlers  in  the  place  of 
needles.  They  are  of  several  varieties  of  color 
and  quality,  distinguished  as  black,  grav,  yellow, 
white,  and  lilies.  The  last  is  the  soft,  silvery 
quality  used  for  shaving-brushes.  The  demand 
is  so  great  for  the  manufiaotnre  of  the  various 
kinds  of  brushes,  that  bristles  are  an  importent 
article  of  commerce.  In  Great  Britein,  before 
the  repeal  of  the  duty  upon  them  in  March, 
01845,  the  revenue  derived  firom  the  customs 
amounted  to  over  $100,000  annually.  The 
number  of  pounds  imported  the  year  of  the  re- 
mission of  the  duty  was  2,412,267.  (See 
Bbttsh.) 

BRISTOL.  I.  A  south-eastern  county  of 
Hasssachnsettsi  bounded  S.  by  Buzzard's  bay, 
drained  by  Tannton,  Pawtucket,  and  other  small- 
er rivers,  diversified  by  many  inequalities  of  sur- 
fiioe,  and  having  an  area  of  517  sq.  m.  Ito  sea- 
coast,  about  18  miles  in  extent,  is  indented  by  nu- 
merous bays  and  good  harbors,  affording  oppor- 
tunities for  navigation  and  the  fisheries  which 
are  extensively  embraced.  Iron  ore  is  found  in 
laive  quantities.  The  soil  is  of  various  kinds; 
a  mr  proportion  of  it  is  fertile,  and  produces 
Indian  corn,  potetoee,  and  grass.  In  1850  it 
yielded  154,084  bushels  of  Indian  corn,  250,488 
of  potatoes,  28,552  tons  of  ha^,  and  811,794  lbs. 
of  butter.    There  were  8  calico-printing  estab- 


T06 


BRISTOL 


lishments,  18  of  whale  oil,  18  of  jewelry,  21 
saw  and  planing  miila,  5  grist  mills,  1  copper 
rolling  mill,  6  potteries,  8  tanneries,  8  ship- 
yards, 1  brass  and  4  iron  foonderies,  4  mann- 
fectories  of  uails,  4  of  tacks,  5  of  coaches,  25  of 
boots  and  shoes,  2  of  britannia  ware,  49  cotton 
and  2  woollen  factories,  and  10  machine  shops. 
In  1857  it  contained  140  charches,  7  weekly 
and  8  daily  ne wsp^r  offices.  The  Boston  and 
Providence,  New  Bedford  and  Taunton,  Taun- 
ton branch,  and  Fall  River  railroads  pass 
through  it  Oopitals,  Taunton  and  New  Bed- 
ford. The  Indians  called  this  part  of  the 
country  Panetinnawcutt  It  was  fonned  into 
a  county  in  1685,  and  named  from  the  town 
of  Bristol  in  England.  Pop.  in  1855,  87,425. 
II.  An  eastern  county  of  Rhode  IsUmd, 
having  an  area  of  25  sq.  m.,  being  the  small- 
est county  in  New  England  except  Suffolk, 
Mass.  Mount  Hope  and  Narraganset  bays 
bound  it  on  the  £.,  8.,  and  W.,  affording  with 
their  numerous  harbors  advantages  for  naviga- 
tion which  can  hardly  be  surpe^sed.  A  la^ 
amount  of  oi^ital  is  invested  in  whaling  and 
other  fisheries.  The  surface  is  uneven,  and 
presents  a  variety  of  beautiful  scenery.  Mount 
Hope,  once  the  reddence  of  the  Indian  king, 
Philip,  is  the  principal  elevation.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  yielding  different  kinds  of  grain, 
potatoes,  and  grass.  The  productions  in  1850 
were  25,451  bushels  of  Indian  com,  11,075  of 
oats,  24,898  of  potatoes,  8,062  tons  of  hay,  and 
82,262  lbs.  of  butter.  There  were  8  figustories 
of  cotton  goods,  1  of  nails,  1  of  hinges,  2  of 
cordage,  1  brass  and  1  iron  foundery,  2  ship- 
yards, 14  furnaces,  8  forges,  2  brick-yards,  10 
churches,  2  newspaper  offioeo,  and  1,108  pupils 
attending  public  schools.  A  railroad  from 
Bristol,  the  capital,  to  Providence  passes 
through  it.  Organized  in  1746.  Pop.  in  1850, 
8,514. 

BRISTOL.  I.  A  post  town,  port  of  entry,  and 
the  capital  of  Bristol  co.,  R.  1.,  16  m.  8.  E.  of 
Providence,  and  14  miles  N.  E.  of  Newport, 
pleasantly  situated  on  a  peninsula  stretching  out 
toward  the  S.  between  Narraganset  bay  on  the 
W.  and  Mount  Hope  bay  on  the  E.  The  town- 
ship is  5  miles  long,  8  miles  broad,  and  12  sq.  m. 
in  area.  It  includes  Mount  Hope^  a  beautiful 
eminence  800  feet  above  the  water,  noted  for  the 
fine  view  ftom  its  summit,  and  interesting  as 
the  ancient  residence  of  King  Philip,  who  was 
killed  here  In  1676.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
and  about  i  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
raising  onions  and  other  market  vegetables. 
The  village,  which  is  much  visited  in  summer 
for  its  refreshing  sea  air,  contains  7  churches,  1 
newspaper  office,  1  savings  institution,  4  banks, 
1  cotton  mill,  1  manufactory  of  breech-loading 
fire-arms,  and  an  extensive  sugar  refinery.  It 
has  an  excellent  deep  harbor,  a  prosperous  coast- 
ing trade,  and  some  commerce  with  the  West 
Indies.  The  tonnage  of  the  port  in  1852 
amounted  to  18,626  tons.  A  railroad  connects 
it  with  Providence,  and  steamboats  from  Fall 
River  to  the  latter  city  make  xhia  one  of  their 


landing  places.  During  the  revolutionary  war 
it  was  bombarded  by  the  British,  and  a  large 
part  of  it  burned  to  the  ground.  Pop.  in  1850, 
4,616.  II.  A  post  borough,  and  formerly  the 
capital  of  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  situated  on  the  rif^t 
bonk  of  the  Delaware  river,  nearly  opposite  Bur- 
lington, N.  J.,  and  about  19  miles  above  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  a  pleasant,  neat-looking  town, 
with  4  churches^  a  bank,  afiour  mill,  a  mineral 
spring,  and  abundant  means  of  commnirication 
with  the  chief  cities  of  the  union.  A  railroad 
from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  passes  through 
it,  a  line  of  steamboats  connects  it  with  Phtk- 
delphia,  and  the  Delaware  branch  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania canal  terminates  here  in  a  large  basin 
communicating  with  the  river.  About  3  miles 
below,  near  Uie  river,  is  a  school  called  the 
Lutitut  mUitaire,  occupying  the  buildings  for- 
merly used  by  Bristol  college,  founded  by  the 
Episcopalians  in  1838.  The  town  was  founded 
in  1697.    Pop.  in  1850,  2,570. 

BRISTOL,  an  important  seaport  and  city 
on  the  borders  of  Gloucestershire  and  Somerset- 
shire, England,  118  miles  from  London  by  rail- 
way. Pop.  137,828.  The  city  is  under  the 
management  of  an  ancient  corporation,  and  has 
the  largest  local  and  foreign  trade  of  any  town 
in  the  west  of  England.  Its  situation  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Avon  with  the  estuary  of  the 
Severn  gives  it  great  advantages,  which  have 
been  farther  improved  by  dock  accommodation. 
The  British  docks,  which  were  ori^nally  formed 
in  the  reign  of  George  III.,  at  an  expense  of 
£600,000,  were  purchased  in  1847  by  the  cor- 
poration, and  are  now  the  property  of  the  ci^. 
It  is  the  great  commercial  depot  of  the  western 
district  and  South  Wales.*  The  foreign  entries 
of  Bristol  for  the  year  1862  were — inward, 
68,457  tons;  outward,  42,756  tons.  The  coast- 
ing trade  fiu:  exceeds  this  in  amount  It  com- 
pnised,  inward,  877,000  tons;  outward,  808,000 
tons.  The  colonial  trade  is  about  equal  to  the 
foreign  trade.  The  number  of  ships  entered 
inward  from  foreign  ports  during  the  year  end- 
ing Jan.  5,  1854,  was  788,  with  176,571  tons, 
and  the  clearances  ware  262,  with  87,190  tons. 
Among  the  imports  of  1853  we  &id  about 
600,000  cwt  of  sugar,  100,000  hides,  200,000 
qrs.  of  corn,  50,000  cwt.  of  flour,  about  90,000 
loads  of  timber,  &c.  The  net  amount  of  cus- 
tom-house dutiesln  1858  was  £1,194,921.  Bris- 
tol has  a  peculiar  interest,  apart  firom  its  an- 
tiquities and  commerce,  in  its  early  connection 
with  America.  By  the  enterprise  of  Bristol 
merchants  some  of  the  early  expeditions  for 
the  extension  of  discovery  in  Uie  western  world 
were  fitted  out.  Sebastian  Cabot  passed  his 
early  life  in  Bristol,  and  a  Bristol  ship  first 
touched  the  American  continent.  Martin  Fro- 
bisher  brought  one  of  the  Esquimaux  to 
Bristol  in  1578;  Hakluyt  belwiged  to  Bristol, 
and  Newfoundland  was  colonized  from  BristoL 
The  city  of  Bristol  was  the  second  city  of  the 
kingdom,  and  in  1750  to  1767,  the  average 
net  receipts  of  the  customs  there  amoonted  to 
£155,189    sterling,  while  those  of  Liveq>ool 


BBISTOL 


BRIT 


707 


were  £51,186.    Now,  however,  was  the  com-    ing  inonmnenta  of  antiqui^,  amotig  wbiehthd 
xnenoemeDt  of  her  retrogession.    In  the  latter^  charch  of  6L  Mary  Bedcliff  is  ooDspicuoiis  both 

— «*: —  u-    ^j.  jug  ^^jj  beauty  of  deeigii  and  ornamentation, 


part  of  tlieaame  oentnry,li?erpoo1,  profiting  by 
the  advantage  of  her  nataral  position  and  her 
vicinity  to  the  northern  ooal,  iron,  and  mannfao- 
tnring  districts^  shot  rapidly  ahead  of  her  vener* 
able  rival,  and  has  left  her  hopelessly  in  the 
rear.  The  West  India  trade,  whioh  formerly 
belonged  ezdnsively  to  Bristol,  has  been  in  the 
present  century  transferred  to  London,  unoe 
the  completion  of  the  magnificent  West  India 
docks.  The  growth  of  railway  communication 
has  also  partly  deprived  Bristol  of  its  long 
standing  character  as  the  commercial  depot  of 
the  west  of  England,  while  the  rapid  growth 
of  Gardifi;  a  small  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bris- 
tol channel  and  a  convenient  place  of  shipment 
for  the  South  Wales  iron  district,  will  probably 
iiyore  both  Bristol  and  laverpool.  These  re- 
verses have,  however,  iiijjnred  the  city  of  Bris- 
tol only  relatively.  She  still  maintains  the 
character  of  a  commercial  and  manutacturing 
town  of  great  wealth  and  importance.  Sbe 
possesses  many  first  class  mercantile  houses  and 
manufacturing  establishments.  It  is  the  great 
point  of  shipment  between  the  south  of  Ireland 
and  England,  and  large  quantities  of  prodace, 
live  and  dead,  find  their  way  through  Bristol. 
Numerous  manufactures  are  carried  on,  includ- 
ing anchors  and  cables,  beer  bottles,  bricks, 
Britbh  spirits,  colors,  drugs,  dyes,  earthenware, 
hats  and  caps,  floorn^lotlis,  glass  of  all  kinds, 
machinery  and  metal  work,  soap,  starch,  and 
numerous  others,  some  of  which  are  Bristol 
staples.  A  great  cotton  factory  is  an  object  of 
some  note.  There  are  6  banking  establishments, 
including  a  branch  of  the  bank  of  England ;  a 
savings  bank,  a  gas  company  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Bristol  and  Clifton  gas  companies, 
with  a  united  capital  of  £179,800.  Some  of 
the  best  vessels  ever  launched  have  been  built 
in  Bristol,  as,  for  instance,  the  Great  Western, 
upward  of  2,000  tons  burden,  and  the  Great 
Britain,  of  8,600  tons.  The  Great  Western 
railway,  connecting  London  with  this  city,  is  in- 
teresting to  men  of  science  as  being  constructed 
on  the  broad  or  6  foot  gauge.  It  is  the  finest 
line  In  tlie  united  kingdom.  The  powerful  loco- 
motives, the  easy  gradients,  and  the  rate  of 
speed,  exceeding  that  of  any  other  both  in  ordi- 
nary and  express  travelling,  have  deservedly 
earned  for  this  line  the  epithet  of  '*  magnificent." 
In  a  financial  view,  however,  the  bruad  gauge, 
notwithstanding  its  superiority  to  the  narrow, 
can  scarcely  be  called  satisfactory ;  and  except 
in  lines  branching  ftom  the  Great  Western,  the 
system  has  not  been  fdlowed.  The  town  is  pro- 
vided with  various4iterary  and  educational  insti- 
tutions. The  sanitary  arrangements^  in  which 
Bristol  in  ancient  times  was  very  defective, 
have  of  late  years  excited  attention.  The  nu- 
merous narrow'street^  with  their  overhanging 
houses,  so  dear  to  the  lover  of  the  picturesque^ 
are  sadly  prejudicial  to  free  ventilation  and 
health.  As  may  bo  supposed  from  the  ancient 
wealth  of  the  city,  there  are  numerous  interest- 


aj&d  for  Ghatterton's  connection  with  it.  With- 
in its  muniment  room  Ghatterton  said  that  he 
discovered  Rowley  ^s  poems,  whioh  he  is  charged 
with  having  invented.  Beside  St  Mary  I^- 
clifi^  a  splendid  example  of  the  Gothic  style, 
there  are  many  handsome  churches,  and  also  the 
cathedral,  which  has  a  fine  Norman  gateway. 
Among  the  modern  buildinss  which  iSorn  the 
town  are  the  council-house,  m  the  Italian  style, 
the  new  guildhall,  in  the  Tudor  style,  the  Vio- 
toria  rooms  for  concerts  and  exhibitions,  the 
Bristol  institution,  with  a  fine  gallery  of  art, 
and  the  bridewell  prison,  rebuilt  after  the  riot 
of  1881.— Bristol  dates  from  before  the  Roman 
invasion,  but  did  not  become  a  place  of  strength 
and  importance  till  after  the  Norman  conquest. 
In  the  12th  and  18th  centuries  it  was  noted 
both  for  its  trade  and  manufactures.  It  figured 
in  the  wars  of  the  roses,  and  was  a  command- 
ing position  during  the  war  between  Gharles  I. 
and  the  parliament  It  was  carried  by  storm 
by  Prince  Maurice  and  Prince  Rupert  in  1643, 
but  after  tlie  defeat  of  Charles  at  Naseby  was 
surrendered  by  Prmce  Rupert  to  Sir  Thomas 
Fahrfax,  after  but  brief  resistance.  It  was  the 
scene  of  riots  on  account  of  local  disputes  in 
1793,  and  of  a  disastrous  riot  in  1881,  on  occa- 
sion of  a  visit  to  it  from  Su:  Charles  Wetherdl, 
an  opponent  of  the  reform  bill. 

BRISTOL  BRICK,  a  sort  of  brick  used  for 
cleaning  steel,  manufactured  for  some  years 
exclusively  in  Bristol,  England.  A  small  vein 
of  the  sand  required  for  this  purpose  was  found 
near  Liverpool,  but  was  soon  exhausted.  One 
of  the  owners  or  operatives,  who  had  been 
concerned,  in  the  works  at  Bristol,  visited  the 
United  States  in  1820,  where  by  accident  he 
discovered  that  the  same  kind  of  sand  which 
was  used  for  the  Bristol  bricks  might  be  pro- 
cured at  South  Hampton,  N.  H.  Since  that 
period,  bricks  fully  equal  to  the  imported  ar- 
ticle have  been  manufactured  in  this  country, 
with  a  large  and  constantly  increasing  demand. 

BRISTOL  CHANNEL,  an  inlet  of  St 
George's  channel  between  South  Wales  and 
Devonshire  and  Somersetshire.  Its  upper  ex- 
tremity forms  the  estuary  of  the  Serem. 

BRIT  {clupea  minima^  Peck),  a  small  species 
of  herring,  varying  in  length  from  1  to  4 
inches,  found  at  some  seasons  of  the  year  in 
immense  numbers  on  the  coast  of  New  England ; 
it  serves  as  food  for  the  blue-fish  and  other 
predatory  species.  The  back  is  nearly  black, 
the  upper  part  of  the  sides  dark  green,  and  the 
sides  silvery  with  roseate  and  golden  refleo- 
tioas;  the  lateral  line  is  very  high  up,  and  the 
abdominal  ridge  is  serrated;  Sie  lower  jaw 
rather  prcjeots  beyond  l^ie  upper.  It  used  to  be 
very  abundant  in  the  bay  of  Fundy,  but  is  rare 
there  of  late  years;  it  is  said  to  be  frequently 
met  with  in  the  gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  and  is 
mentioned  by  Do  &ay  in  his  fishes  of  New  York. . 
In  the  young  specimens  the  dprsal  ridge  is  a 


tog 


BRITAIK 


BRmSH  EMPIRE 


blflok  line^  and  tbe  space  between  this  and  tbd 
lateral  line  is  of  a  light  green  color,  with  small 
darker  points.  Its  immense  numbers  might 
make  it  of  value  in  some  localities  as  a  manure, 
and  as  a  bait  for  other  fish. 

BRITAIN,  or  Biutahnia.    See  Enolavd. 

BRITANNIA  METAL,  also  called  white 
metal,  is  said  to  consist  of  8^  owt  of  block  tin^ 
28  lbs.  of  antimony,  8  lbs.  of  copper,  and  8  lbs. 
of  brass.  Its  composition,  however,  is  vari- 
able. Dr.  Thomson  gives  the  analysis  of  one 
specimen:  tin,  85.T2;  antimony,  10.89;  zinc, 
2.91 ;  copper,  .98—100.  It  is  cast  into  ingots 
and  rolled  into  thin  sheets.  It  is  an  alloy  of 
great  use  for  the  manufacture  of  domestic 
utensils,  and  is  very  generally  employed  as  the 
base  of  the  articles  designed  to  be  plated  with 
silver.  The  manuikctare  was  introduced  into 
En^and  about  the  year  1770,  by  Jessop  and 
Hancock. 

BRITANNI0U8,  son  of  the  emperor  CHau- 
dius  and  Messalina.  was  bom  A.  D.  42,  in  the 
2d  consulship  of  nis  father.  His  original 
name  was  Claudius  Tiberius  G^rmanicus,  but 
when  the  senate  conferred  the  title  of  Britan- 
nicus  on  Uie  emperor,  the  infant  prince  was 
allowed  to  pwiicipate  in  the  honor,  which 
henceforward  became  his  distinctive  appellation. 
After  the  death  of  his  mother,  and  the  marrUge 
of  his  fatiier  with  Agrippina,  that  unscrupulous 
woman  prevailed  on  Claudius  to  set  aside  the 
claims  of  Britannicus  to  the  throne,  and  to 
make  her  own  son  Nero  his  heir.  On  the  ac- 
cession of  Nero,  Agrippina,  finding  her  wishes 
and  commands  alike  disreg»tled  by  her  son, 
threatened  to  present  Britannicus  to  the  legions, 
and  to  proclaim  the  superior  validity  of  his 
title.  llero  determined  to  rid  himself  of  so 
dangerous  a  rival.  A  dose  of  powerful  poison 
was  dissolved  in  a  goblet  of  wme  and  handed 
to  him  at  a  banquet.  He  drank,  and  imme- 
diately expired.  As  his  funeral  passed  to  the 
Campus  Martins  a  terrible  storm  raged,  and 
the  rain  descending  in  torrents  washed  from 
his  -visage  the  paint  with  which  it  had  been 
smeared,  and  exposed  to  the  afirighted  popu* 
lace  his  swollen  and  blackened  features.  Bri- 
tannicus was  in  the  14th  year  of  his  age  when 
he  was  murdered. 

BRITINIANS,  a  congregation  of  Augustine 
monks,  taking  their  name  from  their  principal 
house  in  Britini,  Ancona.  They  were  very 
austere,  fasting  much  beyond  the  requisitions 
of  the  church,  and  more  wan  many  of  the  con- 
gregations of  the  same  rule.  They  wore  a 
gray  dress;  the  absence  of  the  girdle  distin- 
guished them  from  the  Minorites.  They  con- 
tinued a  separate  existence  until  they  fell  into 
the  union  of  the  dififerent  Augustine  congrega- 
tions under  Pope  Alexander  IV. 

BRITISH  AMERICA  comprises  the  whole 
northern  part  of  the  North  American  continent 
beyond  the  territory  of  the  United  States,  ex- 
cept the  portion  claimed  by  the  Russians.  It 
extends  from  lat  41  **  to  78**  N.,  and  from  long. 
52**  to  141*"  W.     The  frontier  line  between 


British  America  and  tbe  TJnitea  States  was 
l^termined  by  the  conventions  of  1889  and 
1846.  It  is  bounded  east  by  the  Atlantic 
ocean,  Davis  straits,  and  Baffin's  bay;  north 
by  the  Arctic  ocean;  north-west  by  Russian 
Ajnerica;  west  by  the  Pacific  ocean;  and 
south  by  the  United  States.  British  America 
includes  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  tiie  Hud- 
son's Bay  and  North- Western  territories,  Nova 
Scotia,  Newfoundland,  Cape  Breton,  Prince 
Edward  island,  and  New  Brunswick,  with 
Vancouver  island  in  the  Padfia  Each  of 
these  distinct  possessions  will  be  treated  under 
its  own  title. 

BRITISH  EMPIRE,  a  vast  complex  of  states 
in  various  parts  of  the  world,  subject  to  the  mon- 
arohof  England,  and  more  or  less  directly  gov- 
erned by  the  British  parliament  Its  different 
portions  will  be  treated,  at  lengtii,  each  under 
Its  own  title.  We  here  present  a  condensed 
view  of  them  all  together : 

Ih  EiTBon.— The  united  kingdom  of  Ortat  BrUak^  amd 
Ireland,  with  the  a4iaoent  ialaods  in  tbe  British  aees^  iadod- 
ing  the  BhetUnda,  Orknev^  Hebrides,  Sdlllesi  Man,  and 
the  lale  of  Wight  Area.  1M.S&1  eq.  m.;  pop.  ST^UlT^ttS. 
Wales  was  inoerporated  into  the  kin^^om  of  £iiglaiMl  In  tbe 
reign  of  Edward  I.  Seotland,  annexed  to  England  in  16C& 
long  continued  a  distinct  kingdom  for  administrative  and 
legblaUvo  purposes.  It  was  ftulir  Joined  to  Eogiami  by  the 
a^  of  union  in  170S,  by  which  the  BoottUh  lepsUtuie  was 
dissolved,  and  the  Scotch  were  admitted  to  repreeentatlos  In 
the  British  hooses  of  lords  and  oommoos.  The  Scotch  still 
maintaiA  their  own  peculiar  laws,  customs,  and  national 
church.  Ireland  was  nominally  annexed  to  the  crown  of 
England  in  1179:  but  for  centuries  it  resisted  the  Invader, 
andean  scarcely  be  said  to  have  been  snbJngatcdontSl  it  waa 
reduced  by  CromwelL  The  terrible  cneigy  of  his  iroA  rule 
makes  the  **  curse  of  Cromwell  "  an  emphatio  denonciation 
f)rom  the  Upe  of  an  Irish  peasant  to  the  present  day.  Up  to 
the  year  1800  it  was  governed  by  its  own  parlfaunenL  By  an 
act  of  union  It  was  in  that  year  united  to  England,  and.  like 
Bootland,  admitted  to  the  rights  of  representation  both  by 
peers  and  commoners  in  the  British  parliament  Its  laws 
are  essentiallv  the  same  as  those  of  England,  thouch  paued 
specially  for  Ireland.  The  Anglican  ehurcn  has  Deen  Im- 
posed upon  Ireland  as  a  state  church,  with  all  the  endow- 
ments of  the  ancient  Catholic  church,  although  leas  than 
i  of  tlie  population  are  members  of  its  commnnleo.  Tbe 
ClUMinst  MantU^  near  the  ceast  of  France,  in  Um  bay  of 
Avranches  (comprising  Qnernsey,  Jersey,  and  several 
smaller  islandal  part  of  the  dominions  of  wOlIam  the  Ood- 
querot  before  he  invaded  Eiwland;  pop.  7<,06&;  area,  190 
sq.  m.  fftUffotand^  a  small  isiand  In  the  Qerman  ooean, 
inhabited  chiefly  by  fishermen,  taken  ttom  the  Danes  in 
1807:  pop.  9,980;  area,  5  sq.  m.  GtbraUar,  taken  from 
the  Spaniards  in  1704,  conslating  of  a  lofty  steep  rock,  bri»> 
tllng  with  guns,  and  resularly  fortified,  and  a  small  space  of 
sloping  ground  at  its  foot,  on  which  stands  its  town;  popu 
16,§98 ;  area,  9  sq.  m.  Malta^  a  stronriv  fortified  naval  and 
milita^  station,  with  its  dependency  Gooo,  taken  from  tha 
French  In  1800:  pop.  184,861;  area,  129  sq.  m.  The  loniam 
J/dandtf  comprising  Corra,  Cepfaalonia,  Zante,  Santa  liasra, 
Ithaca,  PaxQ,  and  Cerigo.  forming  the  Ionian  repabUo; 
placed  under  tbe  protection  of  the  British  govermnent  in 
the  year  1814  The  local  government  Is  carried  on  by  a  lord 
high  commissioner,  appointed  by  the  queen,  with  a  conndl 
of  lonians  elected  by  the  people.    Pop.  296^686;  area,  1,097 

^iNA8iA.-^H(Mk  Jndia^  including  neariy  the  whdo  of 
the  peninsula  of  Hindostan,  divided  into  British  poa- 
sesslons  and  protected  statea^  The  British  posaessions 
are  divided  into  8  presidencies— Bengal,  Madnu,  and  Bom- 
bay.  The  FretUl^iney  qf  BmqaL  under  the  immedlaca 
authority  of  the  govemor-genenU  of  British  India,  indodca 
nearly  the  whoto  valley  of  the  river  Ganges,  the  Pun- 
Jaub,  Assam,  Amean,  and  the  Tenasaerim  provinces,  with 
a  considerable  extent  of  country  on  bothnddea  of  the  bar  of 
Bengal,  aUo  the  town  <tf  Malacca,  and  asmall  district  round  It: 
WolMey  province  on  the  Malay  peninsula,  and  the  aoiall 
islands  of  Pcnang  and  Slnsaporo.  To  these  toe  late  kingdom 
of  Onde  was  annexed,  Feb.  7,  185&  The  presidency  of 
Bengal  is  subdivided  Into  the  governments  of  Bengal 
and  Agra.    The  iVesMen^  </  Afadrast  in  the  aoath 


BRmsn  EMPIRE 


BRITISH  MUSEUM 


709 


nsrt  of  mndostalh,  nndar  a  MT«raor,  wlio  U  tnb«rdl]i»t« 
to  tho  governor-gcnonil.  It  indadtts  the  CIreare  and  tho 
Carnattc,  soinotimes  called  the  Ooromandel  eoast,  with 
Canara  and  Malabar,  forming  part  of  the  Malabar  eoaaC. 
The  Preaideneyo/ Bombay,  on  the  north-west  coast  of  Htn- 
dostan,  under  the  governor  of  Bombay,  who  Is  also  subordl* 
Bate  to  the  goTemor-geaenJ.  It  indndea  Slnde,  Cunean, 
part  of  the  Aumnsabao,  and  soTeral  others  of  the  old  divi- 
sions of  India.  There  are  88  subject  or  protected  stat4^s, 
which  pay  tribute,  the  most  remarkable  or  which  are:  The 
Jfiaamr^  Dominion^  governed  bv  a  sovereign  called  the 
Kisam,  situated  near  the  centre  of  lilndostan,  upon  the  table- 
land of  the  Dooean.  B^i^pootana,  including  several  states 
governed  by  nobles  called  Ta|ahs,  each  of  whom  has  his 
capital.  Ouicowar*^  DonUtUont,  near  the  bay  of  Cntch; 
capital,  Baroda.     Slwiia^t  DonUnions,  £.  of  OuIeowarX 

S^verned  by  a  mahanjah  or  great  n^;  capital,  Gwallor. 
'oltar't  I)omiBioMy  S.  of  SlndiaX  including  the  old  prov- 
" "' *"  '    *    ~*^        '      "  nedbya 


▲ppBOzncATn  sSTiMAra  OF  ran  total  akva  ahd  rorvuL- 
Txov  or  TUB  BsmsH  ucfim  in  bovno  MvxBxaa. 


ince  of  Iklallva;  capital,  BhopauL    JTirso/^  governed  by  a     

n^ah,  Ibrmorly  the  kingdom  of  the  fiunons  Hyder  All,  and    •  ^mi 
his  son  Tippoo;  chief  cities,  Mysore  and  Serlwgsnarsm. 


TVaoiMCore,  on.the  MaUbar  eoast ;  capital.  Cochin.  Oeylon, 
taken  fkora  the  Dutch  in  1795,  is  not  under  the  East  India 
company,  but  is  a  royal  colony.  Bohq  Kimif.A  small  island 
near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Choo-Klang,  in  China,  and  not 
for  from  Canton,  coded  by  the  Chinese,  1848 ;  a  royal  colony. 
Ad4M,  ceded  to  tho  BriOsh  in  1888^  is  now  under  tho  East 
India  oompany. 

Is  Afbica. — 0ap4  Coloi^y,  extending  from  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  to  tho  Orange  river;  taken  from  the  Dutch  in 
1800;  aiea,  808,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  800,546.  Port  KaUO,  a 
settlement  in  the  E.  of  Gape  Calonyj:  area,  8(k000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  116,000.  SUrra  Lsoua,  on  tho  w.  coast  of  Africa,  set- 
tled in  1737 ;  area,  8^000  sq.oL ;  pop.  49l478,  mostly  negroes. 
^eHN^^  N.  of  Sierra  Leone,  a  aooall  settlement  eetsblished  in 
1681:  area,  13  sq.  m.;  pop.  6,6^8.  Gold  Ooatt  SeUU- 
fMnit  include  several  forts  and  trading  stations  on  tho 
Guinea  cosst  the  chief  of  whieh  Is  Cape  Coast  Csstle ;  pop. 
800,000;  area,  8,003  sq.  m.  JfaurUiut,  or  the  Isle  of 
France,  a  sm«lt  island  in  tho  Indian  ocean,  £.  of  Madsgas- 
ear,  taken  from  the  French  in  1610;  area,  700  sq.  m.; 
jMp.  180,828.  The  8€yoktlU»,  tho  AmiranU  and  tho 
JXago9  islandt^  with  Bodsriipt^  are  small  islands  near 
Mauritius,  and  are  under  the  governor  of  that  island ;  pop. 
about  7,0JQ.  SL  MtUna,  a  small  island  In  the  Atlantlo 
oosan,  ceded  by  the  Dutch  in  1651 ;  pop.  5^490.  A^oentUm^ 
a  still  smaller  Island,  N.  of  St  Helena;  pop.  nnoertsin. 

Ix  NoBTfi  AMBatOA.~OMMuia,  taken  ftt>m  the  French  in 
the  years  1760  and  176SL  It  Is  divided  into  8  parts,  Canada 
Vest  and  Canada  East  Pop.  of  Canada  West,  858,- 
005;  pop.  of  Canada  East,  904,000:  area,  895,000  sq.  m. 
JITeto  Brtmnoiokf  pop^  over  800,000 ;  Jfova  8ootia^  pop. 
876,117;  Cape  Brtion,  Prinos  Edward  idand,  and 
JTwfJbundland,  pop.  100,000.  ffud&oiCt  Say  UrrUory^ 
population  consisting  mainly  of  Esquimaux  and  North 
American  Indiana.  VaneouMJ/^t  idand,  on  the  western 
coast  of  Hudson^s  Bay  territory,  is  a  royal  colony;  area, 
18,000  sq.  m.;  pop.  8,000.  Armttda,  in  tho  Atlantlo 
oeean,  off  t^e  coast  of  the  United  States,  settied  la  1609; 


»?» 


11,091 
!k  thb  Wist  Iivptts.— /amaloo,  taken  from  the  Span- 
iards, 1655;  pop.  877,483.    BarbadoH,  setUed  in  1605;  pop. 
about  lAOOa    THntdad,  taken  from  the  Spaniards,  179f ; 
pop.  68,6001    Aniigua,  settled  1688 ;  pop.  87,000.    Grenada, 


with  the  small  islands  round  it,  ceded  by  the  French,  1768 ; 
popi  88,671.  SL  VlnomU,  ceded  by  the  French,  1768 ;  pop. 
80,188.  SL  OkrUioj^ur,  setUed  1688;  pop.  88477.  & 
tmeia,  taken  from  the  French,  1808 ;  pop.  UMO,  DomU^ 
400,  ceded  by  the  French,  17«;  pop.  88,800.  Tb^o,  ceded 
by  the  Freoeh,  1768;  pop.  14.878.  NtniKMonUernU, 
AnguSUa,  Airbuda,  Ansgada,  Tortota,  and  vlroit^  Oorda, 
aiB  small  Islands;  pop.  less  than  80,000.  The  Qrtat,  Mid- 
d2a,and  SmaU  Cayman;  pop.  only  800.  The  Bahama 
itlanda,  seUlod  in  1689;  pop.  &000.  The  enUre  popula- 
tion of  the  BrttUh  West  Indies  U  over  990,000 ;  area,  7,799 
•q-m. 

In  Soum  jam  Cbmtbal  Axxbioa.— ^/iMsA  OuianOt  In- 
eluding  settlements  on  the  rivers  fidsequibo,  Demerara,  and 
Berbloe,  taken  from  the  French  In  1808 ;  area,  50,000  sq.  m. ; 
popkl84,693.  AillM  setUed  in  167r;  area,  9,600  sq.m.:  pop. 
fi^  FaUdand  Monde,  in  the  AUantie  occm,  ol^  the 
8.  B.  coast  of  South  America;  a  whaling  station;  pop, 
560. 

Iv  AtrmALASiJL-- JV<iw  Sowlh  Walu,  at  the  eastern  side 
of  AustrslIiL  setUed  in  1787 ;  nop.  in  1857, 800,00a  Vkstoria, 
or  Port  PMUp,  settled  in  1884;  pop.  414,000.  South  Auttra- 
Uo,  settled  18M;  pop.  105,0001  WsatemAvHraUa^wSwan 
Jtivw,  setUed  18£^;  pop.  14,000.  Van  Piemsn't  Land,  or 
1\i9mania,  settled  1808;  pop.  80,000l  J^sio  Zealand,  set- 
tled 1889 ;  poll.  Europeans,  180,000.  La^uan,  a  small  Island 
off  tho  coast  of  Borneo;  pop.  1.835.  Barateais,  a  protected 
state  ia  Borneo,  goveniea  by  Sir  JamM  Brooke. 


BriUsh  Islands 

Possessions  and  dependencies  in 

Europe 

"  "•Asia 

••  "    Africa. 

"  «*    N.America.... 

•*  "    W.Indles,8.ft 

C.  Amer.. 
•«  •*    Australasia.. 

Total 


AfM 

Bv»Mn    Ml-. 

180,850 

1,886 

1,500,000 

890,800 

8,000,000 

6S.00O 

1,800,000 

87,000,000 
490,000 

8,960,000 

1,100,000 
1,050,000 

6,150.000 

815400,000 

A— IMMA   ACOOBOOW  TO  1 


Ar»«. 

Pt>|wlation 

9i6,0to 

ni,Mt 

10S,1U 
lSt,AM 
1S1,B44 

fti,no 

14,SM 

93.>U,»Ti 

\\,mjMe 

l«48»,ISf 

ISi,0S4,ltt 

H  u  u  liot«»T.ofB« 

«  ••  "  -XW.pro»uwM 

•         «  •■  coTOTMrorUAdrai.... 

••  "  •*  "      ofBotntey.... 

KatlTt  ■UlM  la  BMnpd B19,5SB  l8,Y0t,m) 

**       UmIim ft],sn    S,41Sy67iy 

«•       BoiAtey 6\&1$    4^4S0,S103 

0*rloB t4.6M    1,6«,000) 

Hvuff  KoDg 19,011/ 

ToUi 


BRITISH  GUH,  a  name  given  by  the  oalioo 
printers  to  starch  calcined  at  a  temperature  of 
about  600°  F.,  by  which  it  becomes  brown 
and  soluble  in  cold  water,  and  loses  its  property 
of  forming  a  blue  color  with  iodine,  it  is  used 
merely  for  thickening  their  colors. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM,  a  national  depository 
of  science,  literature,  and  art,  which  owes  its 
origin  to  the  will  of  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  an  emi- 
nent physician  and  naturalist,  who,  dying  in 
1758,  bequeathed  to  the  nation  his  collection  of 
medals  and  coins,  antiquitiesi  seals,  cameos,  draw- 
ings and  pictures,  and  his  library,  consisting  of 
50,000  volumes  and  manuscripts,  on  the  con- 
dition of  the  payment  of  £20,000  to  his  heirs. 
The  British  parliament  accepted  this  condition, 
by  an  act  passed  in  the  month  of  June,  1753, 
and  by  the  same  act  directed  that  the  Oottonian 
library,  a  collection  of  valuable  historical  docu- 
ments which  had  been  made  by  Sir  Robert 
Cotton,  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  and  James 
L,  find  which  had  been  acquired  by  government 
in  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne,  should  be  added  to 
the  Sloane  collection,  together  with  a  library 
of  about  2,000  printed  volumes,  called  Msjor 
ArUiur  Edwards's  libra^,  whidi  had  existed  as 
an  appendage  to  the  Oottonian  library  since 
1788,  the  year  in  which  it  had  been  bequeathed 
to  the  trustees  by  its  proprietor.  The  book  de- 
partment of  the  British  museum  was  still  fur^ 
ther  increased  by  the  purchase,  for  £10,000,  oi 
the  Harleian  library  of  manuscripts,  a  splendid 
collection  of  about  7,600  volumes  of  rolls,  char- 
ters, and  other  historical  documents,  which  had 
been  accumulated  by  Robert  Barley,  earl  of 
Oxford,  and  his  son  and  successor,  Edward  Bar- 
ley. In  1754,  Montague  house,  one  of  the 
largest  mansions  in  the  metropolus^  was  appro- 
priated for  the  reception  of  these  collections, 
which  have  since  been  increased  by  the  munifi- 
cence of  successive  parliaments^  and  by  giikS| 


710 


BRITISH  MUSEUM 


bequests,  and  eopTriffhts,  constitntinff  ftt  the 
preseDt  day  a  Dational  iostitation  of  which  the 
English  nation  is  jastlj  proud,  unrivalled,  in 
the  variety,  extent,  and  nsefnlness  of  its  treas- 
ures, by  any  similar  institation  in  the  world. 
It  is  situated  in  Great  Russell  street,  Blooms- 
bury.  This  location  is  in  a  central  part  of  Lon- 
don. From  the  rapid  increase  of  the  various  col- 
lections, and  the  msecurity  of  the  old  building, 
a  new  and  more  commodious  structure  became 
necessary.  Accordingly,  in  1823,  the  present 
noble  pile,  designed  by  Sir  Robert  Smirke,  was 
oommenced,  and  completed  by  his  younger 
brother,  Mr.  Sydney  Smirke;  and  in  1845, 
Montague  house  was  finally  levelled  with  the 
ground^  and  the  new  portico  was  finished 
April  lOj  1847.  According  to  the  report  of  the 
commissioners  appointed  in  1847-48,  to  examine 
into  its  constitution  and  government,  the  build- 
ings aJone  have  cost,  since  the  year  1828,  nearly 
£700,000.  The  new  reading  room,  lust  com- 
pleted, has  cost  £150,000  in  addiUon.  The 
whole  expenditure  in  the  maintenance  of  the 
institution,  and  for  purchases  in  the  various  col- 
lections since  1755,  independent  of  the  amount 
expended  on  the  buildings  since  1823,  ex- 
ceeds £1,500,000,  or  nearly  $8,000,000.  Beside 
this  liberal  outlay  by  the  British  government, 
there  have  been  numerous  magnificent  bequests 
from  individuals.  The  aoqni^tions  froni  this 
source,  for  the  12  years  preceding  1885,  were 
estimated  by  the  secretary  to  amount  to  not  less 
than  £400,000.  The  annual  receipts  of  the  in- 
stitution, of  late  years,  from  parliamentary  grants 
and  the  interest  of  private  bequests,  have  been 
upward  of  £50,000.  The  receipts  for  the  year 
1847,  as  given  by  Mr.  R.  W.  Pearson,  in  the  min- 
utes of  evidence  before  the  commissioners  ap- 
pointed to  examine  into  the  constitution  and 
government  of  the  museum,  amounted  to 
£53,999  18s.  6d.,  independent  of  special  grants. 
Of  this  amount  £21,041 10s.  8d.,  or  upward  of 
$100,000,  was  expended  for  salaries.  The  ex- 
penditures for  the  year  ending  March  81, 1857, 
were:  £28,898 forsalariestooffioers;  £2,806  for 
house  expenses ;  £  14,784  for  purchases  of  books, 
&0. ;  £12,578  for  bookbinding,  &c.;  £2,248  for 
printing  catalogues,  &c. ;  £2,000  for  the  pur- 
chase of  London  antiquities;  £1,000  for  Sar- 
dinian antiquities;  £2,444  for  ivory  carvings; 
£17,485  for  miscellaneous  expenses ;  total,  £83,- 
688,  showing  an  increase  of  £21,684  over  the 
preceding  year.  The  total  expenditure  for  the 
year  ending  March  81,  1858,  amounted  to 
£85,992  2s.  9d.— The  different  departments 
of  the  museum  are  7  in  number,  namely, 
manuscripts,  printed  books,  antiquities,  prints 
and  drawings,  mineralo^  and  geology,  £ool- 
ogy,  and  botany;  to  which  should  be  added 
the  reading  room.  All  of  these  departmen  ts  are 
under  separate  keepers,  to  whom,  and  their  as- 
sistant keepers  and  their  assistants,  attendants, 
and  subordinate  officers,  the  business  of  the  mu- 
seum is  intrusted  as  regards  the  care  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  collections,  and  the  access  of  the 
public  for  the  purposes  of  inspection  and  study. 


The  library  occupies  the  ground  floor  of  the 
present  building,  filling  to  repletion  25  spacious 
apartments  and  galleries,  one  of  which  measures 
800  feet  in  length.  In  July,  1838,  the  volumes 
of  printed  books,  being  counted  one  by  one  as 
they  stood  upon  the  shelves,  were  found  to  be 
in  round  numbers  235,000.  Counted  in  the 
same  manner  in  December,  1849,  they  were 
found  to  amount  to  435,000.  In  May,  1851, 
they  amounted  to  460,000,  and  in  July,  1853,  to 
510,110.  The  library  now  consists  of  575,000 
printed  volumes,  and  40,000  volumes  of  manu- 
scripts, exclusive  of  more  than  20,000  original 
rolls,  charters,  and  deeds.  It  has  also  a  noble 
collection  of  pamphlets,  more  than  200,000  in 
number,  illustrative  of  English  and  French 
hbtory,  and  a  progressive  collection  of  news- 
paoers,  from  the  first  appearance  of  these 
publications  early  in  the  17tii  century.  The 
manuscript  collections  are  deposited  in  4  rooms^ 
situated  at  the  southern  extremity  of  tlie  east 
wing,  a^oining  Great  Russell  street,  forming 
what  is  termed  the  ^^  manuscript  department.*^ 
These  collections,  which  have  been  pronounced 
by  competent  judges  to  be  the  most  numerous, 
and  in  some  respects  the  finest  in  the  world, 
are  11  in  number,  several  of  which  once  formed 
the  private  libraries  of  men  eminent  in  rank, 
and  of  refined  taste  and  culture.  They  are  as 
follows:  Sloane,  acquired  in  1763,  containing 
4,100  volumes;  Gottonian,  900  volumes;  Har- 
leian,  7,639  volumes;  Royal,  1,950  volumes; 
Lansdowne,  in  1807,  1,245  volumes ;  Hargrave, 
in  1813,  499  volumes;  Bumey,  in  1817,  524 
volumes;  King's,  in  1823,  488  volumes;  Eger- 
ton,  in  1829,  about  2,000  volumes;  Arundel,  in 
1831,  550  volumes;  additional,  about  5,000 
volumes.  The  progress  of  the  printed  oolleo- 
tions  will  be  best  understood  from  the  follow- 
ing brief  chronological  summary  of  the  more 
important  donations  and  purchases,  made  since 
the  foundation  of  the  libraiy  in  1753,  which  we 
compile  from  Sims's  Hand-Book.  1759 — A  col- 
lection of  Hebrew  books,  180  volumes,  pre- 
sented by  Solomon  da  Costa.  1762 — ^A  unique 
collection  of  tracts,  published  1640-'60,  consist- 
ing of  about  80,000  articles,  presented  by 
George  III.  1766 — ^A  collection,  rich  in  biog- 
raphy, bequeathed  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  Birch.  1768 
— A  fine  collection  of  Bibles,  bequeathed  by 
Arthur  Onslow.  1786 — ^A  very  fine  collection 
of  classical  autiiors,  900  volumes,  bequeaUied 
by  Mr.  Tyrwhitt.  1799 — ^A  splendid  collection 
of  rare  editions  of  the  classics  and  of  Italian 
authors,  4.500  volumes,  bequeathed  by  the  Rev. 
Clayton  Mordaunt  Cracherode.  1815---Dr.  Bur- 
ney's  collection  of  books  on  music ;  purchased. 
1815 — A  collection  of  books  belonging  to  Baron 
de  Moll,  20^00  volumes;  purchased  at  Munich. 
1818— Dr.  Bumey*s  library  of  printed  books, 
valued  at  9,000  guineas;  purchased  by  a  special 
parliamentary  grant.  1 820 — A  splendid  library, 
rich  in  scientific  journals  and  books  on  natural 
history,  16,000  volumes,  bequeathed  by  Sir 
Joseph  Banks.  1823 — ^The  magnificuit  library 
formed  by  George  III.,  at  a  cost  of  £130,000, 


BRITISH  MUSEUM 


BRITO 


711 


amoQiitlx^  to  about  80,000  ▼olmnes,  preeented 
by  George  IV.  1847— A  colleotion  of  tlie 
Chinese  books  of  Robert  Morrison,  in  11,500 
volumes,  presented  by  the  secretary  of  state  for 
the  foreign  department.  1847 — ^The  library  of 
the  right  honorable  Thomas  Grenville,  20,240 
▼olumes^  collected  at  acost  of  up  ward  of  £54,000 ; 
bequeathed  in  1846,  and  removed  to  the  museum 
in  1847.  1848— A  collection  of  Hebrew  works 
formed  by  H.  J.  Michael,  of  Hamburg,  4,420 
volumes ;  purchased.  Among  many  rare  treas- 
ures of  the  Grenville  library  may  be  mentioned 
•  the  Mentz  Latin  Bible,  commonly  called  the 
Mazarin  Bible,  by  Gutenberg,  in  2  vols.,  on 
vellum ;  the  unique  copy,  on  vellum,  of  the  1st 
edition  of  Livy,  by  Sweynheim  and  Pannartz, 
1469  (purchased  at  Mr.  Edwards's  sale  in  1815, 
for  860  guineas);  the  1st  edition  of  Ovid,  by 
Azzaguldi ;  a  copy  of  the  Aldine  Virgil  of  1505 ; 
a  first  Shakespeare,  one  of  the  finest  known, 
1623;  and  a  beautiful  series  of  early  editions  of 
the  Orlando  Furiaso,  The  number  of  volumes 
added  to  the  library  for  the  years  1843-'53, 
according  to  the  parliamentary  returns^  was 
206,702,  being  an  average  of  18,791  volumes 
per  vear.  The  collection  of  antiquities  consists 
of  the  Egyptian  and  Assyrian  antiquities,  the 
former  including  the  trophies  of  the  Egyptian 
expedition  of  1801 ;  the  Elgin  marbles,  pm> 
ohased  for  £35,000;  tlie  Phigalian  marbles^ 
purchased  for  £19,000;  the  Towneley  marbles, 
purchased  for  £28,200;  Sir  William  Hamilton's 
Greek  and  Etruscan  vases;  Mr.  Richard  Payne 
Knight's  collection  of  coins  and  medals,  and 
many  other  works  of  ancient  and  modern  art 
Garrick  (whose  collection  of  old  English  plays  is 
in  the  library)  bequeathed  to  the  museum  astatue 
of  Shakespeare  which  was  executed  for  him  by 
Roubiliac  The  world-wide  celebrity  of  the 
museum  is  not  a  little  due  to  the  remarkable 
array  of  works  of  art.  They  have  contributed 
powerfully  in  fiacilitating  and  stimulating  the 
study  of  the  great  models  of  antiquity,  espe- 
cially the  Elgin  marbles,  which  are  the  most 
perfect  specimens  of  the  art  of  Phidias.  The 
most  recent  bontributions  to  the  department  of 
antiquities  are  the  celebrated  Nimroud  marbles, 
collected  from  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  Baby- 
lon, by  Mr.  Layard,  and  the  Budrnm  marbles, 
which  reached  England  in  1857. — The  govern- 
ment of  the  museum  is  vested  in  a  board  of  trus- 
tees, 48  in  number,  of  whom  1  is  named  directly 
by  the  crown,  28  are  official,  9  are  named  by  the 
representatives  or  executors  of  parties  who  have 
been  donors  to  the  institntion,  and  15  are  elected. 
The  principal  librarian  is  Mr.  Antonio  Panizzi, 
who  has  recently  been  appointed  to  this  respon- 
sible place,  having  been  for  many  years  the 
keeper  of  the  department  of  printed  books. 
The  new  reading  room,  which  was  com- 
menced (Mr.  Sydney  Smirke  beiuff  architect) 
in  1854,  and  opened  to  the  publio  on  the 
18th  of  May,  1857,  is  a  circular  building  in 
the  inner  quadrangle  of  the  museum,  occupy- 
ing an  area  of  48,000  square  feet.  It  is  con- 
stmcted  principally  of  iron,  the  whole  cost,  Iq- 


eluding  fittings  and  contingent  expenses,  behig 
£150,000.  It  has  ample  accommodations  for 
800  readers,  each  person  having  allotted  to  him 
a  space  4  feet  3  inches  lonff,  with  table^  shelves, 
&c.  There  are  85  reading  tables,  and  2 
are  set  apart  for  the  exclusive  nse  of  ladies. 
In  the  centre  is  a  raised  platform  or  enclo- 
sure for  the  superintendent,  aronnd  which  in 
2  concentric  circles  are  the  catalogue  tables. 
The  catalogue,  which  is  in  manuscript^  is  being 
drawn  up  on  a  uniform  plan,  from  all  the  vari- 
ous catalogues,  printed  or  manuscript,  whidi 
now  exist  It  now  (June,  1868)  extends 
to  the  letter  I,  comprising  628  folio  volumes. 
When  completed,  it  wiUprobably  reach  to 
1,500  or  2,000  volumes.  The  durection  of  this 
herculean  work  is  intrusted  to  the  keeper  of 
the  department  of  printed  books,  Mr.  J.  W. 
Jones,  successor  to  Mr.  PanizzL  Under  the 
galleries  are  book  presses  filled  with  a  large 
library  of  reference  for  the  use  of  readers,  com* 
prising  most  of  the  standard  works  on  the  vari- 
ous branches  of  learning,  and  an  extensive 
collection  of  dictionaries  of  all  languages,  bio- 
graphical works,  encydopasdias,  parliamentary 
histories,  topographical  works,  ^,  iso.  These 
books,  whicn  are  about  20,000  in  number,  can 
be  consulted  at  pleasure  without  the  usual  for- 
malities of  the  ticket  system.  Access  to  the 
reading  room  may  be  obtained  by  written  ap- 
plication to  the  Ubrarian.  Tickets  are  issued 
for  6  months,  and  at  the  expiration  of  this  term 
fresh  application  is  to  be  made  for  a  renewal 
Ko  person  can  be  admitted  without  a  ticket,  and 
the  tickets  are  not  transferable.  All  the  build* 
dings  of  the  museum  are  closed  between  the  Ist 
and  7th  of  January,  the  1st  and  7th  of  May,  and 
the  1st  and  7th  of  September;  also  on  Sun^ 
days,  fast  days,  and  holidays.  The  whole  es- 
tablishment is  open  to  public  view  on  Mondays, 
Wednesdays,  and  Fridays,  from  9  till  4  during 
November,  December,  January,  and  February; 
from  10  till  5  during  March,  April,  September, 
and  October;  and  fiom  10  till  6  during  May, 
June,  July,  and  August  The  reading  room  is 
open  daily,  with  the  above  exceptions,  7  hours 
in  the  winter,  8  hours  in  the  spring  and  autumn, 
and  9  hours  in  the  summer.  Artists  are  ad- 
mitted to  study  in  the  galleries  of  sculpture 
between  9  a.  m.  and  4  p.  m.,  every  week  day« 
except  Saturday.  The  print  room  is  also  cloeea 
on  Saturdays.  In  1856  there  were  861,714 
visitors  to  the  general  collections;  58,422  visitors 
to  the  reading  room ;  2,918  visits  of  students  to 
the  galleries  of  sculpture;  3,096  visitors  to  the 
print  room ;  2,299  visitors  to  the  coin  and  medal 
room.  Total  visits  428,449,  showing  an  increase 
of  27,885  visitors  over  the  preceding  vear. 

BRITO,  Bkrmabdodb,  a  Portuffuese  historian, 
bom  at  Almeida,  Aug.  20, 1569,  died  there  Feb. 
27, 1617,  was  a  Cistercian  friar,  the  historiog- 
rapher of  that  religious  order  and  of  the  kingdom 
of  Portugal,  and  published  among  other  writings 
a  work  on  the  Lusitanian  monuohy,  which  he 
completed  down  to  the  conquest  of  the  Arabs. 

BKITO,  FxuFFB  DX,  a  Portuguese  traveller, 


i 


na 


BRITO  FREIRE 


BEITON 


born'  at  Lisbon  aboat  1650,  died  in  1613.  tie 
Tisited  the  East  ladies  at  an  earlj  age,  and 
established  himself  at  Pega,  where  he  soon 
became  wealthy  by  trading  in  salt  and  charcoal. 
In  1601,  by  order  of  the  king  of  Aracan,  Brito 
erected  a  fort  before  Syriam,  which  soon 
became  the  business  centre  of  the  town  of 
Pegn.  This,  however,  aroused  the  Jealousy  of 
t^e  king  of  Aracan,  who  declared  war  against 
Brito.  Several  battles  took  place,  in  which  the 
king  was  defeated,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was 
at  length  declared,  which  the  son  of  Brito  was 
sent  to  ratify.  Tonng  Brito  was  treacherously 
murdered,  and  war  recommenced  with  increased 
fnry,  and  lasted  until  1607.  Brito  received  the 
title  of  king,  and  mamed  a  natural  daughter 
of  the  viceroy  of  India.  Having  become  firml/ 
established  in  power,  he  rebuilt  the  fort  of 
Syriam,  which  bad  been  destroyed,  and  also 
founded  the  town  of  Dela,  which  became  a 
considerable  commercial  place.  The  king  of 
Burmah,  fearing  so  powerful  a  rival,  sent  against 
him  an  army  of  nearly  200,000  men.  ^er  a 
severe  action  Brito  was  forced  to  succumb, 
March  80, 1618.  and  submitting  himself  to  the 
king  of  Bnrmah,  was  impaled  and  lived  a  dav 
Bufi^ring  the  most  fearful  torments.  A  book 
which  he  wrote  on  his  experiences  in  the  East 
has  never  been  printed,  but  exists  in  the  royal 
library  of  Spain. 

BRITO   FREIRE,  Fbawoisoo  de,  a  Port- 

Xese  historian,  died  at  Lisbon,  Nov.  8,  1693, 
stated  as  admiral  of  the  Portuguese  fleet 
in  Brazil,  and  contributed  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  Dutch.  He  left  a  valuable  work  on  the 
history  of  the  war  (Lisbon,  1676). 

BRITON,  an  inhabitant  of  the  island  of 
Britannia;  Ooncerniog  the  origin  of  the  popula- 
tion of  the  British  isles  which  approaches  the 
nearest  to  being  indigenous,  as  being  in  posses- 
sion of  the  soil  at  the  time  of  its  first  discovery, 
there  has  been  much  doubt,  and  there  is  sdli 
some  dispute.  That  the  inhabitants  of  Britain, 
and  of  the  British  isles  generally,  were  of  that 
kindred  stock  of  nations  to  which  modem 
ethnologists  have  given  the  name  of  Indo-Ger- 
manic  is  not  to  be  questioned ;  but  it  is  more 
doubt^il  to  what  tribe  or  tribes — ^if  there  were 
more  than  one — ^they  are  to  be  assigoed. 
Gaasar  testifies  that,  on  his  arrival,  England  was 
occupied  by  2  distinct  races ;  that  in  the  inte- 
rior having  occupied  the  island  from  time 
beyond  the  memoiT'  of  man  ;  that  of  the  coasts 
being  identical  with  what  he  calls  the  Belgians 
of  Gaul,  and  being  in  some  measure  a  transl* 
tory  population,  common  to  both  sides  of  the 
channel.  They  were  also,  according  to  his 
account,  nearly  homogeneous  with  the  Gauls, 
and  of  the  same  religion  or  superstition  with 
them,  the  most  sanguinary  druidism,  uncon- 
nected with  idolatry;  and  although  in  many 
respects  far  more  barbarous,  they  had  a 
general  community  of  customs  and  interests,  and 
were  accused  of  furnishing  succors  to  the  Gallic 
tribes,  which  were  in  hostility  with  Rome. 
Oasar  again  distinguiBhed  the  inhabitants  of 


the  interior  of  Ganl  from  the  maritime  tribes, 
inhabiting  tlie  northern  districts  of  France, 
along  the  southern  shores  of  the  channel,  firom 
the  estuaries  of  the  Rhine  and  Scheldt  to  Uie 
Isle  of  Ouessant.  The  latter  of  these  he  calls 
Belgians,  and  the  former  Oelts.  The  Gauls  of 
the  north  of  Italy,  Cisalpine  Gaul,  were,  accord- 
ing to  every  testimony,  of  the  same  race  with 
those  of  central  and  southern  Gaul,  and  a  dis- 
tinct connection  can  be  traced  between  their 
language,  as  shown  in  the  names  of  their  tribes 
and  towns,  and  that  of  the  Gallic  Celts.  We 
now  come  to  another  consideration,  which 
appears  ia  some  degree  contradictory,  or,  at 
least,  involves  a  oonfUrion  of  names,  which 
does  not,  however,  in  reality  amount  to  a 
matter  so  worthy  of  consideration  as  it  has 
been  represented.  Diodorus  also  states  that 
the  inhabitants  of  Gaul  proper,  or  Fhmce,  con- 
sisted of  2  ffreat  divisions  of  people,  whom  the 
Romans  included  under  one  name  of  Gauls,  viz.. 
the  Celtic  tribes  of  northern  Italy,  of  central 
and  southern  Gaul,  and  of  Spain,  and  the  more 
remote  tribes,  who  dwelt  along  the  shores  of 
the  ocean,  and  as  far  eastward  as  Scythia. 
These  he  calls  the  true  Gktuls;  while,  at  the 
same  time,  he  asserts  that  to  these  tribes 
belong  the  Cimbri,  whom  some  authors  have 
identified  with  the  Cimmerii  of  the  Tanrio 
Chersonese,  or  Crimea,  whence  they  imagine 
them  to  have  moved  northwestward,  above  the 
confines  of  civilized  Europe,  except  where  they 
came  in  contact  with  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
on  the  extreme  north  of  their  dominions,  to  the 
Cimbric  Chersonese,  or  Jutland,  whence  they 
a^n  descended  southwestward,  along  the 
shores  of  the  North  sea  and  the  channe]^  where 
they  are  still  found.  So  far,  all  thb  is  plain 
sailing.  Biodoms,  whom  Niebuhr  supposes  to 
have  learned  his  distinctions  of  Posidonins, 
corroborates  Csosar  as  to  the  existenoe  of  2 
races,  whom  he  calls  ^^  Gauls  and  Celts,"  while 
the  Roman  calls  them  '*  Belgians  and  Cdts, 
whom  we  term  Gauls  ^'-—Siereby  e^nctiy 
transposing  the  name  of  Gaul.  Again,I>iodoms 
asserts  that  the  tribes,  whom  he  cfdls  Ganla,  and 
CiBsar  Belgians,  were  Cimbri.  Cieear  states  that 
the  maritime  Britons  were  identical  with  the 
Belgians,  or  Cimbri^  whom  Diodorus  calls  Gaols 
— that  is,  Gael— while  the  Britons  of  the  interior 
were  identical  with  the  Celtic  tribes  of  central 
Gallia,  whom  he  calls  Gael*  But  we  find,  vbl 
&ct,  that  the  maritime  tribes  of  the  isle  of  Brit- 
ain, now  confined  to  the  prindpahty  of  Wales, 
who  still  call  themselves  Kymry — Cimbri — 
and  still  retain  a  distinctive  language,  were  en* 
tu^y  distinct  and  different  from  the  tribes  <^  the 
interior,  of  Cdtic  origin— the  TTighlanders 
namely,  and  the  Irish,  who  still  call  themselves 
Gael.  From  all  this,  we  come  to  the  condn- 
sion  that  in  this  confusion  of  names,  Csssar  is 
borne  out  by  the  fact,  that  the  races  which  he 
designates  as  Celts  or  Gael,  continue  to  style 
themselves  so  to  the  present  day,  while  those 
whom  he  distinguishes  from  the  Gael,  and  to 
whom  Diodorus  assigns  a  distinct  ori{^  eschew 


BRITON 


7l6 


flie  name  of  Qati,  um  a  diflfineat,  aUhonsh  oog» 
nate  langaage,  and  have  been  at  war  wiui  them 
from  time  iiamemorial,  under  the  name  of 
Eymrj.  Add  to  this,  that  the  French  of  the 
shores  of  the  channel,  especially  of  Normandj 
and  Brittany,  are  still  a  distinct  race  from  the 
central  French ;  that  th^  are  nearly  homoge- 
neous with  the  Gimbric  Britons  of  Wales ;  that 
their  langaage  is  still  cognate,  and  the  names  of 
their  maritime  towns,  as  well  as  their  antiquities 
and  monolitiuc  ruins^  nearly  identical.  It  may 
be  affirmed,  and  with  some  truth,  that  a  part  of 
this  connection  and  similarity  is  assignable  to 
the  immigration  of  the  Oimbrio  tribes  into 
France,  on  the  Saxon  irruption  and  conquest  of 
all  Gimbric  Britain.  But  this  is  only  to  travel 
in  a  circle ;  since  the  cause  of  that  immigra- 
tion of  the  Gimbric  tribes  into  France,  rather 
than  into  Ireland,  when  driven  out  by  Saxon 
cruelty,  is  that  the  population  of  that  portion  of 
France  to  which  they  fled  was  friendly,  was 
kindred,  was  Gunbric,  while  that  of  Ireland 
was  Gael  and  hostile.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark,  that,  when  William  the  Bastard 
conquered  Saxon  £ngland|  by  the  aid  of  Breton 
And  Korman  knights,  the  latter  immediately 
intermarried  and  amalgamated  with  the  Welsh, 
centuries  before  they  manifested  the  slightest 
inclination  to  mix  with  the  Saxons ;  and  tiiat 
even  when  at  deadly  issue  of  war  with  them, 
while  they  might  regard  them  as  a  savage  and 
hostile  race,  they  never  regarded  them,  as  they 
did  the  Saxons  and  the  Gael,  or  Erse,  as  an 
inferior  and  d^p*aded  race.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that,  in  the  earliest  known  times, 
there  were  in  Britannia  2  races,  the  Gimbric 
and  the  Gaelic  Gelts,  both  cognate,  though 
entirely  distinct  tribes,  or  divisions,  of  the 
Celtic  branch  of  the  Indo-Germanio  nation. — 
Tradition  seems  to  have  assigned  priority  of 
tenure  to  the  Gael,  and  successful  invasion  to 
the  Britons,  or  Gimbri;  and  tradition  is 
sustained  by  the  relative  local  situation  of  the 
races  at  the  time  of  theur  first  discovery,  and 
by  the  juxtaposition  of  the  French  and  English 
Gimbri,  along  the  opposite  sea-shores  of  the 
channel,  diuodging  and  disconnecting  the 
Gaelic  tribes  of  the  two  countries,  between 
whom  they  permanently  interposed  themselves* 
It  is  anotlier,  and  wholly  different  question, 
which  of  these  races  it  was — ^if  either,  and  not 
one  entirely  distinct— that  captured  Delphi  and 
burned  Rome  under  Brennns,  some  600  years, 
more  or  less,  before  the  Christian  era.  This, 
however,  does  not  in  any  way  concern  the 
question  of  the  origin  or  connection  of  the 
races  which  occupied  Gaul  and  Britain,  4  or  6 
centuries  later,  in  the  days  of  authentic  history. 
It  may  be  well  here  to  state  that  no  distinction 
whatever  is  to  be  founded  on  the  ascription  of 
various  tribes  to  the  nomenclature  of  Celts  or 
Gauls,  which,  widely  as  they  now  appear  to  differ 
in  sound  and  in  orthography,  were  originally 
identical  They  are  both  Greek  words;  and, 
in  thttr  first  forms,  were  Keletai  and  Galatai, 
whence  Keltai  and  GaltaL-^-Kelts  and  Gaits, 


which  modem  mispronunciation  of  the  hard 
Greek  icand  Latin  ^has  changed  into  Celts  and 
Gaels,  or,  as  we  now  write  it,  GetuU.  The 
original  form  still  survives  in  that  part  of  Asia 
Minor  which  was  settled,  at  a  very  early  date,  by 
these  people,  and  which  we  stUl  call  Galatia.  — 
Of  the  Gimbric  race,  unmixed,  remains  the  pure 
Welsh  population ;  of  the  Celtic  race,  unmixed, 
the  Gael  of  the  highlands  of  Scotiand,  and  the 
Erse  Gael  of  Ireland.  Of  the  Gimbric  race,  inter- 
mixed, more  or  less,  with  Saxon,  Danish,  and 
If  orman  blood,  is  composed  the  present  Eng- 
lish race,  wherever  it  now  exists,  whieh  it  has 
become  the  fashion  to  style  Anglo-Saxon,  though 
it  is  probable  that  the  present  race  has  fewer 
characteristics  of  the  Saxon  than  of  any  one 
of  the  other  constituent  races.  In  the  English 
of  England,  of  Hindostan,  Australia,  and  the 
British  provinces,  there  is,  it  may  be  said,  no 
intermixture  whatever— or  the  least  imaginable 
— of  Erse  or  Gaelic  blood.  More  tiian  else- 
where such  exists  in  the  Korth  American  colo- 
nies of  Great  Britun.  The  English  race,  in 
America,  exists  in  the  New  England  states, 
neariy  unmixed,  and  particularly  clear  of  any 
Celtic  cross.  In  the  middle  states  it  is  greatly 
intermixed  with  Erse  and  Teutonic,  and,  more 
or  less,  Mrith  French  and  Holland  blood.  In  the 
soutii-west,  with  French  and  Spanish  strains. — 
When  discovered  by  Csssar,  the  Britons  were 
hardly  to  be  called  a  barbarous  people,  being 
scarcely  removed  from  the  condition  ofprimi- 
tive  savages.  They  generally  went,  both  sexes, 
wholly  naked,  though  some  of  them — whether 
separate  tribes,  or  superior  individuals,  it  is  not 
stated — wore  garments  of  dressed  leather.  They 
tattooed  their  flesh,  and  stained  themselves  blue 
with  woad— practices  indicating  a  very  low 
scale  of  humanity.  They  were  polygamous ; 
but  the  polygamy,  like  that  of  the  Todahs  of 
Hindostan,  was  the  converse  of  that  of  the 
Mohammedans  and  Mormons,  every  woman  hav- 
ing nine,  ten,  or  more  husbands,  the  children  of 
whom  were  brought  up  in  common,  the  first 
husband,  in  point  of  date,  having  some  prefer- 
ences in  position.  They  wore  no  armor,  except 
bucklers,  but  understood  the  working  of  iron« 
brass,  and  tin.  They  had  horses,  which  they 
both  rode  and  drove,  harnessed  to  scythed  cars, 
inbatUe.  They  had  cattle  in  abundance,  of 
which  they  used  both  the  flesh  and  milk, 
though  they  knew  not  the  use  of  cheese.  It  is 
doubtfbl  whether  they  had  any  agriculture ; 
some  speaking  of  their  raising  grain  and  drink- 
ing wine  made  of  bariey — ale — and  others 
mentioning  no  such  habits.  Probably  they  write 
of  different  times ;  and,  when  first  discovered 
by  the  Romans,  the  Britons  did  not  till  the  soil, 
but  speedily  learned  to  do  so. — ^It  is  determined 
by  the  best  ethnolo^cal  authorities  tiiat  there 
is  no  mixture  whatever  of  Basque,  Spanish, 
Celtlberian,  or  Semitic-Phoenician  blood  in  any 
of  the  tribes,  whether  Gimbric  or  Erse,  of 
Britain ;  and  all  history  utterly  contradicts  and 
confounds  the  legends  of  any  one  of  the  British 
idands  having  any  other  source  of  Christianity 


714 


BBITTAKY 


than  throQffh  tbeir  Boman  oonqoeron.  Sadh 
as  they  luia,  was  moatlj  compulsory  ;  and  on 
the  withdrawal  of  the  legions,  a  large  propor- 
tion of  the  inhabitants  of  ^h  the  islands,  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  relapsed  into  drnidism, 
which  had  never  been  extingabhed  in  the  iiM^ter 
island,  owing  to  the  small  progress  made  by 
Boroan  civiiizatimt  on  its  shores. 

BRITTANT,  or  Bbbtaonb,  an  ancient  proy- 
ince  of  France,  consisting  of  the  lar^  triaz^ 
gular  peninsula  which,  projecting  into  tiie 
Atlantic,  forms  the  western  extremity  of  that 
country.  Washed  on  8  sides,  N.,  W.,  and  8^ 
by  the  sea,  it  joined  on  the  £.  the  provinoes 
of  Normandy,  Maine,  Ai^ou,  and  Poitou.  Its 
coast  line,  indented  by  numerous  bays  aud  har^ 
bors,  was  about  500  miles  in  length,  extending 
firom  the  bay  of  Oancale,  on  the  confines  of 
Kormandy,  to  that  of  Bourgneuf,  some  20  miles 
8.  from  the  mouth  of  the  Loire.  Its  oreatest 
length  from  8.  E.  to  N.  W.  was  185  miles ;  its 
greatest  breadth  105  miles;  its  area,  18,085  sq. 
m.  It  is  now  distributed. among  the  departments 
of  Loire-Inf(§rieure,  Be-et-Yilaine,  Finist^re. 
Horbihan,  and  C6tes-du<Nord.  The  progress  or 
civilization,  although  penetrating  more  slowly 
here  than  anywhere  dse  in  France,  has  some- 
what allayed  the  wild  originality  which  once 
characterized  this  land  and  its  inhabitants;  but 
both  still  possess  a  special  interest  for  trav- 
ellers and  archsologists.  The  broken  hills  by 
which  the  interior  of  the  country  is  intersected, 
its  narrow  valleys,  its  partly  unnavigable  streams, 
its  vast  and  thinly  populated  heaths,  its  old 
castles  standing  on  solitary  hillocks  with  their 
dismantled  wiills  and  dilapidated  towers,  its 
extensive  forests,  which,  having  been  once  the 
resort  of  the  druids,  seem  yet  to  preserve 
something  of  their  mysterious  horrors,  its 
sandy  shores  or  rugged  reefs  on  which  a  dark 
sea  breaks  its  heavy  waves,  the  strange  garb  of 
its  herdsmen,  their  harsh  Celtic  language,  all 
particularities  combine  to  stamp  the  region 
with  a  strange  and  striking  character.  Brit* 
tany  was  for  centuries  independent  of  the 
empire  to  which  it  now  belongs.  Previoudy 
known  as  Armorica,  it  was  indebted  for  its  new 
name  to  colonies  from  Great  Britain,  which  set- 
tled at  various  periods  on  it^  territory.  These 
emigrations  can  be  traced  as  far  back  as  the  8d 
century ;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  definitive 
change  of  appellation  took  place  only  about  the 
middle  of  the  5th  century,  when  numbers  of 
British  families  left  the  island  on  account  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  invasion.  In  this  hospitable  land, 
being  somewhat  out  of  the  reach  oi  the  declin- 
ing power  of  Bome,  the  colonists  found  no  great 
difficulty  in  vindicating  their  independence.  One 
of  their  native  kings,  called  Audren,  is  said  to 
have  sent  troops  to  aid  A^tius  in  resisting  Attila. 
A  little  later,  the  country  being  divided  between 
several  princes,  the  powerful  Glovis  brought 
some  of  them  to  submission.  Under  Charle- 
magne, the  paramount  power  of  the  Prankish 
king  over  Brittany  increased ;  but  its  princes, 
availing  themselves  of  the  weakness  of  his  suc- 


^eason^  reoonqixered  their  indebendenee,  so  that 
tlie  principal  of  them  was  acknowledged  as  a 
king  by  Charles  the  Bald.  There  prevailed 
among  them  something  of  a  feudal  organization, 
the  counts  of  Rennes,  Nantes,  and  ComonailleB 
being  the  most  powerful,  and  one  of  them  being 
generally  accredited  as  the  chief  of  the  confed- 
eration* Suoli  was  probably  the  9tate  of  things 
which  prevailed  until  the  end  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, when  Conan  IV.  succeeded  in  bringing 
all  parts  of  the  country  under  his  own  control* 
calling  it  the  county  of  Brittany.  Ilis  daugh- 
ter, Constance,  who  was  his  only  heiress,  married 
GeofOrey,  dd  son  of  Henry  II.  of  England,  to 
whom  she  brought  the  title  and  power  of  count. 
On  his  death,  his  son  Arthur  inherited  both, 
but  was  soon  assassinated  by  John  lAbkhnd, 
his  uncle,  when  Philip  Augustus  tried  to  sdze 
upon  Brittany,  as  he  had  done  Normandy ;  but 
the  Bretons  resisted,  and  declared  for  Alix,  a 
daughter  of  Constance,  by  her  8d  husband, 
Guy  of  Thouars.  This  Alix  married  Pierre  de 
Dreux,  called  Manclerc,  who  acted  aa  duke  of 
Brittany  until  their  eldest  son  became  of  age. 
This  prince,  John  I.,  sumamed  Bufua,  bom  in 
1217,  became  the  head  of  the  ducal  family,  who 
reigned  untU  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 
On  the  death  of  John  III.,  in  1841,  his  niece, 
Jeanne  of  Penthi^vre,  who  had  married  Charies 
of  Blois,  and  his  brother  John  of  Montfort,  con- 
tended for  the  possession  of  the  duchy.  This 
civil  war,  which  lasted  no  less  than  24  years, 
and  was  mixed  with  the  struggle  between  the 
French  and  the  English,  is  one  of  the  brightest 
episodes  in  the  annals  of  Brittany,  the  princijpal 
champion  on  the  side  of  Charles  of  Blois  being 
the  illustrious  Du  Guesdin,  while  Chandos 
figured  conspicuously  among  the  supportus  of 
John  of  Montfort  The  former  of  the  compe- 
titors having  been  finally  killed  at  Auray,  in 
1864,  the  ducal  crown  was  secured  to  the  lat- 
ter's  son,  who  reigned  under  the  name  of  John 
v..  Several  princes  succeeded,  among  whpm 
Arthur  of  Bichemont  was  grand  constable  of 
France,  under  Charles  YII.  The  last  of  them, 
Francis  II.,  who  reigned  from  1458  to  1488,  left 
a  daughter  Anne,  who,  as  heiress  of  the  duchy 
of  Bnttany,  was  courted  by  the  most  powerful 
princes  of  her  time.  She  was  married  by  proxy 
to  Maximilian  of  Austria,  then  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans, but  the  cunning  Anne  of  Beai^Jeu,  who 
was  governing  France  under  the  name  of  her 
brother,  Charles  YIIL,  prevented  the  allianoe 
from  being  consummated ;  she  went  to  Brittany 
with  an  army,  and  forced  the  duchess  to  marry  at 
once  tiie  young  king  of  France,  so  that  Brittany 
was,  for  the  first  time,  united  to  the  kingvlomf 
preserving,  however,  its  separate  title  and  exist- 
ence. On  the  death  of  Charles  YIIL,  Louis  XII. 
hastened  to  divorce  his  first  wife,  and  to  marry 
his  predecessor's  widow,  thus  securing  the  union 
between  iSunoe  and  Brittany.  But  it  was  only 
in  1581,  during  the  reign  of  Frauds  L,  that  the 
latter  was  declared  to  be  an  integral  part  of  the 
French  kingdom.  Although  lo»ng  its  ind^pend* 
enoe.  it  nevertheless  persevered  in  maintain* 


BRITTON 


BRIXEN 


715 


ing  the  ri^ts  and  privileges  whieh  had  been 
Becared  to  it  by  the  treaty  of  anion.  The  roy- 
al power  was  limited  here  by  a  kind  of  repre- 
sentative government,  which  was  called  the 
estates  of  Brittany.  The  assembly,  tlie  sessions 
of  which  were  held  every  other  year,  consisted 
of  the  8  orders;  the  clergy  bein^  represented 
by  9  bishops,  9^  deputies  from  episcopal  chap- 
ters, and  42  abbots ;  the  nobility,  by  9  barons, 
and  every  lord  of  a  manor  who  was  25  years 
of  age;  the  8d  estate,  or  tien  Stat,  by  the 
deputies  from  40  rural  communities.  The 
king  was  not  allowed  to  lay  any  tax  whatever, 
this  being  regulated  by  the  assembly,  who 
voted  for  the  support  of  the  royal  government 
what  was  called  a  gratuitous  gifL  The  province 
had  also  its  own  courts  of  justice;  the  highest 
of  which  was  known  as  the  parlianient  of 
Bennes,  with  4  seneschalio  luriadictions,  Ren- 
nes,  Nantes,  Yannes,  and  Quimper  Corentin. 
More  than  once  Brittany  was  compelled  to 
stand  in  defence  of  its  immunities;  but  its  peo- 
ple, while  vindicating  what  they  thought  their 
just  rights,  showed  great  devotion  to  their 
French  sovereign,  and  when  the  revolution  oc- 
curred, the  Ohouans  of  the  province  fought  the 
last  battle  in  behalf  of  royalty.  Brittany  was 
never  distinguished  for  commerce  or  manufac- 
tures, but  its  seamen  were  among  the  boldest 
in  the  world ;  those  of  St  Malo,  Brest,  and 
UOrient,  were  to  be  met  in  the  most  distant 
waters,  more  generally  engaged  in  fishing  than 
in  trade.  The  province  was  usually  divided 
into  Western'  or  Lower  Brittany,  con^sting  of 
the  dioceses  of  Yannes,  Quimper,  St.  Pol  de 
L6on,  and  Tr^guier ;  Eastern  or  Upper  Brittany, 
cont«ninK  those  of  Nantes,  Rennes,  Dol,  St. 
Malo»  St.  Brieuo.  In  the  beginning  of  the  18ih 
oentnry,  its  population  was  about  1,660,000;  it 
is  now  over  2,650,000. 

BRIXTON,  John,  a  learned  Englbh  jurist, 
bishop  of  Hertford,  died  in  1275.  He  is  the 
supposed  author  of  the  work  "Britton,"  in 
French,  which  exists  in  MS.  in  many  libraries, 
the  British  museum  having  several  copies;  it 
was  first  printed  in  1540,  and  another  edition 
in  1640 ;  in  1762  a  translation  of  the  first  25 
chapters  was  made  and  published  by  Robert 
Kelham. 

BRITTON,  JoHir,  an  Enfflish  antiquary,  bom 
at  Kington  St.  Michael,  Wiltshire,  July  7, 1771, 
died  in  London,  Jan.  1,  1857.  He  was  appren- 
ticed to  a  London  wine  merchant,  with  whom 
he  remained  6  years.  For  7  years  afterward 
he  struggled  with  severe  poverty,  eking  out 
a  bare  existence  by  varions  employments.  A 
book  on  the  adventures  of  Flzarro,  which  he 
wrote,  introduced  him  to  Mr.  Wheble,  pub- 
liflher  of  the.  "Sporting  Magazine,*'  who  em* 
ployed  him,  with  another  person,  to  compile 
the  "Beauties  of  Wiltshire,"  which  appeared 
in  1801,  and  sucoeeded  so  well,  that  the  authors 
were  employed  to  compile  the  "  Beauties"  of  all 
the  other  counties  of  England,  in  26  volumes. 
His  taste  led  him  to  antiquarian  pursuits,  and  he 
published  the  1st  part  of  the  "  Arohitectoral 


Antiouittes  of  England,"  in  1805 ;  it  was  com- 
pletea  in  6  4to  vo^.,  riclily  illustrated,  in  1815. 
Hisrepntation  established  by  these  worlcs,  he  de- 
voted almost  the  whole  of  his  remaining  years  to 
architectural  and  topographical  descriptions,  and 
antiquities.  His  distinct  productions  are  87  in 
number,  and  are  valuable,  not  only  for  the  in- 
formation they  supply,  but  for  their  numerous 
and  beautiful  en^vings,  from  drawings  ex- 
pressly made  for  them  by  Turner,  Pugin,  and 
many  other  first-class  artists.  Mr.  Britton's  in- 
dustry and  economy  realized  a  liberal  compe- 
tence. At  the  age  of  76  he  discontinued  his 
labors  as  author.  His  friends,  constituting  the 
^*Britton  Club,"  entertained  him  at  a  pub- 
lic dinner,  at  Richmond,  on  that  occasion  (in 
1847),  and  subscribed  over  £1,000  for  a  testi- 
monial to  be  presented  to  him.  On  his  own  sug- 
gestion, the  money  was  devoted  to  bringing  out 
his  autobiography.  It  was  incomplete  when  he 
died,  and  such  part  of  it  as  has  appeared  is  very 
discursive.  He  published,  in  1847,  an  ^*  Essay 
on  the  Authorship  of  the  Letters  of  Junius," 
in  which  he  endeavored  to  prove  that  Junius 
was  Col.  Barr6,  aided  by  Lord  Shelbume  and 
Dunning. 

BRIYES,  or  Bbivxs-i./l-Gaillabi>]i,  capital  of 
•the  aiTondissement  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
French  department  of  Oorrdze,  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Oorrdze,  15  miles  S.  W.  of  Tulle. 
Its  fine  appearance  at  a  distance  is  not  realized 
in  its  interior.  The  most  remarkable  buildings 
are  a  communal  college,  a  hospital,  a  library,  and 
an  ancient  Gothic  house,  dating,  it  is  said,  ifrom 
the  time  of  the  English  occupation.  The  manu- 
factures embrace  woollens,  muslins,  silk,  hand- 
kerchiefs, and  cotton  yams.  There  are  exten- 
aive  bleaoheries  and  distilleries,  and  a  brisk 
trade  is  carried  on  in  brandy,  wine,  chestnuts, 
cattle,  and  truffles,  the  Brives  chicken  truf- 
fle pie  enjoying  much  reputation*  Gonde- 
baud,  reputed  son  of  Clothaire,  was  chosen 
king  of  Aqnitaine  here  in  585.  The  town  was 
united  to  r^rigord  for  some  time,  but  at  the 
request  of  Gregory  XL  was  detached  therefrom 
.by  Charles  Y.,  and  added  to  Lower  Limousin, 
the  title  of  capital  of  which  province  it  long 
disputed  with  Tulle  and  Uzerche.  Near  Brives- 
la-Gaillarde  is  the  ruined  ch&teau  of  Beaufort, 
afterward  called  Malemort,  noted  in  former 
times  as  the  retreat  of  the  military  adventurers 
called  the  Braban^ons.  Cardinal  Dubois  and 
Gen.  Brun  were  born  here.  Pop.  of  the  arron- 
dissemenf^  115,869 ;  of  the  town,  9,036. 

BRIXEN,  a  district  in  Tyrol,  pop.  220,000, 
with  a  sub-district,  pop.  24,000,  and  a  town  of 
the  same  name,  1,874  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
frontier  of  German  and  Italian  Tyrol,  and  at  the 
confiaence  of  the  rivers  Eisach  and  Rienz.  Its 
position  is  strategetically  very  important,  owing 
to  the  high  and  steep  mountains  on  each  side. 
The  region  produces  cattle,  wine  (especially  red 
wine),  fruit,  mineral  waters,  and  iron  (there  are 
iron  and  steel  factories),  but  little  grain.  Thecity 
is  spoken  of  as  early  as  the  9th  century.  It  has 
been  the  residence  of  a  bishop  since  992.    The 


-  716 


BRIXHAM 


BROCADE 


Oatholio  cotincil  of  1080,  which  pfononnoed  the 
removal  of  Pope  Gregory  YII.,  was  held  here. 
In  the  peasants'  war  in  1525,  Brizen  was  oo- 
onpied  and  sacked.  In  1814,  the  district  and 
the  town  reverted  to  Austriat  In  t^e  Tichitty 
of  the  town  is  the  f^Nt  of  Francis,  or  Franzena- 
Teste,  erected  in  1845,  commanding  the  vaUey 
of  the  Eisach,  and  the  8  roads  from  Germany, 
Italy,  and  Carinthia,  which  join  at  Brixen. 
Pop.  of  the  town,  8,850. 

BRIXHAM,  a  seaport  and  market  town  of 
England,  on  the  coast  of  the  English  channel, 
25  miles  S.  of  Exeter,  is  celebr^ed  in  history 
as  the  landing  place  of  William  III.,  Nov.  5, 
1688,  on  his  accession  to  the  English  throne. 
The  rook  on  which  he  first  set  foot  is  pointed 
ont,  and  a  piece  of  it  was  presented  to  William 
IV.,  when,  as  dnke  of  Clarence,  he  visited 
Brixham  in  1823. 

BRIZOUT,  or  Bbibout  db  Babnxviixk,  a 
French  mechanician,  born  at  Ronen,  Sept  7» 
1749,  died  March  26, 1842.  His  father  had,  in 
1759,  invented  an  improved  machine  for  fine 
spinning;  this  invention  yonng  Brizout  perfect- 
ed, but  lack  of  means  prevented  him  from  in- 
troducing it  to  public  notice.  Entering  the 
military  service  in  1779,  he  became  a  lieuten- 
ant, and  in  1780  accompanied  Baron  de  Yio* 
ni6nil  to  America.  In  1788  he  returned  to 
France,  was  appointed  commissary,  made  auo- 
cessful  experiments  with  his  invention,  and 
erected  a  manufactory,  where  he  produced 
muslins  of  the  finest  textnre.  He  received  a 
pension  of  |400,  and  |4,000  for  2  machine* 
which  he  sold  to  the  government.  One  of  the 
machines  was  deslroved  during  the  revolution, 
and  he  was  compelled  to  resume  his  duties 
as  commissary,  but  was  in  1798  accused  of  as- 
aisting  in  the  capture  of  some  boats  at  the 
aiege  of  Namur,  and  imprisoned.  Upon  his 
release  he  applied  to  the  government  for  relief, 
and  a  sum  of  $40,000,  for  the  establishment  of  a 
manufactory  of  muslins,  was  awarded  to  him, 
but  was  never  paid. 

BROACH.    See  Baroaoh. 

BROACH  TO,  in  navigation,  to  incline  sud- 
denly  to  windward,  so  as  to  lay  the  sails 
aback,  and  expose  the  vessel  to  the  danger  of 
oversetting. 

BROAD  MOUNTAIN,  the  highest  in  the 
anthracite  coal  region  of  Pennsylvania;  a  pla- 
teau of  conglomerate  rock,  about  8  miles  wide, 
and  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  nndulatingjust 
enough  to  contain  8  shallow  coal  basins  inter- 
mediate between  tlie  Pottsville  and  Mine  Hill 
on  the  south,  and  the  Mahoning  and  8hamokin 
coal  fields  on  the  north.  The  extension  of  the 
Mine  Hill  railroad  now  crosses  it  by  continuous 
steep  grades  on  its  southern  flank,  and  2  long 
inclined  planes  on  the  Ashland  side.  By  the 
completion  of  this  great  work  in  1856,  the 
Broad  Mountain  has  ceased  to  be  an  impassa* 
ble  barrier  between  the  north-western  anthrax- 
cites  and  the  seaboard. 

BROAD  RIVER,  a  stream  of  North  and 
South  Carolina,  rising  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue 


Ridge,  in  the  western  part  of  the  former  state, 
and  entering  York  district  in  South  Cait>lin&. 
It  then  takes  a  southerly  course  through  a  rich 
and  biglily  productive  tract  of  country,  covered 
with  fields  of  maize  and  cotton,  and  finally 
unites  with  the  Saluda  to  form  the  Oongaree 
river.  The  city  of  Columlna  i^  at  tlieir  junc- 
tion. 

BROADSIDE,  the  discharge  of  all  the  gnns 
on  one  side  of  a  vessel.  A  vessel  fires  a 
broadside  into,  or  gives  a  broadside  to  another. 

BROAD  TOP  MOUNTAIN,  a  trapezoidal 
plateau  of  semi-bituminous  coal  measures,  in 
Huntingdon  and  Bedford  counties,  Penn.  The 
highest  point  is  about  2,600  feet  above  ^e  sea. 
It  is  Burrounded  by  a  red  shale  valley,  and  an 
outside  ring  of  Devonian  rocks,  called  Terrace, 
Harmer,  and  Sidelong  mountains;  throngh  this 
ring  are  several  gaps,  into  and  out  of  which 
flows  the  Raystown  branch  of  the  Juniata,  half 
way  between  Bedford  and  Huntingdon.  The 
mountain  oontuns  2  principal  coal  basins,  lying 
parallel,  aide  by  side,  N.  25''  E.,  united  by  the 
passage  of  the  lower  coals  from  one  over  the 
principal  antaclinal  into  the  other,  and  each 
compounded  of  several  subordinate  parallel 
troughs.  This  isolated  double  coal  basin  is 
aeparated  fh>m  the  bituminous  coal  fields  c^tbe 
Alleghany  mountain  npland,  with  an  interval  of 
25  miles,  by  the  great  lower  Silurian  anticlinal 
axis  of  Morrison's  cove  and  Nittany  valley. 
It  is  therefore  not  in  the  prolongation  of  the 
Cumberland  basin,  but  in  the  synclinal  next 
outside  of  this.  It  contains  in  its  deepest 
troughs  about  900  feet  of  coal  measures,  and 
takes  in  the  Pittsburg  coal  bed,  with  one  of  the 
limestones  above  it  Two  principal  coal  beds 
of  ttkt  lower  series,  the  Bamet  and  the  Cook, 
averaging  6  feet  thick,  are  worked.  Coal  was 
mined  here  for  blacksmithing  neariy  50  years 
ago.  The  Huntingdon  and  Broad  Top  raOroid 
was  completed  in  1856,  and  will  have  8 
branches,  each  5  or  6  miles  long,  up  the  8  val- 
leys which  drain  the  western  }  of  the  mountain 
into  the  Juniata.  The  northernmost  or  Shanb^ 
Run  branch  is  completed,  and  all  the  mines 
worked  in  1857  are  upon  it  The  coal  is  a  semi- 
bituminous  steam  ooal,  containing  from  12  to 
16  per  cent  of  volatile  matter,  and  of  the  same 
qualities  as  Cumberkmd  coal. 

BROCADE  ^pan.  Iroeado^  embroidered),  a 
fabric  resembling  embroidered  staS,  formerly 
much  in  vogue  tor  the  most  rich  and  cosdy 
dresses.  It  was  originally  made  entirely  of 
threads  of  gold  or  of  silver,  or  of  the  two 
mixed.  Ornaments  of  fiowers  and  folii^  were 
interwoven  and  raised  al)Ove  the  surflioe 
of  the  cloth.  When  a  cheaper  material,  as 
silk,  was  substituted  for  the  metallic  threads, 
the  raised  ornaments  of  leaves  and  flowers  stall 
continued  to  characterise  the  brocades.  Though 
still  regarded  as  elegant^  they  are  now  compar- 
ativelv  little  in  uses  great  varieties  of  other 
beautiful  fabrics  having  taken  their  place ;  none 
of  which,  however,  exceed  them  in  beantyf  or 
equal  them  in  don^ty* 


BROOATELLA  MARBLE 


BROOKHAUS 


71T 


BROOATELLA  MARBLE,  a  name  giren  to 
a  brecoiated  marble  ia  which  the  fragments  are 

aaiteBDoall  (See  Bbeoou).  As  generally  nsed, 
lie  term  is  inoonreotly  applied  only  to  a  red- 
dish breociated  marble  brought  to  this  conntry 
from  Spain. 

BROOATELLE,  a  fabric  of  silk  or  wool,  or 
of  both  materials  mixed,  need  for  upholstery.  It 
is  usually  of  rich  design,  requiring  tlie  greatest 
care  in  its  weaving.  It  is  still  woven  in  Europe 
altogether  by  the  old-fashioned  hand-loom,  and 
one  yard  per  day  is  even  at  this  time  consid- 
ered good  work.  At  HumphreysviUe,  Conn^ 
t&e  mannfacture  has  been  introduced  with  tlio 
use  of  power-looms,  with  which  it  is  stated  that 
a  girl  can  weave  6  yardsperday  of  better  fiibric 
tlum  the  German,  and  almost  equal  to  the  best 
French  brocatelles. 

BROGCHI,  Giovanni  Battxsta,  an  Italian 
mineralogist  and  geologist,  born  at  Bassano 
in  Feb.  1773,  died  at  Khartoom  in  Sept  1826. 
In  1808,  his  valuable  resear^es  upon  iron 
mines  and  metalliferous  mouAdna  procured 
him  the  office  of  inspector  of  mines  in  tne  newly 
established  kingdom  of  Italy.  In  1814  he  pnb- 
lished  a  work  on  the  structure  of  the  Apennine 
range,  with  an  account  of  the  fossils  of  its  stra- 
ta. He  corrected  the  erroneous  view  of  Bries* 
lak,  who  supposed  Rome  to  occupy  the  site  of 
an  extinct  volcano,  to  which  he  ascribed  the 
tuCft  and  other  volcanic  materials  found  on  the 
7  hills.  Brocchi,  on  the  other  hand,  satbfao- 
torily  showed  that  they  are  derived  either  from 
Mont  Albano  or  Monte  Oimino.  Both  of  these 
are  extinct  volcanoes,  the  first  12  miles,  the 
other  still  further,  to  the  north  of  the  city.  In 
1823,  Brooch!  sailed  for  Egypt,  with  the  view  of 
exploring  the  mineral  resources  of  that  country. 
He  received  a  commission  from  Mehemet  All  to 
examine  his  recent  conquest  of  Sennaar,  but 
the  olimate  proved  too  much  for  his  con- 
stitution. 

BROCCOLI,  a  species  of  cabbage,  belonging 
to  the  genus  hrcuficoy  which  indnoes  the  whole 
family  of  cabbages,  savoys,  borecoles,  and  oauli- 
flowers,  but  diftmng  from  the  other  species  of 
the  family  by  its  smaller  seeds  and  the  tendency 
of  its  flowers  to  press  together  into  fleshy  head& 
It  most  nearly  resembles  the  cauliflower,  from 
which  it  differs  by  no  very  precise  character- 
istics. The  broccoli  is  best  raised  by  sowing 
the  seed  in  open  beds  and  transplanting  the 
plants  once  or  twice.  It  may  be  produced 
either  in  spring,  summer,  or  autumn,  according 
to  the  time  when  the  seed  is  sown.  It  has  a 
woody  stem^  and  may  be  propagated  not  only 
by  seed,  but  by  cuttings  of  its  stem.  To  effect 
the  latter  method,  let  a  portion  of  the  old  stem 
containing  an  eye  or  a  bud,  after  being  well 
dried  in  the  sun,  be  dibbled  into  the  soil,  and 
not  be  watered  tUl  it  shows  signs  of  growinff. 

BROCK,  Isaac,  mmor-general  in  the  British 
army,  captured  Gen.  Ilull  and  his  whole  army  at 
Detroit,  Aug.  Id,  1612.  He  was  afterward 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Qneenstown,  near  Niaga* 
ra,  Oct.  13.    He  was  a  brave  and  generous 


officer.  During  his  funeral  the  guns  of  the 
American  forts  were  fired  as  a  token  of  respect. 

BROCKEDON,  Wiluah,  an  English  artUt 
and  inventor,  bom  in  Devonshire,  1787,  died 
in  London,  1864.  He  was  the  discoverer  of  a 
method  by  which  plumbago  and  its  dust  ^pre- 
viously thrown  away  as  valueless)  were  ireed 
from  impurities,  and  re-solidified,  so  as  to  make 
a  superior  description  of  lead  pencils,  of  various 
degrees  of  hardness,  well  adapted  for  artists' 
use.  Mr.  Brockedon  was  a  painter,  and  author 
of  the  "  Passes  of  the  Alps,^'  with  over  100  folio 
engravings  from  drawing  by  himself.  He  also 
produced  ^^ Italy,  Classical  and  Picturesque'* 
(folio,  1842-'d),  and  "  Egypt  and  Nubia  "  (8  vols. 
foUo,  1846-»9). 

BROCEHAIJS,  FmxDBiOH  Abkoli),  fonnder 
of  the  publishing  firm  of  Brockhaus  in  Leipsio. 
Germany,  born  at  Dortmnnd,  May  4, 1772,  died 
in  Leipsic,  Aug.  20^  1828.  He  was  educated  at 
the  gymnasium  of  his  native  town,  and  afterward 
sent  into  a  merchant's  counting-room  at  DOssel- 
dorf.  In  1798  he  went  to  Leipsic  to  avail  himself 
of  the  superior  opportunities  which  that  city  of-< 
fered  for  the  cultivation  of  his  mind.  He  devoted 
himself  for  2  years  to  the  acouisition  of  scientifio 
knowledge  and  the  principal  modem  languages 
of  Europe.  In  1796  he  established  at  Dort- 
mund a  mercantile  house  for  the  sale  of  English 
manufactures,  which  he  removed  to  Arnheim, 
in  tiie  Netherlands,  in  1801,  and  to  Amster* 
dam  in  1802.  Although  he  managed  his  busi- 
ness with  success,  in  a  pecuniary  sense,  he 
abandoned  it  out  of  distaste  for  mercantile  pur- 
suits in  1804,  and  entered  into  the  book  trade 
at  Amsterdam.  A  periodical  (De  Ster^  the 
"Star"),  started  by  Brockhaus,  1806,  in  the 
Dutch  tongue,  and  devoted  to  politics  and  liter* 
ature,  was  suppressed  by  the  government  on 
account  of  its  advanced  opinions  in  political  and 
ecclesiastical  matters.  The  Am$UrdarMck 
AoondrJoumaX  (*' Amsterdam  Evenmg  Jour- 
nal"), which  succeeded  D^  8ter^  did  not  live 
long.  The  confusion  into  which  Europe  was 
thrown  by  the  Napoleonic  wars  was  un£Eivora- 
ble  to  literary  enterprises,  and  after  the  annex- 
ation of  Holland  to  the  French  empire  (1810). 
Brockhaus  gave  np  his  book  business,  returned 
to  Germany,  and  re-opened  his  establishment  in 
Altenburg  (1811).  In  1818  the  firm  received 
the  title  of  P.  A.  Brockhaus.  In  1808  Brock- 
haus had  purchased  the  copyright  of  the  Ger- 
man ContertatioTw-Leseicon^  which  had  been 
commenced  in  1796.  In  1809-'10  he  completed 
the  1st  edition  by  the  publication  of  2  supple- 
mentary volumes.  In  1812  he  began  to  publish 
the  2d  edition  of  this  work,  which  was  finish- 
ed under  his  own  editorship.  It  was  favorably 
received  and  had  an  extensive  sale.  Shortly 
before  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  in  sight  of  the 
enemy,  he  commenced  a  political  newspaper 
called  Ikutsehs  Bldtter^  which  breathed  a 
patriotic  German  spirit.  This  journal  lasted 
from  Oct.  14,  1813,  until  May,  1816.  The 
peace  of  1816  was  a  great  advantoge  to  the 
firm  of  Brockhaus,  and  enabled  it  to  enter 


71« 


BROOEHAIIS 


BBOOKVILLE 


upon  large  literary  undertakings,  'vritli  a  re»- 
onable  assurance  of  adequate  pecnniary  re- 
turns. In  1817  the  business  had  increased 
to  such  an  extent  that  Brockhaus  thought 
it  advisable  to  remove  to  Leipsio,  and  add 
a  printing  office  to  his  former  establish- 
ment. His  OontersatwM'Lexiean  ran  though  6 
editions  in  his  lifetime,  and  numerous  other 
publications  of  the  first  rank  raised  the  firm  to 
a  x)osition'  in  (German  literature  corresponding 
to  that  Tvhioh  Dodsley,  Constable,  and  Murray 
have  severally  held  at  different  times  in  English 
literature.  Among  the  more  important  publicop 
tions  of  the  firm  may  be  mentioned  Ebert'a 
AUgemeinea  hibliograpMackei  Lexicon^  Von 
Baumer's  GeackiehU  der  Jfohenatavfen,  and 
more  re^ntly,  Bunsen's  translation  H>f  the 
Bible,  of  which  the  first  part  appeared  in  1858. 
A  perpetual  desire  to  introduce  into  Germany  a 
constitutional  public  life  and  a  free  press,  simi- 
lar to  those  of  llngland,  brought  him  under  the 
ban  of  the  reactionary  governments  of  Germany, 
especially  of  the  Prussian  government,  which, 
in  1821,  ordered  a  oensorship  upon  all  the  pub- 
lications of  Brockhaus,  which  lasted  until  his 
death. — ^The  firm  of  F.  A.  Brockhaus  was  con- 
tinued by  the  2  sons  of  the  founder,  Fsisdsicr 
and  Heinrioh.  Under  their  auspices  the  Con' 
wnatiant-Lesneofij  which  was  the  comer-stone 
of  the  fortunes  of  their  house,  has  passed 
through  its  7th,  8th,  9th,  and  10th  (ld61-'55) 
editions,  to  which  8  companion  works  were 
added  from  time  to  time,  namely,  the  ChwoerM- 
iuma-Lexieon  der  neuesten  Z&it  urid  Literatur 
(1882-'84),  the  C(mver9atian$-Lexieon  der  Ge- 
aenwart  (1888-*41),  and  the  Gegemeart  (1848- 
^56).  In  1857  the  firm  commenced  a  4th  sup- 
plementary work  of  this  character,  oaUed  Un- 
sere  Zeit,  Jahrbuch  eum  Caneer8<Uum§'lMnean^ 
thefirst  issue  appearing  in  Jan.  1857,  and  the  15  ih 
in  March,  1858,  and  to  be  continued  in  monthly 
issues.  The  Syetematieehe  Bilder'Atlas  eum 
ConvereattonS'Lexicon  was  published  between 
1844  and  1851.  In  1864r-'56  an  abridgment  of 
the  10th  edition  of  the  OtnwereatioTU'Lexicanajp^ 
peared  in  4  volumes  (the  KUineree  Broekhata^' 
sehea  Oawoersationi-Lexiean),  The  ^*  Encyclo- 
pedia Americana,^'  edited  by  Dr.  Francis  Lie- 
ber  (Philadelphia,  1829-'88),  was  based  upon 
the  7th  edition  of  Brockhaus,  and  an  Eng- 
lish translation  of  the  10th  edition  is  announc- 
ed by  the  Messrs.  Ohambers  of  Edinburgh 
(1857).  Among  the  most  notable  periodioil 
publications  of  this  firm  are  the  continua- 
tion, since  1832,  of  the  Allgemeine  Eney- 
hlopddie  der  Wiuenee?utften  und  KUnete^  by 
Ersch  and  Gruber;  the  Pfennig-Magaein ; 
the  Leipeiger  Allgemeine  Zeitung^  commenced 
in  1837,  the  Deutsche  Allgemeine  Zeitung, 
since  1848,  and  the  Leipeiger  Illustrirte  Zei- 
tung^  since  Jan.  2, 1858.  Their  trade  catalogue 
in  1851  consisted  of  1,500  works.  In  1850 
Friedrich  Brockhaus  retired  from  business,  and 
Ileinrich  has  since  constituted  alone  the  firm  of 
iF.  A.  Brockhaus.  The  firm  of  F.  A.  Brock- 
^haus  has  printing,  binding,  and  also  type  foon- 


dery  establishments  connected  with  ita  book 
publishing  and  general  bookselling  busioesa. 
About  400  persona  are  em^^ayed  in  the  difiTer- 
ent  departments. — Hbbmahh,  the  8d  sim  of 
the  preceding,  bom  in  Amaterdam,  Jan.  88, 
1806,  studied  the  oriental  languages  at  Leipsic^ 
Gdttingen,  and  Bonn.  The  hmguagea  and  liter* 
ature  of  Hindostan  especially  engaged  his  at- 
tention ;  for  the  better  acquisition  of  this  brandi 
of  knowledge  he  took  up  his  residence  for  a  long 
time  in  Paris,  L3ndon,  and  Oxford.  In  1889 
he  was  appointed  extraordinary  prafeasor  as 
the  university  of  Jena,  and  in  1841  at  Le^ 
sic.  In  1848  he  was  called  to  the  chair  of  8flii- 
acrit  language  and  literature  in  the  latter  nni- 
versity,  which  he  still  occupies. 

BROGKLESBT,  Rksabd,  an  Engliah  phya- 
cian,  born  of  a  Quaker  family  at  Minehead,  in 
Bomersetshire,  Aug.  11,  1722,  died  in  London, 
Bee.  11,  1797.  He  studied  medicine  at  Edin- 
burgh, and  subsequently  at  Leyden,  where  he 
took  his  doct^'a  degree  in  1746.  In  1745 
he  published  aPessay  on  the  mortality  of  hom- 
ed cattle.  HeVas  physician  of  the  BritJah 
forces  in  Germany  from  1758  to  1708,  and  pub- 
lished his  observations  on  medical  hospitals  on 
his  return.  His  means  being  angmented  by 
succeeding  to  his  paternal  estate  of  ^600  a  year, 
and  his  army  half-pay,  he  saw  a  great  de^  of 
distinguished  company,  and  gave  nandaome  en- 
tertainments. In  1768,  when  John  Wilkes  was 
severely  wounded  in  a  duel  with  Mr.  Martin,  be 
was  attended  by  Dr.  Brocklesby,  and  the  rapid- 
ity of  his  patient's  recovery  is  said  to  Ittve 
Seatly  benefited  the  doctor's  rising  repatatioa. 
1765  he  was  elected  fellow  of  the  royal  soci- 
ety, which,  at  his  suggestion,  founded  a  frnxfee- 
aorship  of  chemistry  at  the  royal  mflitary 
academy  of  Woolwich.  For  over  40  years  he 
waa  on  intimate  terms  with  the  leading  aCatea- 
men,  authors,  artists,  and  other  persons  of  in- 
tellectual note  and  mark  in  London.  He  at-> 
tended  on  Dr.  Johnson  for  many  years  withoni 
fee.  When  it  was  proposed  that  Johnson  afaoold 
visit  the  continent,  in  the  hope  that  a  milder 
climate  might  relieve  him,  and  want  of  means 
was  mentioned  as  a  reason  why  the  journey 
was  to  be  abandoned,  Brocklesby  ofiEbred  to  s^ 
tie  on  him  £100  for  life. 

BBOOKPORT,  a  village  in  the  township  of 
Sweden,  in  Monroe  co.,  N.  T. ;  pop.  2,148.  It 
is  on  the  Erie  canal,  and  on  the  Rochester  and 
Lockport  nuhroad,  and  contains,  beside  several 
churches,  a  banx,  an  academy,  and  a  pump 
manufactory. 

BBOOKVILLE,  a  prosperous  town  in  Leeds 
CO.,  Oanada  West,  and  shire  town  of  the  united 
counties  of  Leeds  and  Grenville.  It  is  a  port  ^ 
entry,  and,  with  the  township  of  Elizabethtown, 
sends  1  member  to  the  legislative  osaemUy.  In 
addition  to  a  number  of  large  stores,  fonnderies^ 
machine  shops,  tanneries,  Victories,  and  mills  of 
various  kinds,  it  contains  2  newspaper  offices, 
and  agencies  of  several  banks  and  insurance 
companies.  It  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  at  the  foot  of  the  Thousand  ial- 


BRODEBIP 


BBODIE 


719 


ftnds.  A  steam  ferry-boat  piles  every  half  hoar, 
daring  flnmmer,  between  this  place  and  Morris- 
town,  in  the  state  of  New  York.  The  Grand 
Trnnk  railway  passes  tbrongh  the  K  part  of  the 
town,  and  has  a  station  and  looomotive-engine 
bailding  here.  The  Brockville  and  Ottawa  rail- 
way, from  t!ie  shore  of  theSt.  Lawrence,  throagh 
the  town,  to  Pembroke,  on  tho  Ottawa,  is  in 
oourse  of  constrnotion.  Pop.  in  1858,  about 
5,000. 

BRODERIP,  William  John,  an  English  nat- 
uralist, born  at  Bristol,  took  his  degree  at 
Oriel  college,  Oxford,  was  called  to  the  bar  in 
1817,  edited  a  legal  work  on  sewers  and  pub- 
lished 8  volumes  of  law  reports.  He  was  ap- 
pointed by  Sir  Robert  Peel  a  police  magis- 
trate for  a  metropolitan  district,  which  position 
he  retained  for  84  years.  He  contributed 
largely  to  the  "Penny  OyclopsBdia,"  -and the 
mmor  part  of  the  zoological  department  of  the 
"English  Oyclopaedia"  is  his  work.  He  is  the 
author  of  many  essays  in  the  ^*  Qnartedy  Re- 
view" on  subjects  of  natural  history.  He  has 
also  written  *'  Zoological  Recreations  "  (Lond. 
1847),  and  "Leaves  from  the  Note-Book  of  a 
Naturalist"  (1852). 

BRODHE  AD,  Jacob,  D.D.,  an  American  der- 

Jyman,  born  in  Ulster  co.,  N.  Y.,  in  1782,  died 
nne  5,  1855.  He  graduated  at  Union  college 
in  1801 ;  in  1804  he  was  installed  pastor  of  the 
Reformed  Dutch  church  at  Rhlnebeok,  and  in 
1809  in  the  collegiate  church  at  New  York.  In 
1818  he  established  the  first  Dutch  church  in 
Philadelnliia.  He  returned  to  New  York  in 
1826  to  the  church  in  Br(K>me  street,  removed  to 
Saugerties  in  1887,  and  to  Brooklyn  in  1841.  He 
relinquished  his  pastoral  labors  in  1847. 

BRODHEAD,  John  Rometst,  son  of  the 
preceding,  an  American  politician  and  histo- 
rian, born  in  Philadelphia  Jan.  2,  1814,  gra- 
duated at  Rutgers  college  in  1881,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1835.  He  practised 
law  for  2  years  in  New  York,  after  which 
he  removed  to  Saugerties  and  devoted  him* 
self  to  the  study  of  American  history.  In 
1839  he  went  to  Holland  and  was  attached  to 
the  United  States  legation  at  the  Hague.  The 
legislature  of  New  York  having  passed  an  act. 
May  2, 1839,  to  appoint  an  agent  to  procure  and 
transcribe  original  documents  referring  to  the 
history  of  the  state,  he  was  commissioned  under 
the  act  by  Gov.  Seward,  in  the  spring  of  1841. 
The  8  following  years  were  spent  by  him  in 
searching  the  archives  of  Holland,  England,  and 
France,  wliich  were  liberally  opened  to  his 
examination,  for  papers  which  might  serve  to 
illustrate  the  history  of  New  York,  ^nd  complete 
the  records  of  the  state  at  Albany.  As  the  result 
of  his  labors  he  obtained  a  collection  of  more  thhn 
5,000  separate  papers,  many  of  them  previously 
unknown  to  the  historian.  From  Holland  16 
volumes  were  procured,  from  England  47,  and 
fix>m  France  17,  comprising  the  reports  and  cor- 
respondence of  home  and  colonial  authorities 
concerning  the  stairs  of  the  colonies  in  this 
country  which,  at  different  times,  have  belonged 


to  those  governments.  He  returned  to  New 
York  in  the  summer  of  1844,  and  after  a  careful 
examination  of  the  collection,  Mr.  Bancroft 
pronounced  that  "  the  ship  in  which  he  returned 
was  more  riclily  freighted  with  new  materials 
for  American  history  than  any  that  had  ever 
crossed  the  Atlantic."  Mr.  Brodhead  took  occa- 
sion to  give  an  account  of  the  results  of  his 
enterprise  in  an  address  before  the  New  York 
historical  society,  Nov.  20, 1844.  He  deposited 
his  collection  in  the  secretary  of  state's  office, 
and  made  his  final  report  as  agent,  in  February, 
1845.  Ail  these  documents  Were  ordered  to  be 
published  by  an  act  of  the  legislature  of  March 
80, 1849.  On  the  appointment  of  Mr.  Bancroft 
as  minister  to  England  in  1846,  Mr.  Brodhead 
was  made  secretary  of  legation,  and  remained 
at  London  until  1849.  He  now  set  seriously 
at  work  upon  his  **  History  of  the  State  of  New 
York,"  the  first  volume  of  which,  containing 
the  period  under  the  government  of  the  Dutcl^ 
was  issued  from  the  press  in  1853.  In  the  same 
year  he  was  appointed  naval  officer  of  the  port 
of  New  York,  which  post  he  hold  till  1857.  He 
is  still  engaged  in  tlie  preparation  of  his  history. 
BRODIE,  Sib  Benjamin  Collins,  an  English 
surgeon,  born  at  Winterslow,  Wiltshire,  in  1783. 
He  was  educated  at  the  free  school  of  Great 
Windmill  street  London,  and  at  St.  George's 
hofipital,  under  Sir  Everard  Home,  whose  suc- 
cessor he  became  in  1808,  first  as  assistant  sur- 
geon and  afterward  as  surgeon.  In  1811  he 
received  the  Copley  medul  of  the  royal  soci- 
ety, the  highest  prize  in  its  gift,  for  his  physi- 
ological papers  in  tlie  *^  Philosophical  Transac- 
tions." From  that  time  forward,  the  career  of 
Brodie  has  been  one  continuous  series  of  pro- 
fessional successes.  From  1819  to  1823  he  was 
professor  of  anatomy  at  the  royal  college  of  sur< 
geons.  On  the  death  of  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  in 
1827,  he  became  first  surgeon  to  the  queen.  In 
1834  he  was  created  a  baronet  He  has  since 
then  been  appointed  professor  of  the  medico- 
chirurgical  society ;  vice-president  and  president 
of  the  royal  college  of  surgeons ;  member  of 
the  council  of  the  royal  society ;  and  correspond- 
ing member  of  the  institute  of  France.  The 
degree  of  D.  C.  L.  was  conferred  on  him  in  1850 
by  the  university  of  Oxford.  Sir  Bei^amin 
has  suggested  important  improvements  in  many 
kinds  of  surgical  instruments,  and  in  numerous 
cases  substituted  simple  and  less  violent  methoda 
of  surgical  operation.  Beside  his  more  im- 
portant works  on  the  affections  of  the  urinary 
organs,  and  diseases  of  the  Joints,  he  has 
published  numerous  articles  in  tlie  medical 
Journals,  and  a  seried  of  remarkable  physiological 
papers  on  the  action  of  the  nervous  centres  in  tho 
production  of  animal  heat.  The  latter  were  pub- 
lished in  the  ^^  Philosophical  Transactions"  from 
1810  to  1812.  The  published  works  of  Brodie 
are :  "  Lectures  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Urinary 
Organs,"  last  ediUon,  Lond.  1849;  "Observa^ 
tions.  Pathological  and  Surgical,  on  Diseases  of 
the  Joints,"  5th  edition  in  8vo.,  Lond.  1851 ; 
^  Physiological  Besearches  colleoted  and  repub- 


720 


BRODY 


BROGUE 


lishdd  from  the  Philoflophioal  TranMoUonB^'' 
Lond.  1851 ;  "  Physiologicol  Inquiries,"  1854, 
(3d  edition,  1866). 

BRODY,  a  town  in  Galioia,  in  the  circle 
of  ZIoczow,  government  of  Lemberg,  under 
the  sway  of  Austria,  although  the  private  prop- 
erty of  the  counts  Potocki.  It  is  an  important 
commercial  focus,  not  only  for  Galicia,  Moldavia, 
Wallachia,  Turkey,  and  Germany,  but  also  for  the 
adjoining  empire  of  Russia.  Its  population 
amounts  to  40,000,  principally  Jews.  In  1779 
it  was  established  bv  Austria  as  a  free  port 
It  is  dirty,  and  badly  built,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  Potocki  palace,  a  great  syna- 
gogue, and  several  churches.  It  is  the  seat 
of  an  imperial  administrative  board  for  the  dis- 
trict, and  of  a  commercial  tribunal,  has  a  supe- 
•rior  school  for  the  Jews,  and  2  for  Christiana. 
The  commercial  connection  of  Brody  is  princi- 
pally with  Leipsic,  and  more  than  40  great,  and 
about  200  smaller  houses,  chiefly  Jewish,  monop- 
olize  the  trade.  Two  great  annual  fairs  are 
held,  and  the  transactions  amount  to  about  $20,- 
000,000  yearly.  The  traffic  is  in  grain,  horses, 
cattle,  tallow,  hides,  furs,  leather,  wax,  honey, 
dried  fruits,  colonial  products,  ironmongery, 
jewelry,  wines,  porcelain,  &o.  It  also  has  exten- 
sive tanneries  and  linen  factories.  The  mercan- 
tile houses  in  Brody  give  drafts  on  all  the 
exchanges  of  Europe.  The  nobility  of  the 
adjoining  Russian  provinces  are  about  to  con- 
nect  Brody  by  a  railroad  built  by  private 
enterprise  with  the  city  of  Kiev,  the  river 
Dnieper,  and  the  great  Russian  net  of  railroads. 
From  May  8  to  Oct.  7, 1849,  Brody  was  occupied 
by  Russian  troops.  Aug.  17  of  the  same  year 
the  town  was  desolated  by  a  great  fire. 

BRODZINSKI,  Kazimiesz,  a  modem  Polish 
soldier  and  poet,  bom  in  1791,  at  Krolowko,  in 
the  south  of  Poland,  died  in  Dresden  in  1835. 
In  1809  he  entered  the  military  service  of  his 
country,  and  fought  against  the  Austrians;  in 
1812  he  was  employed  ag&inst  the  Russians,  and 
participated  in  the  campaign  of  1813.  in  Ger- 
many, until  he  was  taken  prisoner  at  toe  battle 
of  Leipsic.  When  the  kingdom  of  Poland  and 
the  university  of  Warsaw  were  established,  he 
became  professor  of  casthetics  and  literature. 
His  poetical  productions  are  distinguished  for 
their  suavity,  and  their  fidelity  to  nature  and 
the  national  life,  reproducing  the  songs,  ideas, 
and  manners  of  the  villagers  and  peasantry. 
He  excelled  also  as  a  translator,  and  introduced 
Scott^s  masterpieces  into  the  literature  of  Poland. 
Brodzinski  was  the  first  who  attempted  to  re- 
invigoratc  Polish  poetry  from  the  national 
sources,  instead  of  imitating  Latin  and  French 
tnodela,  which  was  the  custom  up  to  his  time. 

BROEKHUISEN,  Jan  van,  a  Dutch  soldier 
and  literary  man,  bom  in  Amsterdam  in  1649, 
died  in  1 707,  He  was  apprenticed  to  an  apothe- 
cary, but  became  a  soldier,  and  served  through 
the  campaign  of  1672,  and  afterward  accompa- 
nied his  regimeut  to  America  in  the  fleet  under 
De  Ruyter.  On  returning  to  Holland  he  be- 
came acquainted  with  Grtdvius,  whose  media- 


tion at  a  sobedquent  period  saved  him  from 
capital  punishment  for  having  acted  as  a  sec- 
ond in  a  dueL  After  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in 
1697,  he  obtained  his  dischai'ge  from  the  army, 
and,  retiring  to  Amsteloven,  he  passed  the  rest 
of  his  days  in  literary  labor.  His  edition  fA 
F^opertius  appeared  at  Amsterdam  in  1702,  and 
his  Tibullus  in  1708. 

BROGLIE,  or  Bbooua,  the  name  of  a  family 
originally  from  Piedmont,  established  in  France 
toward  tibe  middle  of  the  17th  century. — Yio- 
TOB  Fbanqois,  2d  duke  de  Broglie,  bom  Oct.  10, 
1718,  died  in  1804^  at  Mtinster,  was  a  lieutenant- 
general  during  the  7  years'  war,  routed  tiie 
Prussians  at  the  battle  of  Berghen,  was  created 
a  prince  of  the  German  empire  by  Francis 
I.,  and  promoted  to  the  rank  of  marshal  of 
France,  in  1759,  and  became  minister  of  war 
in  1789.  In  1792  he  led  a  body  of  Fk«nch 
hnigris^  who  invaded  Champagne. — Cla-uia 
YiOTOB,  prince  de  Broglie^  son  of  the  preceding, 
bom  in  1757  at  Paris,  died  June  27, 1794,  on 
the  scaffold.  He  was  elected  deputy  to  the 
states-general,  gave  evidence  of  liberal  <^ni(mS| 
and  was  for  a  while  prendent  of  theoonstitnent 
assembly.  On  the  expiration  of  his  term,  he 
reentered  the  military  service,  and  was  sent  as 
brigadier-general  to  the  army  on  the  Rhine. 
After  the  10th  Auffust,  1792,  he  refused  to  obey 
the  decree  of  the  legislative  assembly  Buspeod- 
ing  the  power  of  the  king ;  was  arraigned  be- 
fore the  revolutionary  tribunal,  and  executed. — 
AoHiuJi  LioKOX  Victor  Chablbs,  duke  o^  son 
of  the  preceding,  a  French  statesman,  bom  in 
Paris,  Kov.  28, 1785.  He  was  only  9  jean  old 
when  his  father  was  beheaded,  but  he  found  a 
protector  in  his  mother's  2d  husband,  M.  d^Ar- 
genson,  who  brought  him  up  with  paternal  care. 
1  oung  De  Broglie  gained  the  regard  of  Talley- 
rand, who,  in  1814,  presented  his  name  for  ap- 
pointment to  the  new  chamber  of  peers.  Dur- 
mgthe  Hundred  Days,  he  was  elec^  officer  in 
the  national  guards.  He  married  at  Leghorn, 
Feb.  15, 1816,  the  daughter  of  Kadame  deSta&L 
Subsequent  to  the  2d  reatorafion,  he  resumed  ^e 
title  of  duke,  instead  of  that  of  prince,  previ- 
ously used  in  his  family.  At  the  tnal  of  Marshal 
Ney  he  used  every  effort  to  save  his  life.  In 
1822,  he  denounced  the  slave  trade;  and  after 
the  revolution  of  July,  he  sncoeeded  as  minister 
in  concluding  a  convention  on  the  right  of  setfofa, 
by  which  he  hoped  to  suppress  that  trade.  He 
was  appointed  minister  oi  public  instraction, 
and  president  of  the  council  of  state,  Aug.  11, 
1880)  but  soon  disagreed  with  his  colleagues 
and  resigned.  Oct  11,  1882^  he  reentered  the 
cabinet  as  minister  of  foreign  affiiirs,  under 
Marshal  Soulti  with  Guizot  and  -Thiers  as  bis 
colleagues.  Having  been  defeated  on  a  question 
of  indenmity  to  the  United  States,  he  retired, 
April  4, 1834.  In  1849,  he  was  elected  to  tlie 
legislative  assembly  by  the  department  of  Eure, 
and  figured  among  the  leaders  of  the  conservfr- 
tive  party.  In  1850,  he  repaired  to  London  on 
a  visit  to  Louis  Philippe.  He  protested  against 
the  coup  d'etat  of  Dec.  2,  1851,  was  for  a  short 


BROGNY 


BROKEN  WIND 


721 


time  under  arrest,  and  afterward  went  to  Lon- 
don. On  his  retom  to  France  in  1852,  he  refused 
to  take  the  oath  on  the  constitntion,  and  tendered 
his  resignation  as  a  member  of  the  ooancil  of 
the  department  of  Enre.  In  1866  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  French  academy. 

BROGNT,  Jean  Allabmst,  a  cardinal  of 
Rome,  bom  1842,  at  Brogny,  near  Annecy,  in 
Savoy,  died  in  Rome,  Feb.  16, 1426.  Although 
he  was  a  swineherd  in  hisyoath^  he  attained  by 
his  learning  and  virtues  a  position  of  great  in- 
flnence  ana  eminence  in  the  chnrch.  He  was 
successively  made  bishop  of  Yiviers,  of  Ostia, 
archbishop  of  Aries,  and  bishop  of  Geneva,  and 
finally  cardinal  and  chancellor  of  the  church  of 
Rome.  During  the  great  schism  which  divided 
the  church  for  more  than  40  years,  Brogny  de- 
voted himself  to  the  work  of  conciHation.  The 
/oounoil  of  Constance  being  called  for  that  pur- 
"pose  by  John  XXin.  and  the  emperor  8igis- 
mund ;  the  former  was  deposed  at  the  6th  ses- 
sion, aifter  which  Brogny  presided  as  senior  oar- 
diniu  until  the  4l8t,  when  Cardinal  Colonna  was 
elected  pope,  Nov.  14,  1417,  chiefly  through 
Brogny^s  influence,  under  the  name  of  Martin 
v.,  and  the  holy  see  was  once  more  established 
at  Kome.  As  president  of  the  council  of  Con- 
stance, he  had  to  prononnce  the  sentence  of 
death  npon  Huss,  to  whom  he  had  shown  great 
kindness  during  the  trial,  having  visited  him 
several  times  in  his  prison,  and  exhorted  him, 
but  in  vain,  to  save  his  life  by  recanting  his 
creed.  The  cardinal  was  the  founder  of  the 
hospital  of  Annecy,  and  of  the  college  of  St. 
Nicolas  at  Avignon,  and  of  many  other  useful 
and  charitable  institutions. 

BROGUE.  In  former  times,  the  Irish  and 
Scotch  wore  a  sort  of  dog  or  shoe  made  of  un- 
tanned  skin,  and  called  the  brogue  or  brogan. 
This  article  of  dress  fell  into  disuse  early  in  the 
16th  century,  and  the  substitute  was  made  of 
tanned  leather,  witli  thick  soles,  freely  studded 
with  large-headed  nails,  which  took  the  name 
of  the  article  they  supplanted.  These  brogues 
or  brogans  continue  to  be  worn  in  Ireland,  and 
are  strong,  cumbrous,  and  heavy.  By  a  natural 
process  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  the 
wearers  of  the  brogue  pronounced  the  English 
langaage,  caused  that  peculiar  pronunciation  to 
be  universally  known  as  the  brogue,  and  the 
application  of  this  term  is  limited  almost  ex- 
clusively to  the  Irish. 

BROKE,  Sib  Phiup  Bowes  Yebb,  a  British 
admiral,  the  commander  of  the  Shannon,  which 
oaptared  the  American  frigate  Chesapeiiike  off 
Boston  harbor,  in  1818,  bom  Sept  9, 1776,  died 
in  Saffolkshire  in  1840.  He  was  educated  at 
the  ro^al  academy  in  Portsmouth,  entered  the 
navy  m  1792,  served  in  the  wars  between 
France  and  England,  and  was  in  command  of 
the  Shannon  protecting  the  whale  fishery  in  the 
Qreenland  seas,  when  in  1812  war  was  declared 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 
He  was  despatched  with  a  squadron  to  blockade 
the  American  ports,  but  our  navy  did  not  con- 
centrate itself  so  OS  to  engage  his  united  sqnad- 
VOL.  m.— 46 


dron.  He  appeared  with  the  Shannon  alone 
off  the  harbor  of  Boston,  immediately  after 
Capt  Lawrence  had  been  promoted  to  the 
command  of  the  Chesapeake,  which  was  lymg 
in  that  harbor,  as  a  reward  for  his  late  victori- 
ous cruise  in  the  Hornet  He  sent  a  letter  to 
Lawrenoe,  challenging  him  to  an  engagement^ 
who,  however,  deeming  his  appearance  a  chal- 
lenge, had  ordered  the  ChesiH;>ieake  to  lift  her 
anchors  before  the  letter  reached  its  destination. 
The  Chesapeake  was  badly  manned,  equipped^ 
and  officered,  the  crew  being  to  a  large  extent 
foreign  mercenaries  murmuring  about  their 
prize  money,  the  ship  being  one  of  the  worst 
in  the  navy,  the  first  lieutenant  being  sick  on 
shore,  and  the  posts  of  2  others  being  filled  by 
midshipmen,  let  the  ardor  of  Lawrence  ad- 
mitted of  no  hesitation.  The  action  began 
June  1. 1818,  at  6  o^dock  p.  m.,  in  sight  of  the 
shore  lined  with  spectators,  and  within  15 
minutes  Lawrence  was  mortally  wounded  and 
his  ship  in  the  possession  of  the  enemy.  This 
victory,  coming  after  numerous  reverses,  was 
extravagantly  applauded  in  England,  and  Capt 
Broke  was  immediately  raised  to  the  dignity  of 
baronet,  and  made  knight  commander  of  the 
bath. 

BBOEEITWIND,  a  terrible  and  incurable 
disease  of  the  lungs  of  the  horse,  incapacitating 
him  firom  all  violent  and  rapid  exertion.  It  is 
immediately  recognizable  by  the  manner  of 
breathing.  The  inspiration  is  performed  in 
somewhat  less  than  the  natural  time,  but  with  an 
increased  degree  of  labor,  but  tha  expiration 
has  a  peculiar  difficulty  accompanying  it  It  is 
accomplished  by  a  double  effort,  in  the  first  of 
which,  as  Mr.  Blaine  has  well  explained  it,  ^^  the 
usual  set  of  muscles  operate ;  and  in  the  other, 
the  auxiliary  muscles,  particularly  the  abdomi- 
nal, are  put  on  the  stretch,  to  complete  the  ex- 
pulsion more  perfectly ;  and  that  being  done, 
the  flank  falls,  or  the  abdominal  muscles  relax 
with  a  kind  of  jerk  or  spasm.^'  Broken  wind 
is  preceded  or  accompanied  by  cough — a  cough 
perfectly  characteristia  and  by  which  the  horse- 
man would,  in  the  darx,  detect  the  existence  of 
the  disease.  It  is  short,  seemingly  cut  shorty 
gruntmg,  and  followed  by  wheezing.  Broken 
wind  is  believed  to  be  hereditary,  and  in  some 
degree  consequent  on  malformation,  on  a  narrow 
chest,  a  firagile  membrane,  and  a  predisposition 
to  inflammatory  diseases  whidi  end  in  broken 
wind.  Horses  which  are  greedy  feeders,  and 
distend  the  stomach  with  Itfge  quantities  of  in- 
imtritious  food,  of  which  they  do  not  readily  get 
no,  are  peculiarly  liable  to  broken  wind ;  which 
may  also  be  produced  by  giving  a  horse  a  rapid 
and  severe  gallop,  on  a  ftdl  stomach,  even 
where  there  may  have  been  no  chronic  affeo- 
tions  in  operation  beforehand,  paving  the  way 
for  that  result  When  a  horse  is  once  thor- 
oughly broken-winded,  there  is  no  possible 
cure;  for,  the  structure  of  the  lungs  being 
broken  down,  no  medicine  or  medical  skill  can 
repair  the  damage.  The  evil,  however,  may  be 
palliated.    The  food  given  should  be  the  roost 


r22 


BROKER 


BROMFIELD 


natrifjoiiB,  and  that  which  will  lie  in  the  Bmalleat 
eompass.  Good  oata,  little  hay,  no  chaff.  Green 
food  ia  partioolarly  benefioiaJ,  and  oarrota  yet 
more  eo,  as  they  appear,  i^art  from  their  nutri- 
tiona  and  sanative  character,  to  hare  a  direct 
4  effect  on  the  respiratory  organs.  There  are 
certain  remedies  by  which,  for  a  few  days,  a 
broken-winded  horse  mayoe  made  to  appear 
sound;  bnt,  for  obvious  reasons,  they  are  not 
inserted  here,  as  th^  can  be  of  no  possible 
utility,  and  only  serve  to  administer  to  vand. 

BROKER  (Lat  abroeator^  perhaps  ^m  the 
Baxon  abrocean^  to  break  up,  from  which  is 
derived  abrouehment^  the  breaking  up  goods  or 
selling  at  retail  See  Burrill's  ''Law  Diction- 
ary^*). The  early  use  of  this  term  designated  a 
retailer  of  goods,  generallv  supposed  to  belong 
to  another  person,  and  thence  applied  to  any 
one  making  a  bargain  as  the  agent  of  another  for 
the  sale  or  purchase  of  goods.  The  distinctive 
character  or  a  broker  was  that  he  acted  in  the 
behalf  of  another,  and  in  his  name ;  at  least, 
when  the  contract  came  to  be  consummated, 
the  name  of  the  prindpal  was  in  the  ordinary 
course  disclosed.  It  was  a  further  incident  of 
a  broker^s  employment  that  he  did  not  have 
possession  of  tne  goods  sold,  nor  receive  posses- 
sion of  the  goods  purchased,  in  which  respect 
he  differed  fh>m  a  factor.  And  these  prin- 
ciples still  api^y.  But  the  office  of  broker  has 
been  vastly  extended  by  the  increasing  exi- 
gencies of  commercial  business.  The  principal 
classes  are  bill  brokers,  whose  employment  is  to 
buy  and  sell  notes  and  biUs  of  exchange;  stock 
brokers,  who  deal  in  stocks  of  moneyed  corpora- 
tions and  other  securities;  insurance  brokers, 
who  are  agents  for  procuring  insurance  on  ves- 
sels and  i^ainst  fire;  and  real  estate  brokers, 
whose  business  is  to  buy  and  sell  lands,  and  ob- 
tain loans  or  put  out  money  upon  mortgage  secu- 
rity. Pawnbrokers  do  not  come  within  the  strict 
definition,  as  they  usually  do  business  on  their 
own  account^  that  is,  make  loans  upon  the  pledge 
of  personal  property  deposited  with  them;  but 
they  may  also  use  the  money  of  other  persons 
for  such  investments,  which  would  constitute 
agents,  but  not  necessarily  brokers.  So  exchange 
broken,  who  buy  and  sell  uncurrent  money,  or 
exchange  different  kinds  of  currency,  although 
they  may  use  fbnds  placed  in  their  hands  for 
that  purpose,  are,  as  respects  their  principals, 
rather  agents  than  brokers ;  for  although  a  broker 
is  an  agent,  yet  an  agent  is  not  necessarily  a 
broker.  ^  Ship  brokers  deal  in  the  purchasing 
and  selling  of  vessels,  and  procuring  freigh|^ 
In  the  city  of  London  it  is  required  that  brokers 
should  have  a  license  from  the  mayor  and  al- 
dermen, and  give  bonds  for  the  proper  discharge 
of  their  duties.  In  other  large  commercial 
towns  of  Europe  a  license  is  generally  necessary 
for  brokers  dealing  in  stocks,  money  exchanges, 
insurance,  loans  upon  pledges,  &o.  In  the  Unit- 
ed States  neither  license  nor  security  is  required, 
except  as  to  pawnbrokers;  but  certain  regula- 
tions are  prescribed  bylaw  in  respect  to  certain 
.bmnches  of  business.    Stock-jobbing,  by  which 


is  meant  the  selling  of  stocks  of  which  neather 
the  broker  nor  his  principal  has  the  actual  own- 
er^ip  at  the  time  of  such  sale,  is  pohibited. 
Wagers  upon  stocks,  that  is,  the  nommal  buying 
or  selling  of  stocks  deliverable  at  a  future  time, 
with  the  understanding  that  nothing  more  is  to 
be  done  than  to  pay  the  difference  between  the 
price  agreed  and  the  market  price  at  the  time 
named,  are  declared  illegal.  In  the  state  of 
Kew  York,  the  rate  of  brokerage  is  fixed  by 
law  for  procuring  or  renewing  loans.  The  buei- 
ness  of  pawnbrokers  is  in  krge  cities  usually 
regulated  by  the  munidpal  authorities.  It  is  a 
general  provision  that  a  larger  interest  than  ih^ 
ordinary  legal  rate  may  be  taken  on  loans  by 
pawnbrokers. 

BROMBERG,  a  government  of  the  province 
of  Posen,  IVussia;  area  4,547  sq.  m.,  embrac- 
ing 9  cuxiles,  54  towns,  and  1,802  villages ;  pop. 
470,000,  of  whom  -^  are  Catholics,  ^  Protes- 
tants, and  lY  Jews.  The  soil  is  sandy,  the  sur- 
face is  levd^  and  mostly  covered  with  woodB, 
and  the  agricultural  productions  are  inaignifi- 
cont  The  circle  of  Bromberg  has  60,000  in- 
habitants, and  the  capital,  of  the  same  name, 
on  the  river  Brahe,  14,420.  The  latter  has  a 
gymnasium  and  normal  schools,  a  number  of 
manufactories  of  linen  and  woollen  stuf^^  leath- 
er, sugar,  chicory,  Prussian  blue,  ^.  A  rail- 
way connects  the  town  with  Berlin,  Posen,  and 
other  cities.  There  are  1  Protestant  and  2 
Catholic  churches,  2  convents,  and  a  sjiia- 
g(^ue.  The  German  Catholio  community, 
which  was  formed  here  in  1845,  returned  to 
Protestantism  in  1862.  The  Brombei^  canal 
unites  the  rivers  Brahe  and  Netze,  and  thus 
opens  a  water  communication  between  the 
Vistula  and  the  Oder  and  Elbe. 

BROME,  RiOHABD,  English  dramatist,  died 
1652.  He  lived  in  the  reign  of  Charles  L,  and 
was  contemporary  with  Pecker,  Ford,  and 
Shirley.  He  was  originally  a  menial  servant  to 
Ben  Jonson.  The  ''  Northern  Lass,"  the  first 
of  15  comedies  which  he  wrote,  obtained 
Jonson^s  commendation.  Brome  joined  witli 
Thomas  Hey  wood  in  writing  the  **  Lancashire 
Witches,"  and  2  other  plays.  Soon  after  his  death 
his  plays  were  collected  and  published  by  Aixxr 
ANDBB  Bbomx  (bom  1620,  died  1606X  '^^ 
though  a  namesake,  was  no  relation,  and  wrote 
satirical  songs  andepigrains  on  the  loyalist  ode, 
daring  the  protectorate,  as  well  as  a  comedy 
and  a  translation  of  Horace. 

BROMFIELD,  John,  an  American  merchant, 
born  in  Newburypcxt,  April  11,  1779,  died  in 
Boston,  Dec.  8, 1849.  He  acquired  his  fortune 
first  as  Euronean  agent  for  American  mercan- 
tile houses,  then  by  enga^^  for  a  year  in  busi- 
ness in  Canton,  and  afterward  by  investments 
of  his  capital  in  Boston,  where  he  remded  dur- 
ing the  latter  part  of  his  life.  In  1845  he  be- 
stowed upon  the  Boston  Athensdum  a  gift  of 
$25,000,  and  at  his  death  he  left  munificent  be- 
quests to  several  charitable  institutions. 

BROMFIELD,  Willujc,  an  English  surgeon, 
born  at  London  in  1712,  died  in  1792.    Ho  was 


BROMINB 

one  of  the  fonnden  of  the  Look  hofl;»ital,  and 
the  first  soigeon  of  that  iostitation.  In  1761 
he  formed  (me  of  the  eaite  who  conducted  the 
princess  of  Mecklenburg,  the  fotnre  qneen  of 
George  III^  to  London.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  tentaculum^  and  the  author  of  seyend 
snrgical  treatises. 

BROMINE  (Gr.  fipt^itos,  fetid  smellX  an  ele- 
mentary sabstance  extracted  from  the  bittern, 
or  mother  liquor  of  the  salt  works,  the  residne 
after  the  common  salt  has  been  obtained.  It 
exists  ia  very  minnte  qnantity  in  sea  water  and 
salt  springs  which  have  been  connected  with 
the  ocean,  and  in  several  salt  springs  in  the  in- 
terior of  Europe  and  America,  and  also  in  some 
minerals  and  marine  and  fresh  water  plants. 
In  silt  water  it  is  combined  with  magnesium  or 
sodium,  forming  a  bromide.  Near  Freeportin 
Pennsylyania  it  is  extenavely  manufactured 
from  the  water  of  the  salt  springs.  It  was  first 
separated  and  recoenized  as  a  new  substance  in 
1826,  bv  Antoine  J6r6me  Balard,  a  chemist  of 
Montpellier.  Pro£  Billiman  was  the  first  to  de- 
tect it  in  this  country ;  he  found  it  in  the  bittern 
of  the  salt  works  at  Salina,  K.  T.  Bromine  is  a 
liquid  of  dark  red  color,  or,  by  transmitted  light, 
hyacinth  red,  and  so  volatile  that  a  drop  of  it  put 
in  a  flask  fills  it  with  vapor  like  that  of  fuming 
nitrous  acid.  A  taper  burns  in  this  vapor  with  a 
flame  sreen  below  and  red  above,  as  with  chlo- 
rine. In  its  smell  it  also  resembles  chlorine ;  its 
taste  is  oaustia  At  a  temperature  below  B"*  F.  it 
becomes  a  hard,  crystalline  mass^  brittle,  lamel- 
Lff,  and  of  a  yellowish  brown  color.  At  1 16.6^ 
it  gives  off  a  vapor,  the  density  of  which  is  6.64, 
compared  with  air.  The  density  of  the  liquid, 
compared  with  water,  is,  at  69''  F.,  2.98.  It  is 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  sparingly  so  in 
water,  giving  to  this  an  oranee  color.  It  acts 
powerfully,  like  chlorine,  in  bleaching  vegeta- 
ble substances,  destroying  the  blue  color  of 
indigo,  and  decomposing  organic  sulwtances. 
The  skin  is  oorrodea  and  stained  yellow  by  it, 
but  the  color  soon  disappears.  The  combina- 
tions of  iodine  are  decomposed  bv  it,  and  it  de- 
composes those  of  chlorine.  Umted  with  oxy- 
gen^  BrOi,  it  forms  bromio  add,  and  the  salts 
of  tills  are  bromates ;  with  hydrogen,  BrH,  bro- 
mide of  hydrogen,  or  hydrobromic  acid,  which 
possesses  powerM  add  properties,  and  forms, 
with  bases,  salts  called  hydrobromates.  Metals 
in  oontact  with  its  fumes  combine  with  it  as  by 
combustion,  forming  bromides.  In  these  prop- 
erties, as  in  others  also,  bromine  resembles  io- 
dine and  ddorinei  It  is  applied  in  medical  treat- 
ment, in  its  aqueous  solution  of  1  part  of  bro- 
mine to  40  of  water,  for  similar  purposes  as 
iodine,  and  acts  more  powerftilly ;  is  also  effi- 
cient when  iodifle  by  habit  has  lost  its  action. 
Its  use  is  particularly  for  chronic  diseases  of  the 
skin,  and  as  a  wash  for  scrofulous  tumors  and 
ulcers;  latterly  it  has  been  found  a  valuable 
remedy  in  cionp.  In  the  arts  it  is  used  in  the 
daguerreotype  process  for  adding  to  the  effect 
of  the  iodine  in  rendering  the  metallic  plate 
senable  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  the  plate,  after 


BROMME 


729 


the  apidication  of  the  iodine,  being  wet  with 
the  aqueous  solution  made  very  weak.— Com- 
mercial bromine  is  apt  to  be  contaminated  with 
chlorine,  iodine,  water,  and  carbon,  the  last  in 
the  form  of  the  binary  compound  bromide  of 
carbon,  an  aromatic,  colorless,  oily  liquid  left 
afier  distilling  the  bromine;  it  sometimes 
amounts  to  6  or  8  per  cent.  Chlorine  is  made 
use  of  to  detect  the  presence  of  bromine  and  tc 
separate  it  from  its  combinations  with  magne- 
sium and  sodium.  In  a  solution  free  of  organic 
matters,  chlorine,  if  added  not  in  excess,  either 
in  a  current  of  the  gas  or  as  strong  chlorine 
water,  causes  the  bromine  to  be  liberated,  and 
this  then  imparts  its  orange  color  to  the  solur 
tiou.  On  boiling  this  solution  the  bromine 
escapes  in  red  vapors,  which  may  be  condensed 
into  the  liquid  form.  Several  other  processes 
are  given  for  obtaining  it  from  sea  water, 
plants,  ieo^  aod  for  separating  it  from  all  traces 
of  chlorine,  iodine,  &c. — ^Bromine  acts  as  a  poi- 
son. A  case  occurred  a  few  years  since  on 
Long  islaod,  in  which  an  ounce  caused  death 
in  7  to  8  hours.  The  symptoms  were  those  of 
the  violently  irritant  poisons — ^inflammation  of 
the  throat,  mouth,  and  lips,  and  incessant  burn- 
ing pains.  The  best  antidote  is  said  to  be  am- 
monia. 

BBOMLET,  a  market  town  and  parish  of 
England,  in  the  county  of  Kent;  pop.  4,127. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  and  neatly  built 
Btreet,  contains  some  good  houses,  a  well-en- 
dowed school,  a  handsmne  college,  founded  by 
Bishop  Werner,  in  1666,  for  the  reddence  and 
support  of  40  clergymen's  widows^  and  a  fine 
Gothic  church,  which  contains  the  tomb  of  the 
wife  of  Dr.  Jounson. 

BROMME,  Tbaugott,  an  enterprising  Grer- 
man,  bom  near  Ldpdc  in  1802,  learned  the 
book-trade,  at  the  same  time  studying  various 
branches  of  science,  settled  in  the  United  States 
in  1820,  travelled  eztendv^  in  Texas  and 
Mexico,  cruised  in  the  West  Indies  as  surgeon 
of  a  Colombian  war  schooner,  was  detained  at 
Hayti  for  a  vear  as  prisoner,  but  with  permis- 
sion to  explore  the  island.  Bdeased  and  in-, 
demnified  by  the  Colombian  government,  he 
returned  to  Germanv,  where  he  became  a 
partner  in  Walther  s  publishing  house  of 
Dresden,  and  wrote  a  good  number  of  books 
on  his  travels  in  the  new  world,  which  proved 
very  acceptable  to  emigrants,  nis  Mono-  und 

und  SikdrAfMTicck^  pasdng  through  7  editions 
from  1889  to  1866.  Transferring  his  establish- 
ment to  Stuttp^art,  in  1844^  he  ccmtinued  to  de- 
vote his  attention  to  the  same  dass  of  publications. 
His  new  guide  book  for  emigrants  to  America 
appeared  in  1862.  Among  the  other  valuable 
publications  of  his  establishment  is  a  map  to 
Humboldt's  ''Cosmos,'*  with  42  plates  (1854), 
and  the  VolhmaturgmMchte  of  Rebaus  (1867). 
— Kabl  Budoup,  a  brother  of  the  preceding, 
born  in  1804^  acquured  distinction  as  a  naval 
engineer,  and  having  explored  the  greater  part 
of  the  old  and  the  new  world,  and  made  some 


724 


BRONCHITIS 


new  inventions  and  improTements  in  naval  bat- 
teries, he  received  an  appointment  in  the  Greek 
navv  in  1827,  as  Ist  lieutenant  of  the  frigate 
Hellas,  taking  a  distingnished  part  in  the  war 
against  the  pirates,  in  the  siege  of  Ghios,  and 
the  blockade  of  Navarino,  and  sabseqnently 
in  the  exploits  of  Miaulis  at  Antirrhium,  Le- 
panto,  and  Missolonghi.  He  was  eventually 
promoted  to  the  command  of  the  corvette 
Ipsara,  and  despatched  with  that  vessel  to 
Oandia  to  escort  the  Ohristian  fugitives  back 
to  Greece.  In  1881  he  entered  the  ministry 
of  marine,  and  was  devoted  to  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  Greek  navy  when  the  revolntion 
broke  ont,  which  indnced  him  to  travel  abroad 
until  the  accession  of  Otho  to  the  throne  of 
Greece,  when  he  was  reinstated  in  his  former 
pontion  and  appointed  commander  of  the  Greek 
ateam  frigate  Hermes.  Subsequently  he  was 
employed  in  various  fnnctions  connected  with 
the  naval  service,  and  having  projected  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  naval  academy,  this  was  joined 
to  the  royal  military  academy,  both  institutions 
beine  placed  under  his  direction,  as  2d  com- 
manuant,  in  1839,  and  under  his  control,  as 
superior  commandant,  during  the  period  of  the 
September  revolution  of  1 843.  He  officiated  in 
this  capacity  until  1848,  when  he  was  summon- 
ed to  Frankfort  to  take  part  in  the  organization 
of  the  projected  German  fleet.  After  the  ex- 
piration of  the  truce  with  Denmark  he  was 
sent  to  Bremerhafen,  and  eventually  appointed 
rear  admiral  of  the  German  navy.  After  the 
dissolution  of  the  fleet  he  continued  to  reside  in 
Bremerhafen,  engaged  in  writing  his  memoirs, 
having  previously  published  a  number  of  other 
works  in  German,  English,  and  French,  chiefly 
on  naval  subjects.  In  May,  1867,  he  accepted 
employment  in  the  Austrian  service,  as  engi- 
neer-in-ohief  in  the  navy,  at  Milan. 

BRONOHITIS,  an  inflammatory  disease  of 
the  mucous  membrane  of  the  bronchi,  or  of 
the  air-passages  below  the  bifurcation  of  the 
trachea;  it  is  also  called  catarrhal  fever,  and, 
when  it  occurs  epidemically,  the  *' grippe" 
>  and  influenza;  it  may  be  either  acute  or 
chronic.  All  ages  are  liable  to  it,  especially 
in&ncy  and  old  age ;  it  is  most  frequently  pro- 
duced by  cold,  suddenly  checking  the  cutaneous 
transpiration ;  it  may  also  be  caused  by  any  ir- 
ritating gas ;  it  is  most  common  in  the  spring 
and  autumn,  or  when  the  atmospheric  changes 
are  the  greatest ;  it  is  a  common  companion  of 
the  measles,  whooping^ough,  and  typhoid  fever. 
The  mucous  memorane  is  found  more  or  less  in- 
jected and  red,  even  in  the  smallest  divisions, 
and  sometunes  thickened,  which  is  a  grave 
complication  in  the  minute  branches;  the  se- 
cretions vary  according  to  the  degree  and  stage 
of  the  inflammation,  and  may  be  abundant, 
white,  and  frothy,  or  thick,  yellowish,  and 
purulent.  It  comes  on  with  the  symptoms  of 
a  common  cold,  accompanied  by  fever;  the 
pain  in  the  chest,  headache,  and  dry  hacking 
cough  continue  for  a  day  or  two,  when  the 
oough   becomes   frequent,  and   the   expecto- 


ration viaoid  and  white;  the  breathing  be- 
comes laborious;  the  cheat  is  sonorous,  but 
filled  with  r&les  more  or  less  muoona  acoord- 
ing  to  the  amount  and  viscidity  of  the  bron<^ial 
secretions.  After  a  few  days  these  Bymptoins 
begin  to  decrease  in  severity,  the  expectorated 
matters  become  puriform,  indicating  the  decline 
of  the  inflammation,  and  the  disease  ends  in 
what  may  be  called  a  critical  evacuation,  by 
copious  perspiration,  aedimentary  mine,  diar- 
rhoea, &0.  In  the  ayspnoea  of  bronchitia  the 
chief  diffionlty  is  in  inspiration,  which  is  aeoom- 
plished  only  by  the  aid  of  all  the  accessory 
muscles;  the  expiration  is  performed  with  ease; 
the  respiration  of  pneumonia  is  merely  accele- 
rated, without  obstructed  inspiration,  unkas  the 
minute  bronchi  are  also  affected.  In  capiDaiy 
bronchitis,  the  most  common  form  in  children 
and  in  typhoid  conditions,  and  highly  danger- 
ous, the  obstruction  fh>m  the  viscid  secretion 
is  such  that  entire  lobules  of  the  lung  may  be 
collapsed  from  the  inability  of  the  air  to  enter; 
the  forced  expiratory  act  is  |  stronger  than  the 
extreme  force  of  inspiration,  though  ordinaty 
inspiration  is  more  of  a  muscular  act  thaa  <ntli- 
nary  expiration;  the  effect  of  obstmctioii  is  to 
expel  the  air  from  the  lobules,  from  the  com- 
parative weakness  of  the  inspiratory  act,  which 
draws  back  the  inspissated  mucus  into  the 
bronchi,  thus  preventing  the  entrance  of  idr,  but 
not  the  expulsion  of  a  portion  of  the  contained 
air  by  every  forced  eviration.  For  a  fbU  ac- 
count of  the  stages  of^ "  bronchial  collapee,"  a 
state  analogous  to  that  of  the  non-expttoded 
fodtal  lung,  and  including  lobular  pneumonia,  the 
pneumonia  of  children,  many  oamified  condi- 
tions of  the  lungs,  the  peripn&unumieg  de»  offo- 
niaantSy  h^paatatigus,  catarrhdUy  and  t^fphoide 
of  authors,  and  constituting  the  condition  de- 
nominated ofneumatoaU  by  Fuchs,  the  student 
is  referred  to  the  work  of  Dr.  Gairdner  on 
bronchitis,  published  in  1850.  Bronchitia  in 
children  is  almost  always  combined  with  in- 
flammation of  the  pulmonary  substance,  o(«i- 
stituting  hrimtho-jpf^eumonick.  The  treatment 
of  acute  bronchitia,  which  is  generally  not  a 
dangerous  disease  except  in  old  persona  and  in 
children,  is  by  antiphlogistics  (though  bleed- 
ing is  rarely  necessary),  emoUient  drinks,  emet- 
ics when  the  obstruction  is  great,  sudorifica, 
narcotics,  and  cutaneous  revul»ves.  In  chronic 
bronchitis,  whether  a  sequel  of  the  acute,  or  a 
disease  of  old  age,  there  are  fewer  marks  of  in- 
flammation, but  more  of  thickening  and  dila- 
tation of  the  air-tubes ;  the  cough  is  generally 
loose,  and  the  expectoration  abundant  and  easy, 
with  little  dyspnoea;  sometimes  it  seems  merely 
local,  and  more  annoying  than  dangerous;  the 
treatment  is  principally  by  l^evulsives  to  the 
skin,  tonics,  stimulants,  expectorants,  and  at- 
tention to  the  rules  of  hygiene.  In  many  con- 
ditions of  chronic  bronchitis,  medicines  ap- 
plied in  the  form  of  vapor  are  exceedingly  use- 
ful ;  in  this  way  narcotics,  expectorants,  stimn- 
lants,  astringents,  sedatives,  and  alteratives, 
may  be  applied  to  the  very  seat  of  the  disease, 


BR0ND8TED 


BRONGNIART 


725 


in  a  notnnil  maimer,  and  without  deluging  the 
stomach  with  irritating  miztnres;  cod-liver 
oil,  fhsel  oil  and  Spirits  containing  it,  are  also 
beneficial  in  many  forms  simulating  phthisis. — 
The  name  bronchitis  is  popnlarly  given  to  dis- 
ease of  the  follicles  of  the  mucous  membrane  of 
the  air  passages,  generally  above  the  bronchial 
division  of  the  trachea ;  the  disease  thus  named 
is  more  familiarly  known  as  *^  dergyman^s  sore 
throat,*'  from  the  fact  that  this  class  of  public 
speakers  is  particularly  subject  to  it  It  may 
affect  the  nose,  posterior  fauces,  or  larynx,  and 
is  properly  called  catarrh,  pharyn^tis,  laryngi- 
tis, tracheitis,  and  even  bronchitis,  according 
to  the  part  of  the  air-passages  affected ;  the  seat 
of  the  disease  is  originally  in  the  follicles  of  the 
membrane,  and  it  may  therefore  be  called  fol- 
liculitis. In  the  incipient  stages,  as  found  in 
the  pharynx,  there  is  rarely  any  troublesome 
cough ;  but  l^e  abundant  secretion  of  the  fol- 
licles causes  an  incessant  hawking  to  clear  the 
throat  from  the  tenacious  mucous.  It  is  more 
common  in  men  than  in  women,  in  the  propor* 
tion  of  8  to  1.  In  many  cases  there  is  a  com- 
plication of  chronio  bronchitis,  with  the  expec- 
toration of  a  characteristic  opaque  jnatter 
mingled  with  the  transparent  mucus.  When 
the  follides  of  the  larynx  and  trachea  are  in- 
volved, a  cough  comes  on,  attended  with  free 
viscid  sputa  from  the  beginning,  in  this  differ- 
ing from  phthisis ;  there  is  also  great  mental 
depression,  contrasting  strongly  with  the  never- 
ceasing  hope  of  the  consumptive.  In  case  of 
ulceration  of  the  follicles,  the  cough  is  paroxys- 
mal and  severe;  if  the  epiglottis  be  affected, 
there  is  difficulty  of  swallowing,  with  pain  and 
som  etimes  dyspncea.  The  disease  may  descend 
into  the  stomach,  causing  a  form  of  dyspepsia, 
which  yields  to  the  internal  administration  of 
the  nitrate  of  silver.  Though  the  system  may- 
be implicated,  the  disease  is  essentially  local, 
and.  is  best  trotted  by  topical  applications,  and 
esp«cially  by  means  of  the  nitrate  of  silver.  Dr. 
Horace  Green,  of  New  York,  has  been  mainly 
instrumental  in  bringing  to  the  notice  of  the 
American  profession  the  remarkable  effects  of 
th^  nitrate  of  silver  in  this  and  kindred  com- 

Elaints,  proving  its  efficacy  and  safety  in  cases 
eretofore  considered  beyond  the  reach  of  art 
Inhalations  of  medicated  vapors  are  also  of 
great  service.  In  a  special  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject. Dr.  Green  has  given  the  symptoms,  course, 
and  treatment  of  this  disease,  illustrated  by  nu- 
merous cases,  showing  its  termination  in  com- 
plaints resembling  consumption,  unless  arrested 
by  suitable  remedies. 

BBONDSTED,  Pxdkb  Olut,  aDanish  archa- 
ologist,  bom  near  Horsen,  province  of  Jutiand, 
Nov.  17, 1780,  died  from  a  fall  of  his  horse,  in 
Copenhagen,  June  26, 184d.  He  explored  Greece 
in  1810  in  company  with  other  savants,  received 
on  his  return  in  1818  an  appointment  as  professor 
at  the  Oopenhagen  university,  and  in  1818  that 
of  agent  of  his  government  at  Rome.  Having 
obtained  the  latter  appointment  with  a  view  to 
promote  his  ar^ieological  labors,  he  afterward 


explored  Sicily  and  the  Ionian  islands,  visited 
France  and  England,  and  on  his  final  return  to 
Copenhagen  in  1832  he  officiated  as  director  of 
the  royal  cabinet  of  antiquities,  as  professor, 
and  lastiy  as  rector  of  the  university.  He  left 
a  large  number  of  writings,  prominent  among 
which  is  his  work  on  his  travels  and  investiga- 
tions in  Greece  (2  vols.  Paris,  1826  and  1880). 
BRONGNIART.  I.  AxEXAyDRE  TnioDORB, 
a  French  architect,  bom  in  Paris,  Feb.  16, 1789, 
died  there  June  6,  1816.  He  was  the  son  of  an 
apothecary,  and  was  destined  to  become  a  phy- 
sician. After  continuing  the  study  of  medicine 
for  a  time,  however,  he  turned  his  attention  to 
the  study  of  art.  Having  become  familiar  with 
the  exact  sciences  as  a  preparation  for  his  med- 
ical education,  he  was  well  prepared  to  study 
architecture,  and  his  taste  led  him  to  adopt  that 
profession.  He  became  the  pupil  of  Boul^  bxk 
architect  of  some  repute  for  buildinff  private 
residences  of  a  splendid  kind,  although  nis  name 
is  not  connected  with  the  building  of  any  mon- 
umental structure.  Brongniart  became  an 
adept  in  the  same  line,  and  in  1778  commenced 
a  career  of  success  which  only  ended  with  his 
life.  At  that  time  few  publio  buildings  were 
erected  in  Paris,  but  immense  activity  was  man- 
ifested in  the  construction  of  palatial  private 
residences.  Brongniart  constructed  the  h6tel 
du  petit  palius  d'Orl^ans,  and  the  adjoining 
h6tel  of  Madame  de  Hontesson.  He  also  built 
the  h6tel  Bondy,  better  known  as  the  hotel 
Frascati,  in  the  rue  Richelieu.  Many  of  these 
splendid  residences  are  now  being  demolished 
to  make  room  for  buildings  of  a  more  com- 
mercial and  productive  character.  The  h6tel 
Osmond,  the  h6tel  Monaco,  and  many  of  the 
splendid  houses  on  the  new  boulevards,  and 
the  avenues  leading  from  the  h6tel  des  Invar 
lides  to  the  Bcole  militaire  in  Paris,  were  con- 
structed by  Brongniart  He  also  built  the  con- 
vent of  the  Capuchin  monks,  with  its  church, 
in  the  chauss^e  d'Antin,  now  transformed  into 
the  Bourbon  college.  Beins  a  man  of  taste  as 
well  as  science,  he  was  mudi  consulted  by  rich 
families,  in  all  their  arduteotural  and  other  im- 
provements in  the  distributions  of  their  parks 
and  gpardens.  He  designed  and  laid  out  the 
park  of  Maupertuis,  described  for  its  charms  in 
the  poem  of  Delille  on  "  Gardens.*^  He  also 
made  numerous  designs  for  ornaments,  vases, 
and  furniture,  both  for  private  establishments 
and  for  the  government  At  the  age  of  88 
Brongniart  was  elected  member  of  tiie  acad- 
emy of  architecture,  and  he  was  also  the  of- 
ficial architect  of  many  chartered  companies 
and  publio  bodies,  but  it  was  only  toward  the 
end  of  hiB  career  that  he  was  appointed  archi- 
tect of  the  Bourse  and  of  Pere  la,  Chaise, 
n.  Antoikb  Loxna,  chemist,  brother  of  the 
preceding,  died  in  Paris,  Feb.  24,  1804.  JB^ 
was  apothecary  to  Louis  XYL,  professor  at 
the  college  of  pharmacy,  and  afterward  pro- 
fessor of  chembtry  applied  to  the  arts.  He 
was  the  colleague  of  the  celebrated  Fourcroy  at 
the  lyceum  of  the  republic,  and  also  at  tiie  jar- 


726 


BRONN 


BBOKTS 


din  detplaiUeij  in  Fftris.  Daring  a  ]>oftion  of 
the  nTohitionarj  period,  before  he  obtained 
hit  profeHorahip  of  chemistrjr,  be  was  apotbo- 
earj  to  the  army.  He  wrote  much  in  the 
joornalfl  of  acieooe  in  his  day,  and  pnbliahed 
■ome  important  papen  on  obemtBtry:  among 
others,  ''An  Analytical  Table  of  the  Com* 
binationa  and  Deoompoaitions  of  Different  Sub- 
ataaoea;  or.  Explanatory  Methods  of  the  sci- 
ence** (Paris,  1778).  ill.  Alkzandrb,  chem- 
kt  and  geologist,  the  son  of  the  ardiitect,  born 
in  Paris  in  1770,  died  there  in  1847.  He  was 
early  trained  to  adentifio  porsnits,  and  at  the 
age  of  20,  on  returning  from  a  visit  to  England, 
hi  waa  ooonpied  in  atodying  the  best  means  of 
improring  tne  art  of  enamdling  in  France.  He 
waa  afterward  engaged  in  the  medical  depart- 
ment of  the  army,  and  on  returning  home  in 
1801,  waa  ai>pointed  direotor  of  the  mann&cto- 
ly  of  porcelain  at  Sdyrea.  In  1807  he  composed 
a  treatise  on  mineralogy,  which  was  a  standard 
work  on  the  snl^ect  He  was  also  appointed 
pn>fesaor  of  mineralogy  at  the  garden  of  plants, 
and  mnch  of  his  time  was  apent  in  the  study  of 
aodagy,  with  Onvier  and  other  celebrated  nat- 
uralists. He  undertook  the  dasnfication  of 
reptiles,  and  described  the  trilobites,  a  very 
i^gnlar  family  of  fossil  crustaceans  differing 
widely  from  aU  the  living  fonns  of  tne  present 
day.  Ouvier  waa  then  occupied  in  the  study  of 
the  fossil  remains  of  extinct  types,  and  Brongni- 
art  assisted  him  greatly  by  exploring  and  ex- 
plaining the  geological  formation  of  Montmartre 
and  its  foasil  treasures;  their  Joint  labors  being 
published  in  the  celebrated  beseriptian  giol^ 
gique  dM  entirans  ds  ParU,  He  travelled 
over  the  northern  and  southern  parts  of 
Europe,  exploring  every  region ;  and  was  the 
first  to  give  the  world  an  accurate  chronological 
account  of  the  different  superficial  strata  of  the 
earth^s  crust  in  various  parts  of  the  globe.  He 
waa  elected  member  of  the  academy  of  sciences 
In  1815,  and  was  connected  with  the  pro- 
gress of  the  physical  sciences  in  nearly  all 
their  branches  during  40  years.  In  1845 
he  published  a  treatise  on  the  fictile  arts 
{TVaM  dM  arU  c^ramiqun)^  which  is  deemed 
the  most  perfect  work  of  the  kind  ever  pub- 
lished. Iv.  Adolphb  Th^ophilb,  a  botanist, 
son  of  the  preceding,  bom  in  Paris,  Jan.  14, 
1801.  He  nrst  studied  medicine,  and  received 
his  diploma  of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1826 ;  but 
afterward  turned  hu  attention  to  the  physi- 
ology of  plants  and  antediluvian  phytology.  In 
1884  he  waa  elected  a  member  of  the  academy 
of  aciences,  as  successor  to  Desfontaines ;  and 
In  1889  professor  of  botany  at  tiie  museum  of 
natural  history  in  Paris.  His  researches  have 
been  various^  and  his  works  are  numerous. 
BRONN,  HxrauoH  Geobo,  a  German  natu- 
ralist and  professor  at  the  university  of  Hei- 
delberff,  bom  March  8, 1800,  the  author  of  many 
valuable  publications  on  various  branches  of 
natural  science.  Among  his  more  recent  works 
is  one  on  general  zoology  (1860) ;  and  a  8d  and 
enlarged  editicm  of  one  of  hia  most  important 


productiona,   Ldkaa  geogjuttm^  vlnoh  va 
oriffinallv  published  in  18M,  sppeand  V^^ 

BRONNEEC,  JoHAmi  Phoifp,  a  GemoD 
writer  on  wine^  bom  in  1703,  a  nadcDt  of 
Wiesslooh,  near  Heidelberg,  the  antlwrof  Sdb- 
tinct  troatiBcs  on  the  various  wines  of  EniQpe. 
travelled  extennvely  in  order  to  familisrixe  Uin- 
self  with  the  best  methods  of  eQltiTs%  }k 
vines,  and  holds  the  position  of  cooociHcr  oi 
matters  of  agriculture  to  the  grand  duke  d 
Baden.  He  possesses  a  remarkable  ooQecdn 
of  the  different  apedmens  of  grapeit  ooe  ot 
which  is  known  under  the  nameel  tlie&a- 
ner  grape. 

BBOinE,  atownofSioil7,intheproTiiM»i){ 
Oatania,nearthewestemba86Qn£t.&ia.  Itbs 
a  number  of  churches,  convents,  aaoDUDaryjiofii- 
u&ctures  of  woollen  and  p^>tf,aadtndeiii  vine, 
oil,  silk,  grain,  and  fruits.  InlVMtheKopoli- 
tan  government  conferred  the  titleof  dakeof 
Bronte,  with  a  revenue  of  about  $l&,1tf)  per 
annum,  upon  Lord  Nelson.  The  town  soflmd 
much  from  an  earthquake  in  1881  Pop.d,SO(l 

BHOKTfi,  OoAXLOiTB,  an  EngM  umH 
the  8d  in  a  fiunily  of  6  children,  all  diogbtm 
but  one,  bom  at  Thornton,  Toibhire,  k}tL 
21,  1816,  died  at  Haworth,  Mardi  81,  18m. 
Her  father,  the  Rev.  Patricdc  Bronie,  nu  i 
native  of  Ireland;  at  the  age  of  25  bees- 
tered  St  John's  college,  Oambridge;  \uk 
hia  degree  nearly  4  years  after;  waiordsMd 
to  a  diarge  in  Essex ;  removed  intoToitiin. 
and  held  for  6  yean  the  curw^  of  Hartabaii 
where,  in  1812,  he  wooed  and  msnied  asDall 
delioate,  plain  woman,  named  Karia  BnavdL 
Soon  after  the  birth  of  his  2d  dangfiter,  ^ 
became  curate  of  Thornton  church,  lad,  m 
1820,  minister  of  Haworth,  where,  the  un 
year,  he  buried  his  wife,  fie  waa  a  kind,  <*^ 
nest,  upright  man,  uniting  much  ikitogiii  <^ 
character  with  an  Irish  inflanunabilitTof  tonper 
subject  to  fits  of  intense  wrath,  whioi,  howets. 
when  he  could  not  hold  in,  he  had  a  rinn^ 
way  of  venting  on  inanimate  object  tsd 
always  managed  ita  e^losions  so  thit  mb 
should  suffer  by  them.  From  hia  nanownenf 
and  high  q>irit,  the  little  motherieas  iloekT» 
early  inured  to  indnatty  and  self-denial;  w. 
by  the  habits  and  cironmstanceaof  the  ^ 
they  were  in  a  remarkable  degree  eot  off  ^ 
the  ordinary  delights  of  chudhood,  and  no 
up  to  such  as  they  could  find  or  make  vm 
themselves.  Their  plainness  of  Mring  se^t^ 
almost  fh>m  the  cradle,  to  a  come  of  W' 
thinking;  even  their  childiah  prattle  ^ 
public  affidrs  and  public  charseten;  theolog;. 
politics,  literature,  arguments  of  atate,  of  vv* 
of  ethics,  of  art,  were  the  material  of  their  fat- 
side  sports  and  reoreationa.  In  18H  ^ 
lotte  and  8  of  her  sisters.  Maria,  Elizabetfa,^ 
Emily,  were  put  to  a  school  at  a  place  eil^ 
Cowan's  Bridge.  The  school  had  beea  ffifif 
established  by  a  wealthy  and  hensToleDtdbi^ 
man,  with  a  view  to  provide  instmeticn  fcr  tM 
daughters  of  clergymen  of  limited  wfl***  ,^ 
situation  proved  to  be  unhealthy;  the  fom 


CHARLOTTE  BRONTfi 


727 


was  ia  some  respects  not  wdl  managed ;  the 
foander,  who  alao  exercised  the  chief  control, 
was  so  anxiuos,  and  so  nnwise  in  his  anxietr, 
to  make  the  pupils  good,  that  he  did  not  take 
Bofficient  care  to  make  them  happj.  What 
with  scant  supplies,  villanous  cookery,  and 
hard  discipline,  the  poor  girls  suffered  much.  In 
the  spring  of  1825,  a  fever  invaded  the  school, 
and  laid  its  hand  on  manj  of  the  inmates. 
The  Bront&i  escaped  its  touch,  hut  the  health 
of  the  two  elder  was  bo  far  impaired  in  other 
ways  that  they  had  to  he  taken  home ;  and  both 
oi  them  died  in  the  course  of  the  summer.  The 
bitter  experiences  of  the  place  sank  deep  into 
the  mind  of  Oharlotte;  tneir  influence  lives 
more  or  less  in  aU  her  writings,  but  especially 
in  the  sombre  fencination  which  broods  over  the 
pages  of  '*  Jane  Eyre,"  the  recollections  of  the 
echoed  beinff  largely  drawn  upon  for  the  inci- 
dents and  characters  of  that  remarkable  novel. 
In  the  antnmn  of  1825,  Oharlotte  and  Emily  left 
the  school,  and  for  several  years  lived  at  home. 
Oharlotte  was  now  the  oldest  of  the  children, 
and  her  tendencies  to  a  premature  womanhood 
were  much  strengthened  by  the  care  which  it 
became  her  duty  to  exercise  over  the  younger 
members  of  the  £unily.  During  these  years, 
she  seems  to  have  spent  much  of  her  tune  in 
a  severe,  though  self-imposed  apprenticeship  at 
writing,  and  the  results  survive  in  a  large  col- 
lection of  manuscripts,  written  in  a  microscopic 
hand,  and  revealing  such  a  development  of  mind, 
such  a  compass  and  facility  of  thought,  as  was 
perhaps  never  before  witnessed  in  a  girl  of  her 
age.  In  the  winter  of  1881,  she  was  again  put 
to  sohool  at  a  place  called  Roe  Head,  where 
she  continued  nearly  2  years.  The  teadier 
was  a  kind,  motherly  person,  named  Wooler. 
Here  she  was  free  from  discomforts,  save  what 
grevr  from  her  intense  craving  for  Knowledge, 
the  bitter  recollections  she  brought  to  the  place, 
and  the  tinge  of  despondency  which  seems  to 
have  been  partly  complexional  with  her ;  while 
her  quick  and  powerful  mind,  her  patient 
energy  of  character,  her  stiud  yet  tender  car- 
riage, her  affectionate  and  helpml  temper,  won 
her  the  respect  of  all,  and  settled  her  in  some 
warm  and  lasting  friendships.  Of  play,  even  at 
that  early  age,  we  seemed  incapable;  she  was 
demure,  tongue-tied  with  thought,  intensely 
studious;  often  confounded  her  schoolmates  by 
knowing  things  quite  out  of  their  range ;  some* 
tunes  exercised  her  genius  in  telling  stories  for 
their  entertainment,  when  her  fund  of  original 
and  startling  invention  would  transport  the 
eager  listeners  with  ecstasies  of  wonder  and 
fear.  In  1885,  she  reentered  the  school  as  a 
teacher,  and  took  her  sister  Emily  along  with 
her  as  a  pupil ;  but  it  soon  became  evident  that 
Emily  could  not  live  away  from  home,  and  so 
die  changed  places  with  the  yonngest  sister, 
Anne.  Oharlotte  didnot  take  teaching  easy ;  it 
was  her  nature,  in  whatever  she  did,  to  work 
with  ail  her  might;  and  the  labor  wore  upon 
her  health  and  spirits  till  she  was  forced  to  give 
it  up.    In  1888,  we  find  her  spending  another 


happy  and  healthful  season  at  home,  turning 
her  mind  to  all  the  offices  of  a  daughter  and 
elder  sister,  devoted,  diligent,  self-sacrificing, 
brave-hearted,  apt-handed,  ever  resolute  to 
make  her  own  wav  in  the  world,  unwearied  in 
helping  those  to  whom  she  was  knit  by  ties  of 
love  and  duty.  The  next  year,  she  tried  the 
work  of  governess,  but  fell  into  a  hard,  purse- 
proud,  uncongenial  famil  v,  with  a  set  of  pam- 
pered and  turbulent  children,  from  whose  pat- 
ronage she  soon  withdrew,  shattered  in  spirits 
and  deeply  disgusted.  In  1841,  she  went  out 
again  as  governess ;  this  time  her  situation  was 
much  pleasanter ;  she  met  with  kind  and  appre- 
ciative treatment;  but  the  occupation  was 
against  the  whole  grain  of  her  nature,  a  contin- 
ual stifling  of  faciUties  and  impulses  strong  as 
life.  Her  next  plan  was,  that  she  and  her  two 
sisters  should  undertake  an  independent  school, 
whereby  they  might  maintain  themselves 
together,  and  at  the  same  time  have  leisure  to 
try  their  hands  at  literary  work.  But  they  did 
not  deem  themselves  sufficiently  accomplished 
for  such  a  task;  and.  as  they  could  not  afford 
the  expense  of  a  gooa  English  school,  they  hit 
upon  the  project  of  spending  some  time  in  a 
school  on  the  continent,  to  qualify  themselves 
for  teaching.  The  result  was,  that  Oharlotte 
and  Emily  went  to  Brussels  in  the  winter  of 
1842.  At  the  end  of  6  months,  they  were 
induced  to  prolong  their  sta^,  by  an  invitation 
to  take  part  in  the  teachmg,  and  thus  earn 
something  toward  paying  their  way.  Emily 
did  not  remain  quite  a  year ;  Oharlotte  spent 
nearly  2  years  there,  intensely  active  in  all  her 
&oulties  of  mind,  building  herself  up  with  solid 
and  varied  acquirement  comfortable  in  her 
associations,  and  cheerful  in  the  intercourse  of 
kind  friends.  In  the  summer  of  1844,  the 
arrangements  were  made  for  opening  a  school 
at  Haworth ;  they  sent  out  circulars,  received 
many  assurances  of  good  wishes  to  the  enter- 
prise, waited  month  after  month,  but  still  no 
pupihi  came;  and  at  last  they  despaired  of 
success.  During  this  period,  and  thenceforth, 
the  sisters  remained  at  home,  dividing  their 
time  between  household  cares  and  literary 
labors.  In  1846,  they  put  forth  a  joint  volume 
of  poems,  under  the  names  of  "Ourrer,  Ellis, 
and  Acton  Bell.*'  The  publication  was  at  their 
own  risk;  the  work  met  with  little  favor; 
the  sales  were  very  limited.  Notwithstanding 
this  fiulure,  they  did  not  yet  despair  of  getting 
the  public  ear.  They  wrote  each  a  prose  tale, 
hoping  the  three  would  be  published  together. 
These  were,  "The  Professor,"  by  Oharlotte; 
**  Wuthering  Heights,"  by  Emily  ;  and  "  Agnes 
Orey,"  by  Anne ;  the  names  assumed  in  the 
volume  of  poems  being  still  retained.  The 
latter  2  found  a  publisher ;  the  first  was  every- 
where refused,  nor  did  it  get  before  the  public 
till  since  the  author's  death.  It  was  under  the 
weight  of  all  this  discouragement  that  the 
great,  brave,  noble  little  woman  imdertook  the 
composition  of  ^^  Jane  Eyre,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  Oct.  1847.    The  work  was  not  to  be 


728 


CHARLOTTE  BRONTfi 


BRONZE 


resisted ;  it  rapidly  mode  its  way  to  a  decided 
triumph;  it  was  translated  into  most  Euro- 
l)ean  languages,  and  dramatized  in  England  and 
also  in  Germany  under  the  title  of  the  *^  Orphan 
of  Lowood."  Even  her  father  knew  nothing  of 
what  she  had  done,  till  she  put  the  printed 
book  into  his  hand,  and  told  him  it  was  her 
own  work.  This  great  and  hard-won  enccess 
was  followed  by  afflictions  as  great.  Emily 
died  Dec.  19,  1848.  The  attachment  of  the 
2  sisters  was  inexpressibly  tender  and  deep. 
Oharlotte^s  tears  were  scarce  dry  before  they 
had  to  flow  afresh.  Anne,  the  youngest  of  this 
remarkable  trio,  in  less  than  6  months,  followed 
Emily  to  the  grave,  May  28,  1849 ;  her  2d 
novel,  "The  Tenant  of  Wildfell  Hall," having 
been  published  the  previous  year,  ^fiss 
BrontSrs  2d  novel,  "Shirley,"  was  given  to 
the  public  in  Oct.  1849.  8he  took  great  pains 
with  the  work ;  still  it  hardly  made  good  the 
expectations  raised  by  "Jane  Eyre."  From 
the  large  use  she  made  of  local  manners  and 
traditions,  the  secret  of  the  authorship  soon 
transpired.  The  result  was^  she  visited  London ; 
took  her  place  amonff  the  literaij  stars  of  the 
time ;  nnderwent,  withont  harm,  the  pains  and 
perils  of  lionizing  in  the  metropolis.  She  looked 
on  life,  and  all  ita  shams  and  fnpperies,  with  the 
keen  and  earnest  eye  of  simple  truth;  its  vani- 
ties could  not  cheat  her,  and  her  fierce  strug* 
glings  with  the  untowar^ess  of  fortune  had  left 
her  no  time  to  cultivate  the  arts  of  self-decep- 
tion. Her  "Villette,"  after  being  a  long  while 
on  the  stocks,  but  only  worked  at  from  time  to 
time,  in  the  intervals  of  a  care-worn  life  and  a 
faltering  health,  was  at  last  finished  and 
launched  in  the  autumn  of  1862.  This  story 
seems  to  have  taken  more  or  less  of  its  shape 
and  texture  from  the  author^s  recollections  of 
Brussels.  In  strength  and  originality  of  charac- 
terization it  does  not  equal  Bhirley,  but  is  per- 
haps more  interesting  and  attractive  as  a  whole. 
It  met  with  almost  unbounded  applause. — About 
this  time.  Miss  Bronte  was  surprised  with  a 
declaration  of  love  from  the  Rev.  Mr.  NichoUs, 
her  father's  curate,  who  had  known  her  long. 
His  affection  had  nothing  of  flash  about  it;  it 
was  the  dow  and  silent  growth  of  years ;  it  was 
deep,  ardent,  and  tender.  Her  father,  though 
having  no  objections  to  the  man,  objected  to 
the  match.  She  acquiesced  in  his  Judgment, 
and  Mr.  Nicholls  resigned  his  curacy.  It  seems 
that  by  the  spring  of  1854,  Mr.  Bronte  came  to 
view  the  matter  in  a  different  light ;  an  engage- 
ment was  formed,  Mr.  Nicholls  resumed  the 
curacy,  and  the  marriage  took  place  the  June 
following.  The  newly-married  pair  lived  at  the 
parsonage ;  to  comfort  and  brighten  her  father's 
old  age,  was  their  joint  service.  The  poor 
woman  had  at  last  reached  a  season  of  rest  and 
joy ;  but  the  cup  was  to  be  snatched  from  her 
thirsty  lip,  ere  she  had  more  than  fairly  tasted 
of  its  sweetness. — ^A  biography  of  this  extraor- 
dinary woman  has  been  given  to  the  public  by 
her  friend,  Mrs.  Gaskell.  It  is  a  tale  full  of 
solemn  and  pathetic  attraction.    It  is  evident 


enough  that  for  her  high  achievements  Mln 
Bronte  was  nowise  indebted  to  any  advantages 
commonly  withheld  from  her  sex.  Toil  and 
pain  and  sorrow  were  her  portion;  her  life 
was  one  long  wrestling  match  with  the  atnb- 
bom  nnkindness  of  drcumstanoes.  The  only 
help  she  had  was  in  being  left  to  work  her  way 
unhelped ;  if  she  owed  her  success  to  any  thing 
external,  it  was  the  having  to  overcome  moun- 
tains of  discouragement  And  in  all  the  rela- 
tions of  life  she  discovered  a  heart  framed  of 
the  purest  ore  of  womanhood;  to  the  proper 
ministries  of  the  daughter,  the  sister,  the  wife, 
the  friend,  the  Christian,  she  was  thoroug^y 
fiiithful  and  true.  Her  great  gifts  of  genius 
challenge  our  admiration ;  which  it  is  sweet  to 
give,  because  at  the  same  time  her  hard  lot 
challenges  our  pity,  and  her  womanly  virtues^ 
our  reverence.  The  secret  of  her  power  aeema 
to  lie  in  a  prodigious  fieusulty  of  labor,  ener- 
gized and  dirocted  by  the  heart  and  conscience 
of  the  woman.  As  an  author,  she  toudiea 
various  springs  of  interest  with  a  bold,  firm, 
masterly  hand.  Sterling  good  sense  is  the 
main  staple  of  her  stock  in  trade.  Her  mode 
of  conceiving  and  working  out  character  is 
eminently  original  and  profound;  while  she 
anatomizes  the  human  heart  with  the  stem, 
unfaltering  firmness  of  truth.  Of  humor  die 
has  very  little,  and  that  little  is  mainly  of 
the  caustic  and  pungent  sort.  She  has  a  pierc- 
ing and  pregnant  wit,  which,  however,  rarely 
appears  as  a  prominent,  never  as  a  separate 
element  in  her  works.  The  subtler  spells  of 
fancy  seem  always  amenable  to  her  call;  im- 
ages  of  the  ghastly,  the  dream-like,  the  ahad- 
owy,  the  mysterious,  rise  up  at  her  bidding; 
the  lonely  raptures  of  pensive  and  solita^ 
musing  throng  upon  us  in  her  scenes,  and 
steal  us  from  ourselves;  indeed,  whatever 
is  adapted  to  work  on  the  moral  and  imagin- 
ative forces,  is  strangely  responsive  to  her 
invocations.  But  the  great  feature  of  her 
writing  is  its  muscular  intellectnality.  Her 
adventurous  plough  dares  the  toughest  soils, 
and  forces  its  way  through,  upturning  them 
from  the  bottom.  Nor  does  she  ever  confound 
her  sensations  with  her  perceptions ;  hence  we 
never  catch  her  tormenting  language  in  a  spBs- 
modio  effort  to  translate  the  darkness  of  the 
one  into  the  light  of  the  other.  The  resmlt 
of  all  which  is,  that  her  works  have  the  solid, 
le^timate,  durable  interest  of  truth ;  she  lodes 
life  square  in  the  face,  and  depicts  it  fearless- 
ly, as  if  Ehe  scorned  all  the  illusive  vanities  of 
art. 

BRONZE,  an  alloy  consisting  of  pn^rtiona 
of  copper  and  tin,  which  vary  accoiding  to  the 
purpose  desired,  to  which  lead,  zinc,  and  aUver 
also,  are  sometimes  added  for  the  purpose  of 
giving  greater  brilliancy  to  the  compound,  or 
rendering  it  more  fusible,  the  zinc  being  intro- 
duced in  the  form  of  In'ass.  In  some  of  the 
modem  bronzes,  brass  is  used  instead  of  tin; 
these  are  then  nothing  more  than  brass,  con- 
sisting of  very  large  proportions  of   copiier. 


BRONZE 


BRONZING 


729 


Speenlnm  metal  of  reflecting  telesoopea  is  a 
broDze  oomposition,  which  is  the  whitest, 
hardest,  most  brilliant,  and  brittle  of  all  the 
bronze  alloys.  It  consists  of  100  parts  tin  and 
215  of  copper.  Bell-metal  is  a  bronze,  which 
is  usually  composed  of  78  parts  copper  and  23 
of  tin.  This  is  also  the  composition  of  the 
Chinese  gongs,  which  are  forged  mider  the 
hammer,  the  alloy  being  rendered  malleable, 
after  casting,  by  plunging  it  at  a  cherry-red 
heat  into  cold  water ;  £he  plate  is  kept  in  shape 
by  confining  it  between  two  disks  of  iron.  Gan- 
non metal  consists  of  90  to  91  parts  in  100  of 
copper,  and  the  rest  of  tin.  The  strength  of 
this  compound  is  stated  by  Dr.  Thomson  to  be 
^  that  of  malleable  iron.  Antique  bronze  con- 
sisted of  copper  87-88,  and  tin  12-18  parts  inlOO; 
there  being  no  ziuo,  it  was  distinct  from  brass. 
The  best  French  bronze  consists  of  copper  91, 
tin  2,  zinc  6,  and  lead  1.  In  combining  the  met- 
als to  produce  the  best  alloys,  the  objects  to  be 
attained  are  the  most  perfect  chemical  union  of 
the  ingredients,  with  the  production  of  a  fusible 
compound,  that  shall  easily  flow  into  and  retain 
the  form  of  the  minutest  parts  of  the  mould. 
Unless  this  chemical  combination  takes  place,  a 
separation  of  the  metals  is  liable  to  occur  during 
the  cooling,  as  was  noticed  during  tiie  casting  of 
the  column  of  the  Place  Yendbme  in  Paris, 
mentioned  in  the  article  Allot.  The  difficulty 
of  retaining  the  compound  of  the  same  compo- 
sition is  also  increased  by  the  tendency  of 
the  ingredients  to  oxidize  when  in  the  melted 
state — ^the  tin  more  rapidly  thaxi  the  copper. 
The  effect  of  this  is  not  only  to  change  the 
proportions  of  the  metals,  but  also  to  intro* 
dnce  particles  of  the  oxides,  which  do  not  com- 
bine with  the  rest,  but  produce  spots  and  stains 
upon  the  surface  of  the  casting.  Tin  has  the 
effect  of  rendering  the  alloy  harder  and  more 
fusible,  and  less  liable  to  be  affected  by  oxida- 
tion. The  dark  oliye  hue  which  bronze  ac- 
quires by  exposure,  is  hastened  by  the  appli- 
cation of  oxidiidng  washes,  and  different 
shades  may  be  given  according  to  the  chemical 
qualities  of  the  wash  employed.  Some  extract 
the  tin  from  the  sur&ce,  and  leave  the  copper 
in  excess,  and  others  remove  the  copper  and 
leave  the  tin  most  prominent. — Among  the  an- 
cient Greeks,  Romans,  and  Egyptians,  the  man- 
tifhcture  of  bronze  articles  was  very  extensively 
carried  on.  Their  taste  for  statuary  in  this 
material  was  cultivated  to  a  degree  not  at- 
tained by  the  modems.  The  wealth  of  some 
<nties  was  estimated  by  the  number  of  their 
statues.  In  Athens  alone  no  less  than  8,000 
statues  have  been  found,  and  in  Rhodes,  Olym- 
pia,  and  Delphi  many  more.  The  famous 
colossuses  were  cast  of  this  alloy.  The  names 
of  many  of  the  ancient  artists  are  sdll  cele- 
brated, and  their  groups  of  statuary  continue 
to  be  our  models.  The  alloy  was  employed 
by  them  for  purposes  to  which  we  apply  the 
harder  metals,  as  in  some  periods  for  their  arms 
and  armor,  medals,  and  even  their  surgical 
instruments,  a  set  of  which  was  discovered 


at  Pompeii  By  them  it  was  regarded  as 
a  sacred  metal,  and  endowed  with  mysterious 
powers  of  driving  away  evil  spirits.  The 
laws  were  inscribed  on  tables  of  bronze, 
and  upon  bronze  coins  alone  were  placed 
tiie  words  moneta  sacra.  The  PhoBnicians 
were  the  first  known  workers  of  it;  they 
mode  it  into  plates,  which  were  nailed  to- 
gether; and  they  also  cast  it  solid,  and  cored. 
The  Egyptians  i^pear  to  have  had  the  art 
of  hardening  it;  as  a  chisel  of  bronze  was 
found  in  one  of  their  quarries,  which  had  ap- 
parently been  used  for  cutting  porphyry,  tibe 
marks  of  the  chisel,  and  trace  of  the  metal 
being  left  in  the  stone.  Its  temper,  however, 
hod  disappeared,  and  its  edge,  when  applied  to 
the  rock,  was  immediately  turned.  Had  they 
the  art  of  softening  the  rock,  or  of  hardening 
the  alloy  t  The  Athenian  sculptor,  Myron,  em- 
ployed it  of  a  pale  color  and  unknown  com- 
position, in  the  5th  century.  The  Oorinthian 
bronze  is  supposed  to  have  been  suggested 
by  the  accidental  fusing  of  metals  at  the 
burning  of  Oormth,  146  B.  0.  It  was  of  8 
colors,  white,  yellow,  and  the  last  not  known. 
The  antique  Uver-colored  cinoue  cents,  and 
the  Florentine  bronze,  are  of  the  same  shade, 
approaching  a  dull  reddish  brown. — ^The  op- 
eration of  casting  bronze  statues  requires  no 
little  skill  and  experience.  Large  figures  are 
usually  cast  in  several  pieces,  which  are  after- 
ward fitted  together.  The  mould  is  prepared 
of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand,  which  receives 
its  shape  firom  the  impress  of  a  waxen  figure 
of  the  exact  form  desired.  The  preparation 
of  wax,  which  should  be  ftill  an  inch  thick, 
is  melted  out  as  the  mould  is  heated,  dried  and 
hardened.  If  the  article  is  to  be  cast  in  one 
piece,  the  different  parts  of  the  mould  are  ac- 
curately fitted  together,  and  many  little  chan- 
nels are  opened  through  its  external  part,  to 
admit  the  liquid  metal  into  all  its  portions. 
Bronze  casting  has  been  successfully  practised 
in  this  country  at  several  establishments.  That 
most  noted  for  statues,  ornaments,  and  cannon, 
is  the  foundery  of  the  Messrs.  Ames,  at  Chico- 
pee,  Mass.  The  equestrian  statue  of  Washing- 
ton in  Union  square.  New  York,  is  one  of  theur 
most  successftil  productions. 

BRONZING,  the  process  of  covering  ar- 
ticles of  wood,  day,  plaster,  metals,  ivory, 
^.,  with  compositions  which  give  to  them 
the  appearance  of  bronze.  These  composi- 
tions vary  in  their  ingredient8»  and  the  pro- 
cess also,  with  the  articles  to  be  coated.  An 
application  is  first  made  of  size  or  oil- varnish, 
into  which  when  nearly  dry  a  metallio  pow- 
der is  rubbed,  or  this  may  be  previously  mixed 
with  the  vaniish.  This  powder  is  most  com- 
monly a  preparation  called  gold  powder,  pre- 
pared as  follows:  Gold  leaf  is  CTOund  to- 
gether with  honey  upon  a  stone.  When  thor- 
oughly mixed,  and  the  particles  of  gold  com- 
pletely reduced,  the  preparation  is  stirred 
up  in  water,  and  washed  until  the  honey  is  en- 
tirely removed.    The  gold  which  setties  is  then 


780 


BRONZING 


BROOCH 


ooUected  upon  filtoriog  paper  and  dried.  Anoth- 
er varietj  of  powder,  called  Qurum  mcBaicuniy 
or  mtuivuffiy  is  prepared  in  the  following  man- 
ner: A  pound  of  tin,  melted  in  a  cmoible,  is 
amalgamated  with  half  its  weight  of  pure  mer- 
cury. When  the  amalgam  is  cold,  it  is  reduced 
to  powder,  and  ground  with  ^  pound  of  sal  am- 
moniac and  7  ounces  of  sulphur.  On  sublim- 
ing this  mixture  in  a  matrass,  the  tin  remains 
at  the  bottom  of  the  yessel  in  a  flaky  golden 
powder,  which  is  the  aurum  fnoBaicum.  A  shade 
of  red  is  given  to  this  when  desired,  by  adding 
a  small  portion  of  red  lead.  Copper  powder 
is  obtained  for  the  same  purpose  by  the  preci- 
pitation of  the  metal  from  its  solution  in  nitric 
or  sulphuric  acid,  by  means  of  pieces  of  metal- 
lic iron.  The  copper  deposits  itself  upon  these, 
from  which  it  may  be  brushed  off  in  powder, 
care  being  taken  to  exclude  it  from  tiie  action 
of  the  air,  as  it  is  washed  in  water,  or  better  in 
alcohol  It  is  used  either  alone  or  mixed  with 
pulverized  bone  ash.  The  preparation  called 
gold  size  is  also  used  in  bronzing.  It  is  made 
by  boiling  4  ounces  of  powder^  gum  animi 
and  a  pound  of  linseed  oil,  the  gum  being  grad- 
ually added,  and  stirred  into  the  oil,  while 
this  is  heated.  The  boilins  is  continued  till  the 
mixture  becomes  thicker  than  tar.  This  is  then 
to  be  strained  through  a  coarse  doth.  Whenap* 
plied,  vermilion  is  added  to  render  it  opaque, 
and  a  convenient  consistency  is  given  to  it  with 
oil  of  turpentine.  After  being  applied,  it  is  al- 
lowed to  dry  very  nearlv,  and  when  it  has  be- 
come sufSdentiy  hard,  the  powder  selected  is 
rubbed  over  the  work  witii  a  piece  of  soft 
leather  wrapped  round  the  finger;  or  the  ap- 
plication is  better  made  with  a  softcamel^s  hair 
pencil,  with  which,  when  auite  dry,  the  loose 
powder  is  brushed  away.  If  gold  size  is  not  to 
be  used,  the  powders  may  be  mixed  in  gum- 
water,  and  laid  on  with  a  brush. — ^Bronzing 
and  browning  gun  barrels,  and  other  artides  of 
iron,  is  effected  by  first  thoroughly  rusting  the 
surface  by  an  application  of  chloride  of  antimony, 
mixed  with  olive  oil,  and  rubbed  noon  the  iron 
dightiy  heated.  The  operation  is  hastened  by 
subsequent  rubbing  with  dilute  nitric  acid. 
This,  or  dilute  muriatic  acid,  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  the  chloride  of  antimony.  The  bar- 
rel is  then  well  deaned,  washed  with  water, 
dried,  and  finally  poUshed  with  a  sted  bur- 
nisher, or  rubbed  with  wax,  or  varnished  with  a 
very  weak  solution  of  shd-lao  and  alcohol  Va- 
rious other  processes  are  dso  in  use  for  this  pur- 
pose.— ^Different  processes  are  also  given  for 
bronzing  plaster  casts,  of  which  the  following 
appears  to  be  one  of  the  most  easily  applied : 
A  mixture  of  sulphate  of  iron  and  sulpnate  of 
copper  in  solution,  is  added  to  a  solution  in 
water  of  palm-oil  soap.  Different  shades  of  the 
brownish  green  predpitate  produced  are  given 
by  varying  the  proportion  of  the  sulphates. 
This  precipitate  is  to  be  washed  and  dried,  then 
redissolvea  in  a  varnish  of  Imseed  oil  and  wax. 
The  plaster  casts,  being  previously  heated,  are 
to  be  coated  with  the  ramish,  whioh  will  give 


them  the  appearance  of  bronze. — ^Another  pro- 
cess of  bronzing  consists  in  depositing,  by  the 
galvanic  batteiy,  upon  metallic  articles,  coatings 
of  the  bronze  alloy  of  any  desired  thickness.  The 
artide  to  be  coated  is  placed  in  the  reqcdred 
metallic  solution,  and  connected  with  the  nega- 
tive pole  of  the  battery,  and  a  plate  of  bronze 
metal  with  the  positive  decomposing  pole.  It 
is  said  that  rougn  cast  iron  may  be  thus  eoat^ 
and  made  to  assume  the  appearance  of  the  finest 
bronzes.  As  patented  by  M.  de  la  SalzMe  of 
Paris,  in  1847,  the  process  consists  in  the  use  of 
a  solution  of  5,000  parts  by  weight  of  distilled 
water,  610  parts  of  subcarbonate  of  potash,  25 
parts  of  chloride  of  copper,  48  parts  of  sulphate 
of  zinc,  805  parts  of  mtrate  of  ammonia,  and  12 
parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium.  The  cyanide  of 
potassium  is  dissolved  by  itself  in  about  120 
parts  of  distilled  water  taken  from  the  above 
quantity.  The  other  sdts  above  mentiooed 
(except  the  nitrate  of  ammonia)  are  then 
added  to  the  remainder  of  the  water,  and  the 
mixture  is  heated  to  from  144°  to  172''  F. ; 
when  they  are  entirely  dissolved,  the  nitrate  of 
ammonia  is  added,  and  the  solution  allowed  to 
stand  24  hours;  the  solution  of  the  cyanide  of 
potasnum  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  allowed 
to  stand  until  it  is  quite  clear ;  the  dear  solution 
is  then  to  be  drawn  off  with  a  siphon,  and  put 
in  the  decomposing  trough.  The  snlject  to  be 
covered  witib  bn»B  is  then  to  be  attached 
to  the  zinc  pole  of  a  battery,  and  to  the  other 
pole  of  the  battery  a  large  plate  of  brass  is 
to  be  attached,  which  must  be  also  immersed  in 
the  solution.  The  battery  must,  the  patentee 
says,  be  a  powerful  one;  he  advises  to  use 
Bunsen's  or  Grove's.  When  it  is  intended  to 
bronze,  instead  of  the  48  parts  of  sulphate  of 
zinc,  25  parts  of  chloride  of  tin  must  be  used; 
the  other  ingredients  are  to  remain  the  same. 
Anotiier  solution  recommended  by  the  patentee 
consists  of  5,000  parts  of  distilled  water,  15  pans 
of  chloride  of  copper,  85  parts  of  sulphate  of 
zinc,  500  parts  of  subcarbonate  of  potash,  and 
50  parts  of  cyanide  of  potassium,  for  brassing ; 
and  for  bronzing,  12  parts  of  chloride  of  tin,  in- 
stead of  the  85  parts  of  sulphate  of  zinc  This 
tolution,  the  patentee  says,  must  be  used  at  a  tem- 
perature of  from  25°  to  86^  centigrade.  Thejffo- 
portions  may  be  varied  within  certtdn  limits. 
.It  would  seem  that  the  deposit  may  also  be 
produced  without  the  use  of  the  battery  at  all  by 
mtrodudng  the  articles  in  solution  of  acetate  of 
copper,  whidi  gives  the  effect  and  protection  of 
bronze.  Other  methods  of  precipitating  brass 
upon  metallic  sur&ces  are  noticed  under  the 
head,  Brass. 

BRONZINO,  Akoslo,  a  Florentbie  painter, 
bom  at  the  be^nning,  died  at  the  end  of  the 
16th  century.  He  executed  several  works  in 
imitation  of  lifichel  Angdo,  of  whidi  the  best 
are  his  Pieta  in  the  diurch  of  Santa  Maria,  and 
his  Limbo  in  that  of  Santa  Crooe,  in  Florence. 
He  excelled  also  as  a  portrait  painter. 

BROOCH,  a  breast  ornament  worn  by  ladies, 
secured  by  a  Jointer  pin  and  lo<^,  of  various 


BROOKE 


731 


forms  and  materials.  When  decorated  with 
gems,  the  brooch  is  worn  only  in  fiill  dress.  In 
former  times  tiie  brooch  was  used  as  an  orna- 
ment bjr  men,  for  fastening  the  vest  or  shirt- 
bosom,  and  is  still  common  in  the  Highlands  of 
Scotland. 

BROOKE,  a  connt^  of  Virginia,  the  northern- 
most bnt  one  of  the  4  connties  that  make  up  the 
narrow  strip  of  land  between  Pennsylvania  and 
Ohio,  called  the  Panhandle.  Area,  75  sq.  m. 
It  is  watered  by  small  creeks,  that  mn  into 
the  Ohio,  its  western  boundary ;  its  soil  is  very 
fertile,  and  its  surface  hilly.  Com  and  wool 
are  its  great  staples.  Of  the  latter,  it  pro- 
duced, in  1850,  128,572  lbs.,  being  more  Uian 
was  produced  in  any  other  county  in  the  state. 
The  other  productions  were,  160,571  bushels 
of  Indian  corn,  and  65,516  of  wheat.  There 
were  5  corn  and  flour  mills,  4  saw  mills,  2 
paper  mills,  1  iron  foundery,  1  cotton,  1  woollen, 
and  1  glass  factory,  2  newspaper  offices,  and  11 
churches.  Its  real  estate  was  valued  in  1850 
at  $1,514,504;  in  1857  at  $1,148,172,  showing 
a  decrease  of  22  per  cent.  Capital,  Wellsburg. 
Pop.  in  1850,  5,05^  of  whom  81  were  slaves 
and  100  free  colored. 

BROOKE,  Franobs,  English  authoress,  a 
daufl^ter  of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Moore,  and  wife  of 
the  Rev.  John  Brooke,  died  in  1789.  She  wrote 
sonnets,  translations^  novels,  and  tragedies.  Her 
best  work,  the  "  H.istory  of  Emily  Montagu  " 
(1769),  contains  fine  descriptions  of  the  scenery 
of  Canada,  where  she  resided  for  some  tune.  Of 
her  dramatic  pieces,  ^*  Rosina,"  acted  at  Covent 
Garden  in  1782,  was  the  most  successful. 

BROO£[£.  I.  Fbancis  J.,  an  American  mag- 
istrate, born  near  Fredericksburg,  Va.,  Aug.  27, 
1768,  died  March  8, 1851.  He  was  an  officer  of 
the  revolution,  and  an  intimate  friend  of  Wash- 
ington. At  16  he  was  appointed  lieutenant  in 
Gen.  Harrison's  regiment  of  artillery,  and  served 
his  first  campaign  under  Lafayette.  He  after- 
ward joined  the  army  of  Gkn.  Greene  (his  twin 
brother,  John,  accompanying  him,  and  holding 
the  same  rank  in  the  army),  and  was  at  Charles- 
ton at  the  end  of  the  war.  After  studying 
medicine  a  short  time,  he  undertook  the  study  of 
law,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1788.  He 
was  several  times  elected  to  the  house  of  dele- 
gates and  senate  of  his  native  state.  While 
speaker  of  the  latter  in  1804,  he  was  elected  a 
judge  of  the  general  court.  In  1811  he  was 
elected  to  the  court  of  appeals,  and  again  in  1881, 
under  the  new  constitution,  and  officiated  in 
this  capacity  for  the  rest  of  his  Ufe.  II.  Fbanots 
J.,  son  of  the  preceding,  joined  the  army  in 
1822,  was  made  adjutant  April,  1888,  first  lieu- 
tenant May,  1885,  fell  Dec.  25, 1887,  in  the  bat- 
tle of  Okeechobee,  Fla.,  in  which  he  had  taken  a 
distinguished  part  HI.  Gbobgb  Meboeb,  uncle 
of  the  foregoing,  and  brother  of  the  judge,  died 
March  9, 1851,  at  San  Antonio,  Texas.  Having 
entered  the  XTnited  States  military  service  in 
1808,  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  lieutenant- 
colonel,  Aug.  15, 1814,  consequent  upon  his  brave 
conduct  in  the  defence  of  Fort  Erie^  in  which  he 


was  wounded ;  and  having  exhibited  the  same 
gallantry  in  the  war  with  Mexico,  he  was  made 
major-general  8  years  before  his  death,  which 
occurreid  in  Texas  while  he  w^  in  command  of 
the  8th  military  department 

RROOKE,  Hbkbt,  an  Irish  novelist  and 
dramatist  bom  at  Rantavan,  in  1706,  died  in 
Dublin,  Oct  10,  1788.  A  poem,  "  Universal 
Beauty."  heralded  by  the  praise  of  Pope,  intro- 
duced nim  to  Swift  and  others,  including  the 
prince  of  Wales  (father  of  George  III.),  to  sup- 
port whom,  in  his  antagonist  position  to  his 
father,  Mr.  Brooke  is  said  to  have  written,  in 
1788,  the  tragedy  of  «*  Gustavus  Vasa."  The 
licenser  of  plays,  believing  that  the  character  of 
a  tyrant  minister  was  directed  against  Sir 
Robert  Walpole,  forbade  its  performance  after 
it  had  been  rehearsed  at  Drury  lane  theatre,  but 
the  play  was  published,  and  the  author  gained  ^ 
£1,000  by  its  sale.  In  1745,  when  the  rebel- 
lion broke  out  in  Scotland,  he  wrote  the 
"Farmer's  Letters,"  which  were  believed  to 
have  greatly  influenced  the  Irish  against  takine 
up  arms  for  the  Stuarts.  An  opera,  oaUed 
"Jack  the  Giant  Queller,"  which  was  to  have 
been  produced  soon  after  the  close  of  the  rebel- 
lion, was  prohibited  by  the  Irish  government, 
who  feared  that  it  might  be  taken  as  a  reflection 
on  the  duke  of  Oumberland,  but  he  guned  £800 
by  its  publication;  at  the  same  time,  Mr. 
Brooke's  loyal  "  Letters  "  were  pwd  for  by  his 
being  appointed  barrackmaster  of  Mullingar  by 
Lord  Chesterfield,  the  viceroy.  In  1752,  his 
tragedy,  "  The  Earl  of  Essex,"  was  successfully 
played  in  Dublin,  and  in  1762  at  Drury  lane 
theatre.  His  novel  entitled  the  "  Fool  of  Quality" 
has  had  considerable  celebrity.  He  also  trans- 
lated a  part  of  Tasso's  Q^ruMlenvtM  Lib&rata, 

BROOKE,  Sis  Jamks,  r^ah  of  Sarawak,  born 
in  1808  at  Bandel,  in  Zillah  Hoogly,  Bengal. 
His  father,  having  taken  up  his  residence  at 
Bath,  England,  procured  for  him  a  cadetship 
in  the  ^Lst  Inaia  service;  but  receiving  a 
severe  gun-shot  wound  in  the  chest  at  the 
storming  of  a  stockade  in  the  Burmese  war, 
he  was  forced  to  return  to  England.  At  this 
time  he  travelled  on  the  continent,  and  found 
on  his  return  to  India,  in  1880,  that  he  had  ex- 
ceeded his  leave  of  absence,  and  forfeited  his 
appointment  He  resigned,  and  sailed  firom 
Calcutta  to  China.  On  this  voyage  he  saw, 
for  the  first  time,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  arch- 
ipelago, lying  nefflected,  and  almost  unknown. 
The  spirit  of  adventure,  the  hope  of  adding 
another  empire  to  the  conquests  of  civilization, 
and  of  suppressing  the  system  of  piracy  then  the 
scourge  of  the  eastern  seas,  arose  in  his  mind, 
and  were  thenceforth  associated  with  the  idea 
of  obtaining  a  foothold  among  these  beautiful 
islands.  He  returned  to  England,  and  purchased 
a  yacht  out  of  the  royal  squadron,  enjoying  tiie 
same  privileges  as  a  man-of-war.  After  dis- 
oiplining  his  crew,  some  20  in  number,  by  a 
cruise  in  the  Mediterranean,  he  sailed  Oct  27, 
1888,  for  the  East  On  his  arrival  at  Sarawak, 
on  the  island  of  Borneo,  he  found  the  country 


732 


BBOOKE 


BBOOKLYK 


in  a  state  of  warikra,  the  Djaka,  the  inhabitanta 
of  Sarawak,  blockaded  from  the  interior,  and 
exposed  to  conatantand  morderoTia  descents, 
and  with  their  rajfdi,  Muda  Hafisiin,  carrying 
on  a  loang  contest  In  return  for  his  as- 
sistance, the  ngah  offered  to  make  him  his 
sncoessor.  The  proposal  was  accepted  with- 
out much  hesitation.  Mr.  Brooke  took  the 
command  of  the  riyah's  armj,  and  after  thej 
were  once  brought  into  the  presence  of  the 
hostile  forces,  a  few  discharges  from  the  Eu- 
ropean guns  decided  the  fortnne  of  the  day. 
Established  in  anthority-over  Sarawak,  he  en- 
deavored to  accustom  the  inhabitants  to  a 
regular  government  and  regular  pursuits,  and  to 
turn  them  fW)m  piracy  and  local  war  to  agricul- 
ture and  commerce.  He  always  acted  with 
vigor,  and  has  succeeded  to  an  extraordinary 
degree.  In  coniunction  with  the  English  naval 
commanders  in  those  waters,  he  attacked,  routed, 
and  extirpated  the  Malay  pirates  of  the  archi- 
pelago. The  killing  of  the  pirates  was  paid  for 
by  the  En^h  commanders,  to  their  boats' 
crews  and  to  others,  at  so  much  a  head,  and 
under  tliis  system  of  stipulation  to  both  the 
English  and  the  native  forces  under  the  lead  of 
Mr.  Brooke,  the  enemy  melted  rapidly  away. 
At  this  time  he  acted  as  an  ally,  apparently 
independent  of  the  English,  although  he  was  en- 
titled to  the  dignity  of  rtgah  by  apx)ointment 
from  the  sultan  of  Borneo ;  but  returning  to 
England,  in  1847,  in  order  to  establish  his  posi- 
tion, his  conduct  was  severely  criticixed.  He 
had  been  successfti],  however ;  he  was  already  a 
power  to  be  courted  or  to  be  feared,  and  accord- 
mg  to  the  laws  of  war  and  the  character  of  the 
enemy  against  which  it  had  been  carried  on,  his 
acts  were  not  more  reprehensible  than  those  of 
others.  In  spite  of  the  murmurers  he  became 
the  hero  of  the  hour,  was  knighted,  his  position 
recognized  by  the  government,  and  he  received 
the  title  of  governor  of  Labuan,  at  a  salary  of 
£2,000,  and  a  staff  of  subordinate  officers  under 
British  pay.  From  tins  office,  however,  he  was 
removed  i^r  a  subsequent  visit  to  England.  His 
course  has  been  plainly  of  advantage  to  the  un- 
civilized people  over  which  he  presides,  and, 
at  the  same  time,  has  contributed  to  the  exten- 
sion of  British  influence.  He  has  compiled  a 
code  of  laws,  opened  trade,  made  roads, 
coined  money,  raised  a  regular  revenue,  and 
provided  for  the  security  of  property.  The 
Dyaks  are  attached  to  him  for  his  labors  in  their 
behalf,  for  his  sense  of  justice,  and  the  character 
which  distinguishes  him  as  a  man  born  to  gov- 
ern. He  is  also  said,  notwithstanding  the  cares 
of  government,  to  indulge  in  the  pleasures  of  a 
Uterary  and  classical  taste.  Portions  of  his 
journals  have  been  published,  as  also  the  **  Pri- 
vate Letters  of  Sir  James  Brooke,  K  0.  B., 
from  1888  to  the  present  time,  edited  by  J.  0. 
Temples,  Esq.,"  8  vols.,  London,  1858.  The  at- 
tachment of  his  people  was  proved  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war  of  England  with  China 
in  1857,  when  his  residence  was  suddenly  attack- 
ed by  an  army  of  4,000  Chinese,  and  he  escaped 


only  by  swimming  the  river  «itirely  destitute. 
Tlie  Dyaks  ralliea  to  his  support,  and  in  a  abort 
time  he  descended  upon  the  Chinese,  and  over- 
threw them  with  a  loss  of  half  their  nomber. 

BROOKES,  Babtholomaus  Heisbics,  a  Ger- 
man poet  and  lawyer,  bom  at  Lflbeck  in  1680, 
died  in  1747.  He  lived  at  Hamburg  and  was 
made  senator  and  aulic  councillor,  with  the  tide 
of  count  palatine.  His  volume  of  moral  poems, 
entitled  '^Earthly  Contentmait  in  God,"  is  still 
highlv  esteemed  in  Germany.  He  trandated 
Pope^s  '^  Essay  on  Man"  into  German. 

BROOKES,  Joshua,  an  English  anatomist 
bom  in  1701,  died  in  1883.  He  taught  an^ 
atomy  and  phyaology  foe  40  years,  ^a  ana- 
tomical museum  was  admirably  arranged,  ,and 
cost  him  not  less  than  $150,000. 

BROOKLINE,  a  t<ywnship  of  Norfolk  co., 
Mass.,  6  miles  8.  W.  of  Boston,  of  which  it  is  a 
suburban  appendage.  Almost  the  whole  ex- 
tent of  the  township  is  occupied  by  beaotifiil 
country  residences,  and  their  grounds  built  and 
laid  out  with  various  and  admirable  taste,  and 
affording  a  charming  maze  of  walks  and  drives. 
There  are  6  churches,  and  a  number  of  ezod- 
lent  schools ;  pop.  in  1855, 8,472. 

BROOKLYN,  tbeshke  town  of  Kings  ooonty, 
New  T(Mrk,  is  a  city  and  seaport  on  the  west 
end  of  Long  island,  opposite  Kew  York  city, 
and  separate  from  it  by  the  East  river,  an  arm 
of  the  sea  connecting  the  bay  of  New  York 
with  Long  island  sound.  Lat.  at  the  navy 
yard,  40**  41'  50"  N.,  long.  78°  59'  80"  W. 
The  exterior  line  of  the  ci^  measures  23 
miles,  embracing  an  area  of  16,000  acres. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  Newtown  creek,  &  by 
Flatbush  and  New  Utrecht,  £.  by  Queens 
county,  and  W.  by  the  East  river  and  bar 
of  New  York.  Its  extreme  length  from  north 
to  south  is  about  7i  miles,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  5  miles;  owing  to  the  irregularity  of 
the  exterior  line,  however,  the  average  breadth 
is  only  about  8^  miles.  The  western  boundary 
of  the  city  affoMs  8  miles  of  water  front.  New- 
town creek  is  navigable  for  a  mile  or  two  frxim 
the  East  river  for  vessels  of  light  draught;  it 
has  been  contemplated  for  some  time  to  increase 
water  communication,  by  canals,  horn  com- 
modious basins  in  Newtown  creek  and  Walla- 
bout  and  Gowanus  bays. — ^Brooklyn  was  first 
settled  in  1625,  by  a  band  of  Walloons,  brought 
out  as  agriculturists  by  the  Dutch  West  India 
company,  who  estahhsbed  themselves  near  the 
site  where  the  navy  yard  now  stands,  calling 
their  place  of  settlement  Waalbogt  (Walloons* 
bay),  from  which  the  present  term  Wallabout  is 
derived.  The  name  subsequentiv  conferred  np(Xi 
the  town,  by  the  Dutch,  waa  Breuckeien,  from 
a  village  in  Holland.  The  soil  was  originally 
claimed  by  the  Canarsee  Indians,  a  large  tnJiid 
which  inhabited  the  southern  part  of  what  is 
now  Kings  oo.,  from  whom  the  Dutch  govexn- 
ment  procured  the  title.  The  first  European 
settler  in  the  town  is  generally  supposea  to 
have  been  George  Jansen  de  Kapelje,  at  the 
Waalbogt,  during  the   directorship  of  Peter 


BROOKLYN 


733 


MiDaet,  and  the  first  white  child  hom  on  the 
island  (June  9, 1625)  was  his  daughter,  Sarah 
Kapelje.    The  Indians  are  said  to  have  eon- 
veyed  to  her  a  large  quantity  of  land  near  the 
^yallaboat    Gov.  Minuet,  of  New  Amsterdam, 
in  the  course  of  a  visit  to  Bfi^e^je's  hous€L  soon 
after  the  child*s  birth,  promised  the  good  wife 
a  milch  cow  as  soon  as  the  ship  came  from 
Holland.    The  promised  cow  arrived,  and  was 
sent  over,  being  the  first  brought  to  Long 
island.    The  father  of  Sarah  was  followed  to 
America  by  2  brothers,  one  of  whom  received 
a  patent  for  100  acres  of  land  near  Gravesend, 
Aug.  9,  1639,  and  the  other  a  similar  patent 
from  Gov.  Kieft,  May  27,  1648.    By  the  Dutch 
records  it  appears  that  the  renowned  Wouter 
van  Twiller  owned  some  of  the  lands  at  Red 
Hook,  in  1634.    A  deed  for  land  by  Gov.  Xieft 
to  Abraham  Rycken,  in  1638,  is  the  earliest 
known,  and  the  oldest  recorded  grant  is  to 
Thomas  Besker  in  l689.    In  1641,  in  order  to 
strengthen  their  daim  to  Long  island,  the  Dutch 
West  India  company  consented  that  the  Eng- 
lish should  settle  upon  it,  on  condition  of  their 
taking  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  stated-gen- 
eral and  the  company.    Grants  were  made  by 
Gov.  Kieft  to  divers  individuals,  between  1642 
and  1647,  of  all  lands  from  Red  Hook  point  to 
WaUabout  bay,  and  it  is  believed  that  Gk>v.  Stuy- 
vesant,  in  1657,  granted  a  general  patent  of 
the  town.     Gov.  Richard   Nicolls,  Oct.  18, 
1667,  granted  a  full  and  ample  patent  to  Jan 
Everts^  Jan  Damen,  Albert  Gornelisson,  Faulus 
Yeerbeeck,  Michael  Eveyl,  Thomas  Lamberts, 
Tennis  Guisbert  Bogart,  and  Joria  Jacobson,  as 
patentees  on  behalf  of  the  freeholders  and  in- 
habitants of  the  town  of  Breuckelen,  their  heirs, 
successors,  and  assigns^  of  all  land  acquired^  or 
to  be  purchased  or  acquired,  on  behalf  of  the 
town,  from  the  Indians  or  others.    This  patent 
was  confirmed  by  Gov.  Dongan  in  1686,  in  con- 
sideration of  an  annual  quit-rent  of  20  bushels 
of  good  merchantable  wheat    This. quit-rent, 
or  its  equivalent,  continued  to   be  paid  by 
the  town  as  late  as  1786. — Soon   aner  the 
settlement,    the   Dutch  government   appoint- 
ed a  *^  superintendent"  to  preserve  the  peace, 
and    regulate  the  police  of  the   oomnnuiity. 
Some  years  later   this  office  was  abolished, 
and  the  offices  of  schout,  secretary,  and  as- 
sessor  created  in   its  stead.     These   officers 
were  also  appointed  by  the  governor.     The 
inhabitants   suffered   greatly   under   the   ar- 
bitrary exercise  of  power  on  the  part  of  the 
government,  and  a^r  frequently  remonstrat- 
ing against  their  exclusion  from  idl  share  in  the 
legislation  of  the  colony,  met  together  with  the 
d^egates  from  the  other  towns  under  the  Dutch 
rule,  at  New  Amsterdam,  Nov.  26, 1663,  to  ob- 
tain redress  for  their  grievances.  The  governor, 
however,  sent  them  home  without  an  answer ; 
but  he  and  his  council  entered  one  on  the  min- 
utes denying  the  right  of  Brooklyn,  Flatlands, 
and  Flatbush  to  send  deputies,  although  they  had 
previously  been  sent  at  his  request.    The  next 
month  the  convention  renewed  their  efforts,  de- 


claring '^that  if  they  could  not  obtain  a  recog- 
nition of  their  rights  from  the  governor  ami 
council,  they  would  be  obliged  to  appeal  to  their 
superiors,  the  states-general."  The  governor,  an- 
noyed at  their  persistence,  and  probably  enraged 
at  their  threat,  angrily  dissolved  the  convention, 
and  ordered  the  delegates  to  go  home. — ^For  84 
years  after  their  settlement,  Brooklyn  and  the 
adjoining  towns  were  without  a  place  of  wor- 
ship. In  Dec.  1664,  Gov.  Stnyvesant  gave 
orders  for  the  erection  of  a  church  in  the  neigh- 
boring town  of  Midwout^  or  Flatbush,  *^  60  feet 
long,  38  wide,  and  14  in  height  below  the 
beams."  Early  in  the  succeeding  year  he  com- 
manded the  people  of  Brooklyn  and  Amersfort 
to  assist  the  people  of  Flatbush  in  getting  tim- 
ber for  the  church.  This  edifice  cost  4,637  guild- 
ers, to  which  the  governor  contributed  out  of 
the  public  funds  400  guilders,  and  subsequently 
he  added  624  more  to  release  the  church  from 
debt.  The  Rev.  Mr.  Polhemus  was  the  pastor 
of  tMs  church.  Before  it  was  built  the  people 
of  Kings  county  worshipped  in  the  city  of  New 
Amsterdam,  under  the  Be  v.  EverardusBogardus. 
In  1660  the  minister  at  Flatbush  petitioned  the 
governor  to  have  a  window  placed  in  his 
church,  which  was  granted.  About  this  time, 
too,  the  people  compluned  that  their  minister 
was  inattentive  to  his  duties,  officiating  only 
once  a  fortnight,  and  then  only  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour,  giving  the  people  a  prayer  instead  of  a 
sermon ;  whereupon  the  governor  ordered,  *'  that 
he  shall  attend  more  culigently  to  his  work." 
In  1673  the  governor  and  council  ordered  the 
sheriff  and  constables  to  maintain  the  reformed 
religion  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  sects*  The 
people  of  Brooklyn  soon  grew  tired  of  going  to 
Flatbudi  to  church,  for  we  find  them  in  1659 
applying  for  permission  to  caU  a  minister  for  , 
their  congregation,  assigning  as  a  reason  the 
badness  of  the  road  to  Flatbush,  the  difficulty  of 
going  to  the  city,  and  the  old  age  of  the  Rev. 
Mr.  Polhemus,  and  his  inability  to  officiate  at 
Brooklyn.  The  governor  deemed  the  request 
reasonable,  and  referred  it  to  a  committee,,  who 
reported  favorably,  and  the  request  was  granted. 
The  people  thereupon  tendered  a  call  to  the 
Rev.  Henry  Selwyn,  otherwise  Henrious  86- 
lyns,  of  Holland,  who  accepted  the  same,  was 
approved  by  the  classis  of  Amsterdam,  and  set 
sau  for  the  New  Netherlands.  He  was  installed 
Sept.  8,  1660,  in  the  presence  of  the  fiscal  and 
burgomaster,  Kregier,  by  order  of  Gov.  Stnyve- 
sant. Mr.  Selwyn's  salary  was  600  guilders  ; 
but  the  marriage  fees,  instead  of  being  his  per- 
quisite, appear  to  have  formed  part  of  the  in- 
come of  the  church ;  for  on  Oct.  29, 1662,  he 
paid  to  the  consistory  78  guilders  10  stivers, 
the  proceeds  of  14  marriages  at  which  he  had 
officiated  during  the  year.  In  1664  he  returned 
to  Holland,  and  Charles  Debevoise,  school- 
master and  sexton,  was  directed  to  read  the 
prayers  and  a  sermon  from  some  orthodox 
author  every  Sabbath,  until  another  minister 
should  be  called.  The  first  Dutch  church  in 
Brooklyn  was  erected  in  1666 ;  after  doing  ser- 


784 


BROOKLYN 


vice  for  40  years,  H  was  taken  down  and  another 
put  no  •  in  1810  this  was  taken  down,  and  re- 
placed by  a  new  baildiog ;  aboat  25  years  later, 
tliat  proving  too  small,  gave  place  to  the  present 
stractare.  The  Episcopalians  had  a  society  in 
Br(X>klyn  as  early  as  1787,  and  in  1705  they 
dedicated  St.  Ann's  church,  a  stone  build- 
ing, which,  in  1824,  was  superseded  by  the 
present  edifice.  The  first  Methodist  diurch 
was  incorporated  in  1794;  the  first  Presby- 
terian and  Roman  Catholic  chunks  in  1822; 
and  the  first  Congregational  church  in  1839. 
At  present  the  most  noteworthy  feature 
of  Brooklyn  is  its  churches,  from  the  num- 
ber of  which  it  has  gained  the  title  of  the 
**city  of  churches."  Of  religions  congrega- 
tions, there  are  now  (1858)  no  less  than  147, 
nearly  all  possessing  church  edifices,  viz. :  16 
Baptist,  10  Congregational,  28  Protestant  Epis- 
copal, 2  German  Lutheran,  1  Methodist  Congre- 
gational, 22  Methodist  Episcopal,  5  Methodist 
Episcopal  (African),  1  Primitive  Methodist,  2 
Methodist  Protestant,  16  Presbyterian,  14  Re- 
formed Dutch,  17  Roman  Catholic,  2  Sweden- 
borgian,  4  Unitarian,  8  Universalist,  and  11  be- 
longing to  no  particular  denomination.  The  fol- 
lowing census  of  the  churches  was  taken  inl865 : 


'hi 
1^1 


^1 


III 


i§t§§§§l§ii 


H 


u 


\i 


isiisgissssssgisiii 


lli§§||§§§gi§§gi§§§ 


iiiiiii 


tH  Sr-H-t** 


mM 


Brooklyn,  during  the  revolutioii,  was  the  i 
of  several  memorable  eventa.  On  Aog.  26, 1776, 
the  battle  of  Long  island  was  fought  Owing  to 
a  gross  oversij^t  the  Bedford  pass  was  left  mi- 
guarded,  by  whidi  1^  Henry  Clinton  anc- 
ceeded  in  turning  the  flank  of  the  Ajneiican 
forces,  and  defeating  them.  Out  of  6.000 
Americans  engaged,  2,000  were  mther  killed, 
wounded,  or  taken  prisoners.  In  1776,  and 
for  6  years  thereaftw,  until  New  York  was 
evacuated^veral  condenmed  hulks  were  moor- 
ed in  the  Wallabont,  and  used  for  the  detention 
of  American  seamen  captured  by  the  British. 
It  is  estimated  that  11,600  Amerioans  died  on 
these  plague-ships.  The  shores  of  the  Wailabout 
were  full  of  dead  men's  bones,  and  for  many 
years  the  tides  washed  out  the  ghastly  remains 
from  the  sand.  After  some  years  of  agitatioD, 
the  bones  of  the  martyrs  were  finally  collected 
together  in  the  year  1808,  and  laid  in  a  great 
vault  near  the  navy  yard,  with  yery  imposing 
ceremonies.  It  is  snpposed  that  at  the  dose 
of  the  revolutionary  war,  John  Rape^e^  who 
during  that  period  was  in  authori^  here, 
and  against  whom  an  act  of  attainder  was 
passed  in  1777,  by  which  his  large  estate  was 
confiscated,  and  he  compelled  to  leave  the  coun- 
try, took  with  him  or  destroyed  the  records  of 
the  town,  from  its  settlement  to  that  time.  At 
all  events,  by  whomsoever  taken,  the  records 
have  disappeared. — ^For  many  years  after  its  set- 
tlement Brooklyn  was  no  more  than  a  straggling 
hamlet.  According  to  a  census  taken  about  1698, 
the  population  of  the  town  numbered  609  per- 
sons, viz.:  77  men,  101  women,  240  chil- 
dren, 26  apprentices,  and  66  slaves.  In  1706 
it  oontainea  64  freeholders;  96  years  later 
the  number  had  only  increased  to  86.  The 
total  population  of  the  town  in  1800  was  8,298 ; 
in  1810  it  was  4,402 ;  in  1820  it  was  7,176 ;  in 
1880  it  had  reached  16,292 ;  in  1886,  the  year 
after  its  incorporation  as  a  city,  24^810 ;  in  1840 
it  was  86,288 ;  in  1846  it  was  69,674;  in  1850 
it  had  grown  to  96,860.  On  Jan.  1,  1865,  it 
was  consolidated  with  the  city  of  Williams- 
burg  and  the  town  of  Bushwick  (indoding 
tlie  viUage  of  GreenpointX  under  the  coBunon 
name  of  Bro(^yn ;  old  Brooklyn  being  desig- 
nated as  the  western  district,  and  the  other  por- 
tions as  theeastem.  In  that  year  the  population 
of  the  entire  city  was  205,250,  and  it  is  now  esti- 
mated at  280,000.-— Williamsburg  was  founded 
by  Mr.  Richard  W.  Woodhull,  who  at  the  be- 
ginning of  this  century  bought  a  tract  oi  land 
near  Bushwick  street  (now  North  Seoood  stX 
started  the  first  ferry  from  Grand  street  to  New 
York,  and  named  the  place  Williamsburg.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  yiUage  in  1827,  and  as  a 
city  in  1851.  In  1855  its  populatioQ  was 
48,867. — Brooklyn  was  incorpmtOed  as  a  vil- 
lage in  Anril,  1816,  and  about  the  same  time 
the  first  district  school  was  established.  In 
May,  1820,  a  daily  mail  was  established  to  New 
York.  After  much  opposition  fitnn  the  city  of 
New  York,  Brooklyn  became  a  chartered  city 
in  April,  1834,  Mr.  George  Uall  being  elected 


BROOKLYN 


786 


major  by  the  eommon  oonnoO.  Sabeeijaeiitlj 
the  election  of  mayor  was  vested  in  the  people. 
From  the  period  of  its  incorporation  as  a  city, 
Brooklyn  has  grown  apace.  It  is  for  the  most 
part  considerably  elevated  above  tide  water,  and 
possesses  superior  advantages  as  a  place  of  resi- 
dence. It  is  open  od  all  sides  to  the  land  and  sea 
breezes,  and  its  wide  streets,  generally  at  right 
an^ee  to  each  other,  afford  a  free  cironlation  of 
air.  llie  qniet  dean  streets,  shaded  with  fine 
trees,  and  the  comfortable  habitations  which 
abound,  give  it  the  appearance  of  a  country 
town  rather  than  a  great  city.  That  part  of 
Brooklyn  fronting  on  the  East  river,  south  of 
Falton  street,  called  the  Hei^t&  is  70  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea,  afibrding  a  nne  view  of  New 
York,  and  the  snrronnding  country. — ^A  few 
words  aboQt  the  ferries,  to  which  Brooklyn 
owes  so  much  of  her  prosperity,  may  be  inter- 
esting. Under  the  Dongan  and  Montgomerie 
charters  New  York  city  claims  lurisdiction  over 
the  waters  of  the  North  and  East  rivers  to 
low-water  mark,  on  the  Long  island  and  New 
Jersey  shores,  as  &r  as  her  territory  extends; 
hence  she  owns  all  the  ferry  privileges  on 
those  rivers.  It  is  difficult  to  discover  when 
the  first  ferry  was  established,  but  it  must 
have  been  very  soon  after  tne  settlement 
of  the  town.  At  an  early  period  a  ferry 
was  run  from  near  the  foot  of  Joralemon 
street  to  the  Brede-mft,  now  Broad  street,  New 
York.  In  1698,  John  Areson,  the  lessee  of  the 
ferry,  found  that  £147  a  year  was  too  large  a 
rent,  and  it  was  reduced  to  £140.  The  ferri- 
age then  was  8  stivers  in  wampum,  or  a  silver 
twopence,  for  each  person,  or  tf  more  than  oue 
crossed  at  the  same  time,  half  of  that  amount 
was  charged.  A  horse  or  beast  was  charged 
If.  if  alone,  or  9cL  in  company.  Rip  van  Dam 
became  lessee  of  the  ferry  in  1698  tor  7  years, 
at  £166  per  annum.  The  old  ferry  was  kept  by 
Van  Winkle  and  Buskett  during  the  revolution, 
when  6d  was  the  ferriage.  In  the  early  part  of 
1818  the  corporation  ot  New  York  proposed  to 
put  steamboats  on  the  ferry,  in  place  of  the  old 
barges  and  horse  boats,  and  apphed  to  the  legis- 
lature for  power  to  raise  the  &rriage  from  2  to 
4  cents.  The  citizens  of  Brooklyn  petitioned 
the  legislature  in  opposition  to  the  proposed 
change,  setting  forth  that  the  corporation  of 
New  York  derived  an  annnal  rental  of  14^725 
from  the  ferries^  that  the  lessees  had  an  income 
of  $22,000  against  $18,500  expenses,  and  that 
a  number  of  wealthv  people  would  engage  to 
build  steamboats,  and  run  them  for  2  cents  a 
passenger.  The  law  was  passed,  however,  estab- 
lishing 4  cents  ferriage  in  steamboats,  and  2  cents 
in  barges  or  row  boats.  On  May  10  following, 
the  first  steam  ferry  boat*-the  '^  Nassau*^ — ^was 
placed  on  the  old  ferry,  and  made  40  trips  a  day, 
occupying  from  4  to  8  minutes  each  time  in 
crossing.  This  was  the  only  steam  ferry  boat  on 
the  East  river  for  many  years :  the  other  boats 
were  propelled  by  horses  or  by  nand.  Finally,  in 
1826,  the  common  council  of  New  York  granted 
a  South  ferry,  and  established  asteam  ferry  from 


the  foot  of  Jackson  street,  Brooklyn,  to  Wahrat 
street.  New  York.  In  the  following  year  a 
boat  was  run  on  Fulton  ferrv  during  me  night, 
and  a  proposition  was  made  to  %ht  Fulton 
street  The  South  ferry  did  not  go  into  oper^ 
ation  until  May  6, 1886.  About  m\a  time  spec- 
nlation  in  real  estate  raged  fiercely,  and  the 
ferries  were  much  improved  to  induce  New 
Yorkers  to  reside  in  Brooklyn.  In  1858  there 
are  no  less  than  13  ferries,  firom  the  rent  of  which 
the  corporation  of  New  York  derives  a  large  in- 
come. The  ferries  of  old  Brooklyn  are  from 
Hamilton  avenue,  Atlantic  (South  ferry),  Monta- 
gue, Fulton,  Main,  and  Bridge  streets,  to  White- 
hall slip.  Wall,  Fulton,  Roosevelt,  and  Catharine 
streets.  New  York.  The  most  frequented  <^ 
these  are  the  Fulton  and  South  ferries.  For 
several  years  the  Fulton,  South,  and  Hamilton 
ferries  were  run  by  the  Union  ferry  company, 
and  the  others  by  different  parties;  but  on 
Dec.  1,  1865,  they  were  all  united  under  the 
control  of  that  company.  Before  this  time  the 
fare  on  the  most  frequented  ferries  had  been 
one  cent,  with  the  privilege  of  semi-annual  com- 
mutation ;  but  soon  after  it  was  increased  to  2 
cents  without  commutation,  at  which  it  still  con- 
tinues on  all  the  ferries.  The  annual  rent  paid  by 
the  Union  ferry  company  is  now  $59,000.  They 
own  21  large  and  commodious  boats,  averaging 
400  tons  each,  which  are  kept  running  during  the 
day  at  intervals  of  a  fewminutes.  At  night  about 
half  of  that  number  are  in  use,  except  on  the 
Catharine,  Roosevelt,  and  Wall  street  ferries, 
which  are  stopped  toward  midnight.  The  ferries 
to  Williamsburg  are  from  Peck  slip,  New  York,  to 
South  Seventh  street,  Williamsburg,  James*  edip 
to  South  Tenth  street,  Grand  street  to  South 
Seventh  street  and  Grand  street,  and  Houston 
street  to  Grand  street.  There  is  also  one  from 
Tenth  and  Twenty-third  streets  to  Greenpoint 
avenue.  These  ferries  pay  an  aggregate  rent  of 
$18,850  a  year  to  the  corporation  of  New  York. 
The  general  fare  is  8  cents ;  but  owing  to  a  rival- 
ry which  has  recentiy  sprung  up  between  the 
Peck  slip  and  South  Tenth  street  companies,  the 
ferriage  on  these  2  routes  is  now  only  one  cent. 
The  ferries  to  Williamsburg  and  Greenpoint  em- 
ploy 14  boats,  making  trips  every  few  minutes 
during  the  day,  and  on  most  of  the  ferries  once  an 
hour,  or  oftener,  during  the  night  At  certain 
seasons  of  tiie  day  the  travel  is  so  immense  that 
Bomeof  the  capacious  boats  take  over  nearly  1,000 
persons,  beside  horses  and  vehicles,  at  once. — 
The  common  schools  are  oonmiitted  to  the  care 
of  a  board  of  education,  composed  of  45  mem- 
bers, appointed  by  the  common  council,  to 
serve  8  years,  the  term  of  office  of  i  of  them 
expiring  each  year.  In  the  19  wards  of  the 
city  there  are  83  school-houses,  each  con- 
taining 2  grammar  departments,  one  for  boys 
and  the  other  for  girls,  and  a  primary  depart- 
ment These  schools  are  in  charge  of  a  dty 
superintendent,  and  28  male  and  812  female 
teachers.  There  are  8  separate  schools  for 
colored  children,  with  9  colored  teachers.  In 
1857  the  number  of  children  taught  in  the  day 


738 


BROOKLYN 


schools  waa  89,295;  in  the  eveniog  schools, 
S,789 ;  ftnd  Id  the  normal  school,  812.  The 
course  of  iDstructioii  ia  the  grammar  schools 
embraces  spelliug,  reading,  writing,  defini- 
tions, grammar,  composition,  declamation,  geog- 
raphy, history,  arithmetic,  vocal  music,  the 
use  of  the  globes,  drawing  of  maps,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  natural  philosophy,  astronomy, 
and  algebra.  The  teachers  are  paid  from  $125 
to  $1,200  per  annum.  Male  principals  receive 
the  latter  salary ;  females  in  the  same  position 
are  paid  $500  a  year.  The  expenditures  for 
educational  purposes  in  1857  were :  Salaries  of 
teachers,  $108,401  01 ;  sakries  of  officers,  jani- 
tors, additions  to  libraries  school  lots  and  build- 
ing new  houses,  repairing,  furnishing,  ico^ 
$78,942  06;  making  a  total  of  $182,848  07.  In 
the  libraries  attached  to  the  schools  there  are 
at  present  82,818  volumes.  The  Roman  Catho- 
lics have  schools  connected  with  most  of  their 
churches,  and  there  are  several  industrial  or  rag- 
ged schools.  In  addition  to  the  public  school 
there  are  many  first-class  private  seminaries; 
foremost  among  them  are  the  collegiate  and  poly- 
technic institute  for  boys,  and  the  Packer  col- 
legiate institute  for  girh;  both  of  these  are  in- 
corporated institutions,  the  former  being  on  a 
joint  stock  basis,  with  a  capital  of  $75,000 ;  the 
latter  was  endowed  by  a  lady  named  Pack- 
er, who  gave  $60,000  toward  its  foundation. — 
The  literary  and  charitable  institutions  are  nu- 
merous. Among  the  former  may  be  mentioned 
the  Brooklyn  Athensum,  at  the  comer  of  Clin- 
ton and  Atlantic  streets,  which  is  open  day  and 
evening;  the  building  is  90  by  80  feet^and  cost 
$60,00^;  it  has  a  fine  reading  room,  with  a 
library  of  5,000  volumes,  and  maintains  a  course 
of  lectures  in  the  winter.  A  mercantile  library 
association  has  recently  been  formed.  The 
Brooklyn  institute  and  youths*  free  library  is 
an  old  and  popular  institution,  which  was  lib- 
erally endowed  by  Augustus  Graham,  £sa.,  and 
sustains  an  annual  course  of  lectures.  Beside 
these,  there  are  several  other  literary  societies. 
The  city  library  has  a  valuable  collection  of 
books.  The  lycenm,  in  Washington  street,  is  a 
fine  granite  building,  with  a  spacious  lecture 
room.  The  odeon  and  Washington  hcdl,  in  the 
eastern  district,  are  also  fine  structures,  with 
ample  accommodations  for  concerts  and  public 
meetings.  The  United  States  naval  lyceum, 
in  the  navy  yard,  founded  in  1888,  contains  a 
large  collection  of  curiosities  and  valuable 
geological  and  mineralogical  cabinets.  The  city 
hospital,  in  Raymond  street,  near  De  Ealb  ave- 
nue, opened  6  years  ago,  has  accommodations 
for  170  patients.  The  Long  island  college  hos- 
pital, inaugurated  in  June,  1858,  occupies  14  lots 
on  Henry  and  Amity  streets,  in  a  most  salu- 
brious situation,  and  is  designed  to  furnish 
clinical  instruction,  after  tiie  plan  of  Guy's 
hospital.  Another  excellent  charity,  the  Cath- 
olic orphan  asylum,  just  openea,  in  Bed- 
ford near  Myrtle  avenue,  will  provide  for 
114  children;  its  cost  was  about  $40,000. 
The  Graham  institution,  for  the  relief  of  ogod 


and  indigent  females,  has  aooommodaticna  Ibr 
90  persons;  it  was  founded  in  1851.  The  dfy 
orphan  asylum,  dating  its  incorporation  frran 
1885,  provides  a  home  for  about  150  poor 
children.  The  marine  hospital  occupies  a  si^tly 
eminence  on  the  opposite  side  of  Wallabout  bay. 
6ick  seamen  in  the  United  States  service  are 
treated  here.  There  are  8  dispensaries  in  Brook- 
lyn, one  of  them  in  the  eastern  district,  where 
the  poor  are  furnished  with  medicine  and  ad- 
vice gratis.  In  addition  to  these  may  be 
noticed  the  Brooklyn  ^ye  and  ear  infirmary  in 
Pineapple  street,  the  church  charity  fonndatiop, 
the  Catholic  benevolent  society,  the  New  Bug- 
land  society,  the  association  for  improving  the 
condition  of  the  poor,  and  the  children's  aid 
society.  Among  the  religious  organizations 
should  be  named  the  Brooklyn  city,  female, 
and  WilUamsbnrg  Bible  societies,  the  Brook- 
lyn tract  society.  Sabbath  school  union,  and  the 
young  men's  Christian  associations.  There  are 
some  20  masonic  lodges .  here,  25  odd  fel- 
lows' lodges,  and  several  associations  of  united 
Americans,  sons  of  temperance,  and  other  benefit 
societies. — ^Among  the  public  buildings  we  will 
mention  the  city  hall,  at  the  junction  of  Fulton, 
Court,  and  Joralemon  streets ;  it  is  of  white 
marble  in  the  Ionic  style,  with  6  columns,  sup- 
porting the  roof  of  the  portico;  its^mensionsare 
162  by  102  feet,  and  75  feet  in  height,  compris- 
ing 8  stories  and  a  basement ;  it  is  surmoonted 
by  a  dome,  the  top  of  which  is  153  feet  firom 
the  ground ;  its  entire  cost  was  about  $200,000. 
Among  the  most  beautiful  buildings  are  the 
church  of  the  Pilgrims,  of  gray  stone,  its  tall 
tower  and  spire  forming  a  landmark  to  mari- 
ners as  they  come  up  the  bay;  Grace  church, 
the  church  of  the  Holy  Trinity  (Episcopal),  the 
church  of  the  Bestoration,  and  the  Unitarian 
churclLall  of  brown  stone  and  Gothic  architec- 
ture.— IVonting  Governor's  island,  and  divided 
from  it  by  Buttermilk  channel  (which  is  said  to 
have  been  fordable  for  cattle  during  the  revolu- 
tion, but  is  now  deep  enough  for  the  largest 
ships  to  sail  through),  stan&  the  massive  At- 
lantic dock,  built  by  a  company,  incorporated 
in  1840,  representmg  a  capital  of  $1,000,000; 
the  basin  has  an  area  of  40.86  acres;  the 
pier  line,  on  Buttermilk  channel,  is  8,000  leet 
long;  the  total  wharfage  is  about  2  miles.  A 
second  basin  of  more  than  double  the  capadtr 
of  the  Atlantic,  called  the  Erie  dock,  d^agne^ 
to  border  on  Gowanus  bay,  has  been  prqjected. 
The  county  jail,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  citfj 
near  Fort  Greene,  is  a  fine  building  of  freestone, 
but  not  so  secure  as  it  should  be.  The  navy 
yard,  on  the  south  shore  of  Wallabout  bay, 
embraces  45  acres  of  land ;  a  high  brick  wall 
surrounds  the  yard ;  within  it  are  2  immense 
ship  houses,  and  tiie  largest  dry  dock  in  the 
country,  built  of  granite,  massive  and  substan- 
tial in  structure,  at  a  cost  of  $1,000,000 ;  the 
number  of  mechanics  usually  employed  in  the 
navy  yard  is  about  1,600.  The  great  thorough- 
fare of  Brooklyn  is  Fulton  street  There  is  a  small 
park  near  the  navy  yard,  called  the  dty  park; 


BROOKLYN 


787 


and  the  site  of  Fort  Greene  U  now  in  prooees  of 
formation,  and  is  to  be  called  Washin^n  park. 
Other  parka  are  projected,  bat  no  decisive 
stops  have  as  yet  been  taken,  we  believe,  to- 
ward commencing  them.  The  famona  Green- 
wood cemetery  ia  on  Growanns  heights,  within 
the  city  limits  ;  originally  there  were  bat  175 
acres  enclosed,  bnt  since  its  opening,  in  1842, 
additions  have  been  made,  antil  it  now  contains 
860  acres;  between  60,000  and  70,000  inter- 
ments have  been  made  here.  The  Cypress  Hills 
cemetery,  to  the  eastward  of  the  city  limits,  was 
opened  in  1849,  and  has  since  been  greatly 
beaatified.  In  the  same  year  the  Evergreens 
cemetery,  near  Bnshwick,  was  opened.  There 
are  otiier  cemeteries  of  less  note  lying  in  and 
aroand  the  city,  viz. :  the  Calvary  (Catholic), 
on  Lanrel  hill;  Meant  Olivet,  near  Maspeth; 
and  the  Latheran,  the  Union,  and  the  Friends' 
cemeteries. — ^The  consolidated  city  is  divided 
into  19  wards,  electing  19  aldermen,  who, 
with  the  mayor,  compose  the  city  corpora- 
tion. The  act  of  consolidation  aUowed  the 
firemen  of  the  2  districts  to  retain  their  dis- 
tinct organizations.  In  the  western  district 
the  department  is  composed  of  a  chief  and  6 
assistant  engineers,  6  fire  commissioners,  whose 
doty  it  is  to  try  all  charges  against  firemen,  20 
en^^e,  6  hose,  4  hook  and  ladder,  and  1  backet 
companies,  having  826  enrolled  members ;  the 
district  is  divided  into  7  fire  districts.  In  the  6 
fire  districts  of  the  eastern  section,  the  depart- 
ment consists  of  a  chief^  4  assistants,  5  commis- 
sioners, 18  engine,  5  hose,  8  hook  and  ladder, 
and  1  backet  companies,  having  881  enrolled 
members.  The  departments  are  volontary  in 
their  character;  bat  great  abases  having 
crept  into  the  system,  the  common  cooncil  re* 
oently  adopted  an  ordinance  for  the  enrolment 
of  a  paid  department.  The  mayor,  doubting 
their  anthoricy  to  take  tlus  step,  vetoed  the 
measare. — ^The  project  of  sapplying  the  city 
with  an  abundance  of  pare  water  has  long  been 
mooted.  In  1884  a  committee  examin^  the 
springs  at  the  Wallaboat,  and  reported  that 
$100,000  would  cover  all  the  expenses  of  a 
reservoir,  steam  engine,  and  11  miles  of  pipe, 
and  expressed  their  conviction  that  the  city 
coold  be  supplied  for  $10,000  a  year;  but  the 
plan  was  abandoned,  and  another  is  now  in  course 
of  prosecution.  From  a  chain  of  ponda  and 
streams  on  Long  island,  the  water  is  to  be  col- 
lected, and  pumped  up  into  a  vast  reservoir, 
whence  it  wiU  be  distributed  through  120  miles 
of  pipes,  all  over  the  city.  The  estimated  cost  is 
from  $4,600,000  to  $5,000,000.  It  is  stated 
that  80  miles  more  of  pipes  will  be  needed 
to  cover  the  city.  TFor  details  of  this  under- 
taking, see  article  Aqueduot.)  Brooklyn  is 
deficient  in  sewerage,  but  the  water  commis- 
sioners are  about  to  contract  for  the  building  of 
18  miles  of  sewers.  The  mtem  they  have  de- 
cided upon  is  that  of  tubmar  and  pipe  drains. 
It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  a  perfect  sewer 
in  every  street  will  not  exceed  $50  for  each 
house  and  lot  of  25  feet  front — ^The  police  of 
VOL.  m.— 47 


Brooklyn  are  comprised  within  the  metropoli- 
tan district  of  New  York,  Kings,  Richmond, 
and  Westchester  coanties ;  the  force  consists  of 
a  deputy  superintendentw  6  captains,  8  acting 
captains,  80  sergeants  and  200  patrolmen,  occu- 

Eying  6  stations  and  8  substations.  The  5th 
rigt^e  of  the  2d  division  New  York  state 
militia  is  mainly  composed  of  the  citizens  of 
Brooklyn;  Mtyor-Gen.  Duryea  and  Brigadier- 
Gen.  Crooke  are  in  command;  it  consists 
of  the  18th,  14th,  70th  and  72d  regiments, 
and  embraces  some  40  companies,  each  of 
tiiem  having  armories  for  dnll  and  the  stor- 
age of  arms. — ^In  1885  the  real  and  personal 
property  of  the  city  was  valued  at  $26,890,151 ; 
m  1857  it  was,  according  to  the  city  comptrol- 
ler's report,  $98,976,025.  The  census  of  1855 
gives  Brooklyn  1,652  i  acres  of  land  under  cul- 
tivation, and  l,196i  acres  unimproved.  The 
cash  value  of  the  farms  was  $4,765,450 ;  of  stock, 
$554,157;  480)-  acres  of  market  gardens  gave  a 
product  worth  $120,078.  There  were  in  that 
year  511  stone  buildings,  valued  at  $4,980,500 ; 
8,089  of  brick,  worth  $89,188,750;  of  wood, 
18,562,  worth  $29,778,815 ;  making  the  total 
number  of  buildings  22J578,  of  which  no  value 
was  assigned  to  270.  The  value  of  real  estate, 
exdusive  of  fiEurms,  was  $78,848,065,  or,  includ- 
ing farms  and  stock,  $79,162,672.  During  the 
year  1857,  the  current  expenses  of  the  city  were 
$2,619,128  20.  There  are  8  daily,  2  weekly,  1 
semi-weekly,  and  1  monthly  periodicals ;  9l>fiU[ik8 
of  issue  and  discoant,  with  about  $2,500,000  capi- 
tal ;  8  savings  banks,  and  10  insurance  companies, 
with  nearly  $1,000,000  coital  The  city  rail- 
road company,  with  a  capital  of  $1,000,000, 
own  the  5  norse  railroads  which  traverse  the  city 
from  Fulton  and  Hamilton  av.  ferries  in  all  di- 
rections. The  Long  island  railroad  (capital 
$8,000,000)  has  its  terminus  near  the  South 
ferry.  The  8  gas  companies,  by  which  the  city 
is  lighted,  have  a  capital  of  nearly  $8,000,000.— 
Brooklyn  contains  a  large  number  of  imi>ortant 
*manu£Aotories.  Their  manufactured  products 
are  about  in  the  following  proportion  yearly: 
Agrioultaral  implements,  $80,000 ;  brass  and 
copper  founderies,  $400,000 ;  silver  plating,  $7,- 
000 ;  bronze  castings,  $25,000 ;  copper  smith- 
ing, $875,000;  fish-hooks,  $10,000;  fhrnaces, 
$900,000;  gold  and  silver  refining,  $224,000 ; 
iron  pipe,  $850,000 ;  Francises  metallic  life-boats, 
$80,000  (this  is  the  only  manufactory  of  the 
kind  in  America);  safes,  $200,000 ;  silverware, 
$60,000;  tin  and  sheet-iron,  $150,000;  wire 
sieves,  $25,000  ;  cotton  batting,  $75,000;  felt- 
ing and  wadding,  $5,000 ;  dressed  flax,  $600,- 
000 ;  fringes  and  tassels,  $40,000 ;  dressed  furs, 
$120,000 ;  paper,  $20,000 ;  rope  and  cordage, 
$2,500,000  (there  are  about  10  rope  walks; 
afibrding  employment  to  nearly  1,200  persons); 
twine  and  net,  $12,000 ;  lager  beer,  $750,000. 
There  are  some  15  breweries  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  eastern  district,  toward  BashwicL  The 
locality  in  which  they  are  situated  is  called 
"New  Germany,"  or  "Dutohtown."  In  this 
neighborhood  on  Bundays  the  people  attend. 


738 


BBOQmTK 


BR00E5 


church  in  the  morning,  and  in  the  afternoon 
and  evening  take  their  wives  and  little  ones 
to  the  nnmeroiu  beer  gardens,  where,  beside 
lager  beer,  gymnastic  apparatos,  moslo,  and 
scenic  recreations  are  provided.  Drunkenness 
is  not  naaal  among  them.  There  are  nearly  a 
dozen  distillers  and  rectifiers,  producing  the 
valae  of  $6,000,000  a  year ;  one  establishment 
alone  uses,  when  in  ftill  operation,  8,000  bush- 
els of  grain  per  day.  Immense  quantities 
of  spirits  are  shipped  direct  from  Brook- 
lyn to  France.  Other  manu&ctnres  are: 
clocks,  $100,000;  pianos,  $26,*000;  bronze  pow- 
der, vearly  product,  $10,000;  soap  and  can- 
dles, $250,000;  camphene,  $8,000,000;  chemi- 
cals, $60,000;  renned  sugar  and  syrup, 
$4,000,000;  confectioBeiy.  $20,000;  drugs 
and  medicines,  $15,000;  dyewood,  $100,000; 
fish  and  whale  oil,  $200,000 ;  gas,  $462,000 ; 
fflue,  $160,000 ;  ivory  black  and  bone  manure, 
$110,000;  japanned  cloth,  $200,000;  lamp- 
black, $4,000 ;  lard  oil,  $10,000 ;  refined  licorice, 
$50,000;  malt,  $100,000;  oUcloth,  $200,000; 
Unseed  and  other  oil,  $800,000;  n^ints  and  col- 
ors, $50,000;  rosin  oil,  $250,000;  kerosene, 
$200,000 ;  salerfttus,  $50,000 ;  starch,  $80,000 ; 
vinegar,    $12,000;    white   lead,    $1,250,000, 

{iving  employment  to  225  men;  whiting, 
60,000;  lamps,  lanterns,  gas  fixtures,  &^ 
$125,000;  stoves,  $85,000;  steam-engines, 
$75,000;  ship^s  blocks,  $70,000;  ship  build- 
ing (in  1855),  $945,000,  employing  540  men 
(there  are  7  or  8  ship-yards  about  Green- 
point,  beside  extensive  marine  railways,  on 
which  large  ships  are  hauled  up  for  repairs) ; 
steamboat  finishing  (same  date),  $150,000; 
tree-nails,  $20,000;  thermometers,  $1,500 ;  sa^- 
es  and  blinds,  $120,000 ;  coaches  and  wagons, 
$70,000;  registers  and  ventilators,  $100,000; 
pumps,  $15,000;  steam -do.,  $100,000;  flour 
and  feed,  $1,000,000;  packing  boxes,  $25,000; 
casks  and  barrels,  $180,000 ;  planed  boards, 
$500,000;  shingles,  $10,000;  veneering,  $16,- 
000;  glass,  $800,000  (the  first,  and  we  be- 
lieve the  only  plate  glass  manufactory  in  Ameri- 
ca, was  started  in  Brooklyn  in  1856);  lime, 
$12,000;  marble,  $100,000;  plaster,  $4,000; 
porcelain,  $100,000 ;  cut  stone,  $260,000 ;  leath- 
er, $50,000 ;  morocco,  $2,000,000 ;  patent  leath- 
er, $160,000;  bedsteads,  $8,000;  cabinet  wara 
$250,000;  paper  hangings.  $80,000;  rugs  and 
mats,  $100,000;  window  shades,  $50,000;  gold 
pens,  $100,000 :  hats  and  caps,  $100,000;  tobac- 
co and  cigars,  $200,000. 

BROOKS,  Charlks  T.,  an  American  author, 
born  in  Salem,  Mass.,  June  20,  1818.  He  was 
graduated  at  Harvard  college  in  1832,  and 
was  settled  as  a  Unitarian  clergyman,  in 
1887,  in  Newport,  R.  I.,  where  he  has  ever 
since  remain^.  Mr.  Brooks  is  an  accom- 
plished scholar,  and  particular! v  devoted  to 
German  literature.  He  has  published  a  trans- 
lation of  6chiller*s  "William  Tell ;"  a  volume  of 
miscellaneous  poems  from  the  Grerman,  in  the 
scries  of  "  Specimens  of  Foreign  Standard  Lit- 
•erature  ;'*  a  translation  of  Schiller^s  "Homage 


to  the  Arts,"  Ac.;  *^  German  Lyrics;*  ^Songscft 
the  Field  and  Flood,"  and  during  the  last  year, 
an  admirable  translation  of  Go6the's  Faust 

BROOKS,  Ebastus,  an  American  joamatist, 
junior  editor  and  proprietor  of  the  "New 
York  Express,"  bom  in  P<Niland,  Me.,  Jan.  81, 
1815.  His  father  having  perished  at  sea  near 
the  close  <^  1814,  at  8  years  of  age  he  was 
sent  to  Boston  to  earn  his  own  living,  and  was 
employed  in  a  grocer's  store,  gaining  the  rodi- 
mentsof  education  at  an  evening  sdiooL  He 
began  his  connection  with  the  press  as  a  print- 
er's errand-boy,  and  by  degrees  became  printer, 
publisher,  and  proprietor  of  a  paper  which  he 
called  the  "  Yankee,"  published  at  Wiseasaet, 
in  Maine.  He  set  the  types  of  this  f osmal, 
worked  the  paper  with  the  idd  of  a  rt^er-bqy, 
and  distributed  himself  the  copies  among  the 
subscribers.  He  next  began  to  compose  lading 
articles,  essays,  and  tales,  as  he  set  the  types, 
without  manuscript.  Experience  teaching  fiim 
his  want  of  knowledge,  he  began  to  prepara 
himself  for  college  by  studies  and  exercises  in 
Greek  and  Latin,  defraying  the  necessary  ex- 
penses of  his  education  by  teaching  school  in 
addition  to  the  labor  of  setting  type.  He  en- 
tered and  gradoated  at  Brown  university. 
Providence,  K.  I.;  afterward  conducted  a  gram- 
mar school  at  Haverhill,  Mass.,  and  became 
editor  and  part  proprietor  of  the  ^  Haveriiill 
Gazette."  This  position  he  relinquished  in 
1886,  and  became  the  correspondent  in  Wash- 
ington of  the  "New  York  Daily  Advmisw,*' 
and  of  several  New  England  papers.  About 
the  same  time  he  acquired  an  interest  in  the 
"  New  York  Express,"  which  was  just  estab- 
lished by  his  brother  James  Brooks,  and  has 
continued  from  that  time,  with  a  siiort  interval, 
one  of  its  editors  and  proprietors.  He  remained, 
however,  in  Washington  as  its  local  editor  ftr 
10  successive  sessions  of  congress.  In  184S  he 
went  to  Europe,  and  traveDed  extensively 
there,  writing  homo,  as  his  brother  had  done, 
letters  descriptive  of  scenes  and  incidents  in  the 
old  world.  He  was  elected  to  the  senate  of 
the  state  of  New  York  in  1858,  and  advocated 
strongly  the  passage  of  the  biU  divesting  the 
bishops  of  the  Roman  Oatholic  dinrch  in  that 
state  of  the  title  to  church  property  in  real 
estate,  and  assimilating  the  tenure  of  such  prop- 
erty to  that  of  other  religious  corporations  by 
vesting  it  in  trustees  for  their  use.  He  was  in- 
volved, in  consecuence,  in  a  controversy  with 
Archbishop  Hughes,  of  New  Yorlc,  which  was 
prosecuted  with  great  spirit  on  both  sides,  and 
attracted  much  attention.  He  was  ag^n  elected 
to  the  senate  in  1855.  In  the  summer  of  1856 
he  received  the  unanimousnominationof  a  con- 
vention of  the  American  party  for  governor  of 
the  state  of  New  York,  and  at  the  ensuing 
electaon  led  the  presidential  ticket  with  which 
he  was  associated  about  7,000  votes.  He  mar- 
ried the  youngest  danghter  of  the  late  Chief 
^Justice  Oranch  of  Washington,  and  resides  with 
his  fiimily  in  New  York. 

BROOKS,  James,  an  American  Journalist, 


BROOKS 


739 


senior  editor  of  the  <^  New  York  Enress^"  bom 
at  PortUu^  Me.,  Nor.  10, 1810.  He  was  left 
an  orphan  at  an  early  age,  by  the  death  of  his 
father,  In  1814^  to  straggle  with  poverty^  He 
entered  a  store  at  Lewiston  when  only  11  yean 
old.  At  16  he  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a  school 
teacher,  became  a  member  of  Watervillo  col- 
lege, Me.,  at  18,  and  gradoated  before  he  was  21 
at  the  head  of  his  class.  He  was  next  at  the 
head  of  the  Latin  school  in  PortUuid,  then 
travelled  through  the  southern  states  of  the 
Union,  and  among  the  Greek  and  Cherokee  In* 
dians,  and  wrote  letters  to  Tarions  JonmalS| 
descriptive  of  their  condition.  Afterward  he 
became  the  correspondent  at  Washington  of 
several  papers  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  originator  of  the  system  of 
regular  Washington  correspondences.  Becom- 
ing in  1836  member  of  the  legislature  of  Maine^ 
from  Portland,  he  introduced  the  first  propo- 
eition  for  a  survey  ibr  a  railroad  from  Portlimd 
to  Montreal  and  Quebec  The  same  year  he 
visited  Europe,  travelling  on  foot  over  a  great 
part  of  the  continent  and  the  British  isles,  and 
giving  an  account  of  his  adventures  and  the 
places  he  visited  in  a  series  of  interesting  let- 
ters to  the  "Portland  Advertiser."  On  his 
return  in  1836  he  established  the  "New 
York  Express,"  a  JourDal  of  which  a  morn- 
ing and  evening  edition  are  issued  daily.  It 
is  a  noticeable  fstot  in  journalism  that  this 
paper,  which  has  attained  an  extensive  circu- 
lation, was  established  without  capitsl  by  a 
young  man  who  was  at  first  a  stranger  and 
without  personal  friends  in  New  York.  In 
1847  he  was  elected  to  the  assembly  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  and  in  the  following  year 
chosen  a  member  of  congress  from  New  York 
city,  in  which  poet  he  was  continued  by  suo- 
ceasive  reflections  until  1858.  In  this  new  field 
he  took  an  active  part  in  debate  in  the  business 
of  the  house,  particularly  in  matters  relating  to 
trade  and  commerce,  and  was  influential  in 
establishing  the  recognition  of  the  trade  to  and 
from  California  as  fBdling  within  the  Ameriean 
coasting  trade.  He  used  liis  privUege  of  nomi- 
nating a  cadet  from  his  district  for  the  West 
Point  military  academy  in  favor  of  the  best 
scholar  in  the  New  York  free  academy,  not- 
withstanding numerous  applications  from  those 
in  a  higher  position  in  society,  and  procured 
an  Impropriation  for  a  buiial-plaoe  for  «iilors  on 
Long  island,  where  the  place  of  interment  is 
minutely  recorded,  enaUing  the  spot  to  be 
found  after  the  lapse  of  years.  Mr.  Brooks 
took  part  in  favor  of  the  passage  of  the  meas- 
ures known  as  the  **  compromise"  in  1850,  and 
since  his  retirement  firom  congress  has  been, 
throagh  his  journal,  a  prominent  advocate  of 
the  policy,  and  identified  with  the  fortunes,  of 
tho  American  party. 

BROOKS,  Jakbs  Gobdoil  an  American 
poet,  bom  at  Olaverack,  N.  Y.,  Bept.  8, 1801, 
died  in  Albany  Feb.  20,  1841;  graduated  at 
Union  college  in  1819 ;  studied  law,  and  removed 
in  1823  to  New  York,  where  he  became  editor 


of  the  ''Ifinerva,**  a  literary  Joonuil,  aad  altera 
ward  of  the  '' Literary  Gazette,"  the  ^'Athe> 
n»um,"  and  the  *'  Morning  Oourier,"  continu- 
ing in  all  these  papers  the  publication  of  his 
verses.  In  1828  he  married  Mary  £li2abet]i 
Aikin,  of  Poughkeepsie,  a  young  lady  of  poeti* 
cal  talent,  who  had  written  under  the  signature 
of  Norma,  and  the  next  year  appearad  the 
**  Rivals  of  Este,  and  other  Poems,  by  James  G. 
and  Mary  £.  Brooks.'^  The  year  after,  they 
removed  to  Winchester,  Ya.,  and  in  1888  to 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  and  afterward  to  Albany. — 
Mast  K  Bbooks,  his  wife,  in  addition  to  her 
liteiBry  abilities,  was  a  skifrul  designer.  The 
original  drawings  of  the  plates  in  the  '^  Natnittl 
History  of  the  State  of  New  York,"  by  her 
brother-in-law,  Mr.  James  Hall,  were  made  by 
her  from  nature. 

BROOKS,  Jomr,  LL.  D.,  an  American  officer 
and  statesman,  and  governor  of  Massachusetts, 
bom  at  Medford  in  1752,  died  March  1, 1825. 
While  pursuing  the  study  of  medicine  he  dis- 
played a  love  for  military  exercises,  and  having 
settled  as  a  medical  practitioner  at  Reading 
undertook  the  drilling  of  a  company  of  minute 
men,  with  whom,  on  the  news  oi  the  expedition 
to  Lexington,  he  marched  in  time  to  see  there* 
treat  of  the  British.  Promoted  soon  after  to 
the  rank  of  m%|or  in  the  continental  service,  he 
asi^sted  in  throwing  up  the  fbrtifloations  on 
Breed's  hill,  and  was  especially  serviceable  to  the 
army  as  a  tactician.  He  was  made  lieatMumt* 
colonel  in  1777,  and  in  the  battle  of  Saratoga 
stormed  the  intrenchments  of  the  German 
troops.  He  was  a  faithfhl  adherent  of  the 
commander-in-chief  during  the  conspiracy  at 
Newburg.  Washington  requesting  him  to  keep 
his  officers  within  quarters,  that  they  might 
not  attend  the  insurgent  meeting,  his  reply 
was:  '^  Sir,  I  have  anticipated  your  wishes,  and 
my  orders  are  ffiven."  Washington  took  him 
by  the  hand,  and  said,  ^  Ool.  Brooks^  this  is  just 
what  I  expected  from  you.*'  After  the  peace 
he  resumea  the  practice  of  the  medical  profee- 
don  in  Medford,  and  was  for  many  years  mijor- 
general  of  the  militia  of  his  county.  In  the  war 
of  1812  he  was  adjutant-general  of  Maasacha- 
setts,  and  in  1816  hewaselected  governor  of  that 
state,  almost  without  opposition,  an  office  to 
whi<m  he  was  reSlected  annually  till  1828, 
when  he  declined  being  again  a  candidate.  Be* 
side  official  papers,  he  left  a  eulogy  on  Wash* 
ington,  and  an  address  before  the  society  of  the 
CincinnatL 

BROOKS,  Mabla.,  an  American  poetess, 
known  also  by  the  name  of  Mabia  dbl  Oooi'> 
DENTB,  which  she  first  received  from  Mr« 
Southey,  bom  at  Medford,  Mass.,  about  1795, 
died  at  Matanzas,  Nov.  11,  1845.  Her  family 
wereWcdsh.  her  maiden  name  being  Gowen, 
and  she  doubtless  received  the  basis  of  her  edu- 
cation from  her  fkther,  who  was  an  educated 
man,  and  possessed  of  considerable  property, 
which,  however,  he  lost,  and  died  shortly  after. 
Maria  attracted  the  regard  of  Mr.  Brooks^  a 
Boston  merdiant,  who  completed  her  education 


740 


BBOOKS 


at  hiB  own  expense,  and  afterward  married 
her.  At  this  period  Mrs.  Brooks  first  evinoed 
the  possession  of  poetioal  talent;  bat  she 
published  nothing  until  1820,  when  "Jadith, 
Esther,  and  other  Poems^*  appeared.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband  in  1828,  she  removed  to 
Ouba»  where  she  came  into  possession  of  some 
property,  and  where  she  finished  her  principal 
work,  ^^  Zophiel,  or  the  Bride  of  Seven,^'  the 
first  canto  of  whidi  was  published  in  Boston  in 
1835.  In  1880  she  visited  Paris  and  London, 
still  improving  her  work,  and  after  being  read 
and  highly  complimented  by  Mr.  Bouthey,  Wash- 
ington Irving,  and  other  distinguished  authors, 
it  appeared  in  London  in  1888.  The  notes  for 
the  latter  cantos  of  ^^Zophi^"  were  written  at 
Mr.  Bonthey's  residence  at  Keswick.  A  pas- 
eage  occurs  in  the  "•  Doctor,"  in  which,  after 
quoting  some  lines  from  ^^Zophiel,"  Mr.  Southey 
terms  Mrs.  Brooks  "  the  most  impassioned  and 
most  imaginative  of  all  poetesses."  In  1848 
she  publiSied  privately  "  Idomen,  or  the  Yale 
of  Yumuri." 

BBOOES,  PsTEB  Ohasdos,  an  eminent 
American  merchant,  bom  at  Medford,  Mass., 
Jan.  6,  1767,  died  in  Boston,  Jan.  1,  1849. 
His  boyhood  was  passed  upon  a  fiirm,  and 
he  attained  his  minority  in  the  year  that 
the  federal  constitution  went  into  operation. 
Though  the  country  was  then  distressed 
and  embarrassed  by  the  war,  an  efficient  na* 
tional  legislation  soon  encouraged  and  re- 
vived commerce,  and  American  vessels  soon 
resorted  to  foreign  ports  in  larger  numbers  than 
ever  before.  Under  these  circumstances  Mr. 
Brooks  sagaciously  selected  the  business  of 
marine  insorance,  entered  an  office  in  Boston 
as  secretary,  and  soon  after,  upon  the  retirement 
of  the  principal,  took  the  business  into  his  own 
hands.  His  success  was  due  at  first  to  dili- 
gence and  despatch  in  preparing  policies  and 
paving  losses ;  andVhile  he  often  labored  in  his 
office  till  midnight,  he  occupied  any  leisure  time 
in  reading  works  on  the  law  of  insurance.  He 
was  indebted  in  no  period  of  his  life  to  great 
q[>eoQlative  profits,  but  availed  himself  with 
good  judgment  of  the  subsidiary  advantages 
which  his  regular  business  offered,  the  chief  of 
which  was  the  opportunity  of  sending,  under 
the  name  of  *^  adventures,"  articles  of  larade  to 
foreign  markets.  The  &oilities  which  he  had 
for  becoming  acquainted  with  the  state  and  ten- 
dencies of  prices  enabled  him  to  carry  on  a  trade 
in  this  way  to  the  extent  of  his  means  with  uni- 
form success.  His  most  rapid  accumulations 
were  made  between  1798  and  1803,  at  which 
time  he  relinquished  his  office,  and  was  ac- 
counted one  of  the  wealthiest  citizens  of  Bos- 
ton. He  devoted  8  years  to  the  settlement 
of  all  the  risks  in  which  he  was  interested, 
and  the  liquidation  of  all  outstanding  engage- 
ments, and  then  withdrew  from  active  par- 
ticipation in  business.  His  maxim  was  that 
the  whole  valne  of  wealth  consists  in  the 
personal  independence  which  it  secures,  and 
JXQ  was  not  tempted  to  put  that  good,  onoe 


obtained,  at  haard,  in  quest  of  extravagant 
giuns.  He  was  from  this  time  a  member 
and  often  the  president  of  many  benevolent 
associations,  enloyed  the  society  of  a  large 
cirde  of  friends,  and  passed  his  summers  at 
Medford,  on  the  estate  whidi  had  been  the 
seat  of  his  family  for  generations,  where  he  a^ 
forded  to  the  neighborhood  an  example  of  a 
thorough  practical  farmer.  Mr.  Brooks  was  a 
member  of  the  first  municipal  council  of  Bos- 
ton after  its  incorporation  as  a  city,  and  at  ^- 
ferent  times  a  member  of  the  executive  coun- 
cil and  of  the  senate  and  house  of  represent- 
atives of  Massachusetts.  In  the  legislatiire  he 
took  a  prominent  part  in  urging  the  measures 
for  suppressing  lotteries,  whidi  at  that  time 
were  countenanced  without  scruple  for  raising 
money  for  meritorious  purposes  by  persons  and 
corporations  of  the  greatest  respectahili^.  (See 
**  Life  of  P.  0.  Brooks,"  by  Edward  EvereU^  in 
Hunt's  "  American  Merchants.") 

BBOOKS,  Pbxston  6.,  member  of  congress 
firom  South  Carolina,  bom  in  Edgefield  district 
of  that  state,  Aug.  4,  1819,  died  in  Washing- 
ton, Jan.  27, 1867.  He  was  graduated  at  SouUi 
Carolma  college  in  1889;  elected  to  the  legis- 
lature of  his  native  state  in  1844;  nuaed 
a  company  for  the  Mexican  war  and  led  it 
as  captain  in  the  famous  Palmetto  regiment. 
He  was  sent  to  congress  in  1858,  made  his  first 
speech  in  Feb.  1864,  on  the  subject  of  the  Ne- 
braska bill ;  speaking  also  in  June  of  the  same 
year  on  the  Pacific  railroad  bill.  On  May  22, 
1866,  Senator  Sumner,  of  Massachusetts,  having 
employed  in  a  speech  in  the  senate  various  ex- 
pressions which  had  greatiy  incensed  the  mem- 
bers of  congress  fi^m  South  Carolina,  Mr. 
Brooks  entered  the  senate  chamber,  after  the 
senate  had  a4joumed,  whUe  Mr.  Snmner 
was  seated  at  his  desk  engaged  in  wri- 
ting, and  with  blows  on  the  head  from  a 
gutta  percha  cane  struck  the  senator  to  the 
floor,  where  he  left  him  insensible.  On  June  2 
a  committee  of  the  house  of  representatives 
reported  in  favor  of  Mr.  Brooks's  expulsion.  In 
the  final  action  upon  the  report  there  were  121 
votes  in  fi&vor  of  and  96  opposed  to  it,  which, 
being  less  than  the  requisite  two-thirds  votej 
prevented  the  house  from  agreeing  to  the  reso- 
lution. Mr.  Brooks,  however,  resigned  his  seat, 
and,  July  8,  pleaded  guilty  before  the  court  at 
Washington  upon  an  indictment  for  assault, 
and  was  sentenced  to  a  fine  of  (300.  Having 
addressed  his  constituents  on  the  sulnect  of  the 
assault,  he  was  reelected  Co  congress  by  a  unan- 
imous vote,  and  made  on  Jan.  7, 1867,  a  second 
speech  on  the  Nebraska  bill.  He  died  suddenly 
of  acute  inflammation  of  the  throat. 

BROOKS.  Shiblkt,  an  English  author,  bom 
in  1816.  ne  was  originally  intended  for  the 
law,  which  profession  he  abandoned  for  dra- 
matic andjoumalist  literature.  He  was  attached 
to  the  London  newspaper  press  when  his  first 
piece  (a  farce  called  the  ^^Lowther  Arcade^ 
was  produced  at  the  Lyceum  theatre.  This  was 
followed  by  other  plays,  generally  succeesfuL 


BROOK 


BROOM  CORN 


741 


Mr.  Brooks  has  contributed  largely  to  periodical 
literature — tales,  essays,  sketches,  and  criticisms. 
Hisflrststoryofanyconsiderablelengtb,  "Aspen 
Court,"  appeared  in  "Bentley's  Miscellany." 
When  the  London  "Morning  Chronicle"  de- 
spatched members  of  its  literary  corps  to  inqoire 
into  "labor  aod  the  poor,"  abroad  as  well  as  in 
England,  Mr.  Brooks  visited  southern  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Egypt,  and  his  newspaper  letters 
were  finally  published  in  a  volume,  entitled 
^^The  Russians  in  the  South."  His  last  work, 
a  serial  novel,  entitled  "  The  Gordian  Knot," 
began  to  be  publi^ed  at  London  in  1657. 

BROOM,  a  genus  of  plants,  consisting  of 
shrubs  or  small  trees,  with  leaves  in  threes  and 
yellow  or  purplish- white  flowers,  belonging  to 
the  natural  order  le^^minosm.  The  common 
broom,  the  spartium  tcoparium  of  LinniBUS, 
and  the  cytmts  9copariue  of  De  Lamarck,  is  a 
bushy  shrub,  with  smooth,  angular,  dark-green 
branches,  and  yellow,  butterfly-shaped,  axilla- 
ry blossoms,  and  is  common  on  sandy  heaths 
in  Great  Britain.  Bundles  of  its  twigs  make 
brooms  for  sweeping.  Its  roasted  seeds  are 
sometimes  used  as  coffee.  The  fibres  of  its 
bark,  separated  by  soaking,  may  be  manufac- 
tured into  matting  and  cordage.  A  decoction 
of  its  tops  has  been  celebrated  as  a  medicine  for 
dropsy,  but,  though  often  efficacious  as  a  diu- 
retic, it  is  not  certain  in  its  operation.  The 
9j^rt%um  juneeunif  or  Spanish  broom,  is  a  na- 
tive of  Spain,  abundant  in  Valencia,  and  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  plant  which,  according  to  Fllny, 
overspread  whole  mountains  near  Carthagena. 
Its  twigs  and  bark  are  manu&ctured  into  car- 
pets and  various  implements,  and  are  articles 
of  merchandise.  *  It  is  cultivated  as  an  orna- 
mental shrub  in  gardens. 

BROOM  CORN  (s(>rghum  9aecharatum),  a 
plant  which  is  a  native  of  India,  and  is  culti- 
vated in  Europe  and  America,  having  a  jointed 
stem  like  a  reed;  usually  rising  to  the  height  of 
from  6  to  10  feet,  bearing  an  effuse  spike,  of 
which  brooms  are  made.  It  has  yellow  oval 
seeds,  villous  oblong  florets,  and  broad  lanceo- 
late leaves.  The  introduction  of  broom  com 
as  an  agricultural  product  into  this  country, 
is  attributed  to  Dr.  Franklin.  He  is  said  to 
have  accidentally  seen  an  imported  whisk  of 
com  in  the  possession  of  a  lady  of  Philadelphia, 
and  while  examining  it  as  a  curiosity,  saw  a 
seed,  which  he  planted,  and  from  this  small 
be^nning  has  sprnng  the  present  product  of  this 
article  in  the  United  States.  The  cultivation 
of  the  broom  corn  is  now  venr  extensively 
carried  on  in  most  parts  of  the  United  States, 
especially  by  some  branches  of  the  religious 
society  called  Shakers,  and  the  manufacture 
of  it  into  brooms  is  becoming  a  branch  of  busi- 
ness of  great  importance,  in  which  there  is 
much  capital  invested,  and  from  which  very 
considerable  profits  are  derived.  The  seed  of 
the  broom  com  is  excellent  for  fattening  sheep. 
They  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  will  fatten  on  it 
nearly  as  well  as  on  Indian  com.  It  is  also  re- 
commended for  feeding   poultiy,  and  when 


ground  with  Indian  com,  rye,  oats,  or  barley, 
is  very  profitably  fed  to  catUe.  When  ground, 
and  mixed  with  wheat  bran,  it  is  even  good  for 
milch  cows.  The  Shakers  have  frequently  fed 
it  to  horses  in  the  time  of  harvesting  the 
brush ;  and,  indeed,  in  that  season  of  the  year, 
they  seldom  feed  any  other  kind  of  grain.  It 
is  considered  by  some  to  be  worth  as  much  per 
bushel,  when  ftilly  ripened,  and  well  cured,  as 
Indian  com.  The  drying  process  is  performed 
in  the  same  manner  as  with  any  other  moist  seed 
of  like  bulky  nature.  It  may  be  dried  on  barn 
or  garret  floors^and  the  ground  is  often  used  for 
the  purpose.  Frequent  stirring,  while  drying, 
is  essential.  It  should  be  run  through  a  fiin- 
ning  mill  before  grinding.  As  to  the  yield  of 
seed,  it  is  somewhat  pr^arious ;  yet  it  will  of- 
ten more  than  pay  the  whole  expense  of  cul- 
tivation and  preparing  the  crop  for  market.  In 
some  cases  150  bnsheb  of  good  seed  have  been 
obtained  from  an  acre,  but  this  is  a  rare  yield. 
The  harvesting  of  the  crop  most  generally  com- 
mences while  the  seed  is  in  its  earliest  stage,  or 
milky  state,  as  the  early  harvested  broom  is  the 
brightest  and  best ;  consequently  there  must  be 
a  sacrifice  of  more  or  less  seed.  Alluvial  lands 
are  the  best  for  raising  broom  com;  yet 
almost  any  soil  that  will  raise  good  maize  will 
produce  a  tolerable  crop  of  broom.  It  will  pay 
well  for  manuring  and  for  careful  culture.  17o 
crop  is  more  beautiful  in  appearance  than  the 
standing  corn,  when  in  perfection.  It  often  at- 
tains to  a  height  of  12  to  16  feet  The  stalks  of 
the  plant  are  long  and  hard,  and  are  ccasidered 
of  but  little  consequence,  except  for  manure. 
However,  cattle  having  access  to  them  before 
the  frost,  will  feed  well  upon  their  leaves. — The 
planting  is  generally  done  wiUi  a  machine, 
drawn  by  a  horse,  in  rows  8  feet  apart,  wide 
enough  for  the  cultivator  or  plough  to  pass  con- 
veniently. The  seed  is  dropped  in  hills  from  16 
to  18  inches  apart ;  4  quarts  of  seed  are  suffi- 
cient to  plant  an  acre.  The  seed  will  germi- 
nate and  the  blade  make  its  appearance  in  4  or 
6  days,  if  the  weather  is  favorable  and  the  soil 
productive  ;  4  or  5  spires  are  sufficient  to  re- 
main in  a  hill.  It  may  be  manured  in  the  hill, 
or  by  spreading  the  manure  upon  the  ground,  or 
in  both  ways,  if  high  cultivation  is  desired. 
One  man,  with  a  horse  and  double  planting 
machine,  that  is,  a  machine  that  will  plant  2 
rows  at  the  same  time,  may  plant  tcom  10  to  12 
acres  in  a  day.  The  labor  of  1  hand,  4  months, 
will  cultivate  about  6  acres,  and  narvest  the 
same,  and  the  average  produce  per  acre  is  about 
600  lbs.  For  a  broom,  1^  lb.  of  brash  is  al- 
lowed, and  1  man  will  manufacture  6  tons  of 
brush  in  a  year,  if  constantly  employed.  The 
entire  cost  of  a  broom  is  10  cents,  the  component 
parts  being  1^  lb.  of  brash  at  6  cents,  tying  on . 
2|  cents,  handle  1^  cents,  and  wire,  twine,  &c., 
J  cent.  After  the  corn  is  well  up,  the  cultiva- 
tor can  be  profitably  used  8  or  4  times  befbre 
hoeing,  after  which  commences  the  weeding 
and  thinning.  As  a  general  rale,  two  hoeings 
are  sufficient.    At  the  lost  time,  and  when  the 


742 


BROOM  GOBlir 


BROOMS 


oorn  is  10  or  13  inches  high,  the  Shftkert  qm  a 
doable-moulded  plough,  vhioh  turns  a  ftirrow 
each  way.  They  have  an  ialand  in  the  Mo- 
havk  riyer,  in  the  town  of  NiBkaytina,  Bofaenee- 
lady  00.,  K  T^  of  abont  70  aons,  which  has  been 
idanted  aonnallj  for  80  vears  in  saocesaon, 
without  any  manuring,  and  the  last  crop  raised 
was  about  the  same  as  usual,  yielding  over 
600  pounds  to  the  acre.  Broom  com  plant- 
ing may  be  performed  with  safety  from  the 
middle  of  May  to  the  Ist  of  June,  and  even 
later,  if  the  season  is  good.  The  usual  prao- 
lioe  in  harvesting,  is  to  bend  the  stems  or 
stalks  of  the  com,  some  di  or  3  feet  from 
the  ground,  and  leaye  them  for  a  few  days  to 
dry.  They  are  then  cut  6  or  8  inches  from  the 
brush,  and  laid  into  heaps,  ready  to  be  carried 
to  the  scraper.  The  seed  is  removed  from  the 
brush  by  various  methods^  from  the  best  horse- 
power scraping  machines,  by  which  the  brash 
of  8  acres  of  com  may  be  cleaned  in  a  day, 
down  to  the  ori^al  hand  machines  of  the 
Amplest  oonstmcdon.  That  part  of  the  stalk 
•till  remaining  in  the  field  should  be  ploughed 
vnder  during  the  fall,  or  in  tiie  following  spring. 
The  practice  of  the  Shivers  is  to  break  them 
down  with  a  heavy  drag  in  the  spring  following, 
and  plough  them  under,  and  then  ran  over  the 
ground  with  a  large  roller,  which  process  pre- 
pares the  land  again  for  planting.  Some  carry 
their  stalks  into  the  cattle  or  sheep  yards,  where 
they  become  incorporated  with  the  manure,  and 
thereby  make  a  valuable  addition  to  the  com- 
post. We  subjoin  an  account  of  the  expenses 
of  cultivating  an  acre  of  broom  com  on  the 
above  mentioned  Mohawk  island,  in  the  year 
ISST: 

I>rag]|;ing  sfalka,  ploughing,  and  rolUiig fS  00 

PlMting S& 

Foot  qurts  of  teed,  at  $3  por  bnahel ^. .  25 

CultlvftUng,  and  hoeing  flrst  time S  00 

Piooghlng,  and  hoeing  second  time 195 

Harresting,  &e. 4  00 

Bent  for  land. 10  00 

EspenMofoneaere. $90  T5 

Value  of  bruah,  600  Iba.,  at  6  ota. $H0  00 

Seed 400— 

S4  00 

Ket,  one  acre $18  95 

In  this  estimate,  under  the  head  of  harvesting, 
dsc^  is  included  the  scraping  of  the  brush,  and 
the  putting  of  it  in  a  proper  situation  to  dry. — 
When  the  broom  corn  was  first  introduced  by 
the  united  society  of  Shakers  in  Watervliet, 
N.  T.,  in  the  year  1791,  it  was  raised  in  the 
garden  as  other  com.  In  1798,  it  began  to  ex- 
cite attention,  and  some  few  brooms  were  man- 
ufiiotured  by  them  for  the  market,  and  sold  at 
the  price  of  50  cents  each.  The  handles  were 
made  of  soft  maple  timber,  and  turned  in  a 
.  oommon  foot  lathe.  The  machinery  for  manufac- 
turing the  brooms  was  veiy  simple^  It  consist- 
ed of  nothing  more  than  a  roller  or  cylinder  of 
wood,  turned  by  a  short  crank  for  the  purpose 
of  winding  on  the  cord  or  twine^  and  bv  placing 
one  or  both  feet  against  this  cylinder,  the  tigbt- 
\  of  the  twine  was  governed,  and  the  broom 


made  by  holding  the  handle  in  one  hand,  and 
applying  the  brush  with  the  other,  while  wind- 
ing. The  next  process,  by  way  of  improve- 
ment, some  few  years  after,  was  the  addition  of 
a  bench  to  the  roller,  in  a  irame  fastened  to  the 
bench,  and  a  rag-wheel  to  hold  the  cord  when 
wound  upon  the  roller  by  a  short  crank  as  be- 
fore.  Two  dosen  a  day,  well  made,  were  con- 
sidered as  much  an  exploit  as  the  6  or  8  dozen 
at  the  present  time.  Nearly  all  the  Shaken*  so- 
cieties in  the  United  States  are  more  or  less  en- 
gsged  in  this  branch  of  einployment ;  but  the  so- 
cieties at  Watervliet,  N.  T.,  and  that  at  Uni<m 
Yillage,  O.,  carry  it  on  the  most  extensively. 
The  capital  invested  in  it  by  the  Shakers,  united- 
ly, would  amount  to  some  $40,000 ;  brin^^  in, 
»9neraUy,  a  net  profit  of  6  to  25  per  cent 
The  price  of  broom  com  is  veir  fluctnating, 
from  |80  to  $220  per  ton,  depending  upon  the 
quantity  raised,  and  in  market.  It  is  a  mat- 
ter attended  with  some  difficulty  to  ascer- 
tain precisely  the  quantity  of  brooms  rua- 
ed  in  any  one  state,  and  much  more  so  in 
the  whole  Union.  But  according  to  the  b^ 
calculation  we  are  able  to  make,  there  are  culti- 
vated in  the  state  of  New  York  alone  not  fewer 
than  1 0,000  acres ;  and  allowing  an  average  yield 
of  500  pounds  per  acre,  at  the  medium  priee 
of  $120  a  ton,  we  have  a  product  equal  to 
$800,000.  In  Illinois  about  9,000  acres  are  pro- 
bably planted,  and  in  Ohio,  about  6,000  acres; 
makmg  together  15,000  acres,  at  an  average 
yield  of  550  lbs.  per  acre,  worth  $495,000. 
Supposing  that  the  other  states,  unit^y,  pro- 
duce a  quantity  of  broom  com  equal  to  the  8 
states  above  mentioned  (which,  no  doubt,  is  the 
&ct),  we  have  in  the  aggregate  $1,590,000  as  the 
value  of  broom  oorn  cultivated  in  Uie  United 
States  annually.  We  learn  from  the  agricultu- 
ral reports  and  otherwise,  that  this  artidO)  so 
extensively  cultivated  in  the  United  States,  is 
becoming  an  object  of  considerable  exportation, 
and  that  large  quantities  of  the  brush  of  broom 
corn,  raised  in  the  valley  of  Ohio  and  eLsewhere, 
have  been  shipped  to  £ngknd^  together  with 
the  broom  handles.  In  this  way,  we  are  in- 
formed, brooms  can  be  sold  cheaper  in  Great 
Britain  Uian  if  made  here  and  exported. 

BROOME,  a  southern  county  of  New  York, 
bordering  on  Penuff^lvania,  and  containing 
about  660  square  miles.  It  is  drained  by  the 
Ohenango,  Otselic,  and  other  smaller  streams, 
and  traversed  by  the  New  York  and  £rie  rail- 
road and  the  Ohenango  canal.  The  surbce  is 
uneven.  The  valleys  are  fertile,  but  the  up- 
lands are  only  fit  for  grazing.  The  productions 
in  1855,  were  214,998  bushels  of  Indian  com; 
14,081  oi  wheat;  466,870  of  oata;  168,420  of 
potatoes;  58,685  tons  of  hay,  and  1,758,417 
pounds  of  butter.  There  were  63  churches, 
and  7  newspaper  offices.  Named  in  honor  of 
John  Broome,  formerly  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  state.  Oi^itaL  Binghamton.  Pop.  in  1855, 
86,650.  ~»    -e 

BROOMK,  Wnxuac,  an  English  translator, 
bom  in  Cheshire,  1680,  died  at  Bath,  Nor.  16, 


BBORA 


BROUOKfiRE 


743 


17i5.  Ha  was  employed  by  Pope  to  assist  him 
in  translating  the  Odyssey  iato  EDglish  verse. 
This  he  did  iu  coi^junction  with  Fenton,  and 
the  respeotive  work  of  eaoh  person  engaged  was 
as  follows:  by  Broome,  books  2,  6,  8, 11, 12, 
16,  16,  and  28 ;  by  Fenton,  books  1,  4,  19,  and 
30;  by  Pope,  the  remaining  12.  The  notes 
were  also  compiled  by  Broome,  who  received 
£500  for  his  whole  work,  and  complained  of 
the  scanty  payment.  His  original  poetry  is 
very  indifferent. 

BROBA,  a  river  of  Scotland,  county  of 
Sutherland.  It  rises  on  the  S.  £.  side  of  Ben- 
dibriok,  and  after  passing  through  several  lakes^ 
enteis  the  Moray  frith,  at  the  village  of  Brora. 
In  the  vicinity  of  the  village  is  a  partial  bed  of 
coal  in  the  oolite  strata. 

BROSSES,  Ohablesdb,  chief  president  of  the 

Sarliament  of  Dnon,  bom  there,  June  17, 1709, 
led  in  Paris,  March  17,  1777.  He  was  the 
first  to  write  a  book  on  Herculaneum,  which 
was  the  result  of  his  travels  in  Italy,  and  of  his 
personal  investigations.  Six  years  afterward, 
in  1756,  he  was  the  first  to  la^  down  the  geo- 
graphical divisions  of  Australia  and  Polynesia 
in  a  history  of  the  navigation  of  the  Australian 
waters,  which  he  had  written  at  the  instigation 
of  his  friend  Buffon.  Within  the  following  10 
years  he  published  an  essay  Sur  U  eidte  des 
dieux  fetifiheg^  and  another,  De  la  formation 
mecanique  det  lanatM;  he  wrote  also  for  the 
JHotiannaire  encyoopidifue.  His  most  laborious 
work,  however,  was  his  Eutaire  du  septUme 
niele  ds  la  rSpublique  Bomaine.  by  which  he 
endeavored  to  supply  the  lost  cnapters  of  Sal- 
lust. 

BROTERO,  Fblkz  m  Avkllab,  a  Portu- 
guese botanist,  bom  near  Lisbon,  Nov.  25, 
1744,  died  Aug.  4,  1828.  Having  studied 
botany  at  Paris  for  12  years,  he  waa,  after  his 
retum  to  his  native  country,  appointed  profes- 
sor at  Coimbra,  in  1791,  and  in  1800,  director 
of  the  royal  museum  and  botanical  garden, 
where  his  services,  however,  were  ev^entually  in- 
terrapted  by  the  French  invasion.  WhUe  suf- 
ferixig  from  want  he  became  acquainted  with 
Geonroy  de  Saint  HH^re,  and  through  his  in- 
fluence the  French  government  was  induced  to 
pay  him  $1,500  for  the  balance  due  upon  his 
salary.  In  1811  he  received  a  professorship  in 
the  university,  and  in  1821  was  elected  to  the 
cortes,  for  the  province  of  Estremadura. 

BROTHERS,  Riohabd^  an  English  fanatic, 
born  about  1758,  died  in  London,  Jan.  25, 1824. 
His  early  career  is  scarcely  known,  beyond  the 
fact  that  he  had  been  a  lieutenant  in  the  British 
navy  for  several  years,  and  quitted  the  profession 
in  1789.  In  consequence  of  declining  to  take  the 
usual  oath  to  enable  him  to  draw  his  half-pay, 
he  did  not  receive  that  allowance,  and  in  1790- 
'91  was  reduced  to  great  straits,  the  workhouse 
ultimately  being  his  residence.  He  claimed 
from  this  time  to  be  the  apostle  of  a  new  reli- 
gion, announcing  himself  as  "nephew  of  the 
Almighty  and  pnnce  of  the  Hebrews,  appointed 
to  lead  them  to  the  land  of  Canaan."    On  May 


12, 1792,  he  sent  letters  to  George  HI.,  the  min- 
iaUy,  and  the  speaker  of  the  house  of  commons, 
declaring  that  he  was  commanded  to  go  to  the 
parliament  house  on  the  17th  of  that  month, 
and  inform  the  members,  for  their  safety,  that 
the  time  was  come  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  7th 
chapter  of  Daniel.  He  presented  himself  at  the 
door  of  the  house  of  commons,  and  was  literally 
kicked  away  from  it  In  1794  he  published 
a  book,  in  two  parts,  called  ^'A  I^vealed 
Knowledge  of  the  Prophecies  and  Times." 
Having  prophesied  the  death  of  the  king,  the 
destractioa  of  the  monarchy,  and  that  the 
crown  was  to  be  delivered  to  him,  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  commit  him?  to  prison, 
where  he  was  detained  for  some  time.  On  his 
release  from  Newgate  he  resumed  his  prophesy- 
ings,  and  had  numerous  believers!  His  dis^ 
ciples  were  not  confined  to  the  poor  and  igno- 
rant, but  included  Halped,  the  orientalist; 
William  Sharp,  the  engraver,  who  executed  his 
portrait,  inscribing  under  it,  ^Fnllv  believing 
this  to  be  the  man  appointed  by  God,  I  engrave 
his  likeness;"  and  otner  persons  of  distinction 
and  wealth.  Many  of  his  followers  sold  their 
goods  to  be  ready  to  accompany  him  to  the 
new  Jemsalem,  which  was  to  be  built  on  both 
sides  of  the  Jordan,  and  which  he  was  to  reach 
in  1795.  Jerusalem  was  to  become  the  capital 
of  the  world,  and,  when  the  Jews  were  fully 
restored,  in  1798,  he  was  to  be  revealed  as 
prince  and  ruler  of  the  Jews,  and  governor  of 
all  nations.  At  last.  Brothers  was  committed 
to  Bedlam  as  a  dangerous  lunatic  After  some 
delay,  application  was  made  to  Lord  Chancellor 
Erskine,  who  granted  an  order  of  release  on 
April  14, 1806.  Mr.  Finlayson,  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples, then  removed  him  to  his  own  house,  in 
wnich,  at  Finlayson's  charge,  he  constantly  re- 
sided during  the  last  9  years  of  his  life.  Mr. 
Finlayson  related  these  facts  in  a  publication  of 
his  in  1848,  and  has  since  repeated  the  avowal  of 
his  continued  belief  in  the  mission  of  Brothers. 
BROUCKJEIRE,  Chabies  Majob  Josspd 
Ghislaut  db,  a  Belgian  statesman,  bom  at 
Bruges  in  1796,  or  according  to  others,  at  Maes- 
tricht^  in  1791.  He  was  educated  at  the  noly- 
tedimc  school  of  Paris ;  in  1815  he  entered  the 
army  as  sub-lieutenant,  but  retired  in  1820  in 
consequence  of  ill  health.  For  a  time  he  was 
employed  in  a  banking  house  of  his  unde,  and 
subsequently  obtained  a  public  office.  In  1825 
he  was  elected  deputy  to  the  states-general,  and 
at  once  enlisted  in  the  ranks  of  liberalism,  to 
whidi  he  contributed  both  by  his  speeches  and 
writings.  In  1829  he  threw  up  his  public  ap- 
pointments. On  the  breaking  out  of  the  revo- 
lution he  inclined  toward  a  middle  course,  and 
for  a  time  supported  the  plan  of  separating  from 
Holland,  retaining,  however,  a  prince  of  the 
house  of  Orange  on  the  Belgian  throne.  Soon, 
however,  he  threw  himself  into  the  full  current 
of  the  revolution.  He  was  at  the  head  of  the 
financial  department  in  the  provisional  govern- 
ment, and  suggested  the  nomination  of  the  duke 
of  Nemours  to  the  throne.    Nevertheless,  on 


744 


BROUGUAM 


the  election  of  Leopold,  he  was  called  to  the 
ministry  of  the  interior.  When  the  active  hos- 
tility of  tiie  Dutch  threatened  the  existence  of 
the  infiant  state,  his  admiDistrative  ahllities  were 
so  preeminent  that  the  war  ministry  was  forced 
npon  him.  He  raised  and  equipped  an  army 
of  80,000  men.  Subsequentiy  he  felt  so  keen- 
ly the  aspersions  thrown  npon  his  conduct 
and  exertions  at  this  erentftil  period  tiiat  he 
renounced  his  political  career  in  dis^st  He 
was  now  made  director  of  the  mint,  and  on  the 
opening  of  the  university  of  Brussels,  desirous 
d  inviting,  by  his  example,  the  cooperation  of 
eminent  men,  he  accepted  one  of  the  professional 
chairs,  declining  the  salary.  In  1885  he  accepted 
the  presidency  of  the  Belgian  national  baok. 
In  1888  the.bank  was  compdled  to  snroend  cash 
payments,  and  Bronokdre  retired  from  the  admin- 
istration. In  1840  he  was  again  chosen  as  de- 
puty, and  soon  afterward  as  mayor  of  the  city  of 
Brussels.  He  displayed  great  judgment  daring 
periods  of  difficulty,  presided  with  signal  ability 
over  the  economical  and  agricultural  conventions 
held  in  Brussels  in  1847  and  1848,  and  had  the 
tide  of  count  offered  to  him  by  the  king  in 
1857,  but  declined  accepting  it. — ^Henbi  Ma- 
BOE  Joseph  Ghjslais  de,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding, bom  at  Bruges  in  1801,  was  attorney- 
general  at  Roermonde,  when  the  revolution  of 
1880  broke  out,  in  which  he  took  an  active 
part  as  a  volunteer  in  the  army,  ^  and  as  a 
member,  and  afterward  as  secretary,  of  the 
national  congress.  He  was  one  of  the  commis- 
sioners sent  to  England  in  1881  to  offer  to 
Leopold  the  Belgian  crown.  From  1882  to  1848 
he  was  a  member  of  the  chambers,  in  the  1st 
year  for  the  borough  of  Roermonde,  where  he 
continued  to  officiate  as  attorney-general,  and 
afterward,  when  chosen  as  a  representative  of 
Brussels,  he  practised  his  profession  at  the  court 
of  appeal  of  the  capital  From  1840  to  1846  he 
officiated  as  governor  of  the  provinces  of  Ant- 
werp and  Li^.  Aug.  12, 1847,  he  was  made 
a  member  of  the  ministry,  but  without  special 
functions.  In  the  latter  part  of  1849  he  was 
sent  as  ambassador  to  various  Italian  courts,  and 
from  the  end  of  Oct  1852,  to  the  beginning  of 
Mardi,  1855,  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affurs. 
His  most  important  act  as  a  legislator  has  been 
the  revision  of  the  criminal  code  and  the  aboli- 
tion of  capital  punishment. 

BROUGHAM,  Hbnbt,  Baron  Brougham 
and  Yauz,  late  lord  chancellor  of  England, 
bom  in  Edinburgh,  Sept.  19,  1778.  He  is  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  Westmoreland  fami- 
ly, and  is,  through  his  mother,  the  grand  nephew 
of  William  Robertson,  the  historian.  He  was 
educated  at  tiie  high  school  and  university  of 
Edinburgh,  where  he  was  distinguished  for  his 
devotion  to  mathematics  and  physical  science. 
In  1796,  when  not  yet  18,  he  wrote  a  paper  on 
the  refraction  and  rd^ection  of  light,  which  being 
sent  to  the  royal  society,  obtained  a  place  in 
the  "Transactions, ^'.though  the  fact  of^the  ex- 
treme youth  of  its  author  was  unknown.  A 
2d  paper  on  the  same  subject  appeared  in  the 


''Transactions'*  of  1797,  and  a  8d  in  1798, 
entitied  ''General  Theorems,  chiefly  Porisms in 
the  Higher  Geometry.'*  He  pursued  tiie  stody 
of  the  Scottish  law  at  Edinburgh,  travelled  on 
the  continent^  and  was  admitted  a  member  of 
the  Edinburgh  society  of  advocates  in  1800. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  "  Speculative  dnb," 
a  debating  society,  which  brought  him  into 
dose  intellectnal  contact  with  Homer,  Jefl&ey, 
and  a  number  of  other  persons  afterward  known 
to  fame.  He  was  one  of  those  who  helped  t^ 
start  the  "Edinbuigh  Review,"  in  1802.  To 
this  review  Henry  Brougham  was  ap  assidn- 
ons  and  able  contributor  for  a  quarter  (rf 
a  century.    In  1808  was  published  his  "Ki- 

?uiry  into  the  Colonial  Policy  of  the  European 
^owers,''  which  drew  much  attention  upon  the 
young  aspirant  to  literary  and  historical  honors. 
Having  vinted  London  in  1807,  as  counsel  in 
the  case  of  the  disputed  succession  of  the  doke* 
dom  of  Roxburgh,  then  before  the  house  of  lord?, 
he  resolved  npon  settling  permanentiy  in  Eng- 
land. In  1808,  he  was  called  to  the  English  bar 
at  Lincoln's  Inn,  and  chose  the  common  law 
courts  and  the  northern  circuit.  In  1810,  he 
gained  much  popularity  by  a  speech  before  the 
house  of  lords  as  counsel  for  some  English  mer- 
chants, who  complained  of  the  injurious  effect 
of  the  "  Orders  in  Council "  on  their  interests. 
The  whig  party  now  son^t  to  put  him  into  the 
house  of  commons,  and  in  1810  he  entered  that 
house  as  member  for  Camelford,  a  rotten  bor- 
ough, under  the  influence  of  the  earl  of  Dar- 
lington. He  soon  became  one  of  the  most 
violent  and  vehement  opposers  of  the  govern- 
ment and  party  then  in  power.  One  of  his  first 
steps  was  to  introduce  a  resolution  requesting 
the  king  to  take  decisive  steps  for  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  slave  trade.  From  1810  to  1812,  he 
spoke  in  favor  of  Roman  Catholic  emancipation, 
and  reform  in  the  government  of  India,  and  in 
condeomation  of  flogging  in  the  army.  In  1811 
he  defended  Leigh  Hunt,  the  editor  of  the  "Ex- 
aminer," and  Mr.  Drakard,  proprietor  of  the 
"Stamford  News,"  arraigned  for  libel  by  the 
government,  in  only  one  of  which  defences  he 
was  suocessftd.  Leigh  Hunt,  the  composer  and 
publisher  of  the  obnoxious  article,  was  decl^uned 
"Not  guilty,"  while  by  another  jury  Drakard, 
whose  ofience  was  the  republication  of  the 
same  article,  without  alteration  or  comment, 
was  declared  "  Guilty."  In  1812,  he  agun  de- 
fended Hnnt  against  a  government  prosecution. 
In  October,  1812,  he  offered  himself  as  a  whig 
to  the  borough  of  Liverpool,  in  opposition  to 
George  Canning.  He  was  defeated  there,  and 
again  at  Inverkeithing  Burghs.  He  finally  re- 
appeared in  the  house  of  commons  as  member 
for  the  borough  of  Winchelsea,  of  which  his 
old  friend  the  earl  of  Darlington  was  own^. 
This  borough  he  continued  to  represent  until 
1880,  having  in  tiie  mean  time  cont^ted  the 
county  representation  of  Westmoreland  three 
times  without  success.  In  1816,  he  commenced 
his  efforts  in  the  cause  of  popular  education,  by  • 
obtaining  the  appointment  of  a  committee  to 


BROUGHAM 


745 


inquire  into  the  state  of  the  education  of  the 
poor  in  the  metropolis.  The  appointment  of 
this  committee  is  an  event  in  the  history  of 
popular  education  in  England,  although  at  first 
it  remained  without  any  immediate  result  The 
recommendation  of  the  committee  to  apply  a 
portion  of  the  funds  of  educational  institutions 
for  higher  instruction  to  promote  elementary 
instruction  among  the  poorer  classes,  did  not 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  house  of  com- 
mons. In  1818,  he  succeeded  in  getting  a  com* 
mission  appointed  to  inquire  into  the  abuses  of 
the  public  charitable  foundations  of  the  king* 
dom  connected  with  education.  The  revelations 
of  this  commission,  which  were  eagerly  watched 
for  and  diffused  by  Mr.  Brougham,  eventually 
bore  fruit  in  the  nomination  of  a  permanent 
commisNon  to  watch  over  the  honest  appropria- 
tion of  charitable  trusts  to  the  objects  contem- 
plated by  the  foundcRL  In  1818,  he  published 
a  '^Letter  to  Sir  Samuel  Romilly,  upon  the 
Abuse  of  Public  Oharities,"  which  ran  through 
10  editions.  In  1819,  he  and  his  friends  estab- 
lished a  model  school  for  the  children  of  the 
poorer  classes  in  London.  In  1820  and  1821,  he 
was  chiefly  engaged  in  the  case  of  Queen  Caro- 
line, who  claimed  her  rights  as  queen-consort 
During  this  period  he  was  Queen  Oaroline's 
chief  adviser,  contributing  by  his  eloquence 
to  obtain  a  verdict  in  her  favor,  and  gain- 
ing immense  popularity  by  the  part  which 
he  took  in  the  trial  Two  of  his  speeches 
in  this  suit  have  taken  their  place  among 
the  dasdc  specimens  of  English  oratory.  In 
1828,  he  helped  to  found  the  first  mechanics' 
institute,  of  which  Dr.  Birkbeck  was  the  first 
president  and  prime  mover.  In  April  of  this 
year,  he  accused  Canning  of  *^  the  most  mon- 
strous truckling  for  office  that  the  whole  history 
of  political  tergiversation  could  present,''  in  ref- 
erence to  the  latter's  supposed  intention  of  aban- 
doning the  cause  of  Catholic  emancipation. 
Canning  cried  out  *'  It  is  fake."  The  quarrel 
was  composed  by  the  authority  of  the  speaker. 
In  this  session  he  spoke  on  colonial  slavery  and 
the  delays  in  chancery.  In  1824^  he  took  up 
the  case  of  the  Rev.  John  Smith,  who  expired 
in  a  Demerara  prison  under  sentence  of  death 
for  having,  as  was  charged,  incited  the  slaves  to 
revolt  In  1826,  appeared  his  '*  Practical  Ob- 
servations upon  the  Education  of  the  People, 
addressed  to  the  Working  Classes  and  their 
Employers,"  of  which  20  editions  were  sold. 
In  the  same  year  he  was  elected  lord  rector  of 
Glasgow  university  over  Sir  Walter  Scott ;  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  the  previous  rector,  giving  the 
casting  vote  in  favor  of  Mr.  Brougham.  The 
address  which  he  delivered  on  occasion  of  his 
installation  has  been  preserved,  and  is  also  a 
classic.  In  the  same  year  he  introduced  a  bill 
for  the  incorporation  of  the  London  university, 
which  was  to  be  conducted  upon  the  principle 
of  the  absence  of  all  religious  tests  and  religious 
preferences.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active 
promoters  of  this  now  celebrated  university. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  '*  Society  for  the  Diffo* 


sion  of  Usefbl  Ejiowledge,"  started  in  1827. 
Mr.  Brougham  was  elected  chairman  of  the 
managing  committee,  and  his  discourse  on  the 
**  Objects,  Pleasures,  and  Advantages  of  Science," 
was  the  first  publication  of  the  society.  In 
182T,  he  was  made  a  king's  oounsd,  the  dislike 
of  George  IV.  to  the  counsel  of  Queen  Caroline 
having  delayed  the  bestowal  of  this  honor  for 
many  years.  From  1826  to  1830,  he  spoke 
constantly  in  parliament  on  law  reform,  Ca- 
tholic relief*  colonial  slavery,  and  the  corpo- 
ration and  test  acts.  His  speech  of  6  hours'  du- 
ration, delivered  Feb.  7, 1828,  in  behalf  of  law 
reform,  indicated  the  necessity  of  almost  all  the 
legal  reforms  which  have  been  accomplished  in 
England  since  that  period.  During  the  short 
administration  of  Mr.  Canning,  that  statesman 
received  Mr.  Brougham's  support  on  account  of 
*^  his  liberal  and  manly  foreign  policy."  Dur- 
ing this  period  the  attorneys,  indignant  at  Mr. 
Brougham's  efforts  to  reform  the  law  and  cur- 
tail their  profits,  formed  a  combination  against 
him,  and  pledged  themselves  to  give  him  no 
briefs.  Mr.  Brougham's  talent  was  too  tempt- 
ing to  clients  to  be  thus  stifled.  The  plot  fell 
tiirough,  and  Mr.  Brougham  earned  a  larger 
professional  income  than  he  had  ei^joyed  previ- 
ous to  this  attempt  In  1880  he  resigned  his 
seat  for  Winchelsea,  on  the  ground  of  disagree- 
ment with  his  patron,  the  marquis  of  Cleveland, 
and  was  immediately  afterward  returned  for 
Xnaresborough.  At  the  general  election,  which 
ensued  upon  the  accession  of  William  lY.,  Mr. 
Brougham  stood  for  Yorkshire,  and  was  return- 
ed free  of  expense.  In  the  course  of  this  can- 
vass, he  spoke  at  8  different  electoral  meetings 
in  one  day,  travelled  the  same  day  120  miles  by 
stage,  and  appeared  fresh  next  morning  at  the 
York  assizes.  At  this  time  Mr.  Brougham  oc- 
cupied the  position  of  leader  of  the  British 
people,  then  panting  eagerly  for  reform  of  par- 
liament On  the  formation  of  the  ministry  of 
Earl  Grey,  he  was  offered  the  post  of  lord  chan- 
cellor, in  the  place  of  Lord  Lyndhurst,  resigned, 
with  tlie  title  of  Baron  Brougham  and  Vaux, 
which  was  conferred  on  him  in  Nov.  1830.  In 
his  judicial  capacity  he  excited  the  astonishment 
of  the  chancery  bar,  long  accustomed  to  the  dila- 
toriness  of  Lord  Eldon,  by  clearing  off  all  chan- 
cery arrears  with  wonderful  rapidity.  Party 
spirit  running  high,  the  conservative  lawyers 
accused  the  new  lord  chancellor  of  inaccuracy, 
but  his  long  and  carefully  prepared  judgments 
finally  succeeded  in  confuting  this  impression. 
Several  measures  introduced  by  him  into  the 
house  of  lords  for  improving  the  proceedings  in 
bankruptcy,  and  diminishing  his  own  income  by 
£7,000,  became  law.  With  Earl  Grey,  he  bore 
the  principal  part  in  advocating  the  reform  bill 
in  the  house  of  lords.  His  speech  on  Oct.  7, 
1831,  is  historical.  Mr.  Roebuck,  in  his  "His- 
tory of  the  Whig  Party,"  says  that  it  was  owinff 
to  Lord  Broudiom's  astonishing  audacity  and 
menaces  that  William  IV.  was  induced  to  dis- 
solve the  house  of  commons  in  1831.  All  the 
measures  of  reform  passed  by  the  first  refonned 


746 


BROUGHAM 


hoQM  of  commons  reoeired  Lord  Brongliam's 
support  in  the  house  of  lords.  The  dismissal  of 
the  whig  ministry,  Kov.  4, 1834,  put  an  end  to 
his  chancellorship  and  his  official  life  together. 
He  had  qnarrelled  with  some  of  his  colleagues, 
and  was  disliked  by  the  king ;  the  popular  faror 
which  bore  him  into  power  had  deserted  him, 
and  on  the  reinstalment  of  a  whig  cabinet  in 
1885,  Mr.  Pepys  was  made  lord  chancellor,  under 
the  title  of  Lord  Cottenham.  Since  that  time 
Lord  Brougham  has  enjoyed  an  ex-chancellor's 
retiring  pension  of  £5,000  per  annum,  and  has 
taken  an  actire  part  in  the  aetermination  of  ap< 
peals  to  the  house  of  peers.  Henceforth  he  was 
often  in  antagonism  to  the  whigs;  he  censured 
their  Canadian  policy,  and  the  conduct  of  Lord 
Durham,  the  governor-general  of  Oanada,  in 
particular.  The  success  of  this  attack  has  been 
generally  supposed  to  have  been  the  cause  of 
Lord  Durham's  speedy  death.  He  remained  on 
the  whole  true  to  the  liberal  cause.  His  zeal 
for  popular  education,  the  abolition  of  slayery, 
and  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade,  and  re- 
peal of  the  corn  laws,  never  slackened.  Al« 
though  ever  in  favor  of  the  repeal  of  the  corn 
laws,  he  was  averse  to  popular  agitation,  and 
denounced  the  league  as  unconstitutional.  In 
1889,  after  a  temporary  residence  in  Paris,  he 
published  an  anonymous  pamphlet  npon  the 
state  of  parties  in  France.  Soon  after  this,  he 
became  proprietor  of  the  villa  Louise  Eltonore, 
on  a  beautiful  estate  in  the  south  of  France,  near 
Cannes,  overlooking  the  Mediterranean— his  es- 
tate in  £ngland  being  Brougham  hall,  Penrith, 
Westmoreland,  and  his  London  residence  No.  4 
6raftx>n  street  In  1844,  he  voted  as  Judicial 
peer  to  confirm  the  sentence  of  the  Irish  court 
of  queen's  bench  upon  O'Oonnell.  During 
the  sway  of  the  provisional  government  of 
France,  in  1848,  he  applied  to  it  to  furnish 
him  with  instructions  for  becoming  a  French 
citizen.  The  reply  was  that  that  could  only 
be  upon  his  resigning  his  titles  as  an  Eng- 
lish peer.  In  1849,  he  wrote  a  "Letter  to 
Lord  Lansdowne,"  violently  assailing  the  men 
and  principles  of  the  revolutionary  movement 
of  the  continent.  Since  1849,  Lord  Brougham 
has  fairly  won  the  title  of  the  patriarch  of  law 
reform;  he  cooperates  with  the  law  amend- 
ment society,  and  is  in  favor  of  the  introduction 
of  the  New  York  code  of  procedure  into  Eng- 
land.— ^Lord  Brougham  married,  in  1819,  the  eld- 
est daughter  of  Thomas  Eden,  Esq.,  of  Wimble- 
don, by  whom  he  had  one  daughter,  who  died  at 
the  age  of  ir.  In  1883  he  was  elected  a  foreign 
associate  of  the  institute  of  France,  and  later,  of 
the royalaoademy of sciencesof Naples.  In  1860, 
^52j  and  '58,  he  made  experiments  on  the  prop- 
erties of  light,  which  were  communicated  to 
the  royal  society  of  his  own  c6untry.  and  the 
academy  of  sciences  at  Paris,  and  published  in 
the  transactions  of  both.  In  1866,  conjointly 
with  Mr.  E.  J,  Routh,  he  published  "An  Ana- 
lytical View  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  Principia." 
The  collected  edition  of  his  "  Speeches  "  was 
published  in  1888  (Edinburgh),  and  later,  his 


BEOUGHTOJTS  ARCBIPELAGO 

**  Speeches  at  theB8r,and  inPirliameot,^br 
Longman,  of  London.  Scon  after  hia  ks  of 
office,  in  1884^  be  brought  out,  in  ooiguDctm 
with  Mr.  Bell,  an  annotated  edition  of  Piler'i 
''Natural Theology."  Inl8S9-'43,8ppeiredb 
series  of  ^  Sketches  of  Statesmen  who  fiooiisbd 
in  the  time  of  George  m,"  snd  inl8i5  W']}x^ 
of  Men  of  Letters  and  Sdoioe  who  floorishedk 
the  time  of  George  HV^  An  edition  and  tn» 
lation  of  the  Demostiienic  Qratian  ^^On  the 
Crown,"  sums  up  his  litersiy  prodocti  int^fieid 
of  Greek  literature.  Three  Tolomes  of  his  ""Fo- 
litical  Philosophy"  have  been  pnbMnd,!)^ 
many  minor  works.  His'^^eeeiMBOnSodali^ 
Political  Subjects,"  with  a  historioal  iDtndae- 
tion,  appeared  at  London  and  G3a^w  in  1S5;. 
in  S  vols.  12mo.  Among  the  IsteBtprodae&oss 
of  Lord  Brougham  is  a  vahiable  diMrtation,  reii 
by  him.  May  18,  1858,  bdbre  tin  F^end 
academy,  on  '^  Analytical  and  Experimeots! 
Inquiries  on  the  cells  of  Be«,"  tod  his 
speech,  delivered  June  17, 1858,  in  the  iwoge 
of  lords^  on  the  suppreesioQ  of  tiie  ^ts 
trade. 

BROUGHAM,  Johh,  an  Iriah  aetoriadpl&y- 
Wright,  bom  in  Dublin,  May  9, 1810.  Hevssiii 
tended  for  the  mescal  professioD,  bnttkepra- 
pect.of  a  government  derkdiip  took  him  to 
London,  where,  being  disappointed  in  this  hope. 
he  gave  lessons  in  drawing  for  some  ^  sal 
finally  became  an  actor  at  the  Olppic  tkaiR, 
then  managed  by  Madame  Vestris.  Hegndi- 
ally  worked  his  way  up  to  the  HajiBaiei 
theatre,  where  he  made  a  very  succesfcl  fim 
appearance,  in  June,  1833,  as  LooneylhcW 
ter,  in  the  "  Review."  He  soon  wb  kw^w 
by  the  public  as  a  good  light  comefiin  m 
Irishman;  occasionally  writing  fiiroesftoio^ 
small  dramas.  In  1842,  he  cam's  to  America, 
appeared  at  the  Park  theatre,  New  York^BTiE 
Moore,  in  the  "Irish  Lion," and haasalseqaasj 
performed  in  almost  every  principal  theiatp 
the  Union.  Having  maMJged  »  thw&e ja 
Boston,  he  buUt  the  Lyceum  (DovVaMf> 
In  Kew  York,  in  1860,  but  rdinqmshed  iutto 
end  of  two  seasons.  He  also  managw  fe 
Bowery  theatre,  New  York,  in  1866-^T.  r 
Brougham  is  a  very  popular  actor.  He  b» 
thor  of  various  oomedies,  dramas,  and  otaTt 
ffanzas;  he  has  also  successfully  adapted  pie» 
from  the  novels  of  Dickens  and  Balver.  u 
has  collected  some  of  his  ftigitiTO  pr«e^ 
and  articles  into  3  volumes,  called  "A  ws» 
of  Chips,"  and  "  The  Bunsby  Papers."      . 

BROUGHTON,  Thomas,  a  learned  the(*igB 
and  one  of  the  first  writers  in  the  "  Biograjg 
Britannica,"  bom  in  London,  Jdy  6,  h^^ 
Dec.  21, 1774.  His  musical  taste  mad*  ia»» 
acceptable  coadjutor  to  Handel,  for  m«»?^ 
whose  compositions  it  is  understood  tbtt » 
famished  the  words.  ^     - 

BBOUGHTOITS  AROHIPEUGO.awl* 
tion  of  isUnds  named  after  their  dJacorer^* 
Englishman,  situated  on  the  north-w»t  cossa 
North  America,  and  extending  from  long.  i» 
to  12*^  70'  W.,  and  fixan  lat  50«  W'  to  a  >• 


BROUNOKER 


BROUSSAIS 


747 


BROUNOKER,  WnxiAM,  viscount  of  Oastlo 
Lyona,  in  Ireland,  a  ni&thotnatician  and  publicist, 
bom  in  1620,  died  in  1684.  In  1657  and  1653 
he  was  engaged  in  a  correspondence  on  matfae« 
inatical  sabjecta  with  Dr.  John  Wallis,  who 
published  his  letters  in  the  Commerdum  Epu- 
tolieum.  During  the  civil  wars  he  adherea  to 
the  cause  of  the  crown,  and  after  the  restora- 
tion was  made  chancellor  to  the  queen  consort, 
a  commissioner  of  the  navj,  and  master  of  St. 
Oatharine*B  hospital.  He  was  one  of  the  found- 
ers of  the  roval  society,  and  its  first  president. 

BROUSSA,  or  Bxusa  (ano.  Frtuias^  also 
Prusa  ad  O^fmpwn^  from  being  situated  at  the 
fbot  of  Mount  Olympus),  a  town  in  the  Turkish 
government  of  Anatolia,  in  Asia  Minor,  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  Khudavendkiar,  about 
57  miles  S.  S.  £.  of  Oonstantinople,  was  cele- 
brated for  the  extent  of  its  commerce  in  silk  and 
other  goods,  and  for  its  beautiful  situation,  until 
1855,  when  the  town  was  almost  entirely  de- 
stroyed by  an  earthquake,  burying  hundreds  of 
the  inhabitants  among  its  ruins,  and  compelling 
the  rest  of  the  population  (consisting,  according 
to  the  census  of  1853,  of  78,000,  of  whom  11,000 
were  Armenians,  6,000  Greeks,  and  a  small  num- 
ber Jews,)  to  resort  to  flight.  Among  those 
thus  suddenly  driven  away  from  Broussa  was 
Abd  el  Xader,  who  had  resided  here  since  1853. 
Broussa  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Bithynio, 
deriving  its  name  from  Prusias,  one  of  the  early 
Bithynian  kings.  Under  the  Romans  it  was  the 
residence  of  Pliny  the  Younger  and  of  other 
Roman  governors.  Wrested  from  the  hands 
of  the  Greek  emperors  by  Orkhan^  the  son  of 
the  founder  of  the  Ottoman  dynasty,  it  became 
the  seat  of  the  new  empire,  till  Amurath  removed 
the  seat  of  government  to  Adrianople.  The  tombs 
of  the  ancient  sultans,  the  mosques,  of  which 
there  were  at  least  800,  and  other  remarkable 
buildings,  handsome  bath-houses,  a  vast  number 
of  private  and  public  fountains,  fine  gardens,  ex- 
tensive bazaars,  and  the  superb  view  from  Mount 
Olympus,  all  contributed  to  enhance  the  beauty 
of  the  ill-fated  town.  Kossuth  resided  for  some 
time  at  Broussa,  after  his  flight  from  Hungary. 

BROUSSAIS,  Feakqois  Joseph  Viotob,  a 
French  physician,  born  at  Saint  Malo,  Dec.  17, 
1772,  died  at  Vitry,  near  Paris,  Nov.  17,  1838. 
His  early  years  were  passed  at  Pleurtuit,  a  small 
village  in  which  his  father  was  established  as  a 
medical  practitioner.  At  the  age  of  12,  Broussais 
was  sent  to  school  at  Dinan,  where  he  was  pur- 
suing his  studies  when  the  great  revolution 
broke  out  in  1789.  He  was  enrolled  in  a  body 
of  volunteers  and  joined  the  army.  At  the  end 
of  2  years  ho  obtained  leave  to  return  home, 
on  account  of  sickness.  On  his  recovery  he  be- 
came a  student  of  medicine,  and  was  appointed 
as  an  officer  of  health,  first  in  the  hospital  of  St. 
Malo,  and  afterward  in  that  of  Brytw  He  soon 
obtained  a  commission  as  surgeon  on  board  of  a 
ship  of  war,  and  was  present  in  several  battles 
against  the  English.  He  held  a  good  appoint- 
ment at  Bryt  from  1796  to  1798;  but  being 
anxious  to  pursue  a  oourse  of  study  at  Paris,  he 


removed  there,  with  his  wife,  in  1799.  Bichat 
was  then  one  of  the  most  influential  men  in  the 
medical  schools  of  Paris,  and  Broussais  lost  no 
time  in  making  his  acquaintance.  They  soon 
became  intimate friendsTand remained  so  until 
Bichat  died,  in  1802.  Broussais  received  his 
diploma  of  doctor  of  medicine  in  1808;  and, 
through  the  influence  of  Desgenettes,  obtained 
an  appointment  as  military  surgeon,  in  1804. 
Two  years  later  he  was  sent  to  the  camp  at 
Boulogne,  but  the  project  of  invading  England 
being  abandoned,  the  army  was  marched  through 
Europe,  and  Broussais  went  with  it  in  all  its 
campaigns  through  Germany,  Holland,  Italy, 
and  Spain.  Stu<uous  in  the  midst  of  military 
life,  he  began  to  meditate  on  the  various  causes 
of  disease,  and  the  symptoms  which  are  common 
to  most  kinds  of  organic  and  fVmotional  derange- 
ment In  1808  he  obtained  leave  to  go  to  Paris 
to  superintend  the  publication  of  his  '^  History  of 
Chronic  Inflammations.''  This  work,  which  con- 
tains the  germs  of  all  his  future  doctrines,  met 
with  little  notice  at  the  time;  fior,  although 
Pinel  praised  it  highly,  and  it  was  honorably 
noticed  by  the  institute,  he  could  not  obtain  for 
it  more  than  $160,  and  nearly  the  whole  edition 
remained  unsold  until  1816.  Soon  after  this 
publication,  in  1808,  he  was  appointed  chief 

ghysician  to  a  division  of  the  French  army  in 
pain,  where  he  remained  6  years,  pursuing  his 
researches  and  attending  to  the  duties  of  his 
office.  In  1814  he  was  appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor at  the  military  hospital  of  the  VclI  dc 
Ordce  in  Paris.  He  commenced  a  coarse  of 
lectures  on  practical  medicine,  in  which  he 
attempted  to  form  a  system  and  a  school  of  his 
own,  in  opposition  to  the  doctrines  of  Pinel, 
then  taught  in  the  established  schools  of  modi- 
cine.  His  lectures  were  attended  by  great  num- 
bers of  students,  who  accepted  his  idens  with 
enthusiasm.  In  1816  he  published  his  Examen 
de$  doetrinei  medieaU$y  which  excited  the  dis- 
like and  opposition  of  the  whole  medical  faculty 
of  Paris.  By  degrees  his  doctrines  gained 
approval,  and  were  admitted  in  the  writings 
and  the  practice  of  many  eminent  physicians. 
They  were  taught  even  hi  the  medical  school 
itsch^  long  befbre  1881,  when  Broussms  was 
appointed  professorof  general  pathology  in  the 
academy  or  medicine,  which  office  he  held  untU 
his  death.  Beside  the  two  works  above 
mentioned,  he  published  in  1824  his  TraiU  de 
laphynologieappliqueedlapathologie;  in  1829, 
his  (Ummentairei  a»  proptmtions  de  pathologU 
eonsigneii  dam  Vexamen ;  in  1882,  Is  cholera 
morhu*  ipid&ndque. — ^The  life  of  Broussais  pre- 
sents 8  distinct  periods.  In  the  first,  he  labored 
with  all  his  might  to  prove  that  the  doctrines 
of  Pinel  with  regard  to  the  essentiality  of  fever 
were  erroneous^  and  that  some  morbid  agent, 
producing  irritation  and  inflammation,  was  the 
cause  of  all  disease.  From  1816  to  1821  he  was 
occupied  in  controverting  the  established  theo- 
ries, from  this  point  of  view,  and  with  entire 
success.  His  followers  then  complained  that  he 
had  shown  the  fallacy  of  Piners  theoryi  but 


748 


BROUSSONNET 


BROWBT 


had  not  safficiently  elaborated  a  new  doctrino 
to  replace  it  From  1821  to  1628,  he  labored  to 
establish  what  he  called  the  **  physiological 
system  of  medidne,"  in  opposition  to  the  '*  onto- 
logical"  system  or  PineL  The  "History  of 
Chronic  Inflammations  "  had  prepared  the  way 
for  his  theory  of  irritation  in  the  organs,  cor- 
responding to  a  principle  of  irritability  in 
the  organism.  He  therefore  nroclaimed  this 
doctrine  as  the  basis  of  all  meaical  tmth,  and 
he  sustained  his  views,  with  much  ability  and 

general  success,  from  1821  to  1828.  It  was  the 
octrine  taught  by  Brown  in  Edinburgh,  more 
than  80  yeaxs  before ;  and  had  already  met  with 
much  success  in  England,  Germany,  and  Italy, 
though  little  known  in  France,  nntU  revived  by 
Broussais  under  a  new  form,  and  to  a  great  ex- 
tent, no  doubt,  by  a  natural  train  of  reasoning 
from  the  same  point  of  view,  more  than  from 
a  servile  imitation  of  Brown's  system.  Broussais 
had  immense  success  in  France  and  Belgium  for 
7  years,  where  this  theory  was  nractiodly  new, 
and  very  rational,  compared  witn  Pinel^s  views. 
In  England  and  in  Germany  it  met  with  less 
success,  because  it  had  been  known  as  the  doc- 
trine or  Brown ;  and  though  very  true  in  many 
points,  it  was  nevertheless  insufficient  to  explain 
all  the  phenomena  of  health  and  disease.  The 
same  opinion  arose  in  France  after  a  7  years' 
pr^ticd  trial  of  the  system ;  and  after  being 
greatly  lauded  and  admired,  Broussais  was  de- 
serted by  the  students  and  professors  of  medicine. 
The  partial  truth  of  his  views  was  admitted,  but 
other  principles  and  doctrines  were  wanted  to 
explain  the  physiological  and  pathological  phe- 
nomena of  life.  In  nervous  diseases  it  aSbrded  no 
assistance,  but  left  the  student  as  much  in  the 
dark  as  he  was  before ;  and  this  was  admitted  by 
his  own  partisans,  and  partly  by  Broussais  him- 
self. To  make  his  system  more  complete,  he  un- 
dertook a  series  of  observations  on  the  nervous 
system,  and  its  relations  to  psychology.  Al- 
though he  had  been  up  to  that  time  more  or  less 
opposed  to  phrenology,  he  turned  his  attention 
to  the  subject,  gave  public  lectures  on  it,  and 
in  1836  published  an  octavo  volume  under  the 
title  of  Coura  de  phrSnologie.  This  work  had 
a  temporary  run  of  popularity,  but  it  failed 
to  moke  on  abiding  impression.  Broussais's 
theory  was  on  the  wane,  as  a  partial  view  of 
truth,  not  containing  a  complete  and  unitary 
principle  of  science.  The  labors  of  Dr.  Mar- 
•shall  Hall,  Dr.  Brown-S^quard,  and  other  emi- 
nent physiologists  of  the  present  day,  have 
done  much  to  advance  the  science  of  medicine 
in  the  directions  which  Broussais  had  left  unex- 
plored. 

BROUSSONNET,  Pibrrb  Auguste,  a  French 
physician  and  naturalist^  bom  at  Montpellier, 
Feb.  28,  1761,  died  there  July  9,  1807.  Ho 
was  the  first  who  introduced  tlie  botanical 
system  of  Linnffius  into  France.  He  also 
caused  the  first  flock  of  merino  sheep  to  be 
brought  thither  from  Spain,  and  the  first  An- 
gora goats  to  be  imported  fh>m  the  Levant, 
lie  was  a  member  of  the  national  assembly  and 


the  convention;  but  giving  mnbrage  to  the 
terrorists,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  from  which 
he  succeeded,  however,  in  escaping  to  Madrid. 
Here  he  encountered  the  persecutions  of  F^nch 
emigrated  nobles,  and  was  reduced  to  great 
poverty,  when  Sir  Joseph  Banks,  whose  ac- 
quaintanoe  he  had  made  during  a  visit  to  Loo- 
don,  sent  him  a  gift  of  $5,000,  and  procured 
him  a  passage  to  India  in  an  English  ship.  The 
vessel  in  which  he  had  embarked  was  forced 
into  Lisbon  harbor  by  a  storm,  and,  experien- 
cing here  fresh  persecutions,  he  passed  over  to 
Africa,  where  he  procured  employment  as 
physician  at  Morocco,  and  resumed  his  botan- 
ical and  zoological  studies.  Under  the  empire 
he  was  appointed  French  consul  at  Mogadore 
and  the  Canaries;  and  in  1805,  oa  his  return 
to  France,  he  was  made  a  member  of  the  legis- 
lative assembly.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
principal  learned  bodies  of  France,  and  anlhor 
of  several  botanical,  zoological,  and  medical 
works  of  great  value ;  but  his  most  important 
work  is  his  Ichthyologia,  mu  Piscium  De^crip- 
t tones  et  Icones,  publi^ed  in  London  in  1792. 

BROWN,  the  name  of  counties  in  several  of 
the  United  States.  I.  A  south-western  county 
of  Ohio,  bordering  on  the  Ohio^river,  and  hav- 
ing an  area  of  502  sq.  m.  The  surfiice  near 
the  river  is  hilly ;  but  in  other  portions,  level 
or  gentiy  undulating.  The  natural  excellence 
of  the  soil  is  much  enhanced  by -good  cultiva- 
tion, and  the  crops  of  corn,  wheat,  oats;  hay, 
and  tobacco  are  usually  abundant.  Cattie  and 
swine  are  raised  in  considerable  numbers.  The 
productions  in  1850  were  1,209,485  bushels  of 
Indian  com,  192,065  of  wheats  180,810  of  oats, 
and  1,279,510  lbs.  of  tobacco.  There  were  20 
com  and  flour  mills,  19  saw  miUs,  5  woollen 
factories,  8  tanneries,  61  churches,  and  3  news- 
paper offices.  The  Oincinnati  and  Hillsborough 
railroad  passes  near  the  N.  border.  Pop.  in 
1850,  27,382.  Capital,  Georgetown.  II.  A 
southern  county  of  Indiana,  watered  by  Bean 
Blossom  and  Salt  creeks.  Area,  820  aq.  m. 
Its  surface  ia  finely  diversified  by  hills  and  val- 
leys, and  the  soil  is  generally  productive,  yield- 
ing wheat,  corn,  oats,  and  pasturage.  Much  of 
the  land  is  well  wooded  with  the  oak,  hickory, 
elm,  sugar-maple,  walnut,  and  other  trees.    The 

E reductions  in  1850  were  179,804  busheb  of 
adion  com,  14,154  of  wheat,  18,704  of  oats, 
and  10,029  lbs.  of  wool.  The  county  contained 
6  grist  and  2  sawmills,  10  tanneries,  and  2 
churches.  Organized  in  1836,  and  named  in 
honor  of  Gkn.  Jacob  Brown.  Pop.  in  1850, 
4,846.  Capital,  Nashville.  III.  A  western 
county  of  Illinois,  on  the  W.  bank  of  Dlinois 
river.  Area,  320  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  ocoa- 
pied  partly  by  prairies  and  partiy  by  wood- 
lands. There  are  few  considerable  ^evationa. 
The  soil  is  highly  fertile,  and  well  cultivated. 
Wheat,  com,  oats,  cattie,  and  swine  are  the 
chief  productions.  In  1850  it  yielded  513,118 
bushels  of  Indian  corn,  76,658  of  wheat,  51,825 
of  oats,  3,000  tons  of  hay,  and  71,669  lbs.  of 
butter.    There  were  6  grist  mills,  10  saw  millsi 


BROWN" 


740 


4  tanneries,  1  newspaper  office,  14  oborches, 
and  1,662  pupils  attending  public  schools.  Sev- 
eral railroads  have  been  projected,  which  are  to 
intersect  the  countiy.  Pop.  in  1856,  7,940. 
Capital,  Mount  Sterling.  iV.  A  north-eastern 
county  of  Wisconsin,  at  the  head  of  Green  bay, 
intersected  by  Fox  or  Neenah  rirer,  and  hav- 
ing an  area  of  625  sq.  m.  At  the  time  of  its 
formation,  in  1818,  it  was  muchr  larger.  The 
surface  is  uneven,  and  some  of  the  soil  fertile. 
The  productions  in  1850  were  11,462  bushels  of 
Indian  com,  6,212  of  wheat,  17,674  of  potatoes, 
and  2,486  tons  of  hay.  There  were  in  the 
county  8  grist  mills,  24  saw  mills,  1  newspaper 
office,  4  churches,  and  860  pupils  attending 
public  schools.  Assessed  value  of  real  estate  in 
1855,  $565,789.  A  large  part  of  the  surface 
was  formerly  densely  wooded,  and  there  are 
still  some  tracts  of  good  timber.  Several  rail- 
roads radiating  from  Green  Bay,  the  county 
seat,  have  been  projected,  and  one  designed  to 
connect  that  city  with  Milwaukee  has  been 
commenced.  The  channel  of  water  communi- 
cation between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi, effected  by  the  improvement  and  con- 
nection of  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers,  passes 
through  this  county.  Fop.  in  1855,  6,699. 
Y.  A  central  county  of  Texas,  intersected  by 
Pecan  bayou,  and  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the 
Colorado  river.  The  surface  is  undulating  and 
hilly,  with  occasional  tracts  of  rolling  prairie, 
the  soil  of  which  is  exceedingly  rich.  There  is 
little  timber  of  any  consequence,  except  along 
the  water  courses ;  but  pasturage  is  abundant, 
and  stock-raising  forms  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  inhabitants.  The  county  was  organized 
Aug.  27,  1856.    Capital  not  yet  chosen. 

BROWN,  a  distinguished  family  of  Anglo- 
American  merchants.  —  Albxakdeb  Brown, 
born  at  Ba]inQena,  county  of  Antrim,  Ireland, 
Nov.  17,  17^,  died  in  Baltimore,  April  6, 1884^ 
came  to  the  United  States  with  his  4  sons  in 
1800,  settiing  as  a  general  merchant  at  Balti- 
more, and  subsequently  associating  his  sons  with 
bim,  under  the  firm  of  Alexander  Brown  and 
Sons. — ^His  eldest  son  Wilu/lic,  bom  at  Bidly- 
mena,  May  4,  1784^  was  associated  with  his 
father  at  Baltimore,  returned  to  his  native 
country  in  1808,  and  established  himself  in 
1810  as  a  merchant  in  Liverpool  The  house 
thus  established  by  him  has  been  carried  on 
under  various  firms,  and  is  now  known  under 
that  of  Brown,  Shipley,  and  Co.  Having  con- 
tributed large  sums  toward  the  support  of  the 
free  trade  party  in  south  Lancashire,  he  was 
nominated  as  a  candidate  for  parliament  in 
1844,  and  after  a  sharp  contest  was  beaten  by 
the  Egerton  interest  In  1845  he  was  returned 
without  opposition,  and  has  retained  the  posi- 
tion at  all  succeeding  elections.  His  commer- 
cial position  gives  him  much  influence  in  tiie 
house  of  commons,  though  he  is  rarely  heard 
in  debate.  He  is  very  decided  in  his  libersd 
opinions,  having  voted  for  ballot,  household 
suffiraffe,  and  other  liberal  measures.  He  was 
one  of  the  early  and  zealous  champions  of  free 


trade,  and  publiBhed  in  1850  a  series  of  papers 
on  thp  subject,  which  attracted  much  attention. 
At  the  dawn  of  his  career  in  Liverpool,  he  took 
an  active  part  with  Mr.  Huskisson  in  reforming 
the  management  of  the  Liverpool  docks  estate, 
and  he  continues  to  take  a  most  cordial  inter- 
est in  the  prosperity  of  Liverpool  He  has  con- 
tributed £80,000  to  the  great  library  at  Liv- 
erpool, of  which  the  foundation  stone  was  laid 
April  15,  1857.  Mr.  Brown  is  a  magistrate  and 
deputy  lieutenant  of  Lancashire,  where  he  has 
some  landed  propertv  and  a  beautiful  resi- 
dence, Richmond  Hill,  near  Liverpool.  He  is 
president  of  the  Honduras  interoceanic  rail- 
way company,  takes  a  prominent  nart  in  va- 
rious other  great  enterprises,  and  has'  gain- 
ed the  respect  and  esteem  of  the  mer- 
chants of  both  countries  by  his  zeal  in  behalf 
of  the  development  of  all  forms  of  interna- 
tional intercourse  between  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States. — Qeorok.  2d  son  of  Alex- 
ander, bom  April  17,  1787,  has  continued  his 
residence  in  Baltimore,  and  carries  on  business 
there  under  the  old  firm  of  Alexander  Brown  and 
Sons. — John  A.,  8d  son,  born  May  21,  1788, 
removed  to  Philadelphia  in  1818,  establishing  a 
house  there  under  the  firm  of  John  A.  Brown 
and  Co.,  from  which  he  retired  in  1888,  but 
which  is  still  continued  under  the  firm  of 
Brown  and  Bowen,  as  a  branch  of  the  house  of 
Brown,  Brothers,  and  Co.  of  K  Y. — Jambs,  4th 
son  of  Alexander,  bom  Feb.  4, 1791,  removed 
to  New  York  in  1825,  and  established  there  in 
that  year  the  house  of  Brown,  Brothers,  and  Co. 
of  New  York,  of  which  he  is  yet  the  head. — ^In 
the  commercial  world  the  houses  of  Brown, 
Shipley,  and  Co.  of  Liverpool,  and  of  Brown, 
Brothers,  and  Co.  of  New  York,  occupy  weighty 
and  commanding  positions. 

BROWN,  Aabon  yAiL,postmaster-^eralof 
the  United  States,  bom  Aug.  15, 1795,  m  Bruns- 
wick CO.,  Ya.,  graduated  at  the  university  of 
North  Carolina  at  Chapel  HiU  in  1814 ;  studied 
law,  and  soon  after  commenced  practice  in  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.  He  was  partner  in  business  with 
the  late  President  Polk,  until  the  latter  entered 
upon  his  congressional  career ;  served  in  almost 
aU  the  sessions  of  the  legislature  of  Tennessee 
between  1821  and  1882 ;  was  a  member  of  the 
house  of  representatives  in  congress  from 
1889  to  1845  ;  and  was  in  that  year  elected 
governor  of  Tennessee.  He  was  a  delegate  to  the 
southern  convention  held  at  Nashville  in  1850, 
and  submitted  a  report  to  that  body  known  as 
the  Tennessee  platform.  He  was  also  a  mem- 
ber of  the  convention  of  the  democratic  party 
at  Baltimore  in  1852,  to  which  he  reported  the 
pktform  adopted  by  them.  In  1857  ne  became 
a  member  of  President  Buchanan's  cabinet,  in 
which  he  holds  the  office  of  postmaster-gen- 
eral. 

BROWN,  Albbbt  G.,  U.  S.  senator  from 
Mississippi,  bom  in  Chester  district,  S.  C,  July 
81,  1818,  removed  with  his  parents  to  Missis- 
sippi, while  a  child,  was  appointed  a  brigadier- 
general  in  the  state  militia  when  only  19,  ad- 


750 


BROWN 


mitted  to  tlid  prtetloe  of  the  law  before  he  ww 
21,  ele<^ed  member  of  the  itate  legislature  be- 
fore he  was  23,  and  a  represeDtative  in  oon- 
greaa  when  he  was  26.  In  1841  he  was  nomi- 
nated a  judge  of  the  circoit  conrt|  and  in  1843 
goremor  of  Misiisflippi,  an  office  to  which  he 
was  reelected  in  1845.  At  the  dose  of  his  2d 
term  as  goremor  he  was  sent  as  a  represent- 
atire  to  congress,  rejected  in  1849,  and  again 
in  1851.  In  1858  he  was  elected  to  the  U.  a 
senate,  and  in  Nov.  1867,  he  was  reelected  for 
a  2d  term  of  6  years  front  March  4,  1850,  to 
1865.  Mr.  Brown  is  an  unflinching  champion 
of  the  views  of  the  democracy  of  the  south. 

BEOWN  (BLAOKWELL),  AntoivbttbL^  an 
American  Oongregationai  mmister,  bom  in  Hen- 
rietta, Monroe  co.,  N.  T.,  May  20, 1825.  At  the 
age  of  9  she  became  a  member  of  a  Congrega- 
tional church,  and  was  even  encouraged  to  speak 
and  lead  in  prayer,  as  others  did^  at  their  confer- 
ence meetings.  From  the  religious  emotions  of 
that  period,  and  the  habits  of  devotion  which 
marked  her  childhood,  there  sprang  up  in  her 
mind  the  conception  and  desire  of  becoming  a 

Sreaoher.  At  the  age  of  16  she  taught  school 
nring  one  summer,  and  then  attended  the  acad- 
emy &  Henrietta ;  whence  in  1844  she  went  to 
Oberlin,  performin«^  alone  her  first  journey  br 
canal  and  stage  to  begin  the  experiences  of  col- 
lege life.  She  entered  at  the  2d  year  of  the 
course,  and  graduated  2  years  after  While 
studying^  she  taught  drawing  and  other  classes 
in  the  seminary.  During  the  winter  of  1844^ 
she  took  a  position  as  teacher  in  the  academy  at 
Rochester.  There  her  first  lecture  was  delivered, 
in  accordance  with  the  custom  of  the  teachers, 
generally  men,  to  address  the  pupils  and  viators 
of  the  academy.  During  her  college  course  at 
Oberlin,  one  vacation  was  spent  in  teaching  at 
the  academy  of  her  native  village,  and  2  at  col- 
lege in  extra  study  of  Hebrew  and  Gk^ek.  Dur- 
ing 2  years,  the  argument  as  drawn  from  the 
Bible,  for  or  against  the  public  ministrations  of 
woman,  was  a  prominent  topic  of  her  serious 
thought.  In  1846,  she  entered  upon  the  3 
years'  oourse  of  theology  at  Oberlin.  It  was 
customary  for  the  students  to  receive  a  license 
to  preach,  whereupon,  before  the  completion 
of  their  theolo^cal  studies,  they  would  begin 
the  practice  of  speaking  in  the  pulpits  of  the 
neighborhood.  When  Ifiss  Brown  desired  this 
license,  the  professors  were  grievously  exercised, 
and  it  was  at  last  dedded  Uiat  she  was  ^  a  resi- 
dent graduate  pursuing  the  theological  course,'' 
but  not  "  a  member  of  the  theological  depart- 
ment," and  consequently  that  she  needed  no 
license  from  the  institution,  but  must  preach  or 
be  silent  on  her  own  responsibility.  She  began 
preaching  in  Henrietta,  O.,  and  continued  to 
do  so  frequentlv  there  and  in  other  places 
during  the  remainder  of  her  term  of  study.  In 
1849,  having  completed  her  theological  course, 
she  quitted  Oberlin.  The  4  years  following 
were  q>ent  in  private  study,  frequent  preach- 
ing, and  occasional  lectures.  Some  of  these 
wore  addressed  to  lyceums  on  literary  topics, 


but  more  on  tempenmoo  and  fiie  ibolHioDrf 
slavery.  In  1849,  the  first  *'  yfmaxi'%  Bighti' 
convention  met  at  Worcester.  MLnBiowiirN 
one  of  the  speakers,  and  thenoelortfa,  amoogthi 
various  enterprises  which  reoeiTed  her  AdToacr, 
the  enfranchisement  and  dev^opmestof  vona 
have  been  prominent  After  th»  eooreDtiai, 
she  preached  several  times  in  the  dtj  lull  rf 
Worcester.  She  was  invited  to  preadi  in  biit 
churches  of  Gongregationalisti)  Jbthodista^  ti 
Baptists,  Quakers,  Unitarians^  and  UmTeniIiii& 
Slie  always  preached  when  opportoiutfoM, 
alike  in  the  church  at  Andover,  fiw  nuacUl 
at  Boston,  and  in  the  pnblio  hsUs  at  Wonalfl; 
Cincinnati,  and  New  York.  In  the  sprii^of 
1858,  she  accepted  theinvitatioa(tfsOoDgnp> 
tional  church  in  South  Batler^Wajoe  eoL,li. 
Y^  to  become  thdr  pastor^  and  monliioedbf 
them  as  their  settied  minister,  the  Ber.  Lotk 
Lee^  Wesleyan  minister  of  Syracm,  pretchin^ 
the  ordination  sermon.  Her  ooimeciiioii  with 
the  church  continued  until  thenmsierof  18H 
when  it  was  interrupted  by  ill  heilth,  tuxBt 
quent  on  excessive  labor  and  donhtseonoeniiif 
theological  doctrines.  She  sohMqoeDtljr  )» 
tured  on  reformatory  sabjeets  in  Goms^ 
and  elsewhere,  and  investigated  the  chariRs 
and  causes  of  vice  in  the  dtj  of  New  Tori, 
with  q>ecial  reference  to  lie  bearing  npoaW 
man.  The  year  1865  was  spent  in  tlui  iita' 
estinff  but  most  punful  work,  and  she  polW 
in  a  New  York  Journal  a  nnmberof  deleto 
from  life,  under  the  general  title  of  "Shdon 
of  our  Social  Systttn."  In  Jan.  W  Mai 
Brown  married  Mr.  Samuel  a  BliM,  nd 
has  since  resided  in  the  vicinity  of  KcvToik. 

BROWN,  Oathamhe,  a  half-Mood«d  a» 
okee^  born  at  a  place  novr  called  Wll&Viikj, 
Alabama,  in  1800,  died  July  18,  I8SS.  Ss 
mother's  Indian  name  was  Yann^onQfik^i 
"  drowned  by  a  bear."  Her  family  were  rftk 
chie&  of  the  nation,  possessed  of  }ir(^^ 
authority,  but  entirely  ignorant  of  En^  » 
of  civilization.  When  in  1816  the  Ameiiea 
missionary  bosfd  sent  the  Bev.  Qrns  ^ 
bury  into  the  Cherokee  territory  to  cooaiew 
a  school,  Catharine,  who  bad  leaned  to  cfw 
a  litUe  English,  joined  it»  althoogh  at  t  d» 
tance  of  100  miles  from  her  borne.  She « 
then  about  17,  modest,  affectionate,  and  ^fr 
ous  in  dispontion,  and  first  among  ill  to^ 
in  wealth,  rank,  and  perwnal  ^»««*yv,^' 
months  she  learned  to  read  and  vrite,iDdBo« 
became  affected  by  religious  impreasioos,"" 
was  baptised  in  Jan.  1818.  In  18W  she  w 
to  teach  a  school  near  her  fiatberybooM.  sm 
commenced  public  religious  exerctejiw^ 
carrying  forward  her  own  education  ato  w 
higher  branches  when  she  died.  ^ 

BROWN,  CHA.DD,  minister  rflVoYids)^ 
I.,  and  ancestor  of  many  o^  *^**  "l?^  ?^ 
goished  citizens  of  Rhode  Island  for  8^ 
turies^  fled  thither  from  persecntion  m  JW» 
chusetts,  in  168(1,  became  one  of  the  Bi«»wn 
of  the  Baptist  church  founded  by  Bogef  *^ 
liams  in  1639,  and  in  164S  was  aseociated  m 


BROWK 


751 


William  Wiokenden  in  tha  pastoral  oare.  He 
diod  in  16«5.  In  1792  the  town  of  Providence 
voted  a  monnment  to  his  memory. 

BROWK,  Ohables  Bbookdezt,  an  American 
novelist)  bom  in  Philadelphia,  Jan.  17,  1771, 
died  Feb.  22, 1810.  His  ancestors  were  Qoak- 
brs  who  came  over  with  William  Penn.  At 
11  years  of  age  he  was  placed  nnder  the  oare  of 
a  teacher,  Mr.  Robert  Prond,  author  of  a  '*  His- 
tory of  Pennsylvania."  and  from  him  he  derived 
a  knowledge  of  the  classics.  He  left  Mr.  Prond^s 
school  before  he  was  16,  and  soon  afterward  drew 
np  the  plan  of  several  epics,  on  the  discovery  of 
America  as  well  as  the  conquest  of  Mexico  and 
Pern.  Neither  of  them  was  ever  published,  nor 
do  any  fragments  of  them  remain.  He  deter* 
mined  to  pursue  law,  and  entered  on  the  requis- 
ite studies  with  great  assiduity,  but  presently 
abandoned  the  profession  to  devote  himself  to 
literature.  The  first  of  his  novels  was  *•  Wi4- 
land,"  published  in  1798.  In  1799  he  published 
'^Ormond."  These  2  novels  were  successful, 
and  until  Cooper  in  after  years  produced  his 
admirable  works,  we  find  no  American  fictions 
to  compare  with  them.  In  1798  the  yellow 
fever  desolated  New  York  as  it  had  Phila- 
delphia 5  years  previous.  Brown's  most  inti- 
mate friena,  Dr.  Smith,  fell  a  victim  to  the 
scourge,  and  the  scenes  of  horror  he  witnessed 
were  so  deeply  impressed  upon  his  mind  as  to 
form  the  ground  work  of  his  8d  novel,  ^Arthur 
Mervyn,  or  Memoirs  of  the  year  1793."  In  it 
he  depicts  the  scenes  of  the  pest-stricken  city 
of  PhiUidelphia.  **  Edgar  Huntley,  or  the  Ad- 
ventures of  a  Sleep wfuker,"  was  given  to  the 
world  not  long  afterward.  The  scene  of  this 
story,  as  of  **  Wieland,"  is  laid  in  Pennsylvania. 
In  1800  he  published  the  2d  part  of  "  Arthur 
Mervyn;"  in  1801,  "Clara  Howard;"  and 
"Jane  Talbot"  in  1804.  From  April,  1799,  to 
the  close  of  1800,  he  published  the  "Monthly 
Magazine  and  American  Review."  In  1805  he 
commenced  the  "  Literary  Magazine- and  Ameri- 
can Register,"  which  he  continued  5  years.  In 
1806  he  commenced  a  semi-annual  ^^  American 
Register."  of  which  he  published  5  volumes. 
In  1804  he  married  Miss  Efiizabeth  Linn,  of  New 
York.  In  1809  his  health,  never  very  robust, 
began  to  decline,  and  he  died  of  consumption. 
Brown  is  justly  regarded  as  the  pioneer  of 
American  novel  writing. 

BROWN,  Davii>,  a  converted  Cherokee, 
brother  of  Catharine  Brown,  died  at  Creek- 
path,  Mississippi,  Sept.  1829,  was  educated  at 
at  the  same  school  with  his  sister,  and  at  Corn- 
wall, Conn.,  and  engaged  with  her  in  educating 
and  Christianizing  their  native  tribe.  He  was 
employed  as  preacher  and  interpreter,  and  also 
acted  as  secretary  of  the  Indian  government. 
He  was  one  of  the  most  favorable  examples 
of  the  missionary  influence ;  his  letters  and  re- 
porto  indicate  a  cultivated  and  intelligent  mind. 

BROWN,  Ford  Maddoz,  an  £ngli&  punter, 
born  at  Calais  in  1821.  He  studied  his  art  in 
Bjlginm  and  Paris,  and  sent  2  cartoons  to  the 
competition  in  Westminster  hall  in  1844,  and 


a  cartoon  and  fresco  in  1845.  Havdon  praised 
the  fresco.  Mr.  Brown,  after  visiting  Italy, 
produced  "  Wydiffe  reading  his  Translation  of 
the  Scriptures,"  and  in  the  following  year  he 
exhibited  "  Kmg  Lear,"  and  tlie  "  Toung  Moth- 
er." He  produced  in  1851,  at  the  royal  acade- 
my, a  large  painting  of  "  Chaucer  reciting  his 
Poetry  at  the  Court  of  Edward  IIL"  "  Christ 
washing  Peter's  Feet,"  exhibited  in  1852, 
gained  the  prize  of  the  Liverpool  academy  in 
1856.  One  of  his  ktest  works  is  entitled  "  The 
Last  of  England;"  it  illustrates  the  Australian 
emigration. 

BROWN,  Franoeb,  a  blind  poetess,  bom 
at  Stranorlar,  Donegal,  Ireland,  Juno  16,  1818. 
When  she  was  18  months  old  she  lost  her 
sight,  from  small-pox.  From  her  brothers 
and  sisters  attending  the  village  school,  she  ob- 
teined  as  much  information  as  they  were  ac- 
quiring, and  listened  to  such  bool^  as  they 
would  read  to  her.  "  Robinson  Crusoe  "  and 
Mango  Park's  African  adventures  were  among 
these  works.  The  prose  writings  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  with  which  she  became  familiar,  from 
their  being  read  to  her,  deeply  influenced  her 
mind.  From  the  age  of  7  to  that  of  15,  she 
was  constently  composing  verses.  The  smooth- 
ness of  Pope  and  the  passion  of  Byron,  with 
which  she  became  acquainted  about  this  time, 
BO  strongly  showed  the  inferiority  of  her  own 
attempts,  that  she  abandoned  verse-making  for 
some  years.  But,  after  this  pause,  in  1840  she 
was  encouraged  by  the  publication  of  8  short 
lyrics  of  hers,  in  the  "Irish  Penny  Journal." 
In  1841,  she  commenced  contributing  to  tlie 
*^  AtheniBum,"  edited  at  that  time  by  Mr.  T.  K. 
Hcrvey.  He  became  interested  in  her  story, 
related  it  with  considerable  effect  in  the 
"Athensdum,"  paid  her  for  her  writings,  and 
introduced  her  to  other  publications,  from  which 
she  also  derived  pecuniary  beneflts.  In  1844^ 
the  "  Star  of  Atteghei "  and  other  poems  ap- 
peared in  a  small  volume,  which  was  well  re- 
ceived. Among  the  advantages  accruing  to 
Miss  Brown  from  it,  was  her  being  placed  on 
the  pension  list,  for  £20  a  year,  by  the  late  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  who  was  then  prime  minister.  A 
second  volume  of  poetry  has  extended  her  repu- 
tation. She  has  also  published  a  juvenile  story, 
called  ^*  The  Ericksons,"  and  has  been  a  fre- 
quent contributor,  in  prose  as  well  as  verse,  to 
"Fraser's  Magazine,"  "Chambers's  Journal," 
and  other  literary  periodicals.  In  1847,  she 
removed  to  Edinburgh,  accompanied  by  her 
sister,  who  acted  as  her  reader  and  amanuensis; 
in  1852  she  became  a  resident  of  London. 

BROWN,  StB  Geobgs,  a  British  general,  was 
bom  in  August,  1790,  at  Linkwood,  near  Elgin, 
Scotland.  He  entered  the  army  Jan.  28,  1806, 
as  ensign  in  the  43d  regiment  of  foot,  and,  as 
lieutenant  in  the  same  regiment,  was  present 
at  the  bombardment  of  Copenhagen;  served  in 
the  peninsular  war,  from  its  beginning  in  1808  to 
its  dose  in  1814 ;  was  severely  wounded  at  the 
battle  of  Talavera,  and  one  of  the  foriom  hope 
at  the  storming  of  Bad^]o2.    He  was  appointed 


752 


BROWN 


expiBUk  in  tfae  85Ui  regimeitt,  Jane  20,  1611 ; 
10  Sept.  1814,  he  was  a  lientenanl-ec^onel  in 
Major-General  Ross's  expedition  to  the  United 
Staikes,  and  took  part  in  the  battle  of  Bladens- 
botg,  and  the  captore  of  Washington.  He  was 
appointed  commander  of  a  battalion  of  the  rifle 
brigade,  Feb.  6,  1824;  colonel,  JUj  6,  1831 ; 
nugor-general,  Kot.  23,  1841;  depatj  adjutant^ 
genera]  in  1842;  adjotant-generalof  the  forces  in 
April,  1850,  and  lieut-general  in  1851.  Doring 
the  Crimean  campaign,  he  led  the  English  Ugfat 
division  at  tiie  battle  c^  Alma  and  the  battle  of 
Inkerman,  and  took  the  comraand-in-chief  of 
the  storming  party  in  the  first  nnsncceaBfnl  at- 
tack on  the  Redan.  Among  Uie  allied  armies 
he  became  distingoished  as  a  martinet ;  bat,  by 
his  personal  prowess,  and  tiie  strict  impartiality 
with  which  he  held  the  yonng  aristocratic  offi- 
cers to  all  thednties  of  field  discipline,  he  became 
popular  among  the  common  soldiers.  In  1855  he 
was  created  a  knight  commander  of  the  Bath, 
and  April  2,  1856,  gazetted  ""  General  in  the 
^rmy,  for  disdngaished  sendee  in  the  field.'' 

BROWN,  GooLD,  an  American  grammarian, 
bom  in  1791,  died  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  IQurch  81, 
1857.  The  profession  of  a  teacher,  which  he 
porsaed  daring  many  years,  and  an  inclination 
for  philologic^  studies,  not  only  tansht  him  an 
existing  deficiency  in  edacational  books,  bnt 
enabled  him  to  supply  it  by  his  *' Institutes  of 
English  Grammar."  This  work  soon  super- 
seded the  school  grammars  formerly  in  use, 
and,  by  its  pecuniary  success  with  that  of  other 
enterprises,  enabled  him  to  fulfil  &e  dengn  he 
liad  long  before  formed  of  presenting  to  the 
world  ^*  something  like  a  complete  grammar  of 
the  English  hm^iage."  This  work,  entitled 
'*  The  Grammar  of  English  Grammars,"  is  not 
more  a  monument  of  industry  and  exact  and 
systematic  method,  than  of  thorough  compre- 
hension and  masterly  analysis.  It  contains  a 
''  condensed  mass  of  special  criticism,  such  as  is 
not  elsewhere  to  be  found  in  any  language,"  and, 
while  it  is*  specially  characterized  by  an  almost 
microscopic  minuteness  of  grammatical  investi- 
gation, it  often  ascends  into  the  higher  region  of 
general  principles.  His  labors,  always  stimulated 
and  sustained  by  a  sincere  and  reverential  sense 
of  duty,  were  not  remitted,  even  after  his  great 
object  had  been  attained,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  hastened  his  death. 

BROWN,  HsNBT  KiRXB,  an  American 
sculptor,  bom  at  Leyden,  Mass.,  in  1814. 
His  first  attempt  at  art  was  made  at  the  age 
of  12,  in  the  portrait  of  an  old  man.  He  pur- 
sued his  inclinations  with  difficulty,  encour- 
aged only  by  his  mother;  and  at  18  went  to 
Boston  to  study  portrait  painting.  Having 
modelled  the  head  of  a  lady  for  amusement,  he 
turned  his  attention  toward  sculpture.  To  ob- 
tain means  to  visit  Italy,  he  became  a  railroad 
engineer  in  Illinois,  but  lost  his  health  without 
gaining  money.  The  sale  of  his  works  and 
the  aid  of  friends  finally  enabled  him  to  pass 
several  years  in  study  in  Italy.  But  upon  the 
conviction  that  the  source  of  advancement  in 


art  is  in  the  devdopments  of  life,  he  retonied 
to  live  among  those  whom  his  art  was  to  influ- 
ence. He  fixed  his  residence  in  Brooklyn,  K. 
Y.,  and  applied  himself  to  the  casting  of  brooie ; 
and  has  the  credit  of  having  produced  the  fint 
bronze  statue  ever  cast  in  this  country.  He  has 
completed  several  well  known  works  in  marble, 
''  Hope,"  the  «"  Pleiades,"  the  ''  Four  Seasons;" 
and  in  bronze,  a  statue  of  De  Witt  Clintcm,  and 
the  c(do88al  equestrian  statue  of  Washington 
in  Union  square,  New  York. 

BROWN,  Jacob,  an  American  gaiend,  bom 
in  Bucks  co.,  Pa.,  May  9, 1775,  died  in  Washing- 
ton, Feb.  24, 1828.  He  was  deaoendedfrom  mem- 
bers of  the  society  of  Friends ;  8Ui^x>rted  himself 
in  early  life  by  teaching  school ;  was  also  em- 
ployed for  some  time  as  a  surveyor  of  public 
lands  in  Ohio  ;  and  settling  in  Jefierson  co.,  N. 
Y.,  in  1799,  he  became  one  of  the  pioneers  in 
that  part  of  the  country.  He  next  joined  the  mili- 
tia service  as  a  militia  general  in  1812 ;  was  soon 
alter  appointed  brigadier-general  in  the  regular 
army,  and  in  181^  major-general ;  assisted  in 
the  defence  of  Sackett^s  Harbor  in  1813 ;  ex- 
hibited much  bravery  in  the  battle  of  Chippewa, 
in  that  of  Niagara  ialls.  and  at  the  si^e  of  Fort 
Erie;  received  the  thanks  of  congrecs  and  a  gold 
medal,  '' emblematical  of  his  triumphs;"  and 
finally,  at  the  termination  of  the  war,  continned 
in  the  army  as  migor-general,  and  in  1821  suc- 
ceeded to  the  supreme  conmiand. 

BROWN,  Jambs,  U.  B.  senator  from  Lou- 
isiana, bom  in  Virginia,  Sept.  11,  1766,  died 
at  Philadelphia^  April  7, 1835.  He  received  his 
education  at  William  and  Maiy^s  coUege ;  stud- 
ied law,  and  emigrated  to  Kentucky,  where  be 
rose  to  distinction,  in  the  midst  of  formidable 
competition,  at  the  bar.  In  1791  he  command- 
ed a  company  of  mounted  rifiemen,  in  an  expe- 
dition against  tiie  Indians,  near  the  Waba^ ; 
and  the  nextyear,  when  Kentucky  was  admit- 
ted to  the  Union,  Gov.  Shelby  made  him  his 
secretary.  Soon  after  the  cession  of  Louisi- 
ana, he  emigrated  to  that  state,  and  in  1813 
was  elected  to  the  U.  S.  senate.  He  was  re- 
elected in  1819,  and  in  1823  nominated,  by  Pres- 
ident Monroe,  minister  to  France.  He  ^IfiJled 
the  duties  of  that  miauon  till  1829,  when  here- 
turned  to  private  life. 

BROWN,  jAKsa,  a  book-publisher  of  Bos- 
ton, bom  in  Acton,  Mass.,  May  19, 1800,  died 
March  10, 1855.  He  began  life  as  a  servant 
in  the  fuuily  of  Professor  Hedge,  of  Cambridge, 
who  gave  him  instructions  in  &e  classics  and  in 
mathematics.  He  next  entered,  as  shop-boy,  the 
service  of  William  Billiard,  and  in  due  time  was 
taken  into  the  publishing  firm  of  Hilliard,  Gray, 
and  Oo.  Upon  its  dissolution,  by  the  death  of 
some  of  the  partners,  he  became  one  of  the  firm 
of  Charles  C.  Littieand  Co.,  generally  known  as 
Littie  and  Brown,  and  remamed  in  this  connec- 
tion until  the  close  of  his  useful  and  prosperous 
life.  The  special  province  of  this  well-known  firm 
was  the  publication  of  law  books  and  importa- 
tion of  foreign  editions  in  the  general  trade,  in 
both  which  departments  the  scholarly  accom- 


BROWN 


76S 


pllshments  and  elegant  tasto  of  Mr.  Brown  were 
oonspioaoos  and  of  good  service  in  improving  the 
Btjle  of  book-makmg  in  America,  Their  law 
business,  which  was  the  most  considerable  in 
the  country,  was  conducted  on  the  plan  of  lar^ 
editions  and  low  prices;  the  great  increase  m 
the  numbers  of  the  profession  enabling  them  at 
the  same  time  to  bring  out  their  publications  in 
a  style  of  elegance  un£iown  before.  Mr.  Brown 
was  a  person  of  an  attractive  character,  a  lover 
of  nature^  of  men,  and  of  books ;  and  he  died  uni- 
versally esteemed  and  regretted.  The  commem- 
orative proceedings  of  the  literary  societies  of 
Boston,  on  occasion  of  his  death,  and  notices  of 
his  character,  are  collected  in  a  volume,  with  a 
life  by  Geo.  S.  Hillard,  Boston,  1855. 

BROWN,  John,  an  English  author,  bom  at 
Bothbnry,  in  Northumberland,  in  1715,  died 
in  Sept  1766.  He  graduated  at  Oambrldge, 
and  during  the  rebellion  of  1745,  acted  with 
much  gallantry  as  a  volunteer  on  the  royal 
aide.  His  works,  in  prose  and  verse,  are  nu- 
merous. The  most  meritorious  are,  "  Essays  on 
the  Characteristics  of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury," 
a  tragedy  called  *^  Barbarossa,"  an  '^J^timate 
of  the  Manners  and  Principles  of  the  Times," 
wliich  went  through  7  editions  in  one  year,  a 
"  History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  Poetry," 
and  '^  Thoughts  on  Civil  Liberty,  licentiousness 
and  Faction."  A  poetical  **  Essay  on  Satire, "  by 
Dr.  Brown,  was  prefixed  to  Warburton's  edition 
of  Pope.  At  the  period  when  his  prospects  were 
most  prosperous  ^the  empress  of  Russia  having 
invited  him  to  visit  St.  Petersburg,  to  assist  in 
framing  a  plan  of  public  education),  his  spirits 
became  desponding  and  distracted,  and  a  state 
of  dejection  ensued,  which  terminated  in  his 
death  by  his  own  hand. 

BROWN,  John,  a  Biblical  critic,  bom  in 
Perthshire,  Scotland,  1722,  died  June  19, 1787. 
While  tending  sheep  on  a  farm,  he  learned  to 
read,  and  soon  mastered  the  Latin,  Greek,  and 
Hebrew  languages,  having  received  only  a  single 
month's  lessons  in  Latin.  At  the  age  of  26  he 
opened  a  school,  with  the  intention  of  becom- 
ing a  minister  of  the  Scottish  church.  He  sided 
with  the  party  who  seceded  from  the  church 
soon  i^r ;  was  ordained,  and  became  pastor  of 
a  small  secession  congregation  in  Haddington. 
Here  he  learned  the  Italian,  Spanish,  German, 
Dutch,  French,  Arabia  Persian,  Syrian,  and 
Ethiopio  languages.  He  became  professor  of 
divinity  in  1768,  which  office  he  held  during 
tiie  rest  of  his  life.  His  principal  works  are,  a 
"Dictionary  of  the  Bible,"  a  "Self-Interpret- 
ing Bible."  and  a  "History  of  the  British 
Churches.*' 

BROWN,  John,  the  founder  of  the  Brunonian 
system  of  physio,  born  in  1785  at  Lintlaws  or 
at  Preston,  Berwickshire,  Scotland,  died  in 
London,  Oct.  T.  1788.  He  was  the  son  of  a 
poor  farmer,  ana,  while  very  young,  was  ap- 
prenticed to  a  weaver;  but  having  previouuy 
manifested  much  aptitude  for  stuay  at  the 
grammar  school  of  Dunse,  the  schoolmaster 
offered  to  instruct  him  gratuitously.  The 
VOL,  Uh — 48 


Khoolmaster  and  the  parents  of  Brown  be- 
longed to  a  body  of  Presbyterian  seceders,  and 
young  Brown  was  destined  to  become  a  student 
of  theology,  and  finally  a  clergyman  of  the  new 
sect.  He  soon  became  fkmiliar  with  Greek  and 
Latin,  and  made  rapid  progress  in  a  knowledge 
of  the  Scriptures.  While  pursuing  his  studies 
at  4he  grammar  school,  he  was  induced  to  at- 
tend a  meeting  of  the  synod,  held  in  tiie  estab- 
lished church  at  Dunse,  and  this  gave  offence  to 
his  friends.  Placed  between  the  alternatives  of 
ecclesiastical  censure  or  expulsion  from  the 
society,  he  left  it  at  once,  and  Joined  the  estab- 
lished church.  He  then  became  private  tutor 
in  a  gentleman's  family,  and  acted  as  an  as- 
ustant  in  the  grammar  school.  In  1756  he  ' 
went  to  Edinburgh,  and  after  passing  through 
the  preliminary  classes,  entered  himself  as  a 
student  of  divinity  in  the  university.  For  some 
time  he  supported  himself  by  private  teaching; 
then  resumed  his  labors  as  assistant  teacher  at 
Dunse,  where  he  remained  about  a  year.  In 
1759  he  returned  to  Edinbuigh,  renounced  the 
study  of  theology,  and  commenced  that  <^ 
medicine,  suj^rting  himself  by  giving  private 
instruction  in  Latin  to  medical  students.  He 
soon  became  well  known  to  all  the  students,  and 
attracted  the  attention  of  the  professors.  Dr. 
Gullen  employed  him  as  a  private  tutor  in  his 
own  family,  recommended  him  to  others,  and 
gave  him  permission  to  deliver  to  private  pupils 
illustrations  of  his  own  public  lectures.  Dr. 
Oollen  opposing  his  nomination  to  a  professor^ 
ship,  Brown  began  to  attack  the  doctor's  medi- 
cal views,  and  thus  alienated  the  feelings  of  his 
former  friend  and  patron.  Brown  now  married, 
and  received  medical  students  to  board  in  his 
house,  but  became  involved  in  pecuniary  diffi- 
culties. He  then  proposed  to  become  a  medical 
practitioner,  and  having  quarrelled  with  the 

Srofessors  at  Edinburgh,  he  took  his  degree  of 
t.  D.  at  St  Andrew's.  In  1780,  he  published  his 
Blemaiia  Medi&inmf  which  contains  the  doc- 
trines he  propounded  in  opposition  to  the  views 
of  Dr.  OuUen.  and  for  several  years  he  continued 
to  explain  these  doctrines  in  public  lectures. 
The  excitement  produced  by  this  work  was 
very  great  in  all  the  medical  schools  of  Eu- 
rope; and  in  Edinburgh  2  hostile  camps  were 
formed  among  the  students,  under  the  names 
of  "OuUenites"  and  *' Brownites."  The  war 
of  words  became  general  and  fierce  for  several 
vears,  and  sometimes  raged  with  so  much  vio- 
lence, as  to  lead  to  collisions  among  the  younger 
partisans.  In  1786,  Brown  left  the  scene  of 
these  contentions,  and  went  to  London,  where 
he  opened  a  private  school  of  medicine,  and 

Sive  lectures  in  his  own  house  in  Golden  square, 
is  family  waslaige,  and  his  habits  intemperate ; 
his  expenses  were  greater  than  his  income, 
and  being  again  involved  in  debt,  he  was  con- 
fined in  Sie  icing's  bench  prison  during  several 
months,  untn  he  was  released  by  the  assistance 
of  some  of  his  friends.  His  doctrines  had  gained 
many  converts  in  the  medical  schools  abroad, 
and  he  was  making  preparations  to  leave  £ng- 


754 


BBOWN 


land  for  tho  continent,  when  Iiia  life  was  and* 
denly  cut  short  by  a  stroke  of  apople:^. — ^The 
publication  of  his  first  work  was  followed 
in  1781  by  "An  Inquiry  into  the  State  of 
Medicine,  on  the  Principles  of  the  InductlTO 
Philosophy."  In  1787,  he  published  "  Observa- 
tions on  the  Principles  of  the  Old  System  of 
Physio.'*  A  complete  edition  of  hia  works  (8 
ToJs.  870)  was  published  in  London  by  his  son, 
William  Onllen  Brown,  in  1804.  The  basis  of 
Brown's  medical  theory  is  the  doctrine  of  "  ex- 
citability." In  his  view,  the  human  organism, 
in  common  with  that  of  animals,  mainly  differs 
from  inorganic  bodies  by  the  property  of  being 
excited  under  tiie  influence  of  external  agents, 
or  the  functions  <x{  internal  organs,  peculiar  to 
oi^ganic  life.  The  physical'  external  agents 
which  excite  the  organism  to  act,  are  heat, 
Ught.  air,  and  alimentary  substances ;  internally, 
the  Dlood  and  the  humors  which  are  drawn 
from  the  blood.  Those  functions  of  the  organs 
which  produce  a  similar  effect,  according  to  this 
theory,  are  muscular  contractions,  the  various 
secretions  of  the  body,  the  passions,  and  the 
energy  of  the  brain  in  the  processes  of  thought. 
These  are  what  Brown  terms  the  stimulating  or 
exdting  forces,  which,  collectively  considered, 
produce  life ;  and  when  this  Influence  ceases, 
death  ensues.  The  state  of  health  consists  in  a 
prcmer  equilibrium  between  the  exciting  forces 
and  the  vital  principle  of  excitability  within 
the  organism;  disease  consists  in  the  rapture 
of  this  equilibrium.  Two  kinds  of  excess  may 
disturb  the  equilibrium  of  health,  and  hence  all 
diseases  may  be  classed  under  2  general  heads: 
those  produced  by  an  excess  of  Sie  stimulating 
forces,  and  those  resulting  from  an  insuffidencv 
of  stimulation.  The  one  are  called  "sthenic" 
(Gr.  or9cyoff,  Strength),  and  the  other  "  asthenic," 
from  the  want  of  force.  The  treatment  con- 
sists in  diminishiuff  the  excess  of  stimulus  in 
<me  case,  and  sup^ying  that  which  is  deficient 
in  the  other.  His  doctrines  became  very  pop- 
ular for  a  time  all  over  Europe.  Girtanner 
spread  them  in  Germany,  and  Rasori  in  Italy. 
Broussais  developed  similar  views  in  another 
form,  80  years  kter,  in  France,  attributing  the 
origin  of  all  diseases  to  inflammatory  action 
in  the  organism,  and  substituting  the  word 
''irritability"  in  lieu  of  "excitability,"  but 
adopting  Brown's  division  of  all  diseases  into  2 
classes,  "  sthenic  and  asthenic."  The  exaggera- 
tions of  these  2  schools  have  lost  their  influence 
on  many  minds,  but  the  words  which  mainly 
characterized  their  doctrines  are  still  in  com- 
mon use  in  books  of  medicine.  Stimulants  and 
contra-stimulants,  irritability  and  excitability, 
sthenic  and  asthenic,  are  terms  as  common  now 
Jis  phlogistic  and  antiphlogistic  in  the  medical 
vocabulary. 

BROWN",  John,  amerchant  in  Providence,  R. 
L,  one  of  4  brothers,  Nicholas,  Joseph,  John,  and 
Hoses,  who  were  partners  in  business,  bom  at 
Providence  in  1786,  died  tliere  in  1803.  They 
were  descended  from  Ohadd  Brown,  and  were  all 
oirealthy  and  enterprising ;  but  John,  who  was 


the  third  in  age,  is  said  to  have  been  "  a  man  of 
magnificent  projects  and  extraordinary  enter- 
prise." He  was  the  leader  of  the  party  which  de- 
stroyed the  British  armed  schooner,  theOaspee, 
in  Narraganset  bay,  in  1772;  was  the  first 
merchant  in  Rhode  Island  who  engaged  in 
commerce  with  the  East  Indies  and  Ohin& 
He  regarded  the  interests  of  learning,  and  laid 
the  comer-stone  of  the  first  building  of  Rhode 
Island  college,  now  called  Brown  nniversity,  to 
which  he  was  one  of  the  largest  contributors. 
He  was  treasurer  of  the  institution  for  20  years, 
and  made  it  repeated  donationsw  In  1799  he 
was  elected  a  member  of  congress,  and  served 
tiiere  2  years. 

BROWN,  John,  an  American  revolutionary 
officer,  bora  at  Sandisfield,  Berkshire  00., 
Mass.,  Oct.  19,  1744,  died  on  the  battlefield, 
Oct.  19,  1780.  He  was  graduated  at  Tale  col- 
lege in  1771,  and  officiated  as  king^s  attorney  at 
Gaughnawaga,  N.  Y.  In  1774,  he  went  into 
Oanada,  disguised  as  a  horse  trader,  to  excite 
the  people  to  unite  with  the  other  colonies  in 
the  revolution.  He  was  with  Ethan  Allen  at 
the  capture  of  Tioonderoga,  and  on  S^t^  24 
took  fort  Chambly.  He  was  also  at  Quebec 
when  Montgomery  feU.  In  1776,  he  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  lieut-coL,  and  during  tiie 
next  year  was  conspicuous  on  the  shores  of  Lake 
George.  In  1778,  he  was  made  a  member  of 
the  general  court,  continuing  to  act  with  the 
militia  of  Berkshire.  He  was  killed  by  tiie 
Indians  while  marching  to  rescue  Schuyler  In 
the  Mohawk  valley  campaign. 

BROWN,  John,  professor  of  exegedcal  theol- 
ogy to  the  Unite*  Presbyterian  diurch,  bom 
in  1785,  at  Whitburn^  linlithgowshire.  His 
father  was  also  a  minister  of  the  burgher  section 
of  the  secession  church.  He  was  ordained  pastor 
of  the  burgher  congregation  at  Biggar  in 
1806.  In  1821  he  removed  to  the  care  of  the 
united  secession  church,  Edinburgh,  and  after- 
terward  succeeded  Dr.  James  Hall  in  the  min- 
istry of  the  Broughton-plaoe  church.  The 
burgher  and  anti-burgher  seceders  having 
come  together  in  1820,  under  the  name  of  the 
united  associate  synod,  he  was  chosen  one  of 
their  professors  of  divinity  in  1835,  and  in  the 
religious  questions  which  have  agitated  the  mind 
of  Scotland  for  the  last  80  years,  he  has  been 
looked  up  to  as  a  leader.  He  took  the  part  of  the 
parent  society  on  the  division  in  the  British  and 
foreign  Bible  society,  concerning  the  circulation 
of  the  Apocrypha,  and  the  voluntary  side  on 
the  question  of  church  establishmuits.  Havin^L 
by  a  residence  within  the  royalty  of  the  city  of 
Edinburgh,  become  liable  to  the  payment  of  an 
annuity  tax,  which  was  levied  upon  him,  for  the 
support  of  we  city  ministers,  he  reftised  to  pay, 
and  suffered  his  goods  to  be  distrained ;  and  in 
reply  to  the  proceedines  of  the  civil  authorities, 
he  preached  and  published  2  sermons  on  the 
"  Law  of  Christ  respecting  Civil  Obedience,  espe- 
cially in  the  Payment  of  Tribute^"  which,  with 
notes  and  additions,  became  finally  a  thick  octavo 
volume.    Several  other  theological  works  have 


BBOWN 


755 


'  0  »  *  • 
0# 


been  pnbli^ed  b^  him  since  ld40«  Tlie  ques- 
tions connected  with  the  doctrine  of  the  atone- 
ment having  attracted  a  more  than  neoal  atten- 
tion in  Scotland,  some  of  the  members  of  his 
connection  were  dissatisfied  with  his  expression 
of  his  views  on  that  subject  and  a  charge  was 
bronght  against  him  in  1845  in  the  synod,  bnt  it 
was  foand  *'  not  proven,"  and  the  synod  passed 
a  vote  of  confidence  in  Dr.  Brown.  At  the 
commencement  of  April,  1856,  his  congregation 
celebrated  the  50th  anniversary  of  his  pastorate. 

BROWN,  John  Nbwton,  D  J).,  an  American 
Baptist  clergyman,  and  hbtorian,  bom  at 
New  London,  Conn.,  Jane  29,  1803.  He  pros- 
ecuted his  studies  at  the  literary  and  theological 
institution,  now  Madiatn  university,  Hamilton, 
N.  Y.,  graduating  With  the  highest  honors 
of  his  class.  He  immediately  enterdd  upon  his 
duties  as  a  preach^i:  in  Bnffalq,  N.  Y^  where  he 
remained  one  yearj  afterward  reAioted  to 
Providence,  R.  I.,  to  assist  the  Rev.  iDr. 
Gano,  pastor  of  first  Baptist  church  in  that  city. 
Mr.  Brown  preached  afterward  in  Maiden,  Mass., 
nnd  in  Exeter,  N.  H.  His  ministry  in  all 
those  places  was  highly  acceptable  ainl  usefuL 
While  at  this  latter  place,  he  commenced  lAs 
literary  labors* by  eaitiag  the  *^  £neycl«]pBOd(» 
of  Religions  Knowledge"  (1885),  a  work 
««hich  ha^  been  repifblished  in  England,  aad 
^hich  is  received  with  favor  even  at  the  present 
^y.  This  Ytj/brarj  undertaking  he  completed 
^lefore  he  reached  the  age  of  85.  In  the  year 
1836,  he  became  a*professor  of  exegetica^  the- 
ology and  ecefesiastical  history  in  the  New 
"Hampton  theological  institution,  N.  H.^  where 
he  remained  until  1845,  when,  his  health 
failing,  he  was  obliged  to  seek  a  more  conge- 
nial climate  in  one  of  the  southern  states.  Mr. 
Brown  now  resides  in  Germantown,  near  Phila- 
delphia.  For  several  years  past  he  has  been 
engaged  in  the  preparation  of  an  elaborate  his- 
tory of  the  church,  with  a  view  to  illustrate 
more  particularly  the  progress  and  development 
of  Baptist  principles  u'om  the  earliest  period  to 
the  present  time. 

BROWN,  Jomr  W^  an  American  author,  bom 
in  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Aug.  21,  1814,  died  at 
Malta,  April  9, 1849.  He  graduated  at  Union 
college  in  1882,  and  was  settled  as  an  Episco- 
palian minister  at  Astoria,  N.  Y.  In  1838  he  com- 
menced the  Astoria  female  institute,  which  he 
conducted  for  7  years ;  in  1845  he  became  editor 
of  the  **  Protestant  Churchman.''  He  was  the 
author  of  the  '^  Christmas  Bells,  a  Tale  of  Holy 
Tide,  and  other  Poems,"  and  of  several  prose 
tales  of  a  religious  character. 

BROWN,  Lakcelot,  an  Eng^sh  landscape 
ffardener,  bom  at  Kirkharte,  in  Northumber- 
laod,  in  1715,  died  at  Huntingdon,  in  1773.  He 
was  called  "  Capability  Brown,''  from  his  con- 
stant use  of  that  word  in  reference  to  sites  sub- 
mitted to  his  judgment.  In  his  early  life  he 
was  employed  in  the  grounds  and  gardens  at 
Stowe,  and  thence  went  to  London.  His  merit 
consisted  in  imitating  nature  and  abandoning  Uie 
clipi)ed  and  stin  formality  prevalent  at  the  time. 


BROWN,  M061S,  a  merchant  of  Providence, 
R.  I.,  the  youngest  of  the  4  distmguished  brothers 
of  that  i^ce,  bom  in  Sept.  1738,  died  Sq>t.  ^ 
1836.  He  was  bronght  up  in  the  &mily  of  his 
unde  Obadiah,  a  wealthy  merchant,  whose  daugh- 
ter he  married  in  1764.  After  being  enga^ged  for 
10  years  in  commercial  pursuits,  he  retired  in 
1773,  and  at  the  same  time  forsook  (us  ancestral 
connection  with  the  Baptist  denomination,  and 
joined  the  society  of  Friends,  of  which  he  rs- 
miuned  throughout  his  long  Ufe  a  useful  and 
influential  member.  He  manumitted  his  slaves 
in  1773 ;  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  abolition 
society  of  Rhode  Idand,  and  an  active  and  liberal 
supporter  of  the  Rhode  Island  peace  and  Bibls 
societies.  He  was  also  a  munificent  patron  of 
the  yearly  meeting  boarding  school  in  Provi- 
dence. Although  of  a  delicate  constitution,  his 
activity  and  interest  in  benevolent  enterprises 
continued  throughout  a  life  protracted  to  the 
age  of  98  years.  He  made  his  will  at  the  age 
of  96. 

BROWN,  MosBB,  amerchant  of  Newburyport^ 
Mass.,  bom  Oct.  2, 1742,  died  there  Feb.  9, 1827. 
Having  accumulated  a  large  estate,  he  managed 
it  with  kindness  and  benevolence  toward  the 
'  pcfOTy  and  particularly  toward  his  own  debtors; 
hut  his  predominant  aim  was  to  provide  the 
opportunity  for  obtaining  an  education  for 
meritorious  candidates  for  the  Christian  minis* 
try.  *  For  this  purpose  he  gave  at  different  times 
about  $40,000  to  the  theological  institution  at 
Andover.  He  also  made  lai^ge  donations  to 
many  religious  and  besefa|fen(t  societies  and  in- 
stitutions. '  '* 

BROWN,  Nicholas,  thQ  principal  patron  of 
Brown  university,  born  at  j^ovidence,  R.  L, 
April  4,  1769,  died  Oct.  27, 1841.  He  was  the 
son  of  Nicholas  Brown,  one  of  the  ^^  4  brothers ;" 
was  liberally  educated  at  the  R.  I.  college,  and  at 
the  age  of  22  inherited  an  ample  fortune.  He 
now  commenced  the  career  ofia  merohaift,  e'sgag- 
ing  in  operations  eztendinff  over  *almbet  every 
dime,  and  in  the  diversified  risks  to  w]^i<2h  he 
was  exposed,  affording  ample  opportunities  tto 
test  the  strength  and  sagacity  of  the  mind  in 
which  they  originated.  But  he  was  foun^  fqUy 
equal  to  every  emergency  which  arose  in  thedift 
ficult  times  over  which  his  commercial  enter- 
prises extended,  not  only  those  of  the  ordinal, 
perils  of  the  seas  and  fiuotuations  of  distant  mar* 
kets,  but  others  arising  out  of  the  wars  of  the 
French  revolution,  and  out  of  the  wars  and  the 
laws  of  our  own  country,  which  at  times  had 
almost  caused  the  American  flag  to  di8f4>pear 
from  tiie  ocean.  In  all  this  period  his  mercan- 
tile reputation  stood  unaffected.  Almost  to  the. 
close  of  his  life  he  was  accustomed  to  the  daily- 
transaction  of  business  at  his  counting  room, 
and  was  in  the  constant  habit  of  mingling  in 
the  affairs  of  the  active  commercial  world. 
From  an  early  period  he  had  particularly  con- 
nected himself  with  efforts  for  the  increase  of 
knowledge,  and  the  diffbsion  of  education.  la 
1796  he  was  chosen  secretary  of  R.  I.  college, 
which  office  he  retained  till  1826,  when  ha  was 


756 


BROWN 


alAotedtotlieboardofftllows.  When  first  made 
teoretaiT'  he  presented  the  college  with  $5,000 
and  a  good  lav  library,  and  in  oonsequenoe  of  so 
liberal  a  bene&otion  the  name  of  the  ooUege  was 
changed  to  that  of  Brown  md^ersity.  In  1828 
he  built  a  second  college  edifice  entirelr  at  his 
own  expense.  In  1829  his  conmiercial  honse 
porchased  a  set  of  i^paratas  adequate  for  any 
purpose  of  seientifio  iUnstration.  He  soon  after 
gare  $10,000  toward  a  ftind  of  $25,000  for  the 
use  of  the  library,  and  erected  another  building 
called  ^  banning  Hall,"  after  the  first  president. 
In  1889  he  made  other  donations;  and  in  all  it 
is  estimated  that  he  bestowed  the  amount  of 
$100,000.  He  also  contributed  largely  to  the 
ProTidenoe  Athenmnm,  and  gave,  or  lent 
without  expectation  of  repayment  thousands 
of  dollars  annually  to  aid  in  the  Duilding  of 
churches  and  the  endowment  of  colleges  in 
every  jpart  of  the  country. 

BROWN,  Obadijlr,  a  manufacturer  of  Pro- 
Tidenoe,  R.  I.,  only  son  of  Moses  Brown,  bom 
Jnlr  16, 1771,  died  Oct.  15. 1822.  He  engaged 
in  Duaness  with  William  Almy,  and  they  asso- 
eiated  with  them  Samuel  Slater,  who  intro- 
duced into  this  country  the  spinninff  of  cotton 
by  machinery,  on  the  principle  of  Arkwrigft<i; ' 
under  the  firm  of  Almy,  Brown,  and  Slater. 
The  manufacture  extended  vastly  in  liieir  hands, 
and  they  became  at  the  safne  time  men  of  sreat 
wealth,  and  the  source  of  tbe  support'  of  a  Targe 
population.  Mr.  Brown  4>eeam6  a  Quaker,'  and 
as  he  had  no  chil^en  of  his  own,  became  ab 
almoner  in  th^  Vislrtt>ntion  of  his  wealtfaT  i6r 
the  benefit  of  Ql^rving  objects  of  pnblip  and 
prirate  charity.  Qis  benefactions  were  not 
confined  to  his^^Wa*denominatioh,  but  were 
often  intended  to  afeist  the  worthy  enterprises  of 
other  Christian  l>9di«8.  His  bripeipal  donations 
were,  however;  to  the  boarding  school  or  col- 
lege ol  Vsieiids,  at  Ph>Tid^noe,  to  which  he  con- 
tribi^  atMta  original  foundation,  and  left 
$100,000  by  hi&  will,  to  form  a  permanent  char- 
iUbl»fuQd.    .         ;      . 

BBOK^i  Robsbt,  an^ngHsh  Puritan  theo- 
logian, and  fgunder  of  the  sect  of  Brownists, 
born  at  Northampton  about  1^0,  died  in  1680. 
Of  h  distinguished  family,  and  a  relative  of  the 
lord  treasurer  Oedl,  he  was  educated  at  Corpus 
^Qhriati  college,  Cambridge,  'and  as  a  preacher, 
schoolmaster,  and  lecturer  at  Islington,  gaioed 
•^reputation  by  vehement  attacks  upon  the  hier- 
archy and  liturgy  of  the  English  ohurch.  He  be- 
came pastor  to  a  congregation  of  seoeders  at  Nor- 
wich, and  assafled  not  the  doctrines  but  tbe  dis- 
clplina  of  tbe  church,  and  contended  for  ecde- 
^aiastical  independency.  Tbe  numerous  judicial 
prosecutions  which  he  incurred  multiplied  his 
adherents  and  increased  his  fame,  but  obliged 
him  to  leave  the  kingdom.  At  Middleburg,  in 
Holland,  he  established  a  church  upon  the  prin- 
cij^es  laid  down  in  his  work  on  the  ^*  Life  and 
Manners  of  true  Christians;**  but  dissensions 
.  arising,  he  returned  to  England,  submitted  pen- 
itentiy  to  the  established  church,  and  obtained 
areotoryinNorthamptottdiire.  His  life  was  im- 


moral, and  he  became  again  embroOed  withtiie 
authorities,  and  died  in  Northampton  jail,  boast- 
ing on  his  deatb-bed  that  he  had  been  impriaoned 
8  2  times.  His  principles  gathered  strength  after 
his  deiUh,  and  the  Brownists,  after  being  reform- 
ed by  Robinson,  became  known  as  the  Indepen- 
dents. 

BROWN,  RoBBBT,  an  English  botanist,  bom 
at  Montrose,  Deo.  21,   1778,  died  in  London, 
June  10,  1858.     He  was  appointed  botanist 
in  the  Australian  expedition  of  Capt  flin- 
ders, which  sailed  in  July,  1801.    Soon  after 
their  arrival  in  Australia,  Flinders  was  obliged  to 
return  home  with  his  ship,  and  was  captured  by 
the  French,  and  detained  several  years  as  oris- 
oner  of  war.    Brown  m^ned  in  New  Holland, 
accompan^^  by  the  'flower  painter^   Frederic 
Bauer,  visiting  thecoasis^nowoccnpied  as  colo- 
nial settiesoentfl^  but  ^hea  oa  a^wiid  state  and 
nninhAilM  by  Enropeana.    The/  alaa  visited 
Vaif  Diemen^s  Land,  and  many  of  the  iskadsof 
Bass's  strait,  returning  to  England-  in  ^80}, 
with  a  rich  collection  of  plants,  compriong  more  , 
than  4,000  different  8pe<4es  indi^ons  to' those'  > 
redons  oTthe  globe.    On»his  retcfrn  to  Lbnd<n' 
hrSvas  appointed  conser^tor  of  the  library  and  '. 
^StaftiUl  b<mections  of  19ir  J<Mbph  Bank9,'aii^ ' ' 
labored  several  years. ^  the  methodical  ar-' 
fimgement^  of  the  numei^ous  speeies  of  planty '. 
.collected  in  New  Holland.    An  outline' of  this 
'*labor  was  published  in  1^10,  unM*  th^  (itie  <Ju 

ward  deemed  it  too  imperf^  tc^^eiit  the  at-*  ' 
tentionof  the  puUic,  and  en^e/rv^fM  tc  sup-//, 
press  it  by  destroying  all  the  copies  he  could  \ 
find.  It  had,  however,'been  reprinted  by  Oken,  ' 
•in  his  /ni,  and  Nees  von  Esenbeck  published  au 
enlarged  edition  of  it  at  Nuremberg,  in  1827. 
Brown  published  his  "  General  Remarks  on  the 
Botany  of  Terra  Australia"  in  London,  1814, 
and  a  SupplemmUwn  primvm  Florm  Notm  Bol- 
landiay  in  1880.  He  also  described  and  clas^- 
fied  with  care  the  different  ^edes  of  plants 
collected,  between  the  years  1802  and  1816,  I7 
Horsfield  in  Java,  and  those  collected  by  Salt 
in  Abyssinia ;  by  Oudney  and  Clapperton  in  tbe 
interior  of  Africa;  and  such  of  those  as  were 
saved  from  the  collection  of  Christian  Smith,  in 
the  unfortunate  expedition  of  Tuckey  to  the 
month  of  the  Congo.  Sir  Jos.  Banks  having  be- 
queathed to  Brown  a  life  interest  in  his  libruy 
and  collections  of  natural  history,  whioh  were 
eventually  deposited  in  the  British  museum,  he 
was  appointed,  in  1827,  keeper  of  the  botanicsl 
department  of  that  institution,  and  retfdned  this 
position  until  his  death.  Vegetable  physiok^is 
indebted  to  Brown  for  several  important  discov- 
eries. He  first  spoke  of  the  peculiar  movement  of 
the  molecules  of  pollen  in  plants,  which  isknown 
by  his  name ;  and  was  the  first  to  demonstrate 
that  these  molecules,  on  quitting  the  anthers, 
penetrate,  through  the  style,  down  to  the 
ovula  below.  On  the  death  of  the  bishop  of 
Norwich,  in  1849,  he  was  elected  president  of 
the  Linniean  society. 
BROWN,  Sir  Saxdxl,  an  English  engineer. 


BBOWK 


767 


bom  in  London  in  1T76,  died  Haroh  15, 1852. 
He  entered  the  navy  at  18,  and  was  made 
oommander  in  1811,  and  a  retired  ciq>taLn  in 
18i2.  He  bronght  into  nse  both  chain  cables 
and  iron^sospension  bridges.  Although  the  idea 
of  employing  iron  cables  in  place  of  Uiose  made 
from  hemp  had  been  previoaaly  suggested  in 
1771,  it  was  not  put  into  practice  until  after  a 
series  of  experiments  unaer  the  direction  of 
OapU  Brown.  In  the  same  manner  iron  suspen- 
sion bridges  had  been  in  use  both  in  Europe  and 
America,  but  they  were  regarded  as  unsafe  ex* 
cept  for  very  short  spans,  before  his  improved 
method  of  constructing  the  chains.  He  had 
them  made  of  long  bars  of  flat  or  round  iron 
pinned  together  by  short  links  and  bolt  pins. 
He  was  knighted  in  1885. 

BBOWN,  Sakubl,  a  Scottish  chemist  and 
poet,  bom  at  Haddington,  Feb.  28, 1817,  died 
in  Edinburgh,  Sept  80, 1866.  In  childhood,  his 
heartiness  in  play,  strong  attachment  to  friends, 
and  faculty  for  grasping  the  problems  of  physi- 
cal science,  on  which  ne  sometimes  hazarded 
original  and  startling  hypotheses,  foreshadowed 
the  bent  and  the  intensi^  of  his  future  cliarao- 
ter.  In  1883,  he  entered  the  university  of 
Edinburgh  as  a  student  of  medicine,  with  ref- 
erence, however,  only  to  the  scientific  studies 
in  that  department,  and  quickly  made  chemistry 
his  finvonte  and  engrossing  pursnit  In  the 
ultimate  questions  of  this  science — the  nature  of 
atoms,  and  the  laws  of  atomic  action — he  had 
already  interested  himself,  and  the  initial  con- 
ception of  an  isomerism  far  more  extensive  and 
profound  than  had  before  been  taught,  had 
already  assumed  definite  form  in  his  thoughts, 
when,  in  1837,  he  visited  his  eldest  brother  in 
St.  Petersburg^  preparatory  to  studying  atBei^ 
lin,  under  liCitscherhch,  the  discoverer  of  isomor- 
phism, and  the  able  expounder  of  the  accepted 
doctrine  of  isomerism.  Stridi^en  down  in  Bus- 
sia  by  typhus  fever,  he  returned  to  England  in 
the  fbllowiuff  year  with  his  plan  unfulfilled, 
his  health  iwattered,  and  bearing  within  him 
the  latent  germs  of  &tal  disease.  The  death  of 
his  fitther  at  this  time,  whom  he  had  loved 
with  peculiar  tendemesi,  and  of  whom  he 
afterward  wrote  a  charming  biography,  added 
to  his  deeolatlon.  He  graduii^  from  the 
university  of  Edinburgh  with  extraordinary  at- 
tainments, began  his  public  career  by  deliver- 
ing, in  1840,  in  association  with  his  intimate 
friend.  Edward  Forbes,  a  course  of  lectures  on 
the  pnilosophy  of  the  sciences,  and  having 
estabJidied  among  his  auditors,  as  he  had  before 
among  his  teachers,  the  conviction  that  he  was 
destined  to  great  achievement,  renounced  all 
else  that  he  might  have  won,  to  devote  himself 
to  the  dow  experimental  realization  of  a  great 
scientific  conception.  He  contemplated  results 
as  great  for  atomics  as  Gslileo  and  Kepler  had 
gained  for  astronomy ;  stated  his  theory  in  an 
abstract  form,  which  fBSCinated  the  regards 
and  won  the  acceptance  of  Shr  William  Hamil- 
ton, and  with  a  foivoff  possibility  of  success, 
with  viuons  of  long-bought  troths  opening  at 


last  bri^^tly  before  him,  imposed  upon  himself 
a  life  of  silent  and  solitary  toil  Wherever  he 
went,  the  laboratory  was  sent  in  advance,  and 
first  provided  for.  At  Fortobello,  where  he 
resided  several  years,  it  occupied  the  2  most  eli- 
gible rooms  in  the  house,  and  was  ever  over- 
flowing  and  encroaching  elsewhere.  The  care 
of  a  sister  provided  tea,  salt  fish,  and  ship-, 
biscuit,  the  only  food  that  he  wished,  and  his 
hours  of  sleep  were  regulated  less  by  the  de- 
mands of  nature  than  of  some  prolonged  and 
elaborate  process.  Yet  his  difflM)sition  was  not 
ascetic;  his  buoyant  spirit  flourished  under 
this  discipline,  and  he  found  hours  for  mediti^ 
tion  on  the  highest  aspects  and  relations,  not 
only  of  nature,  but  of  man.  In  the  cir^e  of 
his  friendships  he  numbered  some  of  the  great- 
est and  best  men  of  the  age,  and  his  con- 
versation threw  its  spell  over  persons  as  diverse 
as  Jeffirey,  Ohalmers,  Oarlyle,  Archdeacon  Hare, 
De  Quinoey,  Harriet  Martineau,  B.  W.  Emer* 
son,  and  Marsaret  Fuller.  In  1848  the  chair  of 
chemistry  in  the  universily  of  Edinburgh  became 
vacant,  and  though  the  researches  of  Dr.  Brown 
were  not  so  complete  as  he  desired  ere  bringing 
them  before  the  public,  he  resolved,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  wishes  of  his  fiiends.  to  dedare 
himself  a  candidate  for  it  His  claims  could 
rest  only  upon  what  he  had  achieved  in  the 
special  sphere  to  which  he  had  devoted  himself 
and  though  his  experiments  had  convinced  him 
of  the  isomerism  of  carbon  and  silicium,  and  he 
deemed  himself  prepared  to  present  experioAent- 
al  proof  of  the  transmutability  of  the  one  into 
the  other,  yet  the  announcement  was  premature. 
The  proof  was  found  and  admitted  by  himself 
to  be  incomplete,  and  he  retired  from  the  fidd. 
Disappointed  in  his  hope  of  attaining  so  honor- 
able a  position,  he  was  still  more  grieved  to 
discover  that  his  cherished  work  was  fnrtiier 
from  completion  than  he  had  thought,  and  to  find 
that  to  the  loneliness  and  failure  of  sympathy 
which  he  had  before  endured,  were  now  to  be 
added  obloquy  and  distrust.  Most  who  did  not 
know  him  personally  supposed  him  to  have 
been  pursuing  a  wild  dream  with  alohemistio 
enthusiasm.  Yet,  with  full  Mth  in  his  idea,  he 
set  himself  anew  to  the  task  of  its  practical 
elucidation,  and  although  as  a  chemist  he  ap* 
peared  not  again  before  the  public,  he  bore  to 
the  end  the  self-diosen  burden  of  his  scientifie 
life.  He  labored  on,  during  the  respites  of  a 
painfhl  malady,  which  not  till  ^Aer  a  7  years' 
course  wasted  him  away.  His  memoranda 
and  Journal  indicate  that  he  had  obtained  re- 
sults far  in  advance  of  those  which  he  had  pre- 
maturely darned  in  1843,  and  it  was  his  own 
latest  and  firm  belief  that  a  few  months  more 
of  health  and  strength  would  have  enabled 
him  to  ky  all  formally  and  critically  before  the 
scientific  world.  It  is  now  probable  that  his 
papers,  in  the  hands  of  others,  cannot  be  made 
valuable,  and  that  he  wUl,  therefore,  be  known 
in  the  realm  of  soienoe  as  a  thinker  and  seeker, 
rather  than  discoverer.  Yet,  in  several  writ- 
ings, he  has  left  indications  of  the  brilliancy  a^ 


758 


BROWN 


power  of  his  intellect  In  1849  he  delivered 
in  Edinburgh  a  series  of  leotnres  on  the  history 
of  ohemistrj,  tracing  its  progress  from  its  plajr- 
fol  childhood  among  the  Greeks,  through  the 
oriental  and  medissyal  alchemisto,  with  most 
fttcinating  sketches  of  Boger  Bacon  and  Para- 
celsus; passing  thence  through  the  epoch  of 
Btshl  and  Priesdey,  till  the  young  and  unfor- 
tunate Lavoisier  changed  the  whole  form  of 
chemical  science,  opening  a  new  path  to  all 
aucceeding  philosophers.  In  1850,  he  published 
the  *'  Tragedy  of  Galileo,"  containing  passages 
of  great  beauty,  but  said  to  be  much  inferior  to 
bis  impromptu  conversations  on  the  character 
and  doom  of  the  great  astronomer.  Many  of 
his  lectures  and  essays  have  been  collected 
■Inoe  his  death,  under  the  title  of  "  Lectures  on 
the  Atomic  Tlieory,  and  Essays  Scientific  and 
Literary."  They  embrace  a  great  variety  of 
subjects,  and  among  them  are  a  tender  and 
friendly  memoir  of  David  Scott,  the  painter, 
and  perhaps  the  finest  critique  on  George 
Herbert's  poetry  that  was  ever  penned.  Some 
of  his  papers,  especiallv  that  on  the  "  Philoso- 
phy of  rrayer,"  entitle  him  to  a  high  place 
among  theosophical  thinkers.  Many  of  his 
poems  are  in  sonnet,  in  partial  accomplishment 
of  one  of  his  great  schemes,  which  was  a  poetic 
history  of  all  the  sciences  in  a  series  of  sonnets, 
each  embodying  an  era  of  development  as  rep- 
resented in  a  race,  or  by  an  individual.  His 
prose  and  verse  are  almost  equally  marked  by 
the  mixture  of  poetic  feeling  and  calm  reason- 
ing The  fascination  of  his  personal  character 
b  proved  by  the  impression  which  he  made 
upon  his  associates,  who  regard  his  works  as 
utterly  inadequate  to  convey  an  idea  of  his 
ffreatness  The  spirit  with  which  he  gave  up 
ms  life  to  a  daring  and  arduous  sdenti&c  qnest^ 
conscious  of  what  he  renounced,  and  fore- 
■eeing  the  trials  and  difficulties,  and  a  part,  at 
least,  of  tlie  disappointments  and  sorrows  which 
intervened  between  him  and  the  goal  for  which 
he  aimed,  is  seen  in  the  cross  with  the  inscrip- 
tion, "Perfect  through  suffering,"  which  he 
early  and  roughly  sketched  to  be  the  presiding 
symbol  of  his  laboratory. 

BROWN,  Taslton,  a  captain  in  the  revolu- 
tionary war,  born  in  Barnwell  district,  S.  0., 
in  1754,  died  in  1846.  He  served  throughout 
the  war,  chiefly  under  Gol.  William  Harden,  and 
has  left  an  interesting  memoir  of  his  experience, 
containing  much  original  information  concern- 
ing the  events  of  tiie  time  in  the  two  Garolinas. 

BROWK,  Thomas,  an  English  satirist,  born 
in  Shropshire  in  1663,  died  in  1704.  He  was 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  became  for  a  short 
time  master  of  the  free  school  at  Eingston-npon- 
Thames.  He  wrote  a  great  deal  in  prose  and 
verse,  chiefly  satirical  and  personal  pieces.  The 
highest  as  well  as  the  lowest  characters  were 
the  objects  of  his  satire,  which  is  sharp,  though 
coarse.  His  first  pamphlet,  '^The  Reason  of 
Mr.  Bayes  changing  his  Religion,"  published  in 
1688,  was  a  strong  personal  attack  on  Dryden, 
who  had  become  a  convert  to  the  Oatholic  faith 


a  llttie  before.  A  selection  from  his  produc- 
tions in '4  volumes,  with  engravings,  appeared 
soon  after  his  death. 

BROWN,  Thomas,  a  Scottish  philosopher, 
bom  at  Eirkmabreck,  near  Dumfries,  JaiL  9, 
1778,  died  at  Brompton,  near  London,  April  3, 
1 820.  He  was  educated  with  the  greatest  care  by 
his  mother.  He  is  said  to  have  learned  all  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet  at  a  single  lesson,  and  in  the 
different  schools  which  he  attended  he  made  re- 
markable progress,  especially  in  daasical  litera- 
ture. In  his  15th  year  he  was  presented  by  Dr. 
Ourrie,  the  biographer  of  Bums,  with  the  recent^ 
ly  published  1st  volume  of  Dngsld  Stewart's  work 
on  the  phOosophy  of  the  humsn  mind,  which  he 
read  with  admiration,  making  however  acute 
criticisms  upon  it  •  Attending  Stewart^  class 
the  next  winter,  at  the  close  of  one  of  the  lec- 
tures he  ventured  to  state  to  the  distinguished 
philosopher  an  objection  respecting  one  of  his 
theories.  It  was  the  opinion  of  Stewart  that 
in  sleep  the  operation  of  the  will  and  of  tiie 
faculties  dependent  on  it  are  suspended,  yet  he 
also  held  that  memory  depends  upon  attention, 
which  is  the  creature  of  the  will.  The  query 
propounded  by  Brown  was.  How  then  do  we 
remember  our  dreams!  Stewart  listened  to 
him  patiently,  then  read  to  him  a  letter  whidi 
he  had  just  received  from  the  celebrated  M. 
Provoet  of  Geneva,  containing  the  same  objec- 
tion. This  was  the  commencement  of  a  Hfe- 
long  friendship  between  the  2  metaphysicians. 
Brown  studied  and  practised  medicine,  without 
however  giving  all  his  attention  to  it»  and 
divided  his  leisure  between  the  pursuits  of 
poetry  and  philosophy.  He  published  in  1798 
nis  '*  Observations  on  the  Zoonomia  of  Dr. 
Darwin,"  which  attracted  attention  for  the 
acuteness  with  which  it  pointed  out  inconsist- 
encies, and  is  interesting  as  containing  the  germ 
of  his  theory  of  causation  and  of  the  principles 
by  which  he  was  guided  in  his  later  philosophi- 
cal inquiries.  There  was  at  this  time  in  Edin- 
burgh a  brilliant  circle  of  young  men,  by  some 
of  whom  the  *'  Edinburgh  Review"  was  soon  to 
be  established.  Brown  was  accustomed  to  pass 
his  evenings  in  conversational  discussions  with 
Erskine,  Brougham,  Reddie,  Bh-kbeck,  Leyden, 
Seymour,  Homer,  Jeffrey,  Sydney  Smith,  and 
others,  with  most  of  whom  he  was  associated 
in  the  society  called  the  "Academy  of  Physics." 
He  contributed  several  articles  to  the  early 
numbers  of  the  "Edinburgh  Review,"  one  oi 
which  was  on  the  "  Philosophy  of  Eant^"  a  sab- 
ject  of  which  he  knew  only  what  he  nad  de- 
rived from  fimtastio  French  acconnts,  and  the 
only  merit  of  the  article  was  that  it  di^h^ed 
perhaps  more  knowledge  of  Kant  than  was  at 
that  time  possessed  by  anybody  dse  in  Great 
Britain.  In  1808  he  published  a  collection  of 
his  poems  in  8  volumes,  many  of  which  had 
been  written  while  in  college,  and  which  ex- 
hibit rather  a  taste  than  a  talent  for  poetry.  A 
local  controversy  induced  him  to  publish  an 
examination  of  Hume's  theory  of  the  relation 
between  cause  and  effect,  the  ol^ect  of  which 


BROWK 


75» 


was  to  Bbow  that,  howeyer  vulnerable  the 
doctrine  of  Hame  might  be  in  a  metaphysical 
point  of  view,  it  was  far  from  leading  to  the  fatal 
consequences  which  had  been  attributed  to  it. 
This  work  was  lupplauded  by  Horner  in  an  able 
article  in  the  *'£ainburgh  Review,''  and  was 
pronounced  by  Mackintosh  the  finest  model  of 
philosophical  discussion  since  B^hrkeley  and 
Hume.  It  was  enlarged  in  subseauent  editions, 
and  published  in  1818  under  the  title  of  an  ^  In- 
quiry into  the  Relation  of  Oause  and  Effect." 
In  1808  Stewart,  enfeebled  by  age.  required  a 
temporary  absence  from  professional  duties,  and 
Brown  was  appointed  to  supply  his  place  in  lec- 
turing before  uie  class  in  moral  philosophy.  He 
lectured  again  during  several  weeks  the  next 
year  with  such  success  that  many  of  the  distin- 
guished men  of  the  capital  came  to  hear  him, 
and  in  1810,  at  the  request  of  Stewart,  he  was 
formally  unpointed  adjunct  professor  of  moral 
philosophy.  It  was  his  custom  to  pass  the  sum- 
mers in  some  rural  retreat  for  exerdse  and 
meditation,  and  to  defer  the  composition  of  his 
lectures  to  the  evening  before  the  day  on  which 
he  was  to  deliver  them.  In  his  philosophic 
character  he  has  been  truly  described  as  an  un- 
fiuthful  disdple  of  the  Scottish  school,  rebelling 
against  his  masters  upon  many  capital  questions. 
Beid  and  Stewart  had  laborioualy  collected  fiEU^ts, 
and  scrupulously  described  phenomena,  without 
wishing  to  msike  systematic  classifications  of 
them.  Brown  blames  this  timidity,  and  seeks 
to  simplify  facts  by  systems,  reducing  them  to 
the  smallest  possible  number  of  causes  or  classes. 
Beid  thought  that  he  had  discovered  the  source 
of  modem  scepticism  in  the  hypothesis  of  inter- 
mediary ideas  or  images  between  the  soid  and 
body.  Brown  maintains  that  this  hypothesis 
has  been  generally  rejected  by  modem  philoso- 
phers, with  the  exception  of  Malebranche  and 
Berkeley  and  that  in  attributing  it  to  Des- 
oartes,  Hobbes,  Locke,  and  others,  Beid  was 
deceived  by  an  incorrect  language^anslating 
a  metaphor  into  a  serious  doctrine.  Beid  affirms 
the  existence  of  a  special  faculty  of  perception, 
by  means  of  which  we  know  external  objects 
immediately  and  directiy.  Brown  rejects  thii 
assertion  as  gratuitous,  as  explaining  nothing, 
and  therefore  as  unphilosophical,  and  accounts 
for  our  knowledge  of  objects  by  the  sensation  of 
resistance,  and  the  conception  of  a  cause  excited 
by  this  sensation.  He  extenuates  the  scepticism 
of  Hume  relative  to  the  external  world,  main- 
taining that  the  difference  between  Hume  and 
Beid  is  verbal  rather  than  essential,  the  former 
laying  stress  upon  the  dogma  that  we  cannot 

Erove  the  existence  of  external  things,  and  the 
itter  upon  the  dogma  that  we  ought  to  believe 
their  existence  though  we  cannot  prove  it,  and 
each  reluctantiy  admitting  the  position  of  the 
other.  The  gravest  difference  was  with  refer- 
ence to  moral  freedom.  Beid  and  Stewart  had 
most  distinctly  recognized  the  free  activity  of 
the  will  in  distinction  from  desire  which  is  pas- 
sive and  necessary.  Brown  in  his  lectures  keeps 
mlenoe  upon  thia  capital  question,  but  in  his 


treatise  on  the  relation  of  oause  and  effect  de- 
clares in  almost  the  same  terms  as  OondiUae 
that  will  is  but  desire  accompanied  with  an 
opinion  that  the  effect  is  going  to  follow.  AH 
psychological  phenomena  are  divided,  in  the 
system  of  Brown,  into  external  and  internal 
states,  the  former  having  reference  to  sen- 
sations, the  latter  to  the  intellect  and  emo- 
tions. Instead  of  the  diversity  of  intellectual 
faculties  which  had  been  introduced  by  his 
predecessors,  he  admits  but  two:  simple  sug- 
gestion, or  the  reproduction  of  absent  objects, 
and  relative  sugg^on,  or  the  perception  of 
relations  between  ideas.  To  the  former  he 
refers  conception,  ima^nation,  memory,  and 
habit;  to  the  latter,  Judgment,  reason,  ab- 
straction, and  generidization.  The  emotions 
he  classifies  as  immediate,  retrospective,  and 
prospective,  according  as  they  refer  to  the  pres^ 
ent,  past,  or  future*  In  this  portion  of  his 
phuosophy  he  gives  a  complete  enumeration 
and  a  profound  analysis  of  the  passions,  and  of 
the  sentiments  of  beauty  and  moral  good.  The 
reputation  of  Dr.  Brown  rests  chiefly  upon  his 
lectures,  which  were  first  published  after  his 
death.  Thev  offer  many  exact  descriptions  and 
delicate  analyses,  are  written  in  an  exuberant 
and  often  eloquent  style,  and  are  enriched  with 
numerous  happy  quotations  from  the  poets. 
His  philosophy  is  variously  estimated,  but  has 
been  severely  judged  by  Sir  William  Hamilton. 
During  the  latter  years  of  his  life  he  published 
several  poems,  the  principal  of  which  is  the 
**  Paradise  of  Coquettes,"  which  added  nothing 
to  his  reputation.  He  repaired  to  London  by 
a  sea  voyage  in  1820,  in  the  hope  of  benefiting 
his  health,  which  had  become  suddenly  broken; 
but  his  illness  increased,  and  became  fatal  soon 
after  his  arrival  His  personal  character  was 
marked  by  a  calm  enthusiasm,  and  the  utmost 
kindness  and  delicacy  of  mind. 

BROWN,  WnxiAK  Laxtbxnox,  minister  of 
the  English  church  at  Utrecht,  and  principal 
of  Maruchal  college,  bom  at  Utrecht,  where 
his  father  was  pastor,  Jan.  7,  1755,  died  May 
11, 1880.  His  father  returned  to  Scotland  in 
1757,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  grammar  school 
and  university  of  St.  Andrew's,  afterward  be- 
came  a  student  of  divinity  in  1774,  removed  to 
the  university  of  Utrecht,  where  he  combmed 
with  the  study  of  divinity  that  of  civil  law. 
In  1777,  on  the  death  of  his  uncle.  Dr.  Rob^t 
Brown,  the  magistrates  of  Utrecht  offered  him, 
and  he  accepts,  the  pastoral  charge  of  the 
English  cliumi  in  that  city.  He  was  licensed 
and  ordained  by  the  presbytery  of  St  An- 
drew's, and  admitted  minister  in  1778.  Be- 
tween 1788  and  1798  he  took  several  prizes 
offered  for  public  competition  by  different 
learned  bodies  in  Holland,  producing,  among 
others,  a  disputation  in  Latin  on  the  "  Origin 
Of  Evil,"  and  one  on  the  *^  Natural  Equality  of 
Man."  whidi  was  printed  in  Edinburgh  in  1798, 
andhad  a  laige  isAle.  He  was  also  made  pro- 
fessor and  then  regent  of  the  university  of 
Utrecht,  but  in  Jan.  1795,  was  obliged  to  fly 


700 


BROWK  GOAL 


BROWK-SfiQUARD 


the  ooontry,  on  tiie  approach  of  the  Frenob,  in 
an  open  boat,  with  hit  wife,  S  children,  and 
some  othw  relationa,  with  whom  he  reached 
England  after  a  stonnj  passage.  In  London  he 
waa  warmly  welcomed,  and  soon  afterward,  bj 
the  magistrates  of  Aberdeen,  made  principal  of 
Marischal  college.  He  became  a  eonspicnons 
member  of  the  chnrch,  and  npon  the  first  com- 
petition for  the  Bnmet  prize,  his  essay  on  the 
^  EAtdnoe  of  a  Supreme  Creator  ^  obtained  Uie 
first  place.  It  was  pablished  at  Aberdeen  in 
1816.  He  afterward  wrote  *'A  Oomparatiye 
View  of  Christianity  and  of  the  other  Forms  of 
Religion  which  haye  existed  and  still  exist  in  the 
Worid,  particularly  with  regard  to  their  Moral 
Tendency,"  £din.  1826. 

BROWN  COAL,  one  of  the  8  great  funi- 
lies  into  which  coals  are  divided  by  mineralo- 
gists, and  which  are  again  sabdivided  into 
many  subordinate  varieties.  In  England,  it  is 
also  called  Bovey  coal,  from  Bovey,  near  Exe- 
ter, where  it  is  principally  fonnd.  The  German 
depositories  of  Drown  coal  are  mainly  in  Hesse, 
Thnringia,  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  the  Wester- 
wald  (a  hill-chain  of  W.  Germany,  between 
Westphalia  and  Nassan)  and  in  Saxony.  The 
mineral  is  ako  fonnd  in  Alsace.  Vegetable 
matters  are  met  with  in  various  stages  of  their 
conversion  into  mineral  coal.  In  the  forma- 
tions of  the  present  period  they  are  fonnd 
in  great  collections  of  peat^  whidi  are  some- 
times seen  in  beds  alternating  with  others 
of  sand  and  of  day.  In  the  tertiary  strata 
these  vegetable  collections  oeonr  in  beds  inters 
stratified  with  others  of  limestone  and  the 
varipna  rocks  of  this  period.  In  some  in- 
stances the  plants  are  little  altered,  so  that  the 
species  are  easily  recognized  by  the  stractore  of 
the  leaves  and  fruit.  The  stems  are  flattened, 
and  cross  each  other  in  all  directions.  The 
woody  fibre  has  become  more  or  less  impregna- 
ted with  bitumen,  so  that  it  burns  with  the  pe- 
culiar smoke  and  flame  of  that  substance.  This 
material  is  called  lignite,  and  sometimes  brown 
coal.  Beds  of  it  are  worked  for  fuel  in  upper 
Hesse.  Another  variety  of  brown  coal  is  more 
altered  in  structure,  so  that  its  vegetable  diar- 
acter  is  more  indistinct,  the  beds  presenting 
stratified  bodies  of  dark,  nearly  black  substance, 
with  an  earthy  fracture.  The  lignite  is  sometimes 
seen  mixed  in  the  same  specimen.  This  variety 
of  brown  coal  is  worked  at  Meisner,  near  Cas- 
seL  These  varieties  make  but  a  poor  quality 
of  fuel,  often  containing  from  30  to  48  per  cent, 
of  water.  A  large  proportion  of  this,  however, 
may  be  expelled  by  drying,  though  even  then  8 
per  cent  or  more  may  be  reabsorbed.  The 
amount  of  ash  varies  in  the  different  qualities 
from  less  than  1  to  more  than  60  per  cent.  Sul- 
phates of  lime,  potash,  and  iron  often  occur  as 
impurities,  and  nitrogen  is  sometimes  met  with 
to  the  extent  of  15  per  cent.  In  21  different 
analyses  of  brown  coal  by  different  chemists^ 
the  proportion  of  carbon  is  found  to  vary  from 
60  to  70  per  cent  In  the  16th  volume  of  the  8d 
series  of  the  "American  Journal  of  Science,^' 


1868,  Pres.  Hitchcock  describes  an  infteresliBg 
deposit  of  brown  coal  which  occurs  at  Bran- 
don, y  t,  in  the  midst  of  the  days  and  ochres 
of  one  of  the  numerous  hematite  iron  ore  beds 
which  accompany  the  range  of  the  metamor* 
phio  slices  and  limestones  along  the  western 
base  of  the  Green  and  Hooeick  mountuna.  The 
carbonaceous  d^^radt  constitutes  a  bed  20  feet 
thick,  which  is  found  dose  to  the  surfacCy  and  is 
at  anoUier  point  cut  by  a  shaft  at  the  depth  of 
neariy  100  feet;  but,  like  the  other  mstwriiils 
that  make  up  these  dqxisits,  its  form  and  dimen- 
nons  appear  to  be  very  irregular.  This  bed  eon- 
ttsts  princ^>aUy  of  a  substance  intermediate  in 
appearance  between  peat  and  Intnminons  coaL 
It  is  of  a  deep  brown  color,  with  indistanet 
traces  of  organic  structure,  exc^t  in  the  lignite 
and  the  foml  fruits  contained  in  it  It  bums 
with  a  bright  yellow  flame,  without  any  bitn* 
minons  odor,  and  is  employed  for  healing  the 
boilers  of  a  steam  engine  on  the  spot  Frag- 
ments of  lignite  are  met  with  in  it^  which  are 
brittle,  and  admit  of  a  polish ;  some  of  them 
are  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  ds^lay 
the  woody  structure,  as  well  as  the  attached 
bark.  They  appear  to  belong  to  the  exogenous 
or  dicotyledonous  class  of  plants,  and  have  evi- 
dently been  transported  and  worn  by  water. 
The  fruits  generally  resemble  nuts ;  but  neither 
these  nor  the  seeds  accompanying  them  have 
been  determined.  Free.  HitchcodE  regards  this 
deposit  as  pladng  the  hematite  beds  in  the 
group  of  the  upper  tertiary;  but  as  this  ore  is 
met  with  in  some  localities  in  veins  or  beds,  in 
the  mica  date,  and  not  differing  from  that  in 
the  brown  lignite  depodts  near  by,  as  may  be 
seen  at  Leibert^s  gap,  in  the  Lehigh  mountdn, 
this  generalization  can  hardly  yet  be  admitted 
as  fiuly  established.  The  oil  extracted  fiton 
brown  coal,  cUum  Zt^ni  fouiUa^  is  used  for 
medical  purposes.     (See  Coal.) 

BROWN-SfiQUARD,  Edward,  an  eminent 
living  physiologist,  was  born  in  the  island  of 
Mauritius,  in  the  year  1818.  His  frither,  Ed- 
ward Brown,  was  a  native  of  Philaddphia,  and 
at  one  time  commanded  a  merchant  vessel  in 
the  American  marine.  He  was  lost  at  sea,  in  an 
attempt  which  he  had  volunteered  in  an  old  and 
badly  found  vessd  to  procure  provisions  for 
Mauritius,  at  that  time  suffering  under  fismine. 
His  mother,  from  whom  he  derives  the  name 
86quard,  was  a  Frendi  woman.  Toung  Brown- 
S^uard  was  carefully  educated  in  his  native 
island.  In  1838  he  went  to  Paris  to  complete 
his  studies,  and  received  there  the  degree  (^ 
M.  D.  from  the  faculty  in  1840.  Smce  that 
time  he  has  devoted  his  attention  mdnly  to  ex* 
perimentd  physiology,  and  the  number  and  im^ 
portance  of  his  reseuxshes  have  placed  him  in 
the  foremost  rank  of  living  investigators.  He 
has  had  a  prize  awarded  him  6  times  by  the 
French  academy  of  sciences,  and  he  has  twice 
received  a  part  of  the  queen's  grant  for  the  en* 
couragement  of  science  from  the  royal  society 
of  London.  Hehasvidted  the  United  Sutes 
several  times,  and  has  delivered  short  oourses 


BROWN-SfiQUARD 


BROWN  UNIVERSITY 


761 


of  kotares  before  Yarioos  soientifio  bodies,  illas- 
trating  his  novel  dootrines  bj  the  most  skilfal 
and  delicate  viviseotions.  His  researches  cover 
a  large  extent  of  ground,  and  relate  to  a  variety 
of  important  and  interesting  questions.  His 
experiments  on  the  blood  give  great  support  to 
the  new  doctrine  that  the  fibrine  of  that  fluid  is 
an  excrementitious  product,  and  not  subservi- 
ent to  nutrition.  All  the  life-giving  effects  of 
the  natural  blood  he  has  produced  by  the  trans- 
fhaion  of  defibrinated  blood.  By  the  injection 
of  oxygenated  and  defibrinated  blood  the  irri- 
tability of  the  muscles  was  restored  some  time 
after  the  occurrence  of  post-mortem  rigidity, 
and  the  blood  returned  by  the  veins  venous  in 
oolor  and  containing  fibrine.  Defibrinated  and 
oxygenated,  it  was  again  injected  by  the  artery, 
and  thus  the  same  blood  was  used  for  hours  in 
maintaining  the  irritability  of  the  muscles. 
Arterial  blood,  according  to  Brown-S^uard,  is 
subservient  to  nutrition,  and  maintains  the  irri- 
tability of  the  muscles ;  venous  blood  is  neces^ 
sary  to  produce  muscular  contraction. — ^By  his 
experiments  on  animal  heat  the  temperature  in 
mankind  is  placed  at  lOd""  F.,  several  degrees 
higher  than  by  previous  observers.  When  an- 
iouds  are  asphyxiated  their  temperature  at  the 
time  exerts  a  great  influence  on  the  duration  of 
life ;  thus,  of  4  rabbits  experimented  on,  the 
temperature  at  the  time  they  were  asphyxiated 
was  respectively  lOS**,  96°,  86°  77°  F.,  and  the 
duration  of  life  was  respectively  6,  9^,  10,  and 
14  minutes.  Previous  observers  had  noted  that 
certain  poisons  cause  a  rapid  diminution  of  the 
animal  temperature;  according  to  Brown-S4- 
quard,  when  the  animal  heat  is  maintained  by 
artificial  means,  the  toxic  action  is  much  dimin- 
ished. Thus,  if  3  animals  are  subjected  to 
equal  doses  of  the  same  poison,  and  one  is 
placed  in  a  temperature  of  60^  F.  and  the  other 
of  88®F.,  the  first  will  probably  die  with  great 
loss  of  anira^l  heat,  the  last  will  recover. — Some 
of  the  most  difficult,  as  well  as  most  interesting, 
roeoarches  of  Dr.  Brown-S^uard  relate  to  the 
physiology  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  great  dis- 
covery of  Sir  Charles  Bell  of  the  respective 
sensitive  and  motor  functions  of  tiie  anterior 
and  posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  cord,  directed 
the  general  attention  of  physiologists  to  that 
subject.  After  numerous,  and  oftenlames  ap- 
parently contradictory,  experiments,  the  con- 
clusion was  generally  acquiesced  in  that  the 
posterior  columns  of  the  cord  are  sensitive,  and 
convey  sensations  to  the  brain ;  that  the  anterior 
are  motor,  and  convey  the  influence  of  ^e  will  to 
the  voluntary  muscles ;  and  that  the  gray  mat- 
ter of  the  cord  serves  merely  to  reflect  impres- 
sions from  the  sensitive  to  ^e  motor  nerve 
roots.  As  the  result  of  numerous  ingenious 
experiments,  Brown-S6qnard  concludes  that  the 
sensitive  fibres  do  not  communicate  directly 
with  the  brain,  but  convey  impressions  to  the 
gray  matter  of  the  cord,  by  which  they  are 
transmitted  onward  to  the  brain,  and  that  their 
decussation  or  crossing  takes  place  in  the  cord 
Itself,  at  or  bebw  the  point  at  which  they  en- 


ter, not  in  the  cerebrum  or  meddlla  oblongata. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  anterior  or  motor  fibres 
pass  on  directly  to  the  brain,  effecting  their  de- 
cussation in  the  medulla  oblongata ;  the  gray 
matter  receives  the  impressions,  conducts  &em 
to  the  brMn,  or  reflects  them  upon  the  motor 
nerves,  but  is  itself  insensible  to  ordinary  stim- 
uli. These  views  enable  us  to  understand  some 
rare  and  curious  facts  in  pathology  which  otli- 
erwise  would  remain  inexplicable.  Other  re* 
searches  of  Brown-S6quard  relate  to  the  mus- 
cles, to  the  sympathetic  system  of  nerves,  to 
the  effect  of  the  removal  or  destruction  of  the 
supra-renal  capsules  in  animals,  &c.  In  May, 
1858,  Dr.  Brown-S^uard  delivered  a  course  of 
lectures  before  the  royal  college  of  surgeons,  at 
London,  which  attracted  much  attention. 

BROWN  SPAR,  a  name  given  to  dolomite, 
the  magnesian  carbonate  of  lime,  when  this  is 
of  a  brown,  or  reddish-brown  color,  from  a 
small  percentage  of  oxide  of  iron,  or  oxide  of 
manganese.  Crystals  of  spathic  iron  are  some- 
times called  by  the  same  name. 

BROWN  UNIVERSITY,  formerly  Rhodb 
Island  Collbob,  a  seat  of  learning  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  founded  by  the  Baptists,  about 
the  middle  of  the  last  century.  In  1707, 
the  Philadelphia  association,  composed  mostly 
of  Bi^tist  churches  in  Pennsylvania  and  New 
Jersey,  was  formed,  for  the  purnose  of  promot- 
ing the  welfare  of  the  Baptist  aenomination  in 
America.  At  an  early  period,  these  churchea 
thiis  associated  projected  plans  for  the  educa- 
tion of  a  suitable  ministry,  the  restrictions  of 
denominational  government  rendering  it  hu- 
miliating and  even  difficult  for  their  young 
men  to  be  educated  in  the  institutions  of  learn- 
ing then  in  existence.  In  1762  this  association, 
at  the  spedal  instigation  of  the  Rev.  Horgan 
Edwards,  a  distinguished  Welsh  clergyman  of 
Philadelphia,  formed,  says  Backus,  the  design 
of  establishing  in  the  colony  of  Rhode  Island, 
**  under  the  dliief  direction  of  the  Baptists,  a 
college  in  which  education  might  be  promoted, 
and  superior  learning  obtained,  free  from  any 
sectarian  religious  tests."  The  leader  selected 
for  this  important  work  was  the  Rev.  James 
Manning,  a  uative  of  New  Jersey,  and  then  re- 
cently a  graduate  at  Princeton.  In  July,  1768, 
he  accordingly  visited  Newport,  then  at  the 
height  of  its  commercial  prosperity,  and  propos- 
ed Uie  subject  of  his  mission  to  several  gentiemen 
of  the  Baptist  denomination,  among  whom  were 
the  Hon.  Samuel  Word,  governor  of  the  colony, 
the  Hon.  Josiaa  Lyndon,  who  was  afterward 
governor.  CoL  John  Gardiner,  deputy  governor, 
and  twelve  others  of  the  same  persuasion. 
They  readily  concurred  with  the  proposal,  and 
at  once  entered  upon  the  means  necessary  for 
the  accomplishment  of  the  object.  After  vari- 
ous struggles  and  difficulties,  a  charter,  reflects 
ing  the  liberal  sentiments  of  the  people  in 
matters  of  reli^on,  was  obtained  from  the 
legislature  in  February,  1764^  "  for  a  college  or 
university  in  the  English  colony  of  Rhode 
Island  and   Providence  Plantation^  in  New 


762 


BROWN  UNIVERSITY 


England,  in  America.^*  One  of  the  proybions 
of  this  charter  is  as  follows:  ^'And  farther- 
more,  it  is  herehj  enacted  and  declared,  that 
into  this  liberal  and  catholic  institution  shall 
never  be  admitted  any  religions  tests;  but,  on 
the  contrary,  all  the  members  hereof  shall  for- 
ever  ei^oy  full,  free,  absolute,  and  uninterrupted 
liberty  of  conscience ;  and  that  the  public  teach- 
ing ^all,  in  general,  respect  the  sciences,  and 
tiiat  the  sectarian  differences  of  opinions  shall 
not  make  any  part  of  the  public  and  classical 
instruction."  The  government  of  the  college 
is  vested  in  a  board  of  fellows,  consisting  of  12 
members,  of  whom  8,  including^  the  president, 
must  be  Baptists ;  and  a  board  of  trustees,  con- 
sisting of  86  members,  of  whom  22  must  be 
BaptUts,  5  Friends  or  Quakers,  4  Oongrega- 
tionalists,  and  5  Episcopi^ans ;  this*  proportion 
representing  the  different  denominations  then 
existing  in  Uie  state.  The  instruction  and  im- 
mediate government  of  the  college  rest  in  the 
president  and  board  of  fellows.  In  the  autumn 
of  the  year  in  which  the  college  was  established, 
its  instructions  were  commenced  at  Warren,  un- 
der the  direction  of  Mr^  Manning,  who  was  for- 
nually  elected  its  president  in  Sept  1765.  With 
him  was  associated  soon  after,  as  tutor,  Mr. 
David  Howell,  also  a  graduate  irom  Princeton. 
A  local  contest  for  the  seat  of  the  college  was 
finally  terminated  in  favor  of  Providence,  and 
accordingly  in  May,  1770,  the  president  with 
his  undergraduates  removed  thither.  The 
work  of  instruction  went  on  with  regularity 
till  the  revolution,  1777  1782,  during  which 
period  the  college  was  occupied  by  the  state 
militia,  and  also  oy  the  troops  of  Rochambeau. 
In  1786  the  president  was  elected  to  congress, 
where  he  gave  his  influence  for  the  establish- 
ment of  the  constitution,  still  retaining  his  col- 
lege office.  His  death  occurred  in  1791,  in  the 
68d  year  of  his  age.  Br.  Manning  may  in  one 
sense  be  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  college, 
for  although  the  plan  of  it  originally  emanated 
from  the  Philadelphia  association,  as  stated  in 
the  commencement  of  this  account,  it  was  nev- 
ertheless owing  to  his  personal  influence  and 
exertions  that  it  was  hanpily  matured,  and, 
from  a  state  of  infancy  ana  trial,  jiurtured  and 
developed,  until  it  reached,  before  the  termina- 
tion of  his  labors,  a  position  of  comparative 
affluence  and  respectability.  ''He  had,"  says 
his  biographer.  Professor  Goddard,  "the  ad- 
vantages of  a  most  attractive  and  impressive 
exterior.  His  voice  possessed  extraordinary 
compass  and  harmony,  while  his  manners  were 
the  expression  of  that  dignity  and  grace  for 
which  ne  was  so  remarkable."  In  1792  he  was 
Bucceeded  in  the  presidency  by  the  Rev.  Jona- 
than Maxcy,  who,  the  year  before,  upon  the 
death  of  Manning,  had  been  chosen  professor 
of  divinity.  Mr.  Maxcy,  in  1802,  succeeded 
Dr.  Edwards  in  the  presidency  of  Union  college, 
New  York.  In  1804  he  accepted  an  appoint- 
ment to  the  presidency  of  the  South  Carolina 
college,  over  which  institution  he  presided  un- 
til his  death  in  1820.    IDs  coUegiate  addresses, 


with  a  biographical  introduction  by  Prafeflsor 
Romeo  Elton,  D.  D.,  were  published  in  New 
York,  1844^  and  in  London,  1852.  The  Rev.  Asa 
Messer  succeeded  Dr.  Maxcy,  and  oocuiHed  the 
presidency  24  years,  until  1826,  when  he  retired 
from  office:  He  survived  his  retirement  10 
years,  when  he  died  at  the  age  of  67.  It  was 
soon  after  the  commencement  of  his  adminis- 
tration, in  Sept.  1804^  that  the  college  received 
the  name  of  Brown  university,  in  honor  of  ^ch- 
olas  Brown,  its  most  distinguished  bendlMtor. 
Mr.  Messer  was  succeeded  in  the  presidoicy  by 
by  the  Rev.  Francis  Wayknd,  D.  D.,  in  1827. 
His  administration  has  been  distinguished  by 
many  important  reforms  in  the  government  of 
the  college,  and  in  the  distribution  of  its  stadi€«. 
He  resigned  his  office  in  1855,  having  been  the 
executive  head  of  the  university  28  yean^  during 
which  periodhe  administered  its  aiffialrs  with  con- 
summate ability,  and  by  his  personal  character, 
and  the  genius  and  spirit  of  lus  writings,  greatly 
extended  its  reputation  and  influence.  Dr.  Way- 
land  was  succeeded  by  the  Rev.  Bamaa  Sean, 
D.  D.,  who  was  unanimously  elected  president 
at  a  special  meeting  of  the  corporation,  held 
Aug.  21,  1855. — ^The  nnivermty  at  present  has 
4  college  buildings  or  halls,  and  a  mansion- 
house  for  the  president,  aa  follows :  university 
hall,  built  in  1770-71,  of  brick,  4  stories  high, 
150  feet  long  and  46  wide,  with  a  projection 
in  the  centre  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  10 
by  82,  contaming  58  rooms  for  officers  and 
students ;  Hope  college,  built  in  1821-22,  of 
brick,  4  stories  high,  120  feet  long  and  40 
wide,  contaiuing  ^  rooms  for  officers  and 
students,  inclu£ng  2  halls  for  the  philer- 
menian  and  united  brothers  societies ;  Man- 
ninff  hall,  built  in  1834-''35,  of  stone  covered 
with  cement,  90  feet  in  length,  including  the 
portico,  by  42  in  width,  2  stories  high,  con- 
taining upon  the  first  floor  the  library  room, 
and  upon  the  second,  the  chapel;  Rhode 
Island  liall,  built  in  1889-^40,  of  stone  covered 
with  cement,  70  feet  long  by  42  wide,  with  a 
projection  on  the  west  side  of  12  by  26,  2 
stories  high,  containing  on  the  first  floor  2 
lecture-rooms  for  the  professors  of  chemistry 
and  of  natural  philosophy,  on  the  second  floor 
an  ample  hall  for  the  cabinet  of  minerak^ 
and  geology,  portraits,  &c.,  and  in  the  base- 
ment a  chemical  laboratory,  suitable  for  con- 
ducting chemical  analyses,  and  the  various  pro- 
cesses of  chemistry  applied  to  the  arts.  Its 
enclosures  are  graded  and  adorned  with  stately 
elms,  comprising,  with  its  adjoining  grounda^ 
upward  of  14  acres  of  land,  situated  on  high 
laud  in  the  eastern  section  of  the  city.  Its 
invested  funds,  including  the  library  fund, 
amount  to  $200,000.  The  college  library  con- 
tains 28.500  carefully  selected  bound  volumes, 
beside  aoout  10,000  unbound  pamphlets.  The 
society  libraries  present  in  addition .  an  aggre- 
gate of  6,000  volxmies.  The  last  triennial  cata- 
logue, published  in  1856,  gives*  the  entire  num- 
ber of  graduates  as  i;909;:of  whom  1,212  are 
now  living.    Of  this  number  of  graduates  606 


BROWNE 


708 


have  been  ordained  as  ministers^  of  whom  884 
are  now  living.  The  present  nmnber  of  under- 
graduates is  225.  The  officers  of  instmction 
are  the  president,  8  professors,  and  an  assistant 
professor,  beside  the  librarian,  whose  duties 
are  confined  to  his  particular  department. 
There  are  2  vacations,  one  oommencmg  about 
the  last  week  in  January,  of  8  weeks ;  and  an-* 
other,  commencing  about  the  2d  week  in  July, 
of  6  weeks.  Beside  these,  there  are  2  recesses 
of  1  week  each.  The  annual  commencement 
exercises  occur  on  the  Ist  Wednesday  in.  Sept, 
during  which  week  candidates  for  admission  to 
the  college  are  examined. 

BBO WNE,  Edwabd,  son  of  Sir  Thomas 
Browne,  and  physician  to  Charles  n.,  was  bom 
at  Norwich  in  1644.  He  was  acquainted  with 
Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin,  and  familiar  with 
several  modern,  languages.  In  1706  he  was 
chosen  president  of  the  royal  college  of  physi- 
cians. He  published  several  volumes  upon  sub- 
jects connected  with  his  travels,  and  also  assist- 
ed in  a  translation  of  Plutarch*s  "Lives." 

BROWNE,  Geobqe,  count,  a  Russian  gen* 
end,  bom  in  Ireland,  June  15,  1696,  died  at 
Riga,  Sept.  18,  1792.  He  gained  much  dis- 
tinction in  the  Russian  service,  in  which  he  was 
actively  engaged  from  1780  to  1762.  He  was 
successively  taken  prisoner  by  the  Turks  and  the 
Prussians,  and  afterward  appointed  by  Peter  III. 
to  command  the  army  against  Denmark,  with 
the  rank  of  field-marshal.  Browne,  however, 
declined  taking  a  part  in  this  war,  which  he 
deemed  unjust,  and  the  czar  at  first  deprived 
him  of  his  new  dignities  and  ordered  him  to 
leave  the  country,  but  soon  recalled  him  to  re- 
instate him  in  his  position,  and  to  make  him 
governor  of  Livonia,  which  office  he  held  for 
nearly  80  years.  The  title  of  count  was  con- 
ferred on  him  in  1779  by  the  emperor  Joseph 

BROWNE,  Isaac  Hawuns,  an  English  poet, 
born  at  Burton-on-Trent  in  1705^  died  in  1760. 
Among  a  collection  of  poems  which  he  publish- 
ed, a  short  one  called  the  "  Pipe  of  Tobacco'* 
obtained  great  popularity.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment for  a  Shropshire  borough  in  1744,  but  he 
was  too  timid  to  speak  in  the  house.  His  rep- 
utation mainly  rests  on  his  Latin  poem,  I>€ 
Animi  ImmortalitaU^  modelled  on  the  style  of 
Lucretius  and  YirgU.    It  appeared  in  1754. 

BROWNE,  John  Ross,  an  American  travel- 
ler and  humorist,  commenced  his  career  in  his 
18th  year  by  the  descent  of  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 
sissippi, from  Louisville  to  New  Orleans.  In 
1846,  after  rambling  over  the  United  States 
and  a  great  part  of  the  world,  he  published 
"Etchings  of  a  Whaling  Cruise,  with  Notes  of 
a  Sojourn  on  the  Island  of  Zanzibar."  He  has 
been  in  Oaliforaia  and  the  Holy  Land,  and 
made  all  his  readers  merry  with  the  account  of 
his  humorous  adventures,  as  presented  in  his 
"  Yusef,  or  the  Journey  of  the  Fragi,  a  Cru- 
sade in  the  East." 

BROWNE,  Mart  Ask  (Mrs.  Jamm  Gbat), 
an  English  poetess,  bom  at  kaidenhead  Thicket, 


Berkshire,  Sept  24, 1812,  died  at  Cork,  Jan.  28, 
1846.  Her  1st  volume,  *'  Mont  Blano  and  other 
Poemis."  was  published  before  she  was  15.  Her 
2d  volume,  "Ada,"  appeared  in  1828.  "Re- 
pentance and  other  Poems"  (chiefly  of  a  relig- 
ious character)  followed  in  1829.  The  "  Cor- 
onal" and  "Birthday  Gift"  were  published  in 
1888  and  1884.  "Igniatia,"  her  longest  and 
most  finished  work,  was  published  in  1888. 
She  also  became  a  contributor  to  the  "Dublin 
University  Magazine,"  for  which  she  wrote  a 
series  of  prose  tales  entitled  "Recollections  of  a 
Portrait  Painter,"  and  a  number  of  poems,  af- 
terward collected  as  f *  Sketches  from  the  An- 
tique," and  published  in  1844.  About  the  same 
time  a  volume  of  "Sacred  Poems "  appeared. 
In  1842  she  was  married,  at  Aghada,  near  Cork, 
to  Mr.  James  Gray,  a  nephew  of  the  Ettrick 
Shepherd. 

BROWNE,  Mazholiak  TJltsses,  an  Austrian 
general,  of  the  same  Irish  £unily  as  the  Russian 
general,  George  Browne,  bom  in  Basel,  Oct. 
23, 1705,  died  in  Prague,  June  26, 1757.  His 
father,  loyal  to  the  cause  of  James  U.,  having 
left  Great  Britain,  took  service  in  the  Austrian 
army,  and  attained  the  rank  of  count;  the  son 
entered  upon  a  military  career  in  Austria  under 
favorable  auspices.  Toward  the  close,  of  1740 
he  was  selected  to  oppose  Frederic  the  Great^s 
invasion  of  Silesia,  after  having  by  his  ability  in 
previous  campiugns  against  the  French,  Sardin- 
ians, and  Turks,  obtained  a  high  rank  in  the 
army  and  a  position  as  member  of  the  board  of 
war.  Having  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the 
operations  against  the  Prussians,  French,  and 
Italians,  and  especially  in  the  victory  over  the 
united  French  and  Italian  armies  at  Piacenza, 
he  was  appointed,  in  1749,  governor  of  Tran- 
sylvania; in  1751,  commander-in-chief  of  Bo- 
hemia, and  field-marshal  in  1754.  He  died 
from  a  wound  received  on  the  battle-field  of 
Prague.  His  military  skill  was  not  only  appre- 
ciated by  the  Austrians,  but  by  no  one  more 
rincerely  than  by  his  formidable  opponent,  tlie 
great  Frederic 

BROWNE,  Sdcoit,  an  English  theologian, 
bom  in  1680,  at  Shepton-Mallet  in  Somerset- 
shire, died  in  1782.  He  was  pastor  of  dissent- 
ing, congregations  successively  in  Portsmouth 
and  London,  and  was  both  admired  for  his  elo- ' 
qnenoe  and  highly  esteemed  for  his  purity  of 
life.  In  1728,  by  the  sudden  death  of  his  wife 
and  only  son,  he  was  so  violently  affected  that 
he  feU  into  a  remarkable  psvchological  illusion. 
He  conceived  that  the  Almighty  had  taken 
away  from  him  his  rational  som,  and  thus  that 
he  was  bereft  of  the  prerogatives,  and  sunk  be- 
neath the  level  of  humanity.  He  resigned  his 
pastoral  office,  withdrew  to  his  native  town, 
and  refused  all  society.  Tet  it  was  during  this 
retirement  that  he  published  his  principal  works, 
which  were  directed  against  the  opinions  of 
Woolston  and  Tindal,  and  which  display  learn- 
ing and  a  -rigorous  understanding. 

BROWNE,  Sib  Thomas,  an  English  phyracian 
and  author,  bom  in  London  in  1605,  died  Oct 


764 


BROWNE 


BROWNELL 


19,1662.  After  studying  at  Oxford  he  took  his 
degree  at  Leyden,  returned  to  England,  and,  in 
1686,  established  himself  at  Norwich,  where  he 
practised  his  profession*  His  first  work,  entitled 
JSeligio  MedCd,  appeared  in  1642.  It  was  a  sort 
of  confession  of  Mth,  remarkable  for  its  quaint 
and  original  fiuioy,  and  it  was  soon  translated 
into  Latin  and  several  continental  langaages, 
and  gave  him  a  wide  reputation  as  a  literary 
man.  This  was  followed,  in  1646,  by  his  Pmu- 
dodma  Bpidemiea,  or  ^Inquiry  into  Vulgar 
Errors,*'  the  learning  di^layed  in  whidi  was 
such  that  it  has  been  called  a  cyclopcedia  of 
contemporary  knowledge.  In  1668  appeared 
his  HydriotaphU^  *^  Urn-burial,  or  Discourse  on 
Sepulchral  Urns,"  a  peculiarly  eloquent  and 
sombre  dissertation  on  the  funereal  monuments 
of  antiquity.  His  style  abounds  in  rare  and 
felicitous  expresdons,  but  in  his  eagerness  for 
brevity  and  force  he  often  becomes  obscure, 
and  no  other  writer  has  so  freely  formed 
English  words  from  the  Latin. 

BROWNE,  WiLUAM,  an  English  poet,  bom 
in  160(h  at  Tavistock,  in  Devonshire,  died  in 
1646.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford,  and  was  af* 
terward  tutor  successively  to  the  earls  of  Caer-. 
narvon  and  of  Pembroke.  His  principal  poet- 
ical works  are  entitled  "Britanma's  Pastorals" 
and  the  **  Shepherd's  Pipe."  They  contain 
some  -fine  descriptive  passages,  and  were  ad- 
mired by  Selden  and  Ben  Jonson. 

BROWNE,  Snt  WnuAM,  JL  D.,  bom  1692, 
died  1774.  He  wrote  severaJ  essavs  on  optics 
and  subjects  connected  with  natural  philosophy, 
and  bequeathed  a  sum  of  money  to  the  univer- 
sity of  Cambridge,  the  interest  of  which  was 
appropriated  to  payment  for  8  gold  medals  to 
be  given  for  the  best  Greek  and  Latin  odes 
and  epigrams  written  by  undergraduates. 

BROWNE,  WiixiAX  Gborqb,  an  English 
traveller,  bom  in  London  in  1768,  died  in  1813. 
In  several  expeditions  he  travelled  through 
Egypt  and  some  parts  of  the  interior  of  Africa, 
and  throu|^  Asia  Minor  and  Armenia.  In  1 812 
he  proposed  a  more  extensive  Journey  through 
central  Asia.  He  had  already,  ia  1818,  arrived 
at  Tabreez,  on  his  way  to  Tartary,  when  his 
party  was  attacked  by  banditti  and  himself 
murdered.  An  account  of  his  earlier  travels  was 
published  in  London  In  1799. 

BROWNELL,  Thomas  Ohxjeoh,  D.D.,  LLD., 
an  American  clergyman,  bishop  of  Oonnec- 
ticut,  and  presiding  bishop  in  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  church,  bom  at  We&tport,  Mass., 
Oct.  19,  1779;  son  of  the  Hon.  Sylvester 
BrowneU,  and  on  the  mother's  side  descended 
from  Col.  Benjamin  Church,  famous  in  eariy 
colonial  history,  is  the  oldest  of  a  family  of  11 
children.  His  early  education  was  that  which 
was  then  accessible  to  a  farmer^s  son ;  but  de- 
sirous of  advancing  in  knowledge,  he  became  a 
student  in  Bristol  academy  at  Taunton,  and  pur- 
sued the  studies  necessary  for  entrance  upon  a 
collegiate  career.  In  September,  1800,  he  en- 
tered the  college  in  Providence,  R.  I.,  now 
Brown  university.   Two  years  later,  Dr.  Maxcy, 


the  president,  having  removed  to  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  and  taken  the  headship  of  Union  college, 
Mr.  BrownelL  through  strong  personal  regard, 
accompanied  nim,  and  entering  the  junior  class 
there,  was  graduated  with  the  hi^est  honors 
in  1804.  The  next  year  he  accepted  the  post  of 
tutor  in  Latin  and  Greek  in  his  alma  mater; 
in  1807  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  belles- 
lettres  and  moral  philosophy:    and  in  1809 
was  chosen  the  first  professor  of  chemistry  and 
mineralogy.    Tbe  following  year,  by  penmamon 
of  the  trustees,  was  spent  in  travelling  throng 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  a  good  part  of  it  on 
foot,  and  in  gathering  materials  and  apparatus  for 
carrying   forward  vigorously  tbe  apartment 
under  his  charge.    Early  in  August,  1811,  Pro- 
fessor BrowneU  was  married  to  Charlotte  Dick- 
inson of  Lansingburg,  N.  Y. ;  and  havmg  been 
baptized  in  1813,  confirmed  and  admitted  to 
communion,  he  began  to  tum  his  attention 
seriously  to  preparation  for  tbe  ministry.    He 
had  for  many  years  been  dissiUisfied  with  the 
religious  system  under  which  he  had  been  bora 
and  brought  up,  viz.,  that  of  Galvinistio  Congre- 
gationalism ;  and  feeling  persuaded,  after  much 
study,  that  he  ought  to  receive  his  commiaaon  at 
the  hands  of  a  bishop,  he  devoted  his  leisure 
hours  to  the  study  of  theology,  was  ordained  Ij 
Bishop  Hobart,  in  Trinity  church,  N.  Y.,  Api^ 
11, 1816,  and  in  connection  with  his  professi(»ial 
duties  gave  himself  to  the  work  of  a  missionaiy 
in  Schenectady  and  its  vicinity.  In  the  summer 
of  1818  he  received  and  accepted  an  invitation 
to  become  an  assistant  minister  in  Trinity  diuroh, 
New  York.  The  diocese  of  Oonnecticnt,  whidi, 
since  the  death  of  Bishop  Jarvis  in  181S,  had 
been  under  the  provisional  charge  of  Bishop 
Hobart  of  New  York,  having  mi^e  choice  of 
Dr.  BrowneU  to  fill  the  existinff  vacancy,  he 
was  consecrated  in  Trinity  church,  New  Haven, 
Oct.  27, 1819,  and  removed  at  once  to  his  new 
field  of  labor.    During  his  long  episcopate  of 
nearly  40  years^  Bishop  BrowneU  has  b^en 
actively  and  efficiently  engaged  in  the  duties  of 
his  station ;  and  has  maintuned  a  high  charac- 
ter for  soundness  in  the  ftuth,  exceUence  of 
Judgment,  consistency  of  deportment,  and  ear- 
nestness of  devotion  to  the  cause  of  religion  and 
learning.    Washington  (now  Trinity)  coUege, 
at  Hartford,  Conn.,  took  its  rise  under  his  aus- 
pices in  1824;  he  became  its  first  president, 
resigning  in  1881 ;  and  the  success  of  the  eol> 
lege,  as  an  institution  under  the  control  of  the 
Episcopal  church,  has  been  of  a  very  gratifying 
d escription.  Bishop  BrowneU  is  author  of  *^  The 
FamUy  Prayer  Book,''  a  large  octavo,  which 
contains  a  carefuUy  compiled  commentary,  his- 
torical, explanatory,  doctrinal,  and  practical,  on 
the  liturgy  of  the  Episcopal  church.    This  able 
volume  was  published  in  1828,  and  has  been 
received  with  much  favor  among  Episcopalians^ 
having  gone  through  numerous  editions.     In 
1889-'40,B!shopBrownell prepared  5  12mo  vol- 
umes entitled  **  Keligion  of  the  Heart  and  life^*' 
being  a  compilation  fhom  the  best  writers  on 
experimental  and  practical  piety,  with  intzx>duo- 


BROWNIE 


BROWNING 


765 


lions,  ice  H«  is  also  aathor  of  several  impor- 
tant charges  to  hisclersj,  and  varions  sermons  on 
special  occasions;  ana  has  contributed  in  other 
ways  to  the  carrent  literature  of  the  day. — ^In 
connection  with  this  brief  outline  of  Bishop 
Brownell^s  life  and  career,  it  may  hore  be  stated 
that  the  yenerable  prelate,  beside  his  official 
relation  to  his  diocese,  occupies  the  post  of  pre- 
siding bishop  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  church 
in  the  United  States.  According  to  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Episcopal  church  (which  now  numbers 
nearly  40  bishops),  the  various  diocesans  are 
officially  on  an  entire  equality ;  but  from  the 
neoess&des  of  the  case,  one  of  their  number  is 
dengnated  to  hold  the  position  of  presiding 
bishop.  Bishop  Seabury  of  Connecticut  presided 
in  the  first  general  convention,  in  1789;  and 
Bishop  Provost  of  New  York,  in  that  of  1792. 
The  apostolic  William  White  of  Pennsylvania, 
the  friend  and  intimate  of  Washington,  presided 
in  sub8e(]pent  conventions  until  his  death  in 
1886.  Bishop  Griswold  of  Massachusetts,  and 
Bishop  Chase  of  Illinois,  also  discharged  the 
duties  of  this  position.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter,  in  1852,  Bishop  Brownell  became  presid- 
ing bishop,  which  post  he  still  occupies  (1858).  ^ 
The  duties  of  this  station  are  not  defined  with 
precision,  but  conast  principally  in  presiding  in 
general  conventions,  calling  special  meetings  of 
the  convention,  and  giving  attention  to  the  need- 
ful steps  in  regard  to  the  consecration,  resigna- 
tion, and  trial  of  bishops.  The  presiding  bishop 
may  not  improperly  be  termed  a  primus  inter 
pares,  and  he  is  not  charged  with  any  archiepis- 
oopal  or  metropolitan  power.  The  Episcopal 
charch  in  the  United  States  appears  to  have  stu* 
dk>nsly  laid  aade  that  feature  in  the  arrange- 
ments of  the  church  of  England,  by  which  one 
'bishop  is  placed  under  the  jurisdiction  of  an- 
.  ptfifi^.  Each  of  her  bishops  is  consecrated  for  a 
«  patticular  diocese,  where  he  is  always  to  remain, 
^M-m^  precedency  is  given  to  an^  one  of  the 
-  •biahops,  except  that  the  post  of  presiding  bishop 
. '  i%*h«U»l)s%uat  one  who  is  senior  to  h&  breth- 
ren ilLthe  time  of  his  consecration. 
•  «  '  ^B^WNIE,  in  Scottish  superstition,  a  well- 
mspoyd,  sprite,  corresponding  to  the  Robin 
^ijparoIlow|of  England,  who  was  wont  during 
•  the  «ight  to  do  churning,  threshing,  &c.,  by  way 
of  JMlping  the  dairy-maid  and  farmer's  boy. 

Bl^WfUNG,  Elizabeth  Barbxtt,  an  Eng- 
lish«t>oetesa,  and  wife  of  Robert  Browning,  was 
borir  in  London  in  1609,  and  educated  with 
great  care  in  t  masculine  range  of  studies,  and 
witb  fMnasouiine  strictness  of  intellectual  dis- 
cipline. She  beglEtn  to  write  at  a  very  early  age 
for  peribdical  publications.  In  1826  there  ap- 
peared from  her  p^' a  volume  entitied  ^^An 
£6saj^  on  Mind,  w^th  other  Poems."  No  portion 
of  tto^  Toltme  is  i%»l«ded  in  the  collected  poems 
upon  which  she  hc^^s^t  ^e  seal  of  her  matured 
judgm^t,  and  her  cTeiDisidn  is  to  be  commended, 
thoa^h  i6  is  a  volume  of  much  merit  and  more 
prcg;Di8e^*  Xhe  ^  Eb%y  oi^  Mind,''  a  metaphysi- 
cal and  reflective  p^m  in  the  heroic  stanza, 
viewed  ^  the  produ^hon^of  a  young  lady  of  16 


or  17,  must  be  pronounced  a  remarkable  per- 
formance. In  1883  she  again  appeared  before 
the  public,  in  a  volume  called  "Prometheus 
Bound,  and  Miscellaneous  Poems."  Her  ver- 
sion of  the  ^Prometheus  Bound"  cannot  be 
pronounced  a  successful  literary  enterprise,  and 
of  this  she  herself  in  due  time  became  conscious. 
She  pronounced  it  an  **  early  failure,"  and  re- 

{)laced  it  by  a  new  translation,  which  is  certain- 
y  a  marked  improvement  upon  its  predecessor. 
Some  of  the  smaller  poems  in  this  volume  show 
the  rapid  growth  of  her  mind  since  her  first 
publication,  and  are  marked  by  some  of  the 
characteristics  of  her  most  mature  productions. 
In  1888  she  published  a  volume  entitled  "  The 
Seraphim,  and  other  Poems^"  of  which  the 
principal  is  a  lyrical  drama,  embodying  the 
thoughts  and  emotions  which  may  be  supposed 
to  be  awakened  in  angelio  natures  by  the  spec- 
tacle of  the  crucifixion:  a  theme  to  tax  tiie 
highest  powers,  and  from  which  the  highest 
powers  would  do  weU  to  recoil.  This  produc- 
tion, as  well  as  her  ^^  Drama  of  Exile,"  a  subse- 
quent work,  in  which  the  theme  is  drawn  from 
the  fall  of  man,  is  a  very  bold  but  not  very 
successful  effort  to  soar  into  heights  of  specu- 
lation and  invention,  in  which  no  wings  less 
strong  than  Dante's  or  Milton's  can  b^  the 
poet.  The  criticism  which  pronounced  them 
failures  would  stiU  acknowledge  them  to  be  the 
failures  of  a  remarkable  mind,  conscious  of 
power,  but  not  of  the  limitations  of  that  power, 
and  boldly  grappling  with  subjects  which  a 
ripened  self-knowledge  would  not  have  ven- 
tured upon.  In  some  of  the  smaller  poems  con- 
tained m  this  last-mentioned  volume,  such  as 
"Isobel's  OhUd,"  "My  Dovesj"  and  "The 
Sleep,"  we  have  glimpses  and  intimations  of  all 
that  her  full-orbed  genius  was  destined  to 
accomplish.  About  the  time  of  the  publication 
of  this  volume  a  new  experience  was  infused 
into  her  Ufe,  destined  to  act  alike  upon  the  de* 
velopment  of  her  moral  nature  and  of  her  ge- 
nius. Her  health,  which  had  always  been  deli- 
cate, was  seriously  impaired  by  the  rupture  of  a 
blo^- vessel,  and  for  a  long  time  she  was  trem- 
bling on  the  narrow  verge  between  life  and 
deatii.  She  was  taken  to  Devonshire  for  the 
soothing  and  restoring  infiuences  of  its  mild 
climate,  and  while  there  her  nervous  gystem  re- 
ceived a  fearful  shook,  and  her  heart  a  deep  and 
lastintp  wound,  by  the  death  by  drowning  of  a 
beloved  brother.  Removed  by  slow  stages  to 
her  home  in  London,  her  life  for  manv  years 
was  that  of  a  confirmed  and  seemingly  hopeless 
invalid.  She  did  not  leave  her  room,  and  saw 
only  the  members  of  her  own  family,  and  occa- 
sionally a  few  intimate  friends.  The  long  and 
dreary  hours  of  illness  were  soothed  by  compo- 
sition and  study.  She  sought  refreshment  and 
oblivion  of  pain,  not  in  those  lighter  forms  of 
literature  which  usually  soothe  the  languor  of  a 
sick  couch,  but  in  those  grave  and  deep  tasks 
which  would  seem  to  demand  masculine 
powers  in  their  best  estate.  The  poets  and 
philosophers  of  Greece  were  the  companions  of 


766 


BROWNIKG 


her  mind ;  and  we  believe  that  some  of  the  in* 
spired  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  were 
studied  by  her  in  their  original  language.  Some 
of  the  fruits  of  her  wide  and  patient  research 
were  given  to  the  public  in  the  form  of  a  series 
of  articles  on  the  Greek  Christian  poets,  which 
appeared  in  the  London  "  Athenssum.^'  In  184i 
the  first  collected  edition  of  her  poems  was 
published,  in  2  volumes,  with  a  character* 
istio  and  affectionate  dedication  to  her  fst- 
ther.  In  this  her  earlier  productions  were  re- 
vised, and  many  pieces  appeared  for  tlie  first 
time  in  print  Among  these  last  was  "Lady 
Geraldine's  Oourtship,"  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful of  her  poems,  of  98  stanzas  in  length,  and  said 
by  Miss  Mitford,  in  her  *' Recollections  of  a 
Literary  Life,"  to  have  been  composed  in  the 
incredibly  short  space  of  12  hours.  In  this 
poem  there  was  a  graceful  compliment  to  Mr. 
Browning,  to  whom  she  had  not  previously 
been  personally  known.  The  story  has  been 
told  to  us — ^we  will  not  vouch  for  its  truth,  as 
'*  imaginations  as  one  would  "  are  apt  to  be  in- 
terpolated into  such  incidents— that  the  grateful 
poet  called  to  express  in  person  his  acknowl- 
edgmentS)  and  that  he  was  admitted  into  the  ^ 
invalid's  presence  by  the  happy  mistake  of  anew 
servant.  At  any  rate,  he  did  see  her,  and  had 
permission  to  renew  his  visit.  The  mutual  at- 
traction grew  more  powerful,  and  the  converg- 
ence more  rapid;  the  acquaintance  became  the 
friend,  and  the  friend  was  transformed  into  the 
lover.  Kind  physicians  and  tender  nurses  had 
long  watcihed  over  the  couch  of  sickness ;  but 
love,  the  magician,  brought  restorative  influ- 
ences before  unknown,  and  her  health  so  far 
improved  that  she  did  not  hesitate  to  accept  the 
hand  that  was  offered  to  her.  8he  became  the 
wife  of  Robert  Browning  in  the  autumn  of  1846. 
The  growth  and  progress  of  this  new  feeling, 
and  its  effects  upon  her  heart  and  mind,  are  de- 
scribed with  rare  grace  of  expression,  as  well  as 
exquisite  depth  and  tenderness  of  feeling,  in 
that  remarkable  series  of  poems  called  '^Son- 
nets from  the  Portuguese,"^hich  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  the  second  edition  of  her  col- 
lected poems,  published  in  1850.  Often  as  the 
passion  of  love  has  been  treated  by  poets,  it 
cannot  be  denied  that  Mrs.  Browning  has  here 
expressed  and  delineated  it  ii^  a  manner  entire- 
ly original,  and  thrown  upon  it  the  gleams  of  a 
light  at  once  tender  and  spiritual,  which  can 
only  be  paralleled  in  the  immortal  lines  in  which 
Dante  has  embalmed  the  name  of  Beatrice. 
Since  their  marriage,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Browning 
have  resided  for  the  most  part  in  Florence.  In 
1849  their  happiness  was  completed  by  the  birth 
of  a  son,  an  only  child,  thus  rounding  the  circle 
of  her  womanly  experiences,  and  giving  her  the 
power  to  feel,  in  her  own  consdousness,  all  that 
IS  comprehended  in  the  words  daughter,  sister, 
wife,  and  mother.  In  1851  she  published 
''  Oasa  Guidi  Windows,"  a  poem  on  some  of  the 
social  and  political  aspects  of  modem  Italy,  the 
title  of  which  is  taken  from  the  name  of  the 
residence  occupied  by  her  and  her  husband  in 


Florence.  In  1856  she  publialied  '^Aurora 
Leigh,"  a  narrative  poem  in  9  books ;  a  sort  of 
versified  novel,  of  which  the  subject,  eharacters, 
and  incidents,  are  taken  fit>m  English  life  and 
manners  of  the  present  day. — Mrs.  Browning's 
rank  among  the  living  poets  who  write  in  £^- 
lish  is  very  high.  In  imaginative  power  and 
originality  of  intellectual  construction,  she  is, 
perhaps,  entitled  to  the  very  first  place.  In 
comparing  her  earliest  with  her  latest  prodoo- 
tions,  WB  are  stmck  with  the  prodigious  pro- 
gress she  has  made,  alike  in  the  extent  of  her 
intellectual  resources  and  the  skill  with  winch 
they  are  used.  The  difference  between  creep- 
ing and  flying  is  not  greater  than  is  the  space 
between  the  timid  movement  and  imitative 
structure  of  the  "  Essay  on  Mind,''  and  the 
sweep,  energy,  and  grace  of  ^'Aurora  Leigh,"  so 
^nll  of  original  power,  so  warm  with  vivid  life. 
She  combines  in  an  extraordinary  degree  the 
distinctive  characteristics  of  the  masonline 
understanding  and  the  feminine  heart.  She 
thinks  all  like  a  man,  and  feels  all  like  a  woman. 
She  has  considered  carefully,  and  is  capable  of 
treating  wisely,  the  deepest  social  problems 
which  have  engaged  the  attention  of  the  mostssr 
gacious  and  practical  minds,  and  yet  no  one  has 
ever  (^ven  truer  and  more  fervid  expression  to 
all  the  joys,  the  sorrows,  the  aspiradona,  and 
the  viuons  of  the  purely  womanly  nature.  Soci- 
ety in  the  aggregate,  and  the  self-consciousness 
of  the  solitary  individual,  are  held  in  her  gra^ 
with  equal  ease,  and  observed  with  equal  ac- 
curacy. From  her  '^  Oasa  Guidi  Windows,"  for 
instance,  there  might  be  taken  away  the  rich 
poetry^  the  splendid  pictures,  and  the  vivid  il- 
lustrations, and  there  would  still  be  left  a  pvo- 
duction  remar^ble  for  good  sense,  sharp  c^ 
scrvation,  and  just  reflection.  Her  mind  moves 
upon  Uie  symmetrical  wings  of  reason  j^gd 
imagination.  No  one  feels  the  poetry  of  ffiy 
more  keenly ;  no  one  paints  the  beauty  ^  itol]i 
more  enthusiastically;  but  she  has  a  sta&ea- 
man's  comprehension  of  the  social  andfiAti^ 
problems  which  perplex  the  well-^wid^^  of 
that  unfortunate  country,  and  discusse^'thepi* 
with  the  spirit  of  a  statesman.  Her,  ryu^pf 
subjects,  too,  is  very  wide,  and  h^r  vaneirpof 
power  is  very  great ;  whether  she  deals  withlhe 
shadowy  forms  of  legendary  superstition^  or 
depicts  the  struggles  of  a  strong  and  unsii&Knis- 
sive  spirit,  or  paints  pictures  cf  pure  fancj,  or 
gives  expresdon  to  the  affections  which  bioom 
along  the  common  path  of  life,  hr  tlirows  the 
light  of  poetry  over  its  humblest  dudes. and 
relations,  she  seems  equally  at  home  in  aU. 
Perhaps  her  most  chir^cteristic  trait,  as  a 
woman  and  a  writer,  is  her  intense  and  impas- 
sioned sympathy  with  all  fiyrms  of  snfiennff, 
and  an  equally  strong  indigiation<  at  all  kinds 
of  wrong  and  injustice.  A&  persons  who  have 
themselves  suffered  aeepiy,*and  attained  sub- 
mission after  much  struggle,  are  attracted  and 
strengUiened  by  her^po^y.  In.gi^g  form 
ai}d  expression  to  the  affections  of  woman^ 
nature,  she  is  sometime^  imaginatiy^  some- 


BROWNING 


767 


times  passionate,  sometimes  tender,  sometimes 
wlayftil,  and  fdways  true.    No  female  writer 
kas  ^ven   more   glowing  and   deep-hearted 
representations  of  the  qualities  which  make 
the  crowning  excellence  of  womanhood.  Many 
rank  ^'  Aurora  Leigh  "  as  the  highest  and  most 
finished  expression  of  Mrs.  Browning's  genin& 
In  none  other  of  her  works  is  there  such  variety 
of  power,  and  such  a  hlending  of  masonline  nn- 
derstanding  and  feminine  sensibility.    Many  of 
the  incidents  are  improbable,  some  of  them  are 
of  questionable  propriety,  and  somethnes  images 
are  presented,  and  expressions  are  used,  which 
a  severe  taste  must  condemn ;  bnt  it  abounds 
with  passages  which  show  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  age  in  which  we  live,  as  well  as  of  human- 
ity in  the  abstract^  with  striking  illustrations 
and  picturesque  descriptions.    No  poem  has 
been  written  in  our  time  which  presents  in  such 
distinct  outline,  and  so  touched  with  the  finest 
lightsofpoetiT.theform and  pressure  of  thepres- 
ent  period.    Much  of  Mrs.  Browning's  poetry 
might  be  improved  by  a  little  compression ;  but 
this  is  more  true  of  her  earlier  than  her  later 
productions.    Her  readers  are  sometimes  per- 
plexed with  passage  of  a  cloudy  indistinctness, 
m  which  the  meaning  either  has  not  been  clear  to 
herself^  or  is  not  dearly  presented  to  the  compre- 
hension of  othera    Her  bold  and  uncompromis- 
ing spirit  sometimes  carries  her  beyond  the  limits 
of  perfect  good  taste.    Her  command  of  the  law- 
ful resources  of  the  English  language  is  very 
great,  but  with  these  she  is  not  always  content. 
BROWNING,  BoBKBT,  anEnglish  poet,  born 
in  Oamberwell,  a  suburb  of  London,  in  1612, 
and  educated  at  the  London  univerdly.    His 
father's  family  being  dissenters,  his  mind  was 
trained  and  his  character  formed  under  in- 
flaences  less  peculiarly  English  than  those  to 
which  youths  are  exposed  in  the  great  public 
schools  and  the  2  leading  universities  of  that 
country.    At  the  age  of  20  he  went  to  Italy, 
and  passed  some  time  there.  To  a  man  like  him, 
of  sharp  philosophic  insight,  as  well  as  of  poet- 
ical imagination,  and  with  tlie  healthiest  and 
happiest  sense  of  life,  it  may  well  be  imagined 
how  many  attractions  Italy  presented,  and  how 
much  the  influences  to  whidi  he  was  there  sub- 
jected, at  that  plastic  period  of  life,  helped  to 
form  the  fabric  of  his  mind.    The  course  of  his 
Italian  life  and  experiences,  was  unlike  that 
through  which  his  countrymen  usually  run  in 
that  land,  which  almost  all  educated  English- 
men visit    His  object  was  to  make  himself 
familiar  with  all   that    was   most   distinctly 
and  peculiarly  Italian.    The  medisval  history 
of  that  country,  so  fruitful  in  records  of  fervid 
passion  and  startling  crime,  was  studied  in  its 
abnndant  chronicles  and  local  memoirs.     He 
spent  much  time  in  the  monasteries  of  Lombardy 
and  Venice,  exploring  their  dusty  libraries  and 
book  closets,  and,  in  the  nlent  air  of  monastic 
life,  calling  up  a  more  distinct  image  of  the 
post  than  could  have  been  vouchsafed  to  him  in 
any  *'  bustle  of  resort."    But  he  devoted  him- 
self with  equal  energy  to  the  task  of  making 


himself  aoquainted  with  the  life,  habits,  and 
characteristics  of  the  people  who  were  living 
and  moving  around  him.  He  mingled  with 
them  in  their  daily  paths  with  a  fi'eedom  and 
unreserve  tmusual  among  his  shy 'and  exclurive 
countrymen.  He  saw  and  studied  a  class  of 
Italian  population  of  which  most  travellers 
have  only  occasional  glances — the  -peasants  in 
their  rural  homes,  and  the  residents  of  those 
dreamy  old  towns  in  which  life  flows  on  with 
so  quiet  and  noiseless  a  current.  No  traveller 
ever  brought  away  a- larger  intellectual  harvest 
from  Italy  than  Mr.  Browning ;  and  the  effect 
of  his  Italian  life  is  distinctly  perceived  by  the 
readers  of  his  poetry,  alike  in  his  choice  of  sub- 
jects and  his  treatment  of  them.  In  1835  ap- 
peared his  *' Paracelsus,"  the  first  work  m 
which  his  poetical  claims  were  submitted  to 
the  judgment  of  his  contemporaries.  It  is  a 
dramatic  poem— dramatic  in  form,  at  least — ^in 
which  the  principal  character  was  the  celebrated 
empiric  and  alchemist  of  the  16th  century.  It 
delineates  the  course  of  a  rich  and  generous  nar 
ture,  full  of  liigh  aspirations,  exposed  to  many 
temptations,  often  going  astray,  but  growing 
nobler  and  finer  to  the  last,  and,  after  many 
aberrations,  drawn  back  to  those  fountains  of 
truth  and  goodness  from  which  his  earliest  inspi- 
rations were  derived.  Such  a  theme  gave  ample 
scope  to  Mr.  Browning's  unrivalled  power  of 
subtle  analysis  and  acute  delineation  of  the 
various  forms  of  mental  consciousness.  It  did 
not  attract  general  attention,  and  it  has  not  the 
elements  which  command  and  secure  popular- 
ity ;  but  among  the  discerning  few  it  was  wel- 
comed as  the  work  of  a  truly  original  mind, 
rich  in  performance,  and  more  rich  in  promise, 
whose  nitu]:0  career  was  to  be  watched  with  ex- 
pectation and  interest.  Justice  was  done  to  its 
tone  of  intellectual  freedom,  to  the  rich  elo- 
quence of  manv  of  its  passages,  to  the  fine  de- 
scriptions and  illustrations  it  contains,  and  the 
depth  and  tenderness  of  feeling  it  occasionally 
reveals ;  and  its  obvious  defects  of  form,  struc- 
ture, and  rhythm,  the  vague  cloudiness  of  some 
of  its  most  ambitious  portions,  and  the  daring 
extravagance  of  some  of  its  speculations,  were 
pardonM  to  the  youth  of  a  man  of  genius,  not 
yet  fully  broken  in  to  the  easy  use  of  his  ample 
powers.  In  1887,  a  tragedy  from  his  pen,  call- 
ed ''  Strafford,"  was  presented  on  the  stage  in 
London.  The  subject,  drawn  from  the  most 
vital  and  pregnant  period  of  English  history, 
commended  itself  to  the  sympathies  and  pa- 
triotism of  an  English  audience,  but  in  spite  of 
this,  and  in  spite  of  the  admirable  acting  of  his 
friend  Macready,  by  whom  the  principal  char- 
acter was  sustained,  it  met  with  very  moderate 
success.  In  1840  he  published  '' Bordello,"  a 
poem,  the  subject  of  which  was  drawn  from  the 
supposed  life  of  the  Proven^  poet,  mentioned 
in  the  6th  canto  of  Dante^s  Purffatario.  The 
general  public  pronounced  this  work  an  unintel- 
ligible rhapsody,  with  no  meaning  at  all ;  but  the 
adventurous  few,  who  were  not  willing  to  pass 
by  on  the  other  side  a  poem  by  the  author  of 


708 


BROWNING 


**  ParaoelflOB,*'  affirmed  ibai  there  was  meaning 
in  it,  thongh  hard  to  come  at,  and  that  patient 
and  diligent  search  would  reyeal  passages  of 
profound  thought  and  rare  heantj.  But  the 
world  was  not  willing  to  take  this  trouble,  and  the 
world  was  right  A  young  poet  has  no  right  to 
be  obscure ;  for  the  world  is  so  f^ll  of  poetry  that 
is  both  good  and  intelB^ble,  that  we  cannot 
afford  to  study  that  which  nuij  be  good,  but  is 
not  intelligible.  Mr.  Browning  has  judiciously 
omitted  '* Bordello"  in  the  edition  of  his  col- 
lective poems  hereinafter  mentioned.  Between 
1842  and  1846,  there  appeared  from  his  pen 
several  successive  numbers  of  a  collection  of 
dramatic  and  lyric  poems,  to  which  he  gave  the 
title  of  *^ Bells  and  Pomegranates;"  an  affected 
designation,  and  which  had  the  further  disad- 
vantage of  giving  no  hint  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  contents.  Among  these  was  a  tragedy  of 
striking  poetical  power,  called  ^  A  Blot  on  the 
Scutcheon,"  which  was  produced  in  Drury  lane 
theatre  in  1848,  but  without  marked  euocessi 
Another  phiy  of  his,  the  *^  Duchess  of  Qeves," 
was  subsequently  brought  out  at  the  Haymarket, 
Miss  Ousbman  personating  the  heroine.  In 
1849,  his  oolleotive  poems  were  published  in  8 
volumes  by  Chapman  and  HaJl  of  London,  and 
republished  in  this  country  byTicknor  and  Fields 
of  Boston.  This  edition,  in  which  the  author^s 
poems  were  carefully  revised,  introduced  him 
to  a  larger  circle  of  readers  than  he  had  before 
eqjoyed,  and  made  many  distinctly  acquainted 
with  his  genius,  who  bad  before  known  him 
only  by  report  In  1860  he  published  **  Christ- 
mas Eve  and  Easter  Day,"  a  poem,  in  which  a 
picture  is  presented  from  the  author^s  point  of 
view  of  some  of  the  religious  and  spiritual 
aspects  of  the  age,  and  some  of  his  own  con- 
victions are  expressed.  It  contuns  some  very 
striking  descriptions,  some  passages  of  very 
acute  reasoning,  and  some  flashes  of  peculiar 
humor,  and  its  general  tone  is  that  of  earnest 
religious  Mth.  This  poem  has  not  been  re- 
published in  America.  In  1862  he  pubhshed  an 
introductory  essay  to  a  collection  of  letters  by 
Shelley,  but  it  having  been  ascertained  that  the 
letters  were  spurious,  the  volume  was  with- 
drawn from  circulation.  In  1856  appeared  his 
^*Men  and  Women,"  a^  collection  of  poems,  re- 
published in  America  by  Ticknor  and  Fields.  In 
this  volume  the  metaphysical  and  anslytical 
qualities  of  Mr.  Browning's  genius  are  more  dia- 
tinctly  displayed  than  the  imaginative  and  the 
purely  poetical,  and  some  of  the  pieces, 
*^  Bishop  Blougram's  Apology,"  for  instance, 
are  as  hard  reading  as  a  lecture  of  Sir  William 
Hamilton^  or  a  chapter  of  Mill's  **  Logic."  Most 
readers  have  broken  down  in  the  early  pages, 
and  none  but  his  most  resolute  admirers  have 

S»ne  through  with  it— In  November,  184(5, 
r.  Browning  was  married  to  Elizabeth  B. 
Barrett)  as  has  been  already  stated  in  our  notice 


of  her.  Since  their  marriage,  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Browning  have  mostly  resided  in  Italy,  with 
occasional  visits  to  Paris  and  England. — ^That 
Mr.  Browning  is  a  true  ^et,  and  a  poet  of 
marked  and  original  genius,  no  candid  and 
catholic  critic  can  for  a  moment  doubt  He 
is  beyond  all  his  contemporaries  remarkable 
fbr  ike  union  of  the  imaginadve  vision  and 
the  reasoning  faculty — of  the  power  which 
analyzes  and  divides,  and  the  power  that 
fuses  and  blends.  Most  of  his  poons  are 
dramatic  in  form,  and  his  genius  is  essentially' 
dramatic  in  its  quality.  His  characters  are 
distinct  individual  creations,  and  his  dramas  are 
infonned  and  penetrated  with  a  unity  of  spirit 
from  beginning  to  end.  The  action  is  unfolded, 
step  by  step,  in  conformity  with  the  highest  re- 
quisitions of  dramatic  art  Thus  each  plav  of 
his  must  be  read  and  judged  as  a  whole,  and  no 
dramatic  writer  has  written  fewer  so^iea  wU<^ 
can  with  advantage  be  detached  from  the  con- 
text, and  presented  by  themselves.  Bat  the 
lyrical  &oulty  is  strong  in  him,  as  weU  as  the 
dramatic.  Such  pieces  as  ^^The  Pied  Piper  of 
Hamelin,"  **  How  they  brought  the  Good  News 
from  Ghent  to  Aiz,"  and.^'The  Lost  Leader,'' 
have  all  the  pulse  and  ring  of  the  old  l>allad. 
His  genius  is  peculiar  in  its  essence,  and  some- 
times fantastic  and  even  grotesque  in  its  mani- 
festations, but  thoroughly  healthy  in  its  tone. 
Chaucer  himself  did  not  look  upon  nature  and 
life  with  a  fresher  and  heartier  spirit  In  no 
poet  who  has  written  so  much,  do  we  find 
fewer  lines  which  are  inspired  by  purely  per- 
sonal feeling.  He  makes  reveJatioua,  but  not 
confessions.  But  with  all  his  various  merits, 
Mr.  Browning  is  not  a  popular  poet;  and  this 
arises  partly  from  peculiarities  of  substance, 
and  partly  from  f<^mal  defects.  He  does 
not  address  the  common  heart,  nor  draw 
his  themes  from  the  daily  paths  of  common 
life.  He  writes  poetry  for  poets,  and  his  poe- 
try bears  the  same  relation  to  common  poetry 
that  alchemy  does  to  chemistry — ^it  is  a  finer 
essence  and  a  more  subde  mystery.  Much  of 
what  he  has  written  requires  study  and  concen- 
tration of  mind  in  order  to  comprdiend  it.  His 
sentences  are  often  involved  and  intricate  in 
structure ;  his  parentheses  are  too  frequent  and 
too  long ;  his  metaphors  are  sometimes  poahed  to 
exhaustion;  his  versification  b  lawless,  and  he 
has  apparently  little  ear  for  rhythmical  music 
To  those  who  are  yet  ignorant  of  the  claims  and 
powers  of  one  of  the  most  remarkable  writers  of 
our  time,  and  would  &in  know  something  about 
him,  we  would  recommend  "  A  BLot  on  the 
Scutcheon,"  and  "Pippa  Passes."  The  latter  is 
a  remarkable  poem,  and  animated  with  some  d 
the  finest  quuities  of  Mr.  Browning's  genius ; 
and  though  it  requires  a  more  careful  study 
than  poetry  usually  exacts,  it  will  well  Tq»ay 
all  that  is  given  to  it 


END  OF  VOLUKB  luucD. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUME  III. 


PAO« 

Beam 6 

Bean. 8 

BennOooee. 8 

Be»r 8 

Bear,  Great 11 

Bcarlaland 11 

BearLoke. 11 

Bear  Mountain 11 

Bear  River,  (two) 11 

Beard 18 

Beard,  John 14 

Bearing 14 

B6am 14 

BearsandBalla 14 

Beas 14 

Beasley,  Fredorio 14 

Beatification 16 

Beatltade. 15 

Beaton,  Darid 15 

Beatrice,  Portinari 15 

BeaUie,  James 16 

BeatUe.  Sir  WllUam 16 

Beancatre 16 

Beaaehief  Abbey 16 

Beauolerk,  Topham 16 

Beaufort  CO,  N.O 16 

Beaufort  CO.,  3.  G 16 

Beaufort,  a  town,  N.  C. 16 

Beaufort,  a  town,  8.  C. 17 

Beaufort,  AlHca 17 

Beaufort,  Franpoia  de  Yendome ...  17 

Beaufort,  Henry 17 

Beaufort,  Henri  Eme&t  Qrout 17 

Beaufort,  Mai]garet 17 

Beaugency 18 

Beaunaraai8|  Alexandra 18 

Beauhamolai  Eugene  de 18 

Beaubamais,  Francois 19 

Beauhamala,  Hortense  Eugenie ...  19 

Beaohamais,  Oomtesse  de 20 

Beanbamoiaao 20 

Beaqiolals 20 

Beauliea , .  20 

Beaulieu,  Camus  de  Yemet 20 

Beaulieu,  Jean  Pierre 20 

Beanmanoir,  Jean 20 

Beanmanoir,  Philippe  do 21 

Beanmarchaia,  P.  A.  C.  de. 21 

Beaumaris 28 

Beaumelle,  I<aurent  A.  do  la 28 

Beaumelte,  Victor,  L.  S.  M 28 

Beanmetz,  Bon  Albert  Briois  de. . .  28 

Beaumont '. 28 

Beaumont,  Christophe  de 28 

Beaumont,  Feilz  Bellator 28 

Beaumont,  Francis 24 

Beaumont,  Sir  George  Howland. . .  24 

Beaumont,  J.  T.  G 24 

Beaumont,  Sir  John 24 

Beaumont,  William 24 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  G.  A.  de  25 

Beaumont  de  la  Bonniere,  M.  A. . .  25 

Beauno 25 

Beaunolr. 25 


pAOa 

Beanprdaa 25 

Beausobro,  Isaoo  de 25 

BeauBoUel,  Jean  du  Chatelet 25 

Beautemps-Beanprd,  C.  F 25 

Beauty..;. , 26 

Beanrals 28 

BeauTais,  Camille 28 

Beauvaia,  Charles  Theodore 29 

Beauvais,  Jean  a  C.  M. 29 

BeauTeao,  flunily  of 29 

Beauyeau,  Ben6 29 

Beauveau,  Louis 29 

BeauTeau,  Bertrand 29 

Beaureau,  Henri 29 

BeauTeau,  Mare 29 

Beauvean,  Ben6  Franpois 29 

Beauveau,  Charles  Juste 29 

Beauvean,  Charles  J.  F.  V 29 

BeauToir-sur-mer 29 

Beauvoia,  Ambroise  MT  F.  J.  P.  de  29 

BeauxC'O,  Nioohu 80 

Beaver 80 

Beaver,  a  piece  of  armor 81 

Beaver  CO 81 

Beaver,  Philip 82 

Beaver  Islands 82 

Beaver  Lake 89 

Beaver  Meadow 82 

Beadey,  Samuel 88 

Bebayh-el-Hagar 88 

Bebian,  Augusta 88 

Bebutoifl;  WaasiyiOsslpouitch.....  88 

Beccaflco 88 

Beecaftmii,Domenico 88 

Beccaria,  Cesare  Bonesana 84 

Beocaria,  Giovanni  Battista 84 

Beccles 84 

Becerra,  Gaspar 84 

Becher,  Alfired  Julius 85 

Becher,  Johann  Joachim 85 

Becher,  Sleffftrled 85 

Bechstein,  Johann  Matthias 85 

Bechuana 85 

Beck,David 86 

Beck,  George. 86 

Beck,  John  Brodhead. 86 

Beck,LewisC. 86 

Beck,  Theodric  Bomeyn 87 

Becker,  Christiana  A.  X. 87 

Becker,  Ferdinand 87 

Becker,  GottfHed  Wilhelm 87 

Becker,  Johann  Pbilipp 87 

Becker,  Karl  Friedrich. 88 

Becker,  Nikolans 88 

Becker,  Bndolf  Zacharlaa 88 

Beekerath,  Hermann  von. 88 

Becket,  Thomas  & 88 

Beckford,  William 41 

Beckford,  William 42 

Beckington,  Thomas 48 

Beckmann.  Johann 48 

BC'clard,  Pierre  Augustin « 48 

Becquerel,  Antoine  Cesar 48 

Becquorel,  Alexandra  Edmond ....  44 


PAoa 

Beeakerek 44 

Bed  and  Bedstead 44 

Bedale 4E^ 

Bedchamber,  Lords  of  the 45 

Beddoea,  Thomas. 45 

Beddoes,  Thomas  Lovell 45 

Bede 46 

Bedeau,  Marie  Alphonse 46 

Bedehouse 47 

Bedell,  Gregory  T. 47 

Bedell,  Wllfiam 47 

Bedesman 47 

Bedford  CO.,  Pa 47 

Bedford  00.,  Ya 47 

Bedford  CO.,  Tenn 48 

Bedford,  Pa 48 

Bedford,  England 48 

Bedford,  Duke  of 48 

BedfordLeveL 48 

Be<Ma 49 

Bedlam 49 

Bedouins 49 

Bedriacum 50 

Bedstead,  see  Bed 

Bee 60 

Bee-eater 57 

Bee-keeping 67 

Beeoh 61 

Beecher,  Lyman,  D.D 62 

Beeoher,  Catharine  Esther 68 

Beeoher,  Edward 68 

Beeoher,  Henry  Ward 68 

Beechey,  Frederic  William 64 

Beeehey,  Sir  William 64 

Beefeaters 64 

Beelzebub 64 

Beemster 64 

Beer 64 

Beer,Wilhelm 65 

Beer,Miohael 65 

Beeren,GroaB 65 

Beemem 66 

Beers,NathaB , 66 

Beer-sheba. 66 

Beet 66 

Beethoven,  Ludwlg  van 67 

BeeUe 71 

Befiina 18 

Beg 78 

Bega 78 

Bega,  Cornelius 78 

Bega8,KarI 78 

Bleary,  see  Pauperism. 

Begharm 74 

Begkoa 74 

BegBbeher 74 

Begnards,  see  Beguins. 

Beguina 74 

Begum 75 

Behalm,  Martin 76 

Beham,  Hans  Sebald 76 

Beheading 76 

Behemoth 76 


CONTENTS. 


PAOl 

Bebn,  Aphtrt TT 

Behr,  TTllhelni  JoMf 7T 

Bebring,  Yltiis TT 

B«hrin?tUUnd TT 

Behring'tSeA ^ T8 

Behring's  8timlU 18 

BdUui T8 

Bein T8 

Beten T8 

Beit T8 

Bdt^-F«klli T9 

Beit-«Mfa T8 

B^Poitofil T8 

Boa,  a  nee  of  AiHcABS T8 

Bdapoor T8 

Beke,  Cbariee  Tlletone T9 

Bekes T9 

Bekk,  Johann  BapU«t T9 

Bokker,  EliMbeth T9 

B«kker«  Immanaol T9 

Bel^Mathyas T» 

BeU T9 

BeU.  kings  of  Hongaiy. T9 

BelaU 80 

BelMDoor *  80 

Belbee 80 

Belcher,  8lr  Edward. 80 

Belcher,  Jonathan 80 

Belcher,  Tom 80 

B^lchertown 80 

Belchlte 80 

Beled-el-Jereed 80 

Belem 80 

Belemnltee 81 

BelesU 81 

Belfk8t,Me 81 

Belter^  Irehmd 8S 

Belga 8a 

Belgaoin 89 

BelgiojoBO 88 

Bel^ojoao,  Crlatina  Trivulzlo 88 

Belgium 88 

Belgorod 68 

Belgrade 89 

Belgram. 80 

Belial 89 

Belidor,  Bernard  Forest  de. 90 

Belief 90 

Believer 90 

BelitarioB 90 

Bellie,  see  Belize. 

Belknap  oa 90 

Belknap,  Jeremy,  D.D 90 

Belknap,  WiUlam  0 91 

Bell 91 

Bellca 94 

Bell,Andrew  95 

Bell,  Beniamin 95 

Bell,  Sir  Charles 95 

BeU,  Qeorge  Joeeph 96 

Bell,HonrT 96 

Bell,Jame8 96 

BelUJohn 96 

BelI,John 97 

Bell,  John 97 

Bell,  John 97 

Bell,  John 98 

Bell.LutherV •....    98 

Bell,  Robert 99 

Bell,  Samuel 99 

Bell,  Thomas 99 

BellRock 99 

Bell  Town 100 

Bellac 100 

Belladonna 100 

Bellamont,  Bichard 100 

Bellamy,  Mrs.  George  Ann. 100 

Bellamy,  Jaoobns 101 

Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.D 101 

Bellamy,  Samuel 101 

Bellarmin,  Cardinal 101 

Bellatriz 101 

Bellay,  Joachim  da lOi 

Belle,  Jean  F.  J.  de lOi 

Bellechasso  CO. 109 

Belle-Isle,  Straits  of 109 

Belle-Isle,  North 109 

Belle-Isle-enMer 109 

Bellenden,  Sir  John 109 

Bellenden,  WiUiam 109 

Bellerophon.... 108 


Belles-Lettref 

Belleral,  Pierre  Bieber  de 

Belley 

Bellingbam,  Richard 

Bellini,  Jacopo 

Bellini,  Gentile 

Bellini,  Oioranni 

Bellini,  Laurentio 

Bellini.  Vinoenso 

BeUman,  Kari  Miekel 

Belloe,  AJine  Louise  Swanton 

Bellona 

Bellot,  Joseph  E«ii6 

Bellows 

Bellows,  Henry  Whitney,  D.D. . . . 

Bellows  Falls 

Belloy,  Pierre  de 

Bellnno 

Belmaa,  Lonls 

Belmont  eo. 

Belmonte,  a  Tillage 

Belmonte,  a  rirer 

Belmontet,  Louis 

Beloe,  WlUlam 

Beloit 

Beloochlstan 

Belp 

Belsham,  Thomas 

Belabam,  William 

Belshaxzar 

Belsnnce,  Henri  F.  X.  de 

Beltein 

BelUrs 

BelU 

Belts,  Great  and  UtUe 

Belus^ariver 

Belns 

Belus,  Temple  of 

Belvedere 

Bel  voi  r 

Belzoni,  Giovanni  BattisU 

Bern,  Jozef 

Bem.  Magnus  von 

Bembatooka 

Bembo,  Boniikzio 

Bembo,  Pictro 

Ben,  see  Abon. 

Benalcazar,  Sebastian  de. 

Benaocaz. 

Benares 

Benbow,  John. 

Bencoolen 

Benda,  Franz 

Benda.  George 

Bendaiou,  PauL 

Bendavid,  Lazarus 

Bendemann,  Eduard 

Bender 

Bending  Machine 

Bendish,  Bridget 

Benedict,  popes 

Benedict,  Abbot  of  Peterborough. 

Benedict,  Saint 

Benedict,  Julius 

Benedict-Benem. 

Benedictine  Order 

Benedictine  Nuns 

Benediction 

Benefice. 


Benefit  of  Clergy. 

Beneke,  Friediich  Bdnard. 

Benevente 

Benevento , 

Benevolence , 

Benezet,  Anthony 

Bengal 

Bengal,  Bay  of 

Bengalee  language 

Bengalee  Year 


Bengel,  Johann  Albreeht. , 
Benger,  EUzabeth  OgUvy. 

Benguela 

Benf... 


Beni-Hassan 

Beni-Isgnen 

Beni-So<Bf. 

Benicia 

Benin 

Benin  River 

Benin,  Bight  of 

Benlowsky,  Merits  August  von. 


PAOl  rAOX 

BeiOamfai 1» 

Be^in,  Park 189 

108  Benjamin  of  Tudela 181 

.04     Ben\ah 181 

Benken 181 

Benkendorfl;  Alexander 181 

i04  Bennet,  Henry,  Earl  of  Arlington.  181 

05     Bennet,  Thomas 18S 

05     Bennet.  William Itt 

.05     Bennett,  James  Gordon 189 

05     Bennett,  William  Stemdale 188 

i05  Benningsen,  Levin  Augxist  Theo- 

05  phile 188 

06  Bennington 1S4 

106  Benno/Baint 186 

07  BenoltRen^ 185 

07     Benoowe. 185 

07     Benowm 186 

07     Benslcy 186 

09     Benson,  George 186 

i07     Benson,  Joseph 186 

,07     Bentham,  Jeremy 186 

07     Bentham,  Thomas 14S 

107  Bentinck,  Ikmily  ot 14S 

i08     Bentinck,  Henry 148 

i08     BenUnek,  WiUlam. 149 

U8     Bentinck,  Lord  Wm.  C.  C 149 

109  Bentinck,  Lord  Wm.  Geo.  a. 148 

09     BentlvogUo,  flunlly  o£ 144 

09     BenUrogUo,  ComeUo 144 

09     BenUvoglio,  Ercole 144 

09     BenUvoglio,  Ouldo 144 

09     Bentley,  Gideon 144 

09  BenUey,  Richard 144 

10  BenUey,  WUliam 146 

10     Benton  CO.,  Ala. 146 

10  Benton  CO,  Ark. 146 

11  Benton  00.,  Fls. 147 

11     Benton  00.,  Tenn 147 

11     Benton  00.,  la. 147 

11     Bentonco.,Mo 147 

19     Benton  CO.,  Iowa 147 

14     Benton  CO.,  Minn 147 

14     Benton  CO.,  Oregon 147 

14     Benton,  Wla 147 

14  Benton,  Thomas  Hart 147 

Bentzel-Stemau,  Count 151 

15  Benua 151 

15     Benzenberg 159 

15  BenzoioAcid IW 

16  Benzoin 159 

16     Benzole 158 

16     Beowulf,  Tale  of 154 

16  Bcranger,  Pierre  Jean  do 151 

17  Berar 156 

17     B^rard,  Frederic 157 

17     Berard,  Pieiie  Honors 157 

17     Berat 157 

17  Berbera 157 

18  Berbers 138 

18  Berbice 158 

19  Berbiguier,  Charles  A.  Y 159 

19     Berchet,  Giovanni 159 

19     Berchet,  PierreL 159 

90     Berchtesgaden IM 

90     Berchtold,  Leopold 199 

81     Berdiansk 1» 

21     Berditchev 1» 

21     BeTt>iids.  Juliui. J59 

21      iV^retigvitu, , tSB 

23  CervDlte 169 

28     BeKnLtttL  qiioenf 169 

128     Ef  re^l»T()*  Jatnei 161 

28     Bereiford,  iliUflL'S,  Dr 161 

28  BcreaforiJ,  Will  tun  Carr 161 

24  B(?T¥»iiia 169 

27     BertioiT 164 

127     B*rg.„ , 164 

198     Bct^,  FfiedHc-li  Ton 164 

Bej;p,  JemChrUUan 165 

Bergama,.. 165 

Bergaml,  BfvrtoliMnmeo 165 

BergmUMi 165 

Berefunot,,. 166 

99     Bergute.  HiCQlM, 166 

29  Bergen  CO,  .,, 166 

29     BergBii^  Ntjruray 166 

99     Berpen-op-Zooni 167 

29     Ber^rac,  S^sviciien  Cyrano  de 167 

29      HoTihmus,  llrin-lch  K.  W 167 

29      BeTifhcm,  Nltolias 167 

189     Ber^bdu...... 167 


CONTENTS. 


m 


Ser^Wf  Nloobu  Bylvettre IVl 

Bergman,  Torbern  Olot 167 

BerffUM 1«8 

Beroampoor 108 

Berington,  Joaepb 168 

B6riot,  CharlM  Angoato  de 169 

BerkelejM. 169 

Berkeley Ig 

Berkeley,  George 169 

Berkeley,  Oeonn  H.  F> ITl 

Berkeley,  Bir  WilUem 171 

Berkenhont,  John 171 

BerkhamstoML  Orert 171 

Berkhey,JeaLeft«]ioqT»n 171 

Berks  oo 171 

Berkshire  00^  Maw 17S 

Berkshire  00.,  Eng 178 

Berltchlngen,  Q5tx  Ton 173 

Berlin 173 

Berlinghieri,  Andrea  Vaeea 174 

Berlloi,  Hector 174 

Berme 175 

Bermondaey 175 

Bermadas 175 

Bermadex,  Oeronimo 175 

Bermadex,  de  Gsstro 175 

Bern 175 

Bemadotte,  Jean  fiaptUte  Jules...  177 

BemallUooo. 181 

Bernard,  Saint 181 

Bernard,  Claude 187 

Bernard,  Edward 187 

Bernard,  Sir  Francis 187 

Bernard,  Jacques 187 

Bernard,  John 187 

Benuurd,  WlUiam  Bayle 138 

Bernard,  Samuel 188 

Bernard,  Simon » 188 

Bernard,  Sir  Thomas 183 

Bernard,  St,  Oraat  and  Little,  see 

St  Bernard 

Bernard  le  Tr^Tisan 188 

Bernardln,  Saint 189 

Bernardln  de  St  Pierre,  see  St 

Pierre 

Bemardlnes 189 

Bernardo  del  Garpio 189 

Bernaner,  Agnes 189 

Bemay 189 

Bemberg 190 

Bemers,  John  Boorchier 190 

Bernera,  The  Lady  Juliana. 190 

Bemetti,  Tommaso 190 

BernhardfDokeofSaze-Weimar..  190 

B6mhard,Kari 191 

Bern!,  Franoeseo 191 

Bemier,  Francois 191 

Bemlen,  Island 191 

Bemlna 199 

Bemlna,  Oioyanni  Lorenzo 199 

Bernis,  uoont  of  Lyons. 199 

Bemoallll,  (seTcraO 199 

BemstorH;  Christian  Ofinther 196 

Bemstorfl;  Johann  H.  B. 19S 

BeroM 198 

Berosos 198 

Berrienco. 198 

Berrien,  John  Macpherson 196 

Berry 194 

Berry,  France 194 

Berry,  Agnerand  l£ary. 194 

Berry,  Charles  Duke  of. 194 

Berry,  Charles  Ferdinand. 195 

Berry,  Marie  a  F.  L. 195 

Berryer,  Antoine  Plene 198 

Berserker 198 

Bertaut 199 

Bertha 199 

Berthelsdorf 199 

Berthlerco 199 

Berthier,  Ferdinand 199 

Berthier,  Louis  Alexandre 199 

Berthold 900 

Berthold  von  Itegensburg 901 

BerthoUet,  Claade  Louis 201 

Berthoud,  Ferdinand 90S 

Bertie  00. 909 

Bertln,  flunUy  of 909 

Bertin,  Louis  Francois 909 

Bertin  de  Yeansc,  L.  F 908 

Bertin,  Edouard  Francois. 908 

'Bertin,  Louis  MsxieArmand 909 


PAOB 

Bertin,  Louise  Angi&liqne 906 

Bertrand,  Henri  Gratien 908 

Bertrsnd  de  Born 908 

B4ruUe.  Pierre  de 904 

Berwick,  James  Fit^amee 904 

Berwick-on-Tweed 904 

Berwickshire 905 

Beryl 905 

Berzelihs,  Johan  Jakob 905 

Besanfon 807 

Besborodko,  Alexander   Andrye- 

witch 90T 

BeeikaBay 907 

Beslttoon 907 

Beekow,  Bemhard. 907 

Beaasrabia 907 

Bessarion,  John 908 

Bessel,  Frledrich  WUhelm 908 

Beesi^res,  Jean  Bapttoto 908 

Bestoi^iefl;  Alexander 809 

Bestoijeff-Siumine,  Count 909 

Betanooa,  Domingo  de 909 

BetelNut 909 

Betham,  Sir  William. 910 

Bethany 910 

Bethany,  Ya 910 

Bethel 910 

Bethel,Mo 910 

Bethel  Colltte 910 

Bethell,  Sir  Bichaid 910 

Bethenconrt,  Jean 910 

Bethenconrty  Molina. 911 

Beth«0da 811 

Beth-Horon 911 

Bethlehem 811 

Bethleheno,  Pa 819 

Betblehemltes 919 

Bethlen  Oabor. 819 

Bethmann  Brothers 919 

Bethphage 918 

Bethsalda 918 

Beth-Shemesh 918 

B6thune 918 

Bethune,  DiTie. 918 

Bethune,  George  W 918 

Bethane,  John 814 

Bethune,  Alexander 914 

Bethune,  John  ElUot  D. 214 

BeUck 914 

Betisbooka 914 

BeUls 914 

Betrothment 914 

Betterments 915 

Betterton,  Thomas. 915 

Bettineni,  Saverlo 916 

Betty,  WOlhun  Henry  West 816 

Betty,Henry. 916 

Betwah 817 

Beukels,  Willem 917 

Beudant,  Franpois  Snlplce 917 

Bengnot,  Arthur  Augnste 917 

Beugnot,  Jaeqaes  Claude 917 

BeumouTiUe,  Pierre  de  Buel 917 

Beredero 817 

Bevel 917 

Bevetamd,  North  and  South 817 

Beveridg^  William. 918 

Beverley,  John  of 918 

Beverly 818 

Beverly,  Bobert 918 

Beverwyk 818 

Bewick,  Thomas 918 

Bex 918 

Bexar 818 

Bexley,Lord 919 

Bey,  see  Beg 

Beykaneer 819 

Beyle,  Henri 819 

Beynunich 990 

Beyroot 990 

Beys,Gilles 990 

Besa,  Theodora  de 980 

BexaTs  Codex 991 

Bexant 991 

Bdxiers 991 

Bexoar 991 

Bhadrinsth 991 

Bhagsvat-Gtta. 929 

Bhamo 989 

Bhatgan 998 

BhavanlKudal 998 


TMam 

Bhlijan 998 

BhooJ 898 

Bhopaul 998 

Bhowanlpoor 998 

Bhurtpoor. 928 

Biaff».... 988. 

Biafra,  Bight  of. 888 

Biaffloll,  Nicdo  Josaphat 998 

BUOystok :. 928 

BtanobI,  Francesco.. 994 

BUnchI,  Federigo 994 

Btanohlni,  Francesco SM 

Biard,  Augusto  Fraapods 994 

Bianltx r7. 994 

Bias 994 

Bibb  CO.,  Ga 994 

Bibb  CO.,  Ala 984 

Bibbiena,  Ferdinando  GalU  da. ...  995 

Bibcfach 986 

Bible 995 

Bible  Societies 988 

Bibllcsl  Geography 986 

Bibllogiaphy 887 

BibUomancy. 8tt 

BibUomania 818 

Bibrs,  Ernst 844 

Bice 944 

Bicitre 944 

Blehana 945 

BIchat,  Marie  Fraacois  Xavler. ....  945 

Bickerstair,  Isaac 846 

Blekersteth,  Edward 94T 

Bickersteth,  Henry 94T 

BicUeigh 94T 

Bidassoa 94T 

Biddeford 948 

Biddl^  Clement 849 

BIddle,  Clement  ComeU. 949 

Blddl^  John 890 

Biddle,  Nicholas,  Commodore 851 

Biddle,  Nieholsa 851 

Biddle,  Bichard 969 

Blddoomaha 989 

Bldloo,  Godsfroid 908 

Bidpay 858 

Bledermann,  Friedrieh  SLarl 858 

Blela,  Wllhelm  von 858 

Bielefeld 858 

Bielev 858 

Bielgorod 9S6 

Biellts 988 

BielU 988 

Blelo-Osero 988 

Bielski,  Maicin 908 

Bienne 988 

Biennials 804 

BienviUe 804 

Biemacki,  Aloys  Prober 854 

Biemaeki,  Joxef 854 

Biervltet 804 

Big  Black  River 804 

Big  Bone  Liek 804 

Big  Horn  Biver 854 

Big  Spring 804 

Blganfy..! 804 

Bigelow,  Jacobs  M.D.,  LL.D 906 

Bigelow.John 909 

Bigelow,  Timothy 906 

Bigland,  John.... 955 

Blglow.  WiUlsm. 956 

Bigot,  MsdiMne  Marie. 956 

BiheroD,  Marie  Catharine 906 

BUa 906 

Bilbao 956 

Bilberry 956 

BildeidUk,  Willem 956 

BUe 987 

BUfiager.Geont  BemhaxU 960 

Bllgner,  Paul  Sndolf  von 960 

Biibry  Duets 860 

BUloQs  Fever 860 

Bill,  a  wei4H>n 861 

Bill  in  congress  or  parliament,  see 
Act 

Bin  in  Equity 968 

Bill  of  Exchange,  see  Exchange. 

Bni  of  Health 969 

Bill  of  Indictment,  see  Indictment 

Bill  of  Lading 909 

Bin  of  Bights 968 

Bniof  Sale 988 

Bmaad'Tarenne,  Jaoquea  Nicolas.  968 


It 


OONTENT& 


PAoa 
]fflka]t.AiigiisUAdoIplMli0to..  Mi 

Bllle,  BtaM  AndMMO. M4 

BiUtonb IW 

BilHncB,  Jowph  MS 

BttliogB.  Willha Ml 

Hining^iji Mi 

BflUnfton^SUsiriieU Ml 

BuutoQ.!: m; 

BfUom MI 

BUkof  MorUUtj. MT 

MT 

MT 

MT 

MB 

MB 

MS 

Bliitty  8tvB MB 

BtDbir-KiUMeh MB 

BtDdnbDod MB 

BiDfleki MB 

BlBgen MB 

BioghMB,  Sir  O«org»  Bidoot M9 

Blogbam,  JoMph MB 

Bloi^luuntoD MB 

Blngiey MB 

BlDgley,  WUliAin  a MB 

BJuftaM MB 

BiniMd* MB 

BIJIIM7,  AnMM S70 

Btnney.  Honoe 270 

Binomial S70 

Blntnln «70 

BloUo 871 

BtoerastaeU,  Jakob  Jonas tTl 

Blographr S71 

BiSogy 8T5 

Blon  of  Abdera. 975 

Bloa  of  BoryBtlianai. C75 

Blon  of  SiDTTna 275 

Biot«  Jean  Baptlato 275 

Bfpont  Editiona 975 

BiqnadiBtie 275 

Blr 275 

Blrbboom 275 

Blrcb 27B 

Blrcb,  Thonuu,  D.D 276 

Blreh-Pfeiffer,  Cbarlotte 276 

Binl,£diranl 276 

Bird,  Golding,  H.D 277 

Bird,  Jobn 277 

Bird,  Robert  M.,  M.D 277 

Bird,  WUllam 277 

BIrdlslands 277 

Birdlima 2n 

Birdof  Paradiae 278 

Binfa-JSje-View 279 

Blida 279 

Btrda*-Neat,  edible 284 

Blrkbeek,  Oeorge,  H.D 284 

BirtLAn&ld 284 

Birkenbead 285 

BIrkenbead,  8ir  Jobn 285 

Birkat^l-Ha4ii 285 

Blrket^l-Keroon 285 

Birket^l-Marloot 885 

Birmiogbam,  Ct 285 

Birmlngbam,  Pa. 286 

Blnolngham,  En^. 286 

Bimam 287 

Blmee,Old 287 

Blmej,Jaineea 287 

Biron,  Annaod  de  Qontant 283 

BIron,  Cbarles  de  GonUnt 288 

Blron,  Armand  J*,  de  Oontant 289 

Biron,  Kmat  Jobn 288 

Birr 289 

BlrstaU 888 

Blrtb 289 

Biaaya 290 

Biacaj 291 

Biscay,  Bay  of. 291 

Biscay,  Kew,  In  Mexico,  tee  Dn- 
Tango. 

Blseeglia ...991 

Biacbofn  Oeorg  Friedricb 991 

Bisebol^  Tbeodor  L.  W 891 

BlsoboiT  Ton  Altensteln,  Q.  B. . . . .  291 

Blacboftwerda 291 

Bisebofrwerder,  Jobann  B.  von. ..  Ml 

BIsobop,  Nicolas 291 

BlKdmHUor 891 


MB 


BbcQit 291  BhdtttoM  BIrer. 

Btobare«n 292  Blaekwall,  Antbony 

Bisbarite 292  Blackwell,  Alexander. 818 

Bishop 2Bt  Blackwell,  Elizabeth Sig 

Biahop,  Sir  Hepfj  Bowky 294  BlaekweU,  Thomaa S19 

BlafaopsGbatle 294  Blackwood's  Magaxine 919 


Blaley. 

Biamark,  Friedrieh  WOhelm. 

Bismoth 


BIsncoa.. 


BIshL  Patrick 

BlsselI,WilliaaiH.. 

Bisect,  Jamea 

Bfsset,  Robert 

Bissextile  Tear 


.  894 
294 
295 
2B5 
297 
297 
297 
297 
297 
297 
297 

.297 
297 
297 
29B 
898 
898 


Bistinean 

Bistonfj 

Bistre 

Bbtrits 

Bltcbe 

Bitbynia 

Blton xw 

Bitonto 899 

Bitter  Prindplea !!!'.  899 

Bittern 8W 

Bittern,  a  fen  fowl 899 

Bittoor 800 

Bitamen 800 

Bitoniinons  Sbale 808 

BItzias,  Albert. 808 

Btralve 808 

Blveri 808 

BiTonac 803 

Bixio,  Jaoqoea  Alexandre. 808 

Bixerta 804 

BJoemsgema,  Count 804 

Blorko 804 

Blacas,  Pierre  Lools  Jean  G 804 

BIack,a  color 804 

Black,  Adam 804 

Black,  Jeremiah's 804 

Bkck,Jobn 805 

Black,  Joseph 805 

Black  Assize. 806 

BlackBand. 806 

Black  ComMr 806 

Black  DMth,  see  Phigne. 

Black  Feet 806 

Black  Flax -. 806 

BlackForeat 806 

Black  Oum 807 

Black  Hawk  00 807 

Black  HUls 807 

Black  Hole 807 

Blackjack ' 808 

Black  Lead 803 

Black  Letter 808 

Black  IfaU 808 

Black  Monntalns 809 

BbickRlTer 809 

Black  Rod 809 

Black  Sea 809 

Black  Silver 810 

Black  Snake 810 

Black  Tin 811 

Black  Vomit 811 

Black  Walnut,  see  Walnnt 

BUck  Warrior. 811 

Blaekall,  Offiprlng 811 

Blackberry 811 

Blackbird 811 

Blackbom 818 

BUckbame,  Frands 818 

Blackcap 818 

Bbckcock 818 

Blackflsb 818 

Blackford  00. 8fll 

IflackfHars 818 

BlaokfrUis  Bridge 818 

BUckgoard 814 

Blackheatb 814 

Blacking 814 

BbMklock^omaa,  D.D 814 

BlacklowHIll 815 

Blackmore,  Sir  Richard 815 

Btackstone,  William,  Rev 815 

Blackstone,  Sir  William 815 

Blackstone  Canal 818 


Bladen  CO 

Bladensborg.. 


S8l 


Blaea,  Willem. 

Blagrave.  John 

BUne,  Ephrsim 

BlainviIk,H.M.D.de... 

Blair  CO 

Blair,  Fnncls  Preston 

Blair,  Frands  Practon,  Jr 

Blair.  Hngfa 

Blair,  James 

Blair,  John, 

Blair,Jobn 

Blair,  Robert 

Blair-Atbol 

Biainville,  6a 

Bbdrsville,  Pa 

Blake,  Frands. 

Bhlk^  Jobn  Lanria,  D.D. 

Blak^  Robert,  admiraL , 

Blake,  William 

Blake.  William  Rnflis 

Blakely,  Johnston , 

BbJcely 

Blanc,  Le , 

Blanc  Mont  see  Mont  BJane. 

Blanc,  Jean  Joseph  Louis 

Blancbard,  Franptls 

Blancbard,  ^  w**** ............ 

\  Tflbmaa. , 


889 


881 
881 

881 


Blancbard, 
Blanche  of  Bonrbon. 

Blanche  of  CMUe 889 

Bland,Jobn 888 

Bknd,  CoL  Theodoiic 8B8 

Blandrata,  Giorgio 888 

Blan^8irGUbert 8M 

Blangini.  GioscMM  Maroo  M.F...  tSi 

Bluk  Verse 884 

Blankenburg 885 

BfamqQi,  Jenftme  Adulphe 885 

BlanqaULonlsAagusto 885 

Blarney 888 

Blantbemy 887 

BlasUng 887 

Blaye 840 

Blayney,  Bei^amin 840 

Blazonry 840 

Bleaching 841 

Bleaching  Powder 848 

Blean 815 

Bledsoe  CO 845 

Bleecker,  Ann  Elisa 845 

Blegno 845 

Blemmyes 845 

Blende 845 

Blenheim 848 

Blennerbasset,  Hanoan 846 

BWr6 347 

Blessing,  see  Benediction. 

Blessington,  Margaret 847 

Blicber,  Steen  Steenaen 848 

Blldah 848 

BIigh,WllUam 8iB 

Blight 819 

Blind,  The 848 

Blindage 8Dft 

BUndworm.... 809 

Blister 


Bll2ard,SirWflIlam... 
Bloch,  Markns  EUeser.. 


Block. 

Block,  Albrecht 811 

Block  House 841 

Block  Island 861 

Blockade Ml 

Blockley 888 

Blodget,  Samoel 888 

BIols 888 

Blomfleld,  Charles  James,  D.D 868 

Blommaert,  Philip 868 

Blond,  Jacques  Qmstophe  le. 80 

BlooT-.TT: 868 

Blood,  Col.  Thomas 878 

Blood,  Fouitaln  of 818 


CONTENTS.  ▼ 

no*                                                                               VAOB  VAOB 

BIoodMoney 878  BoAt!^ Etlenno d«  la 421     Bona, Giorsnnl 495 

Blood  Stains 8T8  Boottger,  Adolf 421     Bona  De«,; 455 

Bloodhound 8T«  Bog 421  Bonacoa,ACQ  Bay  Islands. 

Bloodletting 877  Bog  Earth 428  Bonahl,  Louis  Qabricl  Ambolse...  455 

Bloomary,  Blooms 87S  BogOre 428  Bonald,  Louis  Jactjues  Maurico. . .  455 

Bloomfleld,  Bobert« 879  Bogardus,  Everardus 424     Bonaporte,  fiunlly  of 457 

Bloominffton ...879  Bogdan,  Negrul 424     Bonaparte,  Jeromo 457 

Blora  .7. 880  Bogdanowltch,  HyppoUt  F. 424     Bonaparte,  Napoleon  J.  a  P 457 

Bloasbunr 830  Bogenhansen 424     Bonaparte,  Joseph 453 

BloMitco.,  Ala 880  BoghaiKleuU 424     Bonaparte,  Zenaido  C.  J. 458 

Blount  oo^Tenn 880  Bogllpoor 424     Bonaparte,  Louis 453 

Blount,  Charles 890  BogomUes,see  BasU.  Bonaparte,  Luclen 459 

BlonntI  Sir  Henry 880  Bogota 424     Bonaparte,  Christine  Ecypte 460 

Blount!  Sir  Thonoas  Popo 880  Bogue,  David 426     Bonaparte,  Charles  L  JTL 460 

Blount,  Thomas 880  Bogus 427     Bonaparte,  Louis  Lucien 460 

Blount,  William 830  Bognslawskl,  Adalbert 427     Bonaparte,  Napoleon  1 460 

Blow,  John 881  B<^1awski,  Palm  U.  L.  Ton. ... .  427     Bonaparte,  Napoleon  II 471 

Blowing  Machines 831  Boha-£ddin 427     Bonaparte,  Napoleon  III 471 

Blowpipe 838  Bohemia 427     Bonapartes  of  Baltimore 473 

Blubber 836  Bohemian  Brethren 429     Bon.a7cntnni,  Saint 474 

BlAcher,  Field  Marshal 836  Bohemian  Forest 429     Boniratt 474 

Bludoff,  Dimitri 893  Bohemian  Language  and  Liteiature  480     Bond  oo. 474 

Blae,acolor. 898  Bohemond,  Mare 483     Bond,  in  law 474 

Blue,  Prussian,  see  Prussian  Blueu  Bohlen,  Peter  Ton 433  Bond,  Thomas  Emerson,  M.D.  D.D  475 

BlueEarth 898  Bohn,Henry  G 488     Bond,  William  Cranch. 475 

Blue  Laws  898  Bohol 483     Bonders 475 

Bine  Lick  Springs 894  Boiardo,  Matteo  Maria 483     Bondoo 476 

BlneMonday 894  Boieldeau,  Frlan^ois  Adrien 483     Bone 476 

Blue  Mountains. 894  Bolgne,  BenoU  le  Borgne 434     Bono,  Henry 431 

BlneRidge 894  Boll 484     Bone  Ash 481 

BlneBiver 894  Boilcau,  Dcsyr^aux Nicolas..* 484     Bone  Black 433 

Blue  Stoeklngi 894  BoilingPoint 484     Bone  Dust 433 

Blue  Vitriol 894  Boils 436     Bone  Earth 434 

Bluebird 894  Bois-le^Duc 486     Bonelli,  Francesco  Andrea 434 

Blneflelds 895  Boi8eer6e,  Sulpis 486     Boneset 431 

Blueflsh 895  Boissiou,  Jean  Jacques  de 436     Bonet,  Juan  Pablo 434 

Blueing  of  Metols 895  Boissy  d'Anglas,  Fmnfnts  A.  de...  436     Bonhenr,  Boea 434 

Bluet  D'Arberea,  Bernard 895  Boiste,  Pierre  Claude  VictolTO....  437     BonhiU 435 

Bluft 896  Bolvln,  Mario  Anne  Vlctolre 487     Boni 435 

Bluhme,  Christian  Albert 896  Bolador 437     Bonlfiico,  popes. 435 

Blum,  Robert 896  BoVer,  George  Henry 487     Bonllhce,  Saint 437 

Blamenbaoh,JohannFriodrich....  897  Bokhara 487     Bonlflido,  Strait  of 437 

Blunderbuss 898  Bokhara  Little 483     Bontn  Islands 437 

Blunt,  Edmund  March 893  Bol,  Ferdinand 483     Bonlngton,  Richard  Parkcs 433 

Blunt,  Edmund 893  Bolan  Pass 433     Bonito 438 

Blunt,  John  James 893  Bolbec 433     Bonjour,  (two). 433 

Blushing 893  Boldre 483     Bonn 439 

Boa 898  Bole 433     Bonnard,  Jean  Louis. 439 

Boaden,James 400  Bolero 488     Bonner,  Edmund 439 

Boadicea 400  Boleyn,  Anne,  see  Anne  Boleyn.  Btinnet 491 

Boar 400  Bolsrad 489     Bonnet,  Charles 491 

Boardman,  George  Dana 403  Boll. 439     Bonneval,  Clande  Alexandre 493 

Boat 408  Bollngbroke,  Henry  St  John 489     Bonneville,  Benjamin  L.  £ 493 

Boatbill 404  Bolivarco. 440     Bonnivard,  Frangois  de 493 

Boatswain 404  Bolivar  y  Ponte,  Simon 440     Bonny  River 493 

Boavista 404  Bolivia 446     Bonnycastle,  John 493 

Bobadilla,  Francisco  do 405  Bolkhov 449     Bonnycastle,  Charles 493 

Bobbin 405  Bollan,  William 419     Bonomi.  Ginseppo 493 

Bobblnet 405  Bolland.  John  van 449     Bononclni,  Giovanni  BattLsta 493 

Bobolina 405  Bolles,  Lndns,  D.D 449     Bonpland,  Aim6 493 

Bobolink 405  Bollmann, Eric 449     Bonstetten^Charles  Victor  do 493 

BoeaTigris. 407  Bologna 449     Bontekoe,  Wiilem  Isbrand 493 

BoocaocTo,  Giovanni 407  Bologna,  Giovanni  dl 450     Bonthain 493 

Boccage,  Marie  Anne  le  Page 409  Bologna  ViaL 450     Bonvicino,  Alessandro 494 

BoccherinI,  Lnlgi 409  Bolognlan  Stone 450     Bonzes 494 

Boecone,  Paolo 409  Bolonchen 450     Booby 434 

Boohart,  Samuel 409  Bolor  Tagh 450     Boodroom. 494 

Bochica 409  Bolsena 450     Book 495 

Bochins,John 410  Bolson  de  Maplml 450     Bookbinding 497 

Bochsa,  Robert  Nicolas  Charles...  410  Bolsover  Stone 450     Bookkeeping 499 

Book,  Karl  Ernst 410  Bolswert,  Boetins  Adam 451  Books,  Catalo^esof; see  Citaloguos 

Bockelsott,   Johonn,   see  John  of  Bolswert,  Soheltius  Adam 451  Bo»ks,  Censorship  of;  see  Censor- 

Leyden.  Bolt „  451  ship. 

Bode,JohannEl6rt 410  Bolton,  Edmnnd 451     Bookselling 601 

Bodes's  Law 410  Bolton  le  Moors 451     Boolak 609 

Bodenstett,  Friedrleh  Martin 410  Bolzano,  Bemhard 451     Boolekumba 600 

Bodin,  Jean ,  410  Bomarsnnd 451     Boolundshahur •••.  510 

Bodisco,  Alexander 411  Bomb 451     Boom 610 

Bodleian  Library 411  Bomb  Ketch 453     Boomerang 610 

Bodley,Sir  Thomas 413  Bomb  Lance 453     Booming 610 

Bodmer,  Georg 413  Bomb  Proof 453     Boondeo 610 

Bodmer,  Johann  Jakob 413  Bomb  Vessel 453     Boone  oo.,  Va 4. 511 

Bodoni,Gtambattista 413  Bombardier 453     Booneoo.,Ky « 611 

Boeee,  Hector,  see  Boethlns.  Bombardment 453     Boone  co.,  la 611 

Boeekh,  August 419  Bombast 453     Boone  00.,  Ill 611 

Boehm,Jakob 418  Bombay 453     Boonoeo.,Mo 611 

Boehtllngk,  Otto 414  Bombozine 454     Boone  co.,  Iowa 611 

BoBotla 414  Bombelll,  RaffiseUo 454     Boone,  N..0 611 

Boerhoave,  Hermann 416  Bombeig,  Daniel 454     Boone,  Daniel 613 

Boers 417  Bomflm,  Josd  Joaqulm 451     Boonesborough 614 

Boethius,  Anlcltts  M.  T.  S 419  Bommel,  Cornelius  R.  A.  van, 451     Boonovillo 614 

Boothioa,  Ueotor 420  Bona 456     Boonton 6U 


OONTENTa 


VAOV 

Boo-1l«crreb 614 

Boorffhas 614 

Boornanpoor M4 

Boorlos M5 

Boonutbat 615 

Booro 615 

Booroogird 615 

Boot 615 

Bootan 615 

Bootes 616 

Booth,  Barton 616 

Booth,  Sir  Felix 616 

Booth,  Janlua  Brtttofl. 619 

Boothauk 616 

Boothhaj 617 

BoothU  Felix 617 

BoothUGulf 61T 

Booton 617 

Bopp,  Franz 617 

Boppard 617 

Bora,  KatharlnaTon 617 

BoracloAcid 617 

Boradte 619 

Borax 619 

Borda,  Jean  Charlea 619 

Borde,  Andrew 620 

Bordeaux 620 

Bordeaux,  Duke  oi;  see  Chambord. 

Bordeaux  Wines 621 

Borden,  Simeon 621 

Bordentown 639 

Bonllej,  John  Bealo  629 

Bordono,  Parldo 629 

Bore 629 

Boreas 629 

Borecole 629 

Borcham 629 

Borghese,  ftunllr  of 629 

Borghese,  Gamillo  FlUppoL 623 

BoT^rhese,  liiarie  PauHne 628 

Borghesi,  Bartolommco. 628 

Borgrhl-mamo,  Adelaide 628 

Boi^f,  Giovanni 624 

Borgia,  Cesare 624 

Bo^ia,  Lucrozia. 625 

Borgia,  Stefhno 625 

Borgia,  St  Fraods 625 

Borgne,  Lake 625 

Borgognonc,  Jacopo  Cortesi 626 

Borgoo,  (two) 626 

Borie,  Pierre  B,U.D 626 

Boring 626 

BorlssoT 629 

Borkum 629 

Borlaoe,  Edmond 629 

Borlase,  William 6'29 

Bormio 629 

Borne,  Lndwlg 629 

Borneo 630 

Bomhattser,  Thomas 639 

Bornholm 689 

Borneo 639 

Boro-Bodo 638 

Borodino 638 

Boron 685 

Boroogh 686 

Borooghbridge 686 

BoroTRk 687 

Borowlaski,  Coont 637 

Borrelists 687 

Borri,  Glosenpe  Franoesoo 637 

Borromean  Islands 637 

Borromeo,  Carlo 687 

Borromeo,  Federlco 689 

Borromoou  St,  Sisterhood  of 689 

Borrominl,  Francesco 640 

Borrow,  George 640 

Burrowstonnnoss 510 

Borthwick,  Peter 640 

Borth wick  Castle 640 

Boryde  Saint  Ylncent 640 

Borjrsthencs,  see  Dnieper. 

Boa,  Lambert 641 

Boa,  Illeronymus 641 

Bosc,  Louis  Augnstln  G 641 

Boscan  Almogaver,  Joan 641 

Boscawen,  Edward 641 

Boscobol 649 

Boscovich,  Buarloro  Giuseppe ....  649 
Boshaana,  see  Bechnana. 

Bosio,  Angiollna 549 

BosiO|  Francois  Joseph 649 


Boi^esroans 649 

Bosna-Serai 549 

Bosnia 518 

Boapoms 548 

Bosque  eo 648 

Bosquet,  Marie  Joseph 548 

BossI,  Oioseppe  Carlo  A 644 

Bowier 544 

Bossnet,  Jaoqnes  Bcnlgne 644 

Bossnt,  Charles 646 

Boston,a  game 546 

Boston,  Mass 646 

Boston,  Eng 654 

Boston,  Thomas 555 

Botwell,  Sir  Alexander 655 

Boswell,  James 655 

Bosworth,  Eng 556 

Boaworth.  Joseph,  D.D 557 

Botanic  Gardens 657 

Botany... 653 

Botany  Bay 663 

Botetourt  oo 663 

Botetonrt,  Norbome  Berkeley 663 

Both,  Jan 669 

Both,  Andreas 669 

Bothnia 669 

Bothwell 669 

Both  well,  James  Hepburn 669 

Botryoidal 669 

Bots 669 

Botta,  Anne  Charlotte 670 

Botta,  Ylncenso 670 

Botta,  Carlo  Giuseppe  G 670 

Botta,  Paul  Emile 679 

Bottari,  Giovanni  Gaetano 679 

BottesinI,  Lalgl 679 

Bdttgor,  Johann  Friedrlch 679 

Bottioelli^Alessandro 679 

Bottlger,Kari  August 678 

Bottle 673 

Bottomry 678 

Botts,  John  Minor 674 

Botzberg 674 

Botzen 674 

Bou  Maza 674 

V—'*i1\ 674 

Buacli4;r,  A]4;:x;uir1rc  Jean 6T5 

Boachor,  FranfoLi 675 

BdUcJioT^  Joaathah ,  ^  - 675 

UoucKi?3-dii-Rli6n& 675 

I^iich«>tto^i^ui  Ba[rt] tte  Kocl. . . .  675 

Build  miip!,  EUas 675 

Uonm^  , . , , 676 

Jiuuilcra,  Louis  Frai^fois 676 

Boaflers,  Stanislas 676 

Bougainville,  Louis  Antoine  de. . ..  676 

Bougiah 677 

Bougie 677 

Bouffuer,  Pierre 677 

Bouilli^  Francois  Claude  Amour. ..  577 

BouiUon 673 

Bouillon,  Due  de 673 

Bouillon,  Godfrey  de 678 

Bouillon,  Marshal 679 

Bonilly,  Jean  Nicholas. 579 

Boulainvilllers,  Henri 579 

Boulay  de  la  MCurthe,  Ant  J.  a  J.  680 
Boulay  de  la  Medrthe,  Henri  G. . ..  5S0 

Bonlbon,  Gaston  Baoulx 5S0 

Boulevards 6S0 

Boulogne 6S0 

Boulogne,  Bois  de 6S1 

Boulogne,  Camp  de 6S1 

Boulonnals 689 

Boulter,  Hugh 689 

Bonlton,  Matthew 6S9 

Bounty 689 

Bourbon  co 689 

Bourbon,  an  island &S8 

Bourbon,  flunily  of 683 

Bourbon,  Louis  Henri 585 

Bourbon,  Louis  Henri  Joseph 635 

Bourbon  Lancy. 685 

Bourbon  L'Archambanlt 585 

Bourbonnais 685 

Bourbonne-les-Balns 686 

Bourdoault,  Dion 6S6 

Bourdalone.  Louis 686 

Bourdon,  Pierre  Louis  Mwrie 666 

Bourdon,  Sdbastien 687 

Bourg,  Anne  dn 687 

Booig-on-BreBse 58T 


FAoa 

Bonronde,  Francois < 56T 

Bonrgclat,  Claude 067 

Bourgeois,  Dominique  Frmnfols. . .  067 

Bourgeois,  Sir  Frsocis MT 

Bourges 067 

Bourguet  Louis 868 

Bourignon,  Antoinette 068 

Bonrke,  Sir  Biehard 066 

Bourmont,  Count 068 

Bourne 589 

Bourne,  Hugh 069 

Bourne,  Vincent 089 

Bourqueney,  Francis  Adolo^...  589 
Boornenne,  Louis  Antoine  F.  da..  669 

Bourrit,  Maro  Theodore 090 

Bonrtange 660 

Bouasa QM 

Boussidies 690 

Bonssinganlt,  Jean  B.  J.  D 090 

Boustrophedon 590 

Bontelle,  Timothy 090 

Boutenvek,  FHedrich 091 

Bonteville,  Francis  de  Montmo- 
rency  091 

Boutin,  Vincent  Yves 001 

Bonvait,  Alexis 601 

Boavet,  Joachim 091 

Bonvter,  John 099 

Bovea,  Joti  Tomas 699 

Bo  vines 099 

Bovino 099 

Bow 099 

Bow,in  music 099 

Bow  Island 003 

Bowden,  John,  D.D 098 

Bowdidi,  Thomas  Edward 098 

Bowditch,  Nathaniel 008 

Bowditeh  Island 695 

Bowdler,  Thomas 695 

Bowdoin,  James. 095 

Bowdoin,  James 095 

Bowdoin  CoUege 095 

Bowdolnham 096 

Bowen,  Frauds 696 

Bowen,  Pardon 607 

Bowen,  William  C 607 

Bowie  00. 597 

Bowie  KnUb 697 

Bowlders 697 

B<iwle8,  William  A 608 

Bowles,  WiUiam  Lisle 693 

Bowles,  Caroline  Anne. 693 

Bowling COS 

BowlingGreen 699 

Bowring,81r  John 699 

BbwyerTWilliam 099 

BoxTree 699 

T:.    •  600 

Ikijaca 601 

Eoyor .,..* 001 

Bof-c^,  Hct<tnr,  &ae  Boethius 

BofCfi^  William 601 

IJojrrt,  Henry... 601 

Ufiyd,  John  Parker 609 

Buy d,  Mark  Alexander 609 

}ki\t\,  Zacbary 609 

Btiy<lt>||,  Juhn . , 609 

BonUoivn 669 

n<»y€n,  llpnniiun  Ton 609 

Uuyor,  Abi  I 60S 

Itojer,  Alexia, 668 

EoTTefj  JpAn  Pierre 608 

Boypr,  Pkms  Dimls 604 

Boyla  ca...** 604 

Bojle 604 

Boi]e,Rld«iid,. 604 

Bnyle,  Koper..., 904 

Boyle,  RolJoTt.. 605 

Bojia,  Chirlei 605 

Boyle,  John....  JJjJ 

BoyUton,  Ntcholas 905 

BoySstou,  Zsbdkil JJJ 

Bajiic,  a  rl  vtr JOB 

Bojs<s  J<?hii,  — 25 

Bnftaca WJ 

Bonnna,  Jalm  Lseds WH> 

Boirah  .*....*. 25 

Ba£sad\  Mnrco. 606 

Bra 997 

Braban^onne •jj 

Braban^ona 60T 

~    •     '  Duobyof. 697 


OONTElirrS. 


▼fi 


BnMlMio J08 

BiaodoUni,  Pomlo 608 

Braoe,  Charles  Xorlng. JW 

Bnoa,  Jonatlua W 

Bnoe,  JoUft JJJ 

Brsohtopodft W 

BTmehtotoehronoas. JJO 

Bnehinaiin,  I«aiM  Xarolina 610 

Bnuhyoam 610 

BrMken  co. 5-2 

Braekenridgo,HenrrM 610 

Braokenzldge,  Hugh  Honry 610 

B»ot 611 

Bneton,  Henry  d« 611 

Bmddoek,  Edward. 611 

Bradford  00 611 

Bradfi>rd,EnsM  (two) 611 

Bradibrd,  Alden 611 

Bradford,  Andrew 611 

Bradford,  John 611 

Bradford,  WUIUm,  Got 611 

Bradford,  William 61S 

Bradford,  WUUam,  Attj.  Oen 619 

Biadlej  oo^  Ark 619 

Bradlej  eo^Tenn 619 

Bradley,  James 619 

Bradahaw,  John. 618 

Bradshaw,Wmiam 618 

Bradatreet,  Anne 618 

Bradstreet,  John 618 

Bradatreet,  Simon,  Got 618 

Bradstreet,  Simon,  Ber 618 

Bradwardin,  Thomas 618 

Brady,  Hugh 614 

Brady,  NiclMlas 614 

Brag.. 614 

Braga 614 

Braganca 614 

Brasanfa,  House  of. 614 

Bniiiam,John 614 

Brahe,  Tyeho  de 614 

Brahe,  Goont  Hagnns 615 

BrahlloT 616 

Brahma 615 

Brahm^>ootra 621 

Braldwood,  Thomas 629 

Braille,  Lools 629 

Brain 688 

Brslu  Fever. 689 

Brainard,  John  G.  C 688 

Bralnerd 688 

Brainerd,  David 688 

Braise 688 

Brake 688 

Brakenbarg,  Kegnor 684 

Bramah,  Joseph 634 

Bramah^sLock 684 

Biamah's  Press 684 

Bramante  d'Urblno 684 

Brambanaa 685 

Bramble 685 

Bramhall,  John. 635 

Bran 685 

Brancaleone,  Dandolo 686 

Branch  oo 686 

Branch,  John 686 

BranehUs 686 

Branchiopoda 686 

Brande,  William  Thomas 686 

Brandenbarg 686 

Brandenburg,  Friedrlch  Wilhelm.  686 

Brandea,  Heinrioh  Wilhelm 687 

Branding 687 

Brandia,  Christian  Augnst 687 

Brandls,  Joaehim  IMetrieh 687 

Brandt,  Hloolaoa 687 

Brandy 887 

Brandywlne  Creek 688 

Braneokl,  Franclszek  X. 683 

BranioU,  Jan  Siemens 688 

Brank 688 

Brantoo 688 

Brant,  Joseph 689 

Bnntford 688 

Brantdme,  Pierre  de  Bonrdeilles..  689 

Bianxholm 689 

Branzton 688 

Brsseasaat,  Jacques  Baymond 688 

Brasher,  Abraham 689 

Brssidas ^ 688 

Brass 688 

Bnasards 6«1 


PAOl 

Braiaynda 641 

Brattle,  Thomas 641 

BratUeboroogh 641 

Branbaoh 641 

Braon,  Augnst  Emil 641 

Braun,  Johann  Wilhelm  J. 641 

Brann,  Kaspar .649 

Braanaa 649 

Brannsberg 643 

Branwer,  Adrian 649 

Bravo,  Lieonardo 649 

Bravo,  Nicolas 649 

Bravo-Murillo,  Jnan 648 

BravaraAir 644 

Braxton  ca 644 

Braxton,  Carter 644 

Bray,  Vicar  of 644 

Bray,  Anna  Eliza 6U 

Bray,  Thomas 644 

Braybrooke,  Lord 644 

Brazen  Sea 644 

Brazil..-. 645 

BraaQNuts 651 

Brazil  Wood., 651 

Brazing 658 

Bnzorla  CO 609 

Brazos  CO 688 

Brazos,  river..... 658 

Brazos  Santiago 658 

Brazza >. 658. 

Breach 6S8 

Bi«ad 658 

Breadalbane 664 

BfeadFmit 654 

Breakers 654 

Breakwater 654 

Bream 658 

BreastpUte. 698 

Breast^work 698 

Breath,  see  Beapiration 

Breathitt 698 

Bi^beai;  Jean  do 658 

Breccia 660 

Brdche-de-Roland 660 

Breokenrldge  oo. 660 

Breckenrldge,  James 600 

Breckinridge,  John 600 

Breckinridge,  John,  D.D. 660 

Breckinridge,  John  G. . .  .* 661 

Breckinridge,  Robert  J 661 

Brecknock  oo 669 

Brecknock 609 

Breda 669 

Brederode,  Hendrik  von 668 

Bredow,  Gabriel  Gottfried 668 

Breede 668 

Breeding 638 

Breese,lCary 664 

Bregenz 664 

Br6f(aet,  Abraham  Louis 665 

Brehar 665 

Br6hat 665 

Brelagan 665 

Brei8Uk«  Sciplone 665 

Breitenfold 665 

Brelthaapt,  Joachim  Justus 665 

Breitkopi  Johann  GotUob  1 665 

Bremen 665 

Bremer  CO 666 

Bremer.  Fredrika 666 

Bremerhafen 667 

Bremgarten 667 

Brendltz 667 

Brenner 667 

Brennus 667 

BrenU 667 

Brentano,  Clemens 667 

Brentford 667 

Brenton,  Edward  Pelham 667 

Brenz,  Johann 607 

Brescia 66S 

Breslan 663 

Bressa 609 

Bressani,  Francesco  Oioseppe 669 

Bresson,  Charles 669 

Brest 670 

Breteull,  L.  A  le  Tonnelier. 670 

Brethren,  White 670 

Brethren  and  Clerks  of  the  Com- 
mon Life 670 

Brethren  of  the  Christian  Schools.  671 
Bnthren  of  the  Fiee  Spirit 871 


PAOB 

Brethren  of  the  Holy  Trinity. ....  671 

Br6tigny 671 

Breton,  Jean  Baptists  J 671 

Breton  Language 671 

Breton  de  los  Herreros,  ManucL..  679 

Bretschneider,  Heinrich  G 679 

Bretschneider,  Karl  Gottleib. 679 

Breughel,  Peter 679 

Breughel,  Jan. 679 

Breughel,  Peter  (the  younger) ....  679 

Breve 678 

Brevet 678 

Breviary 678 

Brevine,  La 678 

Brewer,  Anthony 678 

Brewing 678 

Brewster,  Sir  David 675 

Brewster.  William 676 

Breydenbach,  Bernhard  von 676 

Brian  Boru 676 

Brion^n 676 

Briansk 676 

Brianza 676 

Briaro 676 

Briareus 677 

Bribery 677 

Briblesca 677 

Brick 677 

Bridaine,  Jacques 6S3 

Bride  and  Bridegroom 639 

Bridewell 684 

Bridge 6S4 

Bridge,  Military 690 

Bridge,  Natural 699 

Bridge  Head 688 

Bridgenortb. 688 

Bridgeport 698 

Bridget,  St 694 

Bridget,  Sisters  of  St. 694 

Bridgeton ^.  684 

Bridgetown 694 

Bridgowater,  Mass 684 

Bridgewator,  East 694 

Bridgewater,  North. 694 

BridffAwater,  West 694 

Bridgewater,  Eng 696 

Bridgewater,  Francis  Egerton 695 

Bridgowater,  Francis  H.  Egerton..  605 

Bridgman,  Laara 666 

Bridle 697 

Bridlington 697 

Bridlington  Quay 697 

Brie 697 

Brief 697 

Brieg \ 698 

Bt\a. 693 

Brienne,  fomlly  of. 693 

Brienne,  CardlnaL 603 

Brienne-Ie-ChAtean 693 

Brienze,  Lske  oC 693 

Brier  Creek 698 

Brig 699 

Brigade 899 

Brigandine 689 

Brigsntine 699 

Briggs,  Charles  Frederick. 699 

Briggs,  Henry 699 

Briggs,  Henry  Perronct 699 

BrigKs,  William 699 

Brigham,  Amariah,  M.D 699 

Bright,  John 700 

Brighton,  Mass 700 

Brighton,  Eng 700 

Brigida,  Saint 701 

BrigltUns 701 

Brignole,  &mily  of 709 

Brignoles 703 

Brihuega 709 

BriUPaul 709 

Brillat-Savarin,  Anthelme 709 

Brilliant 709 

Brilon 709 

Brimstone 709 

Brindlsl 709 

Brindley,  James 708 

Brine 708 

Brinkley,  John 708 

Brinkmann,  Carl  Gustaf 708 

Brinvilliens  Marchioness 708 

Brion,  Lais 704 

Brioude 704 

Bdsaoh 704 


▼iii  CONTENTS. 

VA4»  VAoa  PAoa 

Brisbuie  M. 704  Broke,  Sir  Philip  B<nre0  Yen....  7*1     Brown  m^  U 748 

BrlBson,  Baniab6 705     Broken  Wind 7«l     BrownooL,in 748 

Briflson^Hatharin  Jaeqaes 705     Broker T8S     Browneo^Wte. 749 

Briasofc,  Jean  Pierre 705     Brombere. 72S     Brownoo^  Texas 74S 

BriAted,John 706     Brome,  Kiebard 7»     Brown,  familj  of 749 

Bristed,  Charles  Astor 705     Bromfield,  John 729     Brown,  Alexander 749 

Bristles 705     Bromileld,  William, 799     Brown,  William 749 

Bristol  oo^  Mass 705     Bromine 798     Brown.George 749 

Bri8tolGa,B.1 708     Bromlej 798     Brown,JohnA 749 

Bristol,B.l 708     Bromme, TrauKott 798     Brown,  James 749 

Bri8tol,Pa 708     Bromme. KariBudolf 798     Brown,  Aaron  YaiL 749 

BristoUEng 708     BronchlUs 794     Brown,  Albert  O. 749 

BristolBrick 707     Brundsted,  Poder  Oluf 795     Brown,  Antoinette  L. 780 

Bristol  Channel 707  Brongnlart,  Alexandre  Th6odoro..  795     Brown,  Catharine 790 

Brit 707     Brongnlart,  Antolne  Louis 795     Brown,  Chadd 760 

Britain,  see  England.  Brongntart,  Alexandre 795     Brown,  Charies  Brockden 751 

Britannia  Metal 708  Brongnlart,  Adolpha  Thtophlle...  798     Brown,  David 751 

Britannicus 708     Bronn,  Uelnrich  Q«otk 798     Brown,  Ford  Maddox 751 

Britiniaas 703     Bronner,  Johann  PliUipp. 798     Brown,  Frances 751 

BritishAmerica 706     Bronte 798     Brown,  Sir  George 751 

BritishEmpire 706     Brontfi,  Charlotte 798     Brown,  Goold 759 

British  Gum 709     Bronze 798     Brown,  HcnrjKlrke 759 

BritishMuseom 709     Bronzing 799     Bfown,Jaeob 799 

Brito,  Bernardo  do 711     Bronzino^  Angelo 780     Brown,  James 791 

Brito,  Felippe  de 711     Brooch 780     Brown,  James 759 

BritoFreire,  Francisco  de 719     Brooke  co. 781     Brown,  John 758 

Briton 719     Brooke,  Frances T81     Brown,  John 758 

Brittanj 714     Brooke,  Francis  J. 781     Brown  John 758 

Britton,John 716     Brooke,  Francis  J. 781     Brown,  John 754 

Britton,  John 715     Brooke,  George  Mercer 781     Brown,  John 754 

Brives 716     Brooke,  Henry 781     Brown,John 754 

Brixen 716     Brooke,  6ir  James 781     Brown,  John  Newton. 755 

Brixham 716  Brooke^  Bartholomios  Heinrich..  789     Brown,JohDW.ft 736 

Brizout  de  Bamerllle. 718     Brookes,  Joshoa 789     Brown,  Lancelot 7S5 

Broach,  see  Baroach  Brookline 789     Brown,  Moses 755 

Broachto 718     Brooklyn  789     Brown,Mosas 756 

Broad  Mountain 718     Brooks,  Charles  T 788     Brown,  Nicholas 795 

BroadKiTer 718     Brooks,  Brastns 788     Brown,  Obadlah 798 

Broadside 718     Brooks,  James 788     Brown,  Robert 738 

Broad  Top  Mountain 718     Brooks,  James  Gordon. 789     Brown,.Robert 758 

Brocade 716     BrookSiMaryR 789     Brown,  Sir  Samuel 738 

Brocatella  Marble 717     Brooks,  John,  LL.D 789     Brown,  Samuel 757 

Brocatelle 717     Brooks,  Maria 789     Brown,  Tarlton. 738 

Brooehi,  Giovanni  Battista. 717     Brooks,  Peter  Chardon 740     Brown,  Thomas 79S 

Broccoli 717     Brooks,  Preston  S 740     Brown,  Thomas 738 

Brock,  Isaac 717     Brooks,  Shirley 740     Brown,  William  Lanrencn 791 

Brockedon,  William 717     Broom 741     Brown  Coal ill 

Brockhaos,  Frtedrich  Arnold 717     Broom  Com 741     Brown-Sdquard,  Edward 70 

Brockhaos,  Hermann 718     Broome  co 749     Brown  Spar 711 

Brocklesby,  Bichard 718     Broome,  William. 749     Brown  University 711 

Brockport 718     Brora 748     Browne,Edward 768 

Brockville 718     Brosses,  Charles  de 748     Browne,George 768 

Broderip.  William  John 719     Brotero,  Feles  de  Avellar. 748     Browne,  Isaac  Hawkins. 788 

Brodheao,  Jacob,  D.D 719     Brothers,  Bichard 748     Browne,  John  Boas. 76S 

Brodhead,  John  Bomeyn 719  Bronckdre,  C.  BC.  J.  Ghlslain  de. . .  748     Browne,  Mary  Ann 768 

Brodle,  Sir  BeivJamin  Collins. 719  Brouckdre,  IL  M.  J .  Ghislaln  de . .  744     Browne,  Ma.^milian  Ulysses 76S 

Brody 790     Brougham,  Henry 744     Browne,  Simon 76S 

Brodzlnskl,  Kazimiers 790     Brougham,  John    748     Browne,  Sir  Thomas. 761 

Broekhulsen,  Jan  van 790     BroughtoOL  Thomas. 748     Browne,  William 784 

Broglle,  ikmily  of 790     BroughtonS  Archipelago. 748     Browne,  Sir  William 764 

Broglie,  Victor  Francois 720     Bronncker,  William 747     Browne,  William  George 781 

Broglie,  Claude  Yictor 790     Broussa 747     Brownell,  Thomas  Church 784 

Broglie,  Achille  L6once  Y.  G 780  Broussais,  Francois  Joseph  Yietor.  747     Brownie 765 

Brogny,  Jean  Allarmet 791     BronssonneL  Pierro  Augusts 748  Browning,  Elizabeth  Barrett . .  . .  765 

Brogue 791     Brown  coi,0. 748    Browning,  Bobcrt 767 


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